Nuevas Tecnologías
Nuevas Tecnologías
Nuevas Tecnologías
Invited review
Salt in food processing; usage and reduction: a review
Summary Salt is one of the most widely used additives in food industries because of its low cost and varied properties.
It has a preservative and antimicrobial effect as a direct consequence of the capacity of sodium chloride to
reduce water activity values. In addition, sodium chloride is a flavour enhancer as a consequence of its effect
on different biochemical mechanisms. It also has flavour enhancing effects from reducing or enhancing the
enzymatic activity of some enzymes responsible for the development of different organoleptic parameters.
Trends in sodium chloride use in food industries point to salt replacement or reduction by means of the use
of sodium chloride substitutes such as KCl or phosphates; flavour enhancers and the optimisation of the
physical form of salt. This trend has arisen as a result of the greater awareness of the negative effects of excess
dietary intake of sodium, which has been linked to hypertension and consequently an increased risk of
cardiovascular disease. The average total daily sodium intake per individual in developed countries is 4–5 g
of Na, which is up to 25 times greater than the minimum adult requirement.
Keywords Protein behaviour, salt effect, salt in foods, salting, water-holding capacity.
doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2010.02492.x
2011 The Authors. International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011 Institute of Food Science and Technology
1330 Salt in food processing; usage and reduction W. Albarracı́n et al.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011 2011 The Authors
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011 Institute of Food Science and Technology
Salt in food processing; usage and reduction W. Albarracı́n et al. 1331
In contrast, at higher salt concentrations, above 1 m In particular, sodium chloride increases lipid perox-
(Cheftel et al., 1989; Machado et al., 2007), increased idation in the systems containing washed muscle
protein solubility is because of the ‘salting-out’ effect of residue and cytosol that contains iron ions, increasing
hydrophobic interactions. Salt affects hydrophobic the amount of catalytic free iron ions, which
interactions by increasing the surface tension, which is could penetrate into the lipid phase and increase
found to correlate satisfactorily with the lyotropic series lipid peroxidation (Min et al., 2010), that affects the
(Chou & Morr, 1979), where the binding of the positive quality of muscle foods, as it can lead to the
cations to the negatively charged side chains in the development of off-flavours (McGee et al., 2003) but
hydrophilic domain of proteins minimises the protein to date, the effect of salt on lipolysis has not been
charge and therefore the protein–protein electrostatic proven.
repulsion term (Curtis & Lue, 2006).
The addition of NaCl to prerigor ground beef
Salt uses in different kinds of food products
decelerates the rate of metmyoglobin formation (Bekhit
& Faustman, 2005). Additionally, sodium chloride
Salt in vegetables processing
exerts an influence on the activity of different proteases
and proteins such as Ca-dependent protease; Cathepsin In vegetable products, salt is mainly used as a
D and Cathepsin L. For example, when the NaCl preservative (Lück & Pager, 2000) and a softening agent
content increases, protease activities decrease and this (Van Buren, 2006), and also to achieve the dry-salting
prevents meat spoilage (Armenteros et al., 2009) and process (Panagou, 2006) or for the fermentation process.
decreasing the heat stability of both myosin and actin, In some vegetable products, salt does not play a direct
using less energy input for denaturalisation role as a preservative, because a low level of added salt
(Thorarinsdottir et al., 2002). initiates a competitive and selective microbiological
Some muscular enzymes are influenced by salt con- growth process, favouring the development of lactic
tent, reducing their activity especially in the case of acid bacteria (Lück & Pager, 2000; Bautista-Gallego
cathepsins and calpains (Garcı́a-Garrido et al., 2000), et al., 2009).
neutral lipase and acid esterase (Hernández et al., 1999); Partial substitution of sodium by potassium, calcium
in some cases, textural problems are generated by lower or magnesium has an antimicrobial effect on pathogens;
salt contents and higher cathepsin B activity (Sturaro however, a reduction of NaCl directly affects growth of
et al., 2008). Certain enzymes and their activity are fungi and pathogens (Taorimina, 2010). A differential
enhanced by the presence of salt as in the case of replacement with KCl on sauerkraut process fermenta-
transglutaminase F-XIIIa, whereby the hardness, cohe- tion has a similar effect on the fermentation with NaCl
sion and elasticity in the meat are improved (Nielsen (Viander et al., 2003).
et al., 1995), the amino peptidase B enzyme (Bogra
et al., 2009), acid lipase (Hernández et al., 1999) and
Salt in dairy products
m-calpain (Li et al., 2004).
It has been demonstrated that monovalent cations, The most important dairy product involving the use of
such as Na+ and K+, inhibit protease activity, while salt is cheese. Usually salt is added to control the
divalent ions like Mg2+ and Ca2+ activate protease growth of lactic acid bacteria and to prevent undesir-
activity. It has also been established that monovalent able microbial growth, as well as having the secondary
ions reduce the effect of divalent ions (Orlowski, function of supplying additional flavour to an other-
1990); chymotrypsin, trypsin, collagenase and elastase wise bland-tasting cheese (Rowney et al., 2004), where
appear to be activated during salt curing, except when the concentration and distribution of salt in cheese
the proteins are denatured by the NaC1 concentration have a major influence on various aspects of cheese
(Stoknes et al., 2005). The haemoglobin-hydrolysing quality (Fox et al., 2000) including texture (Kaya,
activities are reduced when NaCl concentration 2002), modifying the water-binding capacity of casein
increases (Stoknes & Rustad, 1995; Stoknes et al., within the cheese matrix (Pastorino et al., 2003) and
2005). apparent viscosity (Floury et al., 2009). In contrast,
lower salt levels affect the amount of serum (Guinne,
2004).
