BRM UNIT 3

(The Sources and Collection of Data)

Sampling:

 we select only a few items from the universe for our study purposes. The
items so selected constitute what is technically called a sample.

 Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples. With

probability samples each element has a known probability of being
included in the sample but the non-probability samples do not allow the
researcher to determine this probability.

 Probability samples are those based on simple random sampling,

systematic sampling, stratified sampling, cluster/area sampling whereas
non-probability samples are those based on convenience sampling,
judgement sampling and quota sampling techniques.

Deliberate sampling: Deliberate sampling is also known as purposive or non-

probability sampling.

 This sampling method involves purposive or deliberate selection of

particular units of the universe for constituting a sample which represents
the universe.

 When population elements are selected for inclusion in the sample based
on the ease of access, it can be called convenience sampling.

 Deliberate sampling: If a researcher wishes to secure data from, say,

gasoline buyers, he may select a fixed number of petrol stations & may
conduct interviews at these stations.
Simple random sampling:

 This type of sampling is also known as chance sampling or probability

sampling where each & every item in the population has an equal chance
of inclusion in the sample

 And each one of the possible samples, in case of finite universe, has the
same probability of being selected.

 For example, if we have to select a sample of 300 items from a universe of

15,000 items, then we can put the names or numbers of all the 15,000
items on slips of paper and conduct a lottery.

Systematic sampling:

 In some instances the most practical way of sampling is to select every 15th
name on a list, every 10th house on one side of a street & so on. Sampling
of this type is known as systematic sampling.

 An element of randomness is usually introduced into this kind of sampling

by using random numbers to pick up the unit with which to start.

Stratified sampling:

 If the population from which a sample is to be drawn does not constitute a

homogeneous group, then stratified sampling technique is applied so as to
obtain a representative sample.

 In this technique, the population is stratified into a number of non-

overlapping subpopulations or strata & sample items are selected from
each stratum.

Quota sampling:

 In stratified sampling the cost of taking random samples from individual

strata is often so expensive that interviewers are simply given quota to be
filled from different strata, the actual selection of items for sample being
left to the interviewer’s judgement. This is called quota sampling.
  The size of the quota for each stratum is generally proportionate to the size
of that stratum in the population.

 Quota sampling is thus an important form of non-probability sampling.

 Quota samples generally happen to be judgement samples rather than

random samples.

Cluster sampling & area sampling

 Cluster sampling involves grouping the population & then selecting the
groups or the clusters rather than individual elements for inclusion in the
sample.
 Suppose some departmental store wishes to sample its credit card holders.
It has issued its cards to 15,000 customers. Sample size is to be kept say
450.
 Cluster sampling & area sampling: For cluster sampling this list of 15,000
card holders could be formed into 100 clusters of 150 card holders each.
Three clusters might then be selected for the sample randomly. The sample
size must often be larger than the simple random sample to ensure the
same level of accuracy because is cluster sampling procedural potential for
order bias & other sources of error is usually accentuated.

Types of data:

1. Primary Data
2. Secondary Data

A) While deciding about the method of data collection to be used for the
study, the researcher should keep in mind two types of data viz., primary &
secondary. The primary data are those which are collected afresh & for the
first time, & thus happen to be original in character.
B) The secondary data, on the other hand, are those which have already been
collected by someone else & which have already been passed through the
 statistical process. The researcher would have to decide which sort of data
he would be using (thus collecting) for his study & accordingly he will have
to select one or the other method of data collection. The methods of
collecting primary & secondary data differ since primary data are to be
originally collected, while in case of secondary data the nature of data
collection work is merely that of compilation.

Primary Data:-

 (i) observation method,

 (ii) interview method,

 (iii) through questionnaires,

 (iv) through schedules, This method of data collection is very much like the
collection of data through questionnaire, with little difference which lies in
the fact that schedules (proforma containing a set of questions) are being
filled in by the enumerators who are specially appointed for the purpose

 (v) other methods which include

 (a) warranty cards;

 (b) distributor audits;

 (c) pantry audits;

 (d) consumer panels;

 (e) using mechanical devices; The use of mechanical devices has been
widely made to collect information by way of indirect means. Eye camera,
Pupilometric camera, Psychogalvanometer, Motion picture camera &
Audiometer are the principal devices so far developed & commonly used by
modern big business houses, mostly in the developed world for the
purpose of collecting the required information.

 (f) through projective techniques;

  (g) depth interviews, Depth interviews are those interviews that are
designed to discover underlying motives & desires & are often used in
motivational research. Such interviews are held to explore needs, desires &
feelings of respondents. In other words, they aim to elicit unconscious as
also other types of material relating especially to personality dynamics &
motivations

 h) content analysis

SECONDARY DATA:

 Data that are already available i.e. they refer to the data which have
already been collected & analysed by someone else. When the researcher
utilises secondary data, then he has to look into various sources from
where he can obtain them. In this case he is certainly not confronted with
the problems that are usually associated with the collection of original data.

