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Audit and Assurance - ICAB PDF
Audit and Assurance - ICAB PDF
Study Manual
www.icaew.com
Audit and Assurance
The Institute of Chartered Accountants in England and Wales Professional Stage
ISBN: 978-1-84152-500-6
First edition 2007
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced in any form
or by any means or stored in any retrieval system, or transmitted in, any form
or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying, recording or otherwise
without prior permission of the publisher.
In the meantime, I’d like to remind you that the ICAEW is much more than just the body that
awards you your ACA qualification – we can be useful to you in many ways, throughout your
career.
We’re Europe’s largest professional accountancy body, providing practical support to over 140,000
members and students in more than 140 countries. We work with governments, regulators and
industry, to ensure the highest professional standards are maintained, and the skills of our
members are constantly developed, recognised and valued.
During your studies for the ACA, you will develop your professional skills through the Initial
Professional Development (IPD) programme. Once you are qualified, you will enhance these skills
through Continuing Professional Development (CPD), which ensures that you keep up-to-date in
your relevant field.
The ICAEW is recognised as a thought leader, and the Institute’s technical operations and support
services provide technical expertise and the latest knowledge of best practice. The ICAEW
provides expert input to governments and policy makers worldwide, working in the public interest to
influence both policy and legislation. See page xxvii for more details, or visit www.icaew.com and
click on ‘Technical & Business Topics’.
The ICAEW faculties, which include the Audit and Assurance Faculty, provide additional specialised
support to their members in key areas and invaluable networking opportunities. Even during your
training, choose the faculty that best suits your career needs and see how it can help you.
The ICAEW special interest groups further extend the building of sector-specific knowledge within
the profession. The groups provide support, conferences, information and representation for
members working in – or working for clients in – specific sectors.
At the start of your career, our Young Professionals network is a vital resource to link you directly
with peers and colleagues with similar interests and aspirations. Young Professional members
meet regularly to share ideas, and to network.
To help you with the latest information, topics of interest and guidance you can always turn to our
free and confidential Ethics advisory service, our institute magazine Accountancy, the dedicated
student publication VITAL and the Student support line on +44 (0)1908 248 040.
Furthermore, our Library & Information Service, available to all ACA members and students, is
always there to guide you to the best sources of information on all subjects, utilising a wide range
of online databases, books, journals, and the internet.
In addition to the ACA, the ICAEW also offers a certificate in International Financial Reporting
Standards, the first global Corporate Finance qualification, and the Diploma in Charity Accounting.
You can, of course, find more information about all of the above at www.icaew.com
So make use of your institute – both before and after you qualify – that’s what it’s there for.
Good luck!
Michael Izza
Chief Executive
ICAEW
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iv
Contents
` Introduction vii
` Specification grid for Audit and Assurance viii
` The learning materials ix
` Study guide x
` Getting help xiv
` Syllabus and learning outcomes xv
` Skills assessment guide xxii
` Faculties and special interest groups xxvii
v
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INTRODUCTION
1 Introduction
1.1 What is Audit and Assurance and how does it fit within the
Professional Stage?
Structure
The syllabus has been designed to develop core technical, commercial, and ethical skills and knowledge in a
structured and rigorous manner.
The diagram below shows the twelve modules at the Professional Stage, where the focus is on the
acquisition and application of technical skills and knowledge, and the Advanced Stage which comprises of
two technical integration modules and the Case Study.
Ethics
Case Study
Ethics Ethics
Technical integration – Technical integration –
Business change Business reporting Advanced stage
Work experience puts learning in context
Professional stage
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Audit and assurance
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INTRODUCTION
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Audit and assurance
4 Study guide
4.1 Help yourself study for your ACA exams
Exams for professional bodies such as the ICAEW are very different from those you have taken at college
or university. You will be under greater time pressure before the exam – as you may be combining
your study with work. Here are some hints and tips.
Believe in yourself Yes, there is a lot to learn. But thousands have succeeded
before and you can too.
Remember why you're doing it You are studying for a good reason: to advance your career.
Read through the Syllabus and These tell you what you are expected to know and are
Study Guide supplemented by Examination context sections in the
text.
See the whole picture Keeping in mind how all the detail you need to know fits into
the whole picture will help you understand it better.
` The Introduction of each chapter puts the material in
context.
` The Learning objectives, Section overviews and
Examination context sections show you what you
need to grasp.
Use your own words To absorb the information (and to practise your written
communication skills), you need to put it into your own
words.
` Take notes.
` Answer the questions in each chapter.
` Draw mindmaps.
` Try 'teaching' a subject to a colleague or friend.
Give yourself cues to jog your The Study Manual emphasises key points.
memory
` Try colour coding with a highlighter pen.
` Write key points on cards.
Review, review, review Regularly reviewing a topic in summary form can fix it in your
memory. The Study Manual helps you review in many ways.
` Chapter summary will help you to recall each study
session.
` The Self-test actively tests your grasp of the essentials.
` Go through the Examples in each chapter a second or
third time.
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INTRODUCTION
Step 1 This topic list is shown in the contents for each chapter and helps you navigate
Topic list each part of the book; each numbered topic is a numbered section in the chapter.
Step 2 This sets your objectives for study by giving you the big picture in terms of the
Introduction context of the chapter. The content is referenced to the Study guide, and
Examination context guidance shows what the examiners are looking for. The
Introduction tells you why the topics covered in the chapter need to be studied.
Step 3 Section overviews give you a quick summary of the content of each of the main
Section chapter sections. They can also be used at the end of each chapter to help you
overviews review each chapter quickly.
Step 4 Proceed methodically through each chapter, particularly focussing on areas
Explanations highlighted as significant in the chapter introduction or study guide.
Step 5 Take brief notes, if you wish. Don't copy out too much. Remember that being
Note taking able to record something yourself is a sign of being able to understand it. Your
notes can be in whatever format you find most helpful; lists, diagrams, mindmaps.
Step 6 Work through the examples very carefully as they illustrate key knowledge and
Examples techniques.
Step 7 Check yours against the suggested solutions, and make sure you understand any
Answers discrepancies.
Step 8 Review it carefully, to make sure you have grasped the significance of all the
Chapter summary important points in the chapter.
Step 9 Use the Self-test to check how much you have remembered of the topics
Self-test covered.
Moving on...
When you are ready to start revising, you should still refer back to this Study Manual.
` As a source of reference (you should find the index particularly helpful for this).
` As a way to review (the Section overviews, Examination context, Chapter summaries and Self-test
questions help you here).
Remember to keep careful hold of this Study Manual – you will find it invaluable in your work. The
Technical reference section has been designed to help you in the workplace by directing you to where you
can find further information on the topics studied.
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Audit and assurance
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INTRODUCTION
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Audit and assurance
Revision phase
Your revision will be centred around using the questions and revision guidance in the ICAEW Revision
Question Bank.