Influence of salt on lipid oxidation
NaCl replacement affects the casein micelles and the
Sodium chloride has been reported as a pro-oxidant sodium and phosphorous equilibrium (Famelart et al.,
(Sakai et al., 2004; Honikel, 2009) or as an antioxidant 1999). On the other hand, reduction in NaCl concen-
(Mozuraityte et al., 2006; Honikel, 2009). Ellis et al. tration affects the fat droplet size and rheological
(1968) postulated that salt may activate a component in properties on chesses with the presence of air bubbles,
lean meat, which results in a change in the oxidation explained by a distortion between casein and water
characteristics of adipose tissue. (Floury et al., 2009).
2011 The Authors International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011 Institute of Food Science and Technology
1332 Salt in food processing; usage and reduction W. Albarracı́n et al.
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011 2011 The Authors
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011 Institute of Food Science and Technology
Salt in food processing; usage and reduction W. Albarracı́n et al. 1333
salting time because of the presolubilisation of salts, the use of liquid-phase concentrations is more appro-
while simultaneously facilitating the thawing process. priate (Gallart-Jornet et al., 2007).
The brine salting process could be improved by way of However, some authors show concentrations on dry
vacuum pulse application (50–100 mbar), reducing the basis (Gou et al., 2003, 2004). It is important to note
salting time as a result of the hydrodynamic mechanism that saltiness and salt taste in these types of products are
whereby the penetration of brine inside the food matrix related to the liquid salt concentration values, as a result
is forced (Fito & Pastor, 1994). (Fig. 3). of the receptor cells of the tongue being stimulated by
Injection-salting is based on the insertion of needles the presence of Cl) anions (Murphy et al., 1981). This
into the product to spread brine and curing solutions ion can be located in the food liquid phase by NaCl
within, ensuring a faster and more uniform distribution solvation.
of sodium chloride, nitrites and other possible curing There is a linear relationship between the liquid salt
agents such as sugars, spices, polyphosphates inside concentration and the water activity values (aW). The
food tissues (Casiraghi et al., 2007). An application is on role of salt in water activity reduction as a preservation
fillets of Atlantic salmon before further processing steps method is favoured by the salt–matrix interaction. It can
such as drying and smoking (Bencze Røra et al., 2004; be witnessed in Fig. 4 that water activity values in brine
Birkeland et al., 2007). at different NaCl concentrations are higher than similar
The use of high hydrostatic pressure during or after NaCl concentrations in the food liquid phase. With
the salting process (in the range of 50–400 Mpa, over 5– higher zNaCl values, the relationship is reduced, losing its
10 min) has been developed to increase salt uptake and linear behaviour (Fig. 4) and thereby illustrating that
water and salt diffusion in turkey breast (Villacı́s et al., this effect is more important in foods when moisture
2008) and in Manchego cheese (Pavia et al., 2000). This values are lower (Fig. 4).
technique provides an additional factor of the antimi-
crobial effect by high pressure (Trujillo et al., 2000).
Trends in the salting process
The fist trend is the reduction of NaCl intake to reduce
Expressions of salt concentration
the negative effect on cardiovascular health (Morgan
Some authors use different concentration bases to
illustrate salt content in their works. The way in which
data is expressed depends upon analysis type and
research objectives. It is possible to find concentrations
expressed in percentages (Martin et al., 1999; Andrés
et al., 2005; Goulas & Kontominas, 2005; Panagou,
2006; Bellagha et al., 2007) commonly used to express
the salt level acquired by the different products analysed.
However, it can be also be expressed on a dry basis and
dry basis free of fat, where the concentration is
expressed excluding water and ⁄ or fat content to make
a proper comparison of the results obtained (Barat
et al., 2005, 2006; Ruiz-Ramirez et al., 2005). On the
other hand, when salt diffusion is studied, the salt
concentration in the tissue liquid-phase (zNaCl) is used.
NaCl
This is because the diffusion phenomena are carried out Figure 4 Relationship between liquid-phase salt concentration (z )
in the food liquid phase. Therefore, to establish clearly and water activity (aW), at the inner zone (close to the bone) during
the level of diffusion occurring within the food matrix, dry-cured ham processing (Barat et al., 2005).
Figure 3 Effect of hydrodynamic mechanism, during vacuum pulse application in the salting process (adapted from Fito et al., 1996).
2011 The Authors International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011 Institute of Food Science and Technology
1334 Salt in food processing; usage and reduction W. Albarracı́n et al.
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International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011 2011 The Authors
International Journal of Food Science and Technology 2011 Institute of Food Science and Technology