 Secondary data may either be published data or unpublished data. Usually

published data are available in:

(a) various publications of the central, state are local governments;

(b) various publications of foreign governments or of international bodies &

their subsidiary organization.

 (c) technical & trade journals;

 (d) books, magazines & newspapers;

 (e) reports & publications of various associations connected with business

& industry, banks, stock exchanges, etc.;

 (f) reports prepared by research scholars, universities, economists, etc. in

different fields; &

 (g) public records & statistics, historical documents, & other sources of
published information.
 BRM UNIT 4
(census and sampling)
Census Survey:-
When data is to be collected from each members of the population it is known as
Census Survey.

Sample Survey:-
When data is to be collected only from some members of the population, it is
known as Sample Survey.

Sampling Method Advantage

 Speed:- Less Time
 Economy:- Less Expensive
 Adaptability
 Scientific Approach:- More Dependable, Less Manpower, Less
 Administrative Control

Census Method Advantage

 Gives Exact & Accurate results

Probability Sampling:-
 Also known as Random Sampling
 Randomly selection of samples
 In this probability can be accurately determined
Includes :
 Simple Random Sampling
 Systematic Random Sampling
 2nd sample are taken at Interval
 Stratified Random Sampling
 Relevant subgroups created

You have a complete population that you can choose from here. Since all
persons (or “units”) have an equal chance of being selected for your survey, you
can randomly select participants without missing entire portions of your
audience. This means you can generalize your results from a random sample. The
main downside is that it can be more expensive and time-consuming.

Advantages
 Cluster sampling: convenience and ease of use.
 Simple random sampling: creates samples that are highly representative of
the population.
 Stratified random sampling: creates strata or layers that are highly
representative of strata or layers in the population.
 Systematic sampling: creates samples that are highly representative of the
population, without the need for a random number generator.
Disadvantages
 Cluster sampling: might not work well if unit members are
not homogeneous (i.e. if they are different from each other).
 Simple random sampling: tedious and time consuming, especially when
creating larger samples.
 Stratified random sampling: tedious and time consuming, especially when
creating larger samples.
 Systematic sampling: not as random as simple random sampling,

Non-Probability Sampling:-
 Also known as Non-Random Sampling
 Selection is non-random & probability of their selection cannot be
determined
Includes:
 Convenience Sampling, Based on ease of access
 Purposive Sampling, Based on what researcher think
 Quota Sampling, Based by defined quotas
 Volunteer Sampling, Internet based opinion survey

This method is used when there isn’t a full population list available. People
are not selected randomly, therefore you can not know the size and effect of
sampling error (missed persons, unequal representation, etc.). This sampling type
can be effective when you’re trying to generate ideas and get feedback, but you
cannot generalize your results to an entire population with a high level of
confidence. Non-probability is convenient and less costly, but it doesn’t hold up to
expectations of probability theory.

Sampling Error:-

 Error caused by the act of taking a sample

 They cause sample results to be different from the results of census
 Differences between the sample and the population that exist only because
of the observations that happened to be selected for the sample
 Statistical Errors are sample error

Advantages:-
 Easy & cheap to select
 Data easily obtained
 Understood easily
Disadvantages:
 Sampling errors can’t estimated
 Variability Can’t Measured or controlled

Two Types of Errors:-

1) Biased sampling errors arise due to biasness on the part of the investigator,
biasness due to non response, biasness in the technique of the
approximation, biasness in the measuring instrument.

2) Unbiased sampling errors or compensatory errors are the errors in which

the ultimate result would be neutralized. If the observations are large in
number then these unbiased errors will not affect the final result. For
example: The chance of making an overestimate is almost same as the
chance of making an underestimate. Like the values 275, 325, 345 are
rounded to nearest number 300. In this case 325 and 345 are
 overestimated and 275 is underestimated. Therefore these unbiased
sampling errors are also known as compensatory errors.

Non - Sampling Errors

These are the errors which are not in the human control. These errors can be traced at
any stage of inquiry. They are also present in sampling as well as census methods.
They increase with the increase in number of units to be examined. They arise due to
following reasons:

i) Lack of trained and qualified investigators

ii) Due to wrong answers to the questions

iii) Due to incomplete coverage

iv) Biasness of the investigators

v) Vague questionnaire

vi) Faulty list of population

vii) Wrong method of asking questions

viii) Wrong calculations while processing the data

ix) Failure of respondent memory to recall past events

x) Error while printing the results

These are the reasons of non sampling errors