5 Getting help
Firstly, if you are receiving structured tuition, make sure you know how and when you can contact your
tutors for extra help.
Identify a work colleague who is qualified, or has at least passed the paper you are studying for, who is
willing to help if you have questions.
Form a group with a small number of other students, you can help each other and study together, providing
informal support.
Go to www.icaew.com/students and look under student societies, to find your local society and find out
what additional support they offer.
Call +44 (0) 1908 248040 or email [email protected] with non-technical queries.
Watch the ICAEW website for future support initiatives.
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INTRODUCTION
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Audit and assurance
Audit engagements
(h) Explain the main ways in which national legislation affects the scope and nature of the audit
and the appointment and removal of auditors (including the relationship between the law
and audit standards) 2
(i) Explain the principles behind different auditing requirements in different jurisdictions and
describe how national and international bodies are working to harmonise auditing
requirements, including requirements to report on internal controls (Sarbanes-Oxley Act) 3
(j) Describe the principal causes of audit failure and their effects and the gap between
outcomes delivered by audit engagements and the expectations of users of audit reports. 2
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INTRODUCTION
(c) Identify the risks arising from, or affecting, a given set of business processes and
circumstances and assess their implications for the engagement 9
(d) Identify the risks arising from error, fraud and non-compliance with law and regulations and
assess their implications for the engagement 9
(e) Assess significant business risks identified for their potential impact upon an organisation, in
particular their potential impact on performance measurement 9
(f) Identify the components of risk for a specified assurance engagement 9
(g) Assess the impact of risk and materiality on the engagement plan, including the nature,
timing and extent of assurance procedures, for a given organisation 7, 10
(h) Discuss the benefits and limitations of analytical procedures at the planning stage 7
(i) Determine an approach appropriate for an engagement for a specified organisation which
addresses: 10
` Possible reliance on controls (including those within IT systems)
` Possible reliance on the work of internal audit or other experts
` Possible reliance on the work of another auditor
` Probable extent of tests of control and of substantive procedures, including analytical
procedures
` Nature and extent of client-generated information
` Probable number, timing, staffing and location of assurance visits
Audit engagements
(j) Identify the components of audit risk for a specified audit engagement, including the
breakdown of audit risk into inherent risk, control risk and detection risk 9
(k) Outline the aspects of employment and social security law which are relevant to statutory
audit 2
(l) Discuss the differences between the audit of a non-specialised profit oriented entity and the
audit of a given specialised profit oriented entity 11
(m) Discuss the differences between the audit of a non-specialised profit oriented entity and the
audit of a given not-for-profit entity 11
(n) Specify and explain the steps necessary to plan, perform and conclude and report on the
audit of the financial statements of a non-specialised profit oriented entity in accordance
with the terms of the engagement including appropriate auditing standards. 7
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Audit and assurance
(d) Draft suitable extracts for an assurance report (including any report to the management
issued as part of the engagement) in relation to a specified organisation on the basis of given
information, including in the extracts (where appropriate) statements of facts, their potential
effects, and recommendations for action relevant to the needs and nature of the
organisation being reported upon 13
(e) Advise on reports to be issued to those responsible for governance in accordance with
International Standards in Auditing, legislation, regulation and codes of corporate
governance 13
(f) Judge when to refer reporting matters for specialist help 12
Audit engagements
(g) Draw conclusions on the ability to report on an audit engagement, including the opinion for
a statutory audit, which are consistent with the results of the audit work 12
(h) Explain the elements (both explicit and implicit) of the auditor’s report issued in accordance
with the International Standards on Auditing and statutory requirements and recommend
the nature of an audit opinion to be given in such a report 13
(i) Draft suitable extracts for an audit report (including any report to the management issued
as part of the engagement) in relation to a specified organisation on the basis of given
information, including in the extracts (where appropriate) statements of facts, their potential
effects, and recommendations for action relevant to the needs and nature of the
organisation being reported upon. 13
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INTRODUCTION
Professional
stage
Advanced stage
Assurance
Audit and
assurance
Title
xix
Audit and assurance
Professional
stage
Advanced stage
Assurance
Audit and
assurance
Title
xx
INTRODUCTION
Professional
stage
Advanced stage
Assurance
Audit and
assurance
Title
IFAC Statements
IPPS1 Assuring the Quality of Professional Services C B
ISQC1 Quality Control for Firms that Perform Audits and Reviews of C B
Historical Financial Information, and Other Assurance and Related
Services Engagements
Candidates will also be required to apply the additional requirements set out in ISAs (UK and Ireland) in
respect of the standards above.
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Audit and assurance
In the six Knowledge Modules of the Professional Stage, you will have experienced a limited amount of skills
assessment, generally 'Assimilating and using information'. Most of the questions were set in a context that
required you to identify the piece of knowledge that was being assessed. In the Application Modules of the
Professional Stage, the context of the examination will be simple business situations, from which you will be
required to determine the relevant information to answer the questions.
To be successful in the Audit and Assurance examination, you will need a strong core of subject knowledge
and a good understanding of how this knowledge should be applied in simple situations. You will be
expected to apply your judgement to determine the relevance and importance of the different information
provided and to recommend suitable courses of action.
xxii
INTRODUCTION
xxiii
Audit and assurance
xxiv
INTRODUCTION
Applying judgement
1c Judge when to raise legal ` Applying discrimination: Candidates will be required to identify
and ethical matters with identifying the significant business or audit risks from a
senior colleagues relevant/reasonable in given scenario, explain their impact on
data and evidence; the financial statements, and finally
3e Assess significant business
recognising varying recommend audit procedures to
risks identified
quality in data or mitigate the risk of a material error.
3g Assess the impact of risk evidence Requirements will test the ability of
and materiality on the candidates to filter those issues which
` Relating parts and
engagement plan, including are more relevant than others in a given
wholes: discerning
the nature, timing and scenario.
particular issues as part
extent of assurance
of wholes Candidates' ability to distinguish the
procedures, for a given
quality of data or evidence will be tested
organisation ` Demonstrating an
in two potential ways. (i) Candidates will
understanding of
4f Judge when to refer need to distinguish between data
different perspectives (eg
reporting matters for generated from within an organisation
social, political,
specialist help and that generated by a third party, the
economic): analysing and
latter being less susceptible to
interpreting problems
management bias; and (ii) candidates will
and situations from a
need to appreciate the effect on the
given stance
quality of evidence that bias caused by
` Change management specific factors can have e.g. where
(appreciating the profits are used to determine a bonus
impacts/effects of payment to be made to the company’s
change): considering and management.
evaluating the effects of a
Question requirements will include the
given future scenario
need to identify the impact of specific
` Assessing/applying economic and political factors on a set
materiality: of financial statements e.g. in the context
understanding the of dealing with customers or suppliers
concept of materiality from overseas that (i) political instability
may cause problems which prevent the
` Applying a sceptical and
customer or supplier from trading,
critical approach in a
ultimately leading to going concern
given straight-forward
issues for the client; and (ii) economic
situation
factors may cause exchange rate
` Appreciating when more fluctuations leading to the risk of
expert help is required misstated balances in the financial
in a given straight- statements.
forward situation
Candidates will be expected to evaluate
` Exercising ethical the effect of uncertain future events
judgement when describing the procedures to be
performed in carrying out a review of a
` Developing arguments,
company’s financial forecasts.
having first appreciated
the perspective of all Question requirements will include the
other parties need to assess the materiality of a
particular matter (e.g. an unadjusted
` Conducting critiques:
error) in the context of a set of financial
critically reviewing a
statements. This assessment should then
statement, argument or
inform the candidate’s judgement as to
position
whether or not to modify the opinion
given in a statutory audit report.
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Audit and assurance
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INTRODUCTION
xxvii
Audit and assurance
xxviii
chapter 1
Reintroduction to
audit and assurance
Contents
Introduction
Examination context
Topic List
1 Assurance defined
2 Audit defined
Summary and Self-test
Technical reference
Answers to Self-test
Answers to Interactive questions
1
Audit and assurance
Introduction
Practical significance
In the recent past, the services provided by accounting practices in the UK were mainly restricted to
accounts preparation, audit and tax. Audits were virtually the only assurance engagements in existence and
nearly all companies required an audit. Consequently, most accountants worked on audits at some point in
their careers.
More recently there have been developments which have tended to split the “traditional” view that
assurance firms provide audit and other services in one “package”. Factors such as
` The restriction on which companies are legally required to have audits
` Pressure to maintain auditor independence post-Enron, and
` The growth in other types of assurance service being requested from, and offered by, accounting
practices
mean that there are now many more assurance services being carried out in the UK and the more general
concept of assurance is a very important issue for practices indeed. Now trainees might train in an
assurance department but never actually attend an audit.
Working context
If you are training in practice, you are likely to spend some training time working in an assurance
department and being involved in work on audits or other assurance engagements. If you work in industry,
you might be involved from the other side!
Syllabus links
This chapter revises key concepts from your Assurance paper.
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REINTRODUCTION TO AUDIT AND ASSURANCE 1
Examination context
Exam requirements
This chapter is revision of what you have previously been examined on in your Assurance paper. The Audit
and Assurance sample paper contained six marks of a written test question on the arguments for and
against having an audit.
You will need an understanding of what assurance services are, and in particular, audit, brought forward
from your lower level paper to answer any questions at this level.
3
Audit and assurance
1 Assurance defined
Section overview
` An assurance engagement is one in which a practitioner expresses a conclusion designed to enhance
the degree of confidence of the intended users, other than the responsible party, about the outcome
of the evaluation or measurement of a subject matter against criteria.
` Key elements are: three party involvement, subject matter, suitable criteria, sufficient appropriate
evidence, written report.
` Different levels of assurance may be given in assurance assignments, reasonable and limited.
` An audit is an example of an assurance engagement giving reasonable assurance.
Definition
Assurance engagement: An assurance engagement is one in which a practitioner expresses a
conclusion designed to enhance the degree of confidence of the intended users other than the responsible
party about the outcome of the evaluation or measurement of a subject matter against criteria.
Assurance engagements include primarily audits but also other services such as reports on internal control
and review of a business plan.
4
REINTRODUCTION TO AUDIT AND ASSURANCE 1
So for a report on the effectiveness of management's system of internal control, it might be agreed that the
report should read:
'In our opinion management has operated an effective system of internal control' – a positive form of
opinion deriving from a reasonable assurance engagement
or
'Nothing has come to our attention that indicates material internal control weakness' – a negative form of
assurance deriving from a limited assurance engagement.
No report on an assurance engagement can ever provide absolute assurance, because of the nature of the
evidence available.
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Audit and assurance
2 Audit defined
Section overview
` An audit is still a key example of an assurance service in the UK, where many companies are required
to have audits by law.
` An audit is an exercise designed to enable an auditor to express an opinion whether the financial
statements are prepared, in all material respects, in accordance with an applicable financial reporting
framework.
` An auditor usually expresses a conclusion as to whether the financial statements 'give a true and fair
view'.
` The 'audit threshold' is the legal qualification for a company to have an audit.
` The benefits of audit are much the same as the benefit of assurance services generally. Users of
financial statements subject to an audit are given assurance that the financial statements meet legal
requirements as well as accounting ones.
Definition
Audit of financial statements: The objective of an audit of financial statements is to enable the
auditor to express an opinion as to whether the financial statements are prepared, in all material respects,
in accordance with an applicable financial reporting framework. The form the audit conclusion takes is that
auditors state whether the financial statements give a true and fair view. This is an expression of reasonable
assurance.
6
REINTRODUCTION TO AUDIT AND ASSURANCE 1
7
Audit and assurance
Interactive question 2: Review and audit compared [Difficulty level: Exam standard]
The directors of Connelly Ltd are concerned about the reliability and usefulness of the monthly financial
management information that they receive.
As a result, the company’s auditors have been engaged to review the system and the information it
generates, and to report their conclusions.
Contrast this assignment with the statutory audit of the company’s financial statements with regard to the
scope of the assignment and to the report issued.
See Answer at the end of this chapter.
8
REINTRODUCTION TO AUDIT AND ASSURANCE 1
the company was required by its bankers to have an audit of its financial statements for the year ended 30
June 20X1. Your firm conducted this audit in accordance with auditing standards and issued an unqualified
report.
Requirements
(a) Describe the benefits, in addition to continuance of its overdraft facility, to the company and its
directors and shareholders from having an audit of its annual financial statements.
(b) Explain how and why the level of assurance provided by a report on profit and cash flow forecasts
differs from the level of assurance provided by an audit report on annual financial statements.
See Answer at the end of this chapter.
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Audit and assurance
Summary
10
REINTRODUCTION TO AUDIT AND ASSURANCE 1
Self-test
Answer the following questions.
1 Define an assurance engagement.
2 Any assurance engagement requires which of the following elements?
A A user
B A responsible party
C A subject matter
D Criteria
3 In a reasonable assurance engagement, a negative conclusion is drawn.
True
False
4 An audit is a limited assurance engagement.
True
False
5 Tiny Limited has a turnover of £5.7 million. It employs 38 members of staff and has gross assets of
£2.8 million. Last year it had a turnover of £5.5 million and gross assets of £2.7 million. The year
before that, it had turnover of £5.3 million and gross assets of £2.6 million. There has been no change
in Tiny’s staffing arrangements during the last three years. Tiny qualifies as a small company and does
not require an audit in the current year.
True
False
6 Which of the following is not a potential benefit of having an audit?
A Management may value having their business scrutinised by a set of professional eyes
B Assurance may be given to parties other than management who have a financial interest in the
company
C An audit is likely to be required in the near future by a growing company
D Fraud will be uncovered by the auditors
Exam-style question
7 Treetops Ltd
Your firm acts as external auditor for Treetops Ltd, a company whose principal business activity is the
manufacture and export of hammocks. Due to recent changes in the statutory audit exemption
thresholds, Treetops Ltd is no longer required by law to have an audit of its financial statements for
the year ended 28 February 20X5.
The directors of Treetops Ltd have asked you to set out the main advantages of the company
continuing to have a statutory audit and also to provide them with examples of some of the other
types of assurance work which your firm may be able to carry out for them.
The company’s managing director has also requested a meeting with you. He has recently discovered
that his purchase ledger clerk has diverted £10,000 of company funds into his own bank account. The
managing director wants to know why this was not discovered during the course of your audit for the
year ended 29 February 20X4. The company’s retained profit for that year was £350,000.
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Audit and assurance
Requirements
(a) Briefly describe the advantages to the directors and shareholders of Treetops Ltd of continuing
to have a full audit under the Companies Act 1985 when exempt from the statutory audit.
(4 marks)
(b) Provide examples of four other types of assurance engagement where the scope of the work is
agreed between the assurance firm and the company. For each engagement identified, briefly set
out the nature of the assurance given in the accompanying report and, where applicable, identify
potential users of the report other than the company’s management. (8 marks)
Now, go back to the Learning Objectives in the Introduction. If you are satisfied you have achieved these
objectives, please tick them off.
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REINTRODUCTION TO AUDIT AND ASSURANCE 1
Technical reference
13
Audit and assurance
Answers to Self-test
14
REINTRODUCTION TO AUDIT AND ASSURANCE 1
15
Audit and assurance
REPORT
16
REINTRODUCTION TO AUDIT AND ASSURANCE 1
(b) How and why the level of assurance provided by a report on profit and cash flow forecasts differs
from the level of assurance provided by an audit report on annual financial statements.
` An audit conducted in accordance with auditing standards provides a high level of assurance
which is reasonable but not absolute.
` The delay between the balance sheet date and the date of the audit report means that even items
such as provisions/estimates can often be substantiated.
` A review of forecasts is only likely to provide a moderate level of assurance.
` This is because financial statements are based on historical information, and forecasts are based
on assumptions which are subject to uncertainty.
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Audit and assurance
18
chapter 2
Responsibilities
Contents
Introduction
Examination context
Topic List
1 Management responsibilities
2 Assurance providers’ responsibilities
3 Error
4 Fraud
5 Compliance with laws and regulations
6 Related parties
7 Money laundering
8 Expectations gap
Summary and Self-test
Technical reference
Answers to Self-test
Answers to Interactive questions
19
Audit and assurance
Introduction
– Related parties
– Money laundering
` Understand the reasons why audits 'fail' and the nature of the expectations gap
Specific syllabus references for this chapter are: 1a, b, c, g, h, j, 3k.
Practical significance
It is clearly important that all parties to an assurance engagement understand their responsibilities. Law and
professional standards imply a number of responsibilities into general assurance services, and particularly
into audits. It is important that all parties understand the nature and extent of these responsibilities, or it
could lead to a breakdown in the relationship between parties.
Working context
The issue of what a professional is responsible for is clearly of vital importance. However, the issues
discussed in this chapter will only be relevant to you in practice if you operate in an assurance department.
Bear in mind, however, if you work elsewhere in practice, that other people in your firm have to consider
these issues, and if they get it wrong, it could impact on you, particularly if you are by then a partner in the
firm. If you work in industry, you need to know your own responsibilities and also be aware of what you
are getting when you buy assurance services.
Syllabus links
The issue of responsibilities is usually clarified in an engagement letter, which was introduced in your
Assurance paper.
20
RESPONSIBILITIES 2
Examination context
Exam requirements
Various areas of auditor responsibility were covered in the short form section of the sample paper,
including fraud, responsibilities with regard to a review of projected information and compliance with laws
and regulations.
In the assessment, candidates may be required to:
` Identify and advise upon the professional and ethical issues that may arise during an assurance
engagement.
` Recognise the professional and ethical issues that might arise during an assurance engagement, explain
the relevance and importance of these issues and evaluate the relative merits of different standpoints
taken in debate.
` Judge when to raise legal and ethical matters arising from assurance work with senior colleagues for
review and possible referral to external parties.
` Discuss the purpose of laws, standards and other requirements surrounding assurance work.
` Explain, using appropriate examples, the main ways in which national legislation affects assurance.
` Explain the main ways in which national legislation affects the scope and nature of the audit (including
the relationship between the law and auditing standards).
` Describe the principal causes of audit failure and their effects and the gap between outcomes delivered
by audit engagements and the expectations of users of audit reports.
` Outline aspects of employment and social security law which are relevant to statutory audit.
21
Audit and assurance
1 Management responsibilities
Section overview
` Management is responsible for:
– Managing the business so as to achieve company objectives
– Assessing business risks to those objectives being achieved
– Safeguarding the company's assets
– Keeping proper accounting records
– Preparing company financial statements and delivering them to the Registrar
– Ensuring the company complies with applicable laws and regulations
` It is not the responsibility of the auditors of a company to do any of the above.
The approach adopted in this section is to identify the responsibilities which are either defined by ISAs as
being attributable to management, or set out in the UK Companies Act 1985 as being the responsibilities of
the company's directors.
It follows, therefore, that these duties cannot belong to the auditor or assurance firm.
22
RESPONSIBILITIES 2
23
Audit and assurance
Developments
Following the Enron scandal, the Sarbanes-Oxley Act was rapidly passed into US law in 2002. It introduced
a number of measures to attempt to improve the quality of financial reporting, including:
` Having Chief Executive Officers (CEOs) and Chief Finance Officers (CFOs) attest to the veracity of
the financial statements
` Much greater disclosure of the amendments made to the financial statements during the audit process
Companies have had to review systems to ensure that CEOs and CFOs can make such attestations, as
there are criminal penalties for making them falsely. This has also affected UK subsidiaries of US
companies.
2.1 General
The responsibility of the external provider of assurance services is determined by:
` The requirements of any legislation or regulation under which the engagement is conducted, and/or
` The terms of engagement for the assignment, which will specify the services to be provided, (you
learnt about engagement letters in your studies for Assurance)
` Ethical and professional standards
` Quality control standards
24
RESPONSIBILITIES 2
` State in their audit report whether in the opinion the information given in the directors' report is
consistent with the financial statements
To achieve these objectives the auditor has to ensure that:
` The audit is planned properly (see Chapters 7, 8, 9 and 10)
` Sufficient appropriate audit evidence is gathered (we covered this in detail in Assurance)
` The evidence is properly reviewed and valid conclusions drawn (see Chapter 13).
In accordance with the law and ethical standards the auditor must maintain independence from the client.
In particular, as stated above, appointment as the Companies Act auditor does not lead to responsibility for
the following matters:
` The design and operation of the accounting systems.
` The maintenance of the accounting records.
` The preparation and accuracy of management information.
` The preparation of the financial statements.
` The identification of every error and deficiency in the accounts and the accounting records.
` The prevention of fraud in a company.
` The detection of immaterial fraud in the company.
` Ensuring that the company has complied with the laws and regulations that are relevant to its business
(except insofar as it affects the financial statements).
All these remain the responsibility of the management of the company; they have the responsibility to
manage and cannot delegate or pass this responsibility on to the external auditor.
Although it is important to know where these responsibilities lie
` Business risks
` Fraud and error
` Non-compliance with laws and regulations
` Accounting policies
all impact on the financial statements to a greater or lesser extent, and
` Systems and controls
impact on the way the auditor conducts the audit.
We shall look at how far auditor responsibilities extend in these areas in the following sections of this
chapter.
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Audit and assurance
Developments
The Sarbanes-Oxley Act, mentioned above in the context of management responsibilities, also has
provisions which relate directly to auditors. In particular:
` There is stricter enforcement of the auditor independence rules as a result of the Act.
` A Public Company Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) has been set up to inspect audit files of US
listed and other public interest clients.
PCAOB is entitled to inspect the audit files of major subsidiaries of US listed companies, so US
domestic law can impact overseas where the subsidiary is not US based. Auditors of subsidiaries of US
listed companies must register (for a fee!) with PCAOB and are liable to inspection.
3 Error
Section overview
` Auditors are responsible for detecting material misstatements in the financial statements, some of
which may be caused by error.
` Management are responsible for designing and implementing a system of internal control which is
capable of preventing, or detecting and correcting, errors in the financial records.
` Auditors are required to assess the system of internal control as part of their audit in order to
determine whether to rely on the system of controls or carry out extended tests of details.
` Auditors are required to report to those charged with governance on material weaknesses in
controls which could adversely affect the entity's ability to record, process, summarise and report
financial data potentially causing material misstatements in the financial statements.
` Auditors are responsible for giving an opinion whether the financial statements are free from material
misstatement caused by error. This means that they should design procedures that are capable of
detecting errors.
` As we set out in your Assurance manual, the two types of test generally carried out as part of an
audit are tests of control and tests of detail. The more reliance that can be placed on controls
(assessed by testing controls), the fewer tests of details may be carried out.
Definition
Internal control: A process designed and effected by those charged with governance, management, and
other personnel to provide reasonable assurance about the achievement of the entity's objectives with
regard to reliability of financial reporting, effectiveness and efficiency of operations and compliance with
applicable laws and regulations. It follows that internal control is designed and implemented to address
identified business risks that threaten the achievement of any of these objectives.
Internal controls are designed in part to prevent errors occurring in financial information, or to detect
errors and correct them.
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RESPONSIBILITIES 2
It has a data type query function so that if Katie enters a figure where she was supposed to enter a letter, it
will automatically prompt her to check she is correct.
It has several calculation functions, so that if Katie enters an incorrect amount in relation to VAT or invoice
total, or does not enter such a figure, it will automatically prompt her to check she is correct.
It has a batch total calculation, that Katie then compares the total for all the invoices she has entered per
her own calculation to the calculation on the computer, to ensure that all the invoices have been entered.
All these controls operate to ensure that Katie does not enter the wrong amounts in respect of each sales
invoice, which ultimately helps to ensure that the revenue figure in the financial statements does not contain
errors.
We discussed the limitations of systems of internal control in your studies for Assurance.
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Audit and assurance
4 Fraud
Section overview
` The auditor is responsible for drawing a conclusion as to whether the financial statements are free
from material misstatement (which can be caused by fraud).
` The auditor's responsibilities with regard to fraud are set out in ISA 240 The Auditor's Responsibility
to Consider Fraud in an Audit of Financial Statements and include:
– Assessing risks of material misstatement
– Discussing the susceptibility of the financial statements to material misstatement caused by fraud
` A key issue in relation to discovering material misstatements caused by fraud is professional
scepticism.
` When the auditors become aware of possible non-compliance, they should evaluate the possible
effect on the financial statements and on other audit evidence obtained and need to make reports to
management.
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RESPONSIBILITIES 2
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Audit and assurance
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RESPONSIBILITIES 2
Another key issue is the cost to businesses that this would represent, as the level of testing in a fraud
investigation would be far more detailed than the sample based testing required for the purpose of an audit,
which most businesses would find prohibitive.
It must be concluded that attempts to make auditors more responsible for discovering fraud also miss the
point that management ultimately is responsible for everything within the company, including the prevention
and detection of fraud. Management should not be able to hide behind the auditors when fraud is eventually
discovered or blame the auditors for not discovering the fraud earlier. Implementing and reporting on the
principles of corporate governance is one way to enhance the performance of management in establishing
effective systems, managing the risks to the security of the organisation's assets and promoting high
standards of conduct by all those within the organisation.
Lastly it must be emphasised that this expectation gap with relation to fraud is generally associated with the
statutory audit. If an assurance firm is engaged to carry out a different assurance engagement, or a non-
statutory audit, then the terms of that engagement will be set out between the parties and all parties should
be very clear what the role of the assurance providers in relation to discovering fraud, will be on that
assignment. Bear in mind that the cost of providing a service to uncover frauds might be high and therefore
this might be rare in practice. Of course, in order to close the gap in understanding of what the purpose of
a statutory audit is in relation to fraud, the auditors' responsibilities are set out in the audit engagement
letter. However, this letter is a private matter between the directors and the firm, and therefore this
measure does not tackle the issue that the view is widely held in 'society at large' that auditors should
detect frauds.
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Audit and assurance
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RESPONSIBILITIES 2
6 Related parties
Section overview
` Accounting standards require that all transactions with related parties are disclosed.
` Auditors need to consider the risk of there being undisclosed related party transactions.
` The auditors should ask the directors for a list of related parties and watch out for transactions with
those parties during the course of testing.
` Auditors need to carry out specific tests to seek to identify related parties.
` The auditors need to ensure that appropriate disclosures have been made about related party
transactions.
` Written representations about related parties must be obtained from directors.
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Audit and assurance
entry in the cash book may give an indication of a related party, so it needs to be picked up by the person
auditing cash and bank.
ISA 550 sets out specific procedures that should be carried out:
` Detailed tests of transactions and balances (such as would ordinarily be carried out on audits)
` Reviewing minutes of meetings of shareholders and directors to observe if any related parties or
transactions with them become apparent
` Reviewing records for large or unusual transactions or balances, particularly those recognised near the
end of the reporting period
` Reviewing confirmation of loans receivable and payable and confirmations from banks (which might
indicate guarantor relationships)
` Reviewing investment transactions, for example, when the company has invested in another company
Audit evidence in relation to related parties and transactions with them may be limited and restricted to
representations from management. Due to this, the auditor should try carry out procedures such as:
` Discussing the purpose of the transactions with management/directors
` Confirming the terms and amount of the transaction with the related party
` Inspecting information in the possession of the related party
` Corroborating the explanation of the transactions with the related party
` Obtaining information from an unrelated third party if possible
` Confirming information with persons associated with the transaction, such as banks, solicitors,
guarantors and agents.
Where related party transactions are found the auditor checks that the appropriate disclosures are made in
the accounts. Remember that all transactions with related parties need to be disclosed, even if they are at a
normal market rate. However, any disclosures should include information that is needed for a proper
understanding of the transaction and this would, of course, include whether the transaction was or was not
at a market rate.
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RESPONSIBILITIES 2
7 Money laundering
Section overview
` Accountants have substantial responsibilities in respect of suspected or actual money laundering.
` Money laundering is defined as a wide range of activities in relation to criminal property, including
using, acquiring, concealing and removing from the UK.
` Accountants are required to report a suspicion of money laundering to the Serious Organised Crime
Agency.
` Failure to make a report is a criminal offence.
` There is also an offence called 'tipping off' – making the money launderer aware that a report has
been made.
7.1 Background
The auditor's responsibilities in respect of money laundering are substantial. It is not the purpose of these
notes to go into all the implications of these responsibilities, but you do need to be aware of the duties laid
on your firm and, from your very first day of work as an accountant, on you.
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Audit and assurance
Report to whom?
Accountants must report to the nominated official (Money Laundering Reporting Officer or MLRO) in their
assurance firm, which fulfils their responsibility.
The MLRO then has to decide on whether to report the matter to the Serious Organised Crime Agency
(SOCA) and, if appropriate, to make the report.
The legislation protects professionals from any claims for breach of confidentiality even where suspicions
are later proved to be ill-founded.
7.5 A paradox
The auditor's responsibility is to form an opinion as to whether or not the financial statements give a true
and fair view. If included in the company's revenue are material amounts resulting from money laundering, it
is probable that the financial statements do not, in fact, give a true and fair view. If the auditors qualify the
report, however, they could be accused of tipping off.
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RESPONSIBILITIES 2
8 Expectations gap
Section overview
` The expectations gap is the gap between the expectations of users of assurance reports and the firm's
responsibilities in respect of those reports.
` There are a variety of misunderstandings about the nature of assurance work.
` The expectations gap has been narrowed by:
– Improving the required audit report
– Inserting paragraphs relating to directors'/auditors' responsibilities in the engagement letter
– The role of audit committees, which liaise with auditors
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Audit and assurance
Engagement letter
When the firm issues an engagement letter, the letter includes a paragraph reminding the directors of their
responsibilities and setting out the firm's responsibilities. Additional detail on the engagement letter can be
found in Chapter 6.
Directors' responsibilities
The reporting requirement was extended by the guidance on the preparation of audit reports, to include a
statement of the directors' responsibilities. This serves to make the respective responsibilities of
management and auditors clearer to the users of the financial statements.
Audit committees
Various statements on the principles of corporate governance developed for listed companies have
recommended that companies should establish an audit committee of the board to liaise with and receive
reports from both external and internal auditors. (Internal auditors are people who work for a company
and help the directors to ensure that accounts are properly kept and business risks are minimised. 'External
auditors' is the phrase used to describe those involved in the independent Companies Act audit.) The
existence of an audit committee serves as a reminder of the division of responsibilities between auditors
and management. The disclosures made in the company's annual report about its corporate governance
practices should include comments about the operations of its audit committee.
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RESPONSIBILITIES 2
Summary
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Audit and assurance
Self-test
Answer the following questions.
1 Which one is management not responsible for?
True
False
3 The Sarbanes-Oxley Act requires CEOs to certify that the accounts are true.
True
False
4 Which two of the following are auditors not necessarily required to do?
A Assess the risk of fraud causing material misstatement in the financial statements
B Discuss the risk of fraud causing material misstatement in the financial statements
C Detect instances where fraud has caused a material misstatement in the financial statements
D Report material misstatements caused by fraud to the police
5 Auditors may be required to report instances of non-compliance with laws and regulations to which of
the following?
Shareholders
Directors
Regulatory authorities
6 Management are responsible for making appropriate disclosures concerning related parties in the
financial statements.
True
False
7 An auditor fulfils his duty to report a suspicious transaction in relation to money laundering if he
makes a report to the MLRO in his firm.
True
False
8 Which of the following is not a measure designed to close the expectations gap?
A Auditors required to attend company board meetings
B More detailed engagement letter sent to audit clients
C Audit report format revised and extended
D Statement of directors' responsibilities included in the financial statements
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RESPONSIBILITIES 2
Exam-style questions
9 During the course of the audit of Gamma Ltd ('Gamma') an employee of the company informed you
that a substantial cash deposit was paid into the company’s bank account and a month later, the same
amount was paid by direct transfer into a bank account in the name of Epsilon, a company based
overseas. The employee also informed you that the managing director of Gamma had instructed him
not to record the transaction in the accounting records as it had nothing to do with Gamma’s
business.
State, with reasons, what further action you should take in relation to this matter. (3 marks)
10 Your firm is the auditor of Alpha Ltd ('Alpha'). The managing director of Alpha discovered that the
assistant accountant had used company cheques and bank transfers fraudulently to pay his own
personal expenses. The expenditure was reported as company expenses in the income statement.
Although the amounts involved are immaterial in the context of the financial statements, it transpired
that this had been going on for several years. The managing director has expressed concern that your
firm did not discover this fraud and has requested a meeting to discuss this matter.
Using Alpha’s fraud as an example, compare and contrast the responsibilities of the auditors in respect
of fraud with the expectation of the managing director of Alpha. (3 marks)
11 If brought to their attention, auditors should consider the implications of any breaches by their clients
of employment and social security legislation.
Outline the consequences of not considering the implications and provide examples of such breaches.
(4 marks)
12 You are the auditor of a company with numerous branches spread throughout the United Kingdom.
Revenue for the year ended 31 December 20X1 was £25 million, profit before tax was £1,500,000 and
net assets were £9,500,000. Your audit report was signed in March 20X2 without qualification. Your
report to management after the audit pointed out that internal controls were weak at the branches
due to the small number of staff.
You have been telephoned by the finance director, Ray Gosling, and told that the sales ledger clerk at
the Goose Green branch had been caught 'teeming and lading'. His investigations so far show that
during the year to 31 December 20X1 the sales ledger clerk had diverted £50,000 of receipts from
customers to his own bank account. Ray has asked you to attend a meeting with him to discuss the
matter. He is particularly concerned as to why the fraud was not discovered during the course of the
audit and what the effect on the accounts might be.
At 31 December 20X1 the Goose Green branch had net assets of £400,000. For the year ended on
that date the branch had revenue of £1,000,000 and made a small loss.
Your re-examination of your audit working papers shows that your staff had visited the Goose Green
branch, that no grounds for suspicion arose during the audit and that appropriate audit procedures
were carried out.
Requirements
(a) Prepare notes to guide you in your discussions with the finance director. (6 marks)
(b) Following the meeting the finance director has asked you to carry out additional assurance work
to establish the extent of the fraud. Outline the main areas to which you would direct your
attention in order to establish the extent of the fraud and the loss to the company and state why
you would consider those areas. (6 marks)
(12 marks)
Now, go back to the Learning Objectives in the Introduction. If you are satisfied you have achieved these
objectives, please tick them off.
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Audit and assurance
Technical reference
(main references)
5 Compliance with laws and regulations ISA (UK and Ireland ) 250.2
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RESPONSIBILITIES 2
Answers to Self-test
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Audit and assurance
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RESPONSIBILITIES 2
` How long the particular clerk has worked ` To establish how long the fraud is likely to
at the Goose Green (GG) branch. have gone on.
` Relationships between staff at the GG ` Possibility of collusion.
branch.
` Other branches with poor control ` To establish general likelihood of fraud at
environments (all?). other branches.
` Relationships between staff at the GG ` Could the fraud have been 'sold' to staff at
branch (especially the sales ledger clerk) other branches?
and staff at other branches.
` Whether the GG branch manager runs ` Could indicate other branches where
other branches. fraud might be undetected.
` How the fraud was discovered (chance or ` If by management control, then provides
management control). some comfort that other frauds would be
detected and therefore, generally, fraud
less widespread.
` Recoverability of the amount from the ` To establish actual monetary loss.
clerk.
` Likelihood of false claims from credit ` To establish any knock-on monetary loss.
customers (ie having heard of the fraud,
customers claim to have settled their
accounts).
` Adequacy of fidelity insurance. ` Is the loss recoverable?
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48
chapter 3
Professional standards
Contents
Introduction
Examination context
Topic List
1 The need for professional standards
2 The International Auditing and Assurance
Standards Board (IAASB)
3 Harmonisation
4 Auditing Practices Board (APB)
5 Internal controls
6 Current issues
Summary and Self-test
Technical reference
Answers to Self-test
Answer to Interactive question
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Audit and assurance
Introduction
Practical significance
Increasingly, assurance providers and particularly auditors are being asked to carry out their procedures in a
more globally recognised way. The EU has recently adopted both international financial reporting standards
(for listed companies) and international auditing standards for all statutory audits, so convergence is an issue
which is dominating auditors lives in a practical way at the moment.
Working context
In your working environment, you may be more accustomed to dealing with IFRSs than UK accounting
standards, although the reverse is likely to be true if you work in a mid-tier or smaller firm, or in industry in
a non-listed environment. If you work in audit, you will now be dealing with ISAs (UK and Ireland) rather
than the UK's own statements of auditing standards which used to exist. As noted above, convergence is
impacting on UK accountants in a practical way.
Syllabus links
Some auditing standards were introduced in your lower level Assurance paper. In this paper, you will both
build on the knowledge you have gained at the lower level, and be introduced to more standards. As this is
an open book exam, you should also have a copy of ISAs (UK and Ireland) to refer to when reading through
this Study Manual. The Technical reference pages will direct you to the exact places in the standards where
the requirements discussed in the chapter can be found.
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PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS 3
Examination context
Exam requirements
While the content of auditing standards will impact on your exam, the details of who issues them and how
they are issued are likely to be of less importance, hence the fact that there are few interactive and other
questions in this chapter. Ethics, which are covered in the next chapter, are likely to be far more heavily
examined in the context of professional standards.
In the assessment, candidates may be required to:
` Discuss the purpose of laws, standards and other requirements surrounding assurance work
` Explain the standard-setting process used by national and international (IAASB) bodies and the
authority of national and international standards
` Explain, in non-technical language, significant current assurance issues being dealt with by the national
standard-setting body and by the IAASB
` Explain the principles behind different auditing requirements in different jurisdictions and describe how
national and international bodies are working to harmonise auditing requirements, including the
requirements to report on internal controls (Sarbanes-Oxley)
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Audit and assurance
The benefits of assurance were revised in Chapter 1. A fundamental feature of assurance is that it is
provided by independent professionals to particular standards. Users expect assurance providers to be
independent and objective (which we shall consider in the next chapter) and competent. They expect an
appropriate amount of work to be done to support the conclusion being given. Assurance services are
carried out in the public interest. It is important that they are carried out within a context of professional
and ethical standards.
In relation to audit, readers want assurance when making comparisons of financial statements that the
reliability of the financial statements does not vary from company to company. This assurance
will be obtained not just from knowing each set of financial statements has been audited, but knowing that
each set of financial statements has been audited to common standards.
Hence there is a need for audits to be regulated so that auditors follow the same standards. Auditors
have to follow rules issued by a variety of bodies. Some obligations are imposed by governments in law, or
statute. Some obligations are imposed by the professional bodies to which auditors are required (by law) to
belong.
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Audit and assurance
An explanation of the workings of the IAASB, the authority of the ISAs and so on are laid out in the Preface
to International Standards on Quality Control, Auditing, Assurance and Related Services.
The Preface restates the mission of IFAC as set out in its constitution: 'The development and enhancement
of an accountancy profession with harmonised standards able to provide services of consistently high quality
in the public interest'.
In working toward this mission, the Council of IFAC established the International Auditing Practices
Committee, precursor to IAASB, to develop and issue, on behalf of the Council, standards and statements
on auditing and related services. Such standards and statements improve the degree of uniformity of
auditing practices and related services throughout the world.
Within each country, local regulations govern, to a greater or lesser degree, the practices followed in the
auditing of financial or other information. Such regulations may be either of a statutory nature, or in the
form of statements issued by the regulatory or professional bodies in the countries concerned.
National standards on auditing and related services published in many countries differ in form and content.
The IAASB takes account of such documents and differences and, in the light of such knowledge, issues ISAs
which are intended for international acceptance.
The Preface also lays out the authority attached to ISAs in general.
Authority of International Standards on Auditing
International Standards on Auditing (ISAs) are to be applied in the audit of historical financial information.
The IAASB's Standards contain basic principles and essential procedures (identified in bold type, black
lettering) together with related guidance in the form of explanatory and other material, including
appendices. The basic principles and essential procedures are to be understood and applied in the context
of the explanatory and other material that provide guidance for their application. It is therefore necessary
to consider the whole text of a standard to understand and apply the basic principles and essential
procedures.
In exceptional circumstances, an auditor may judge it necessary to depart from an ISA in order to more
effectively achieve the objective of an audit. When such a situation arises, the auditor should be prepared to
justify the departure.
Any limitation of the applicability of a specific ISA is made clear in the standard, for example, it might
contain a passage such as the following:
Application to public sector
The Public Sector Perspective (PSP) issued by the Public Sector Committee of the International Federation
of Accountants is set out at the end of an ISA. Where no PSP is added, the ISA is applicable in all material
respects to the public sector.
ISAs do not override the local regulations referred to above governing the audit of financial or other
information in a particular country.
` To the extent that ISAs conform with local regulations on a particular subject, the audit of financial
or other information in that country in accordance with local regulations will automatically comply
with the ISA regarding that subject.
` In the event that the local regulations differ from, or conflict with, ISAs on a particular subject,
member bodies should comply with the obligations of members set forth in the IFAC Constitution as
regards these ISAs (ie encourage changes in local regulations to comply with ISAs).
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PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS 3
3 Harmonisation
Section overview
` In recent years, international harmonisation of the ethical, financial reporting and auditing standards
has become a big issue.
` This is due to the increase in genuinely global companies, harmonisation within the EU, and the
scandals of major business failures, particularly Enron.
` The EU has adopted international accounting standards and international auditing standards for listed
companies.
` The UK has adopted international auditing standards (augmented for UK issues).
The world of those who set the professional standards affecting accountants, whilst not exactly in chaos, is
certainly experiencing a period of great upheaval.
The main force behind these changes is known as 'convergence' or the increasingly close alignment of
standards which affect accountants across the world in the areas of:
` Ethics
` Financial reporting
` Auditing
Whilst there have been International Accounting Standards and International Standards on Auditing for
some time they seem to have been always regarded as something which, although good in theory, would
never have very much impact in any individual jurisdiction.
There was also the problem that Generally Accepted Accounting Practice (GAAP) was markedly different
in the US, the UK and Europe and there appeared to be little appetite for compromise.
However there are a number of drivers which have caused attitudes to change:
` Global companies are now truly global, and will move their operations at will
` The EU is increasingly harmonising the rules and regulations affecting business across its member
states
` The euro
` The Enron affair
The Enron affair was important in that as Enron was a US company and its auditor Andersen was primarily a
US based firm, the regulators in the US were forced to look again at their own standards, and so it probably
did as much as anything to enable compromises to be made. However just in case we, over this side of the
Atlantic, became too smug, the Parmalat scandal reminded us that such events can happen anywhere.
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Audit and assurance
IAASB
Issues
ISA as used
ISA by UK
APB Modifies
Auditors
APB
Adopts
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PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS 3
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Audit and assurance
5 Internal controls
Section overview
` Internal control is an important issue given prominence by the UK Turnbull Report and the US
Sarbanes-Oxley Act.
` The issue of providing assurance on internal control is important, particularly as little assurance is
given on the effectiveness of internal control by the audit.
` The APB issued a briefing paper on providing assurance on internal control in 2001, which sets out
the key issues.
` Knowledge of the business will be an important factor in providing assurance on internal controls.
` Assurance may be provided on the different stages of the process: identifying the risks, the design of
the system, the operation of the system.
` Reports providing assurance on the effectiveness of internal controls should mention the inherent
limitations of internal control systems to avoid an expectations gap arising in relation to this issue.
Internal control is an important issue in business. It has been given particular prominence in the UK by the
investigations into corporate governance in the 1990s, notably the Turnbull Report which concentrated on
the risks facing companies and the need for directors to manage those risks.
In addition, it has been given prominence by the Sarbanes-Oxley Act in the US, and the requirements that
places on chief executive officers to give more certification that the financial statements produced are true,
by implication, that the systems supporting them are strong and capable of preventing error.
The auditors' responsibilities with regard to internal control were discussed in the previous chapter and in
your earlier studies in relation to Assurance. Due to the limitations of the assurance given in relation to
internal control as part of an audit, provision of additional or alternative assurances in respect of internal
control has become an important issue.
In July 2001, the APB issued a Briefing Paper on the issue of providing assurance in the effectiveness of
internal control. Briefing Papers are not directly examinable, but we shall look at the issues raised in that
Briefing Paper as a way at looking at this important issue.
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Audit and assurance
5.5 Providing assurance on the applicable risks and the design and
operation of the system
This engagement would include consideration of all three stages of the internal controls process identified
above. The identification of risks is likely to involve a high degree of judgement as there are no
universally recognised criteria suitable for evaluating the effectiveness of an entity's risk evaluation. This
means that practitioners are unlikely to be able to provide a high level of assurance in this area.
The starting point for the practitioner would be the entity's business objectives. The key considerations will
include:
` The completeness of the applicable identified risks
` The probability of a risk crystallising
` The materiality of the likely impact of the risk
` The time period over which crystallisation is anticipated
In their report, the practitioners would have to outline the business objectives of the entity, a description
of the risk identification process and the applicable risks.
5.7 Reports
The nature of the individual reports has been touched on above. The discussion paper also includes an
example report. However, as the APB make the key point that it is difficult to issue a standard report for
assurance services, which are largely dependent on the scope and nature of the individual assignment, this
has not been reproduced here.
6 Current issues
Section overview
` The key current issue for UK standard setters is harmonisation, particularly with European-wide
requirements in relation to audit on the horizon.
` IAASB continue a clarity project in which they are updating and reissuing ISAs.
6.1 Harmonisation
The APB Work Programme for 2006/2007 highlights the need for the APB to be at the forefront of
international developments by contributing to IAASB work projects and, in particular, the development of
European-wide auditing standards following recent amendments to the 8th EC Directive, which will result in
EU statutory auditors being required to carry out audits in accordance with international standards on
auditing. Of course, the UK has already adopted ISAs. The ongoing IAASB clarity project (see next section)
will result in amendments being required to ISAs (UK and Ireland) in due course.
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Audit and assurance
Summary
Self-test
Answer the following questions.
1 Auditing is regulated by the government in the UK.
True
False
2 The Auditing Practices Board issues auditing standards which auditors are required to follow.
True
False
3 Why are professional standards important?
4 Which of the following is a UK auditor required to follow?
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PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS 3
Technical reference
2 The International Auditing and Assurance Standards Auditing Practices Board – Scope and
Board (IAASB) Authority of Pronouncements
IPPS 1
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Answers to Self-test
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PROFESSIONAL STANDARDS 3
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66
chapter 4
Professional ethics
Contents
Introduction
Examination context
Topic List
1 The need for professional ethics
2 Code of Ethics
3 APB Ethical Standards
4 ICAEW Code of Ethics
Summary and Self-test
Technical reference
Answers to Self-test
Answers to Interactive questions
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Audit and assurance
Introduction
Practical significance
All members of ICAEW, and trainees, are required to comply with the ethical rules of ICAEW.
Working context
Professional ethics are important to all ICAEW members and trainees, regardless of what field they work
in.
Syllabus links
This topic was covered in detail in Assurance.
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Examination context
Exam requirements
As this is an important practical area, you can except it to be examined regularly.
In the assessment, candidates may be required to:
` Identify and advise upon the professional and ethical issues that may arise during an assurance
engagement
` Recognise the professional and ethical issues that might arise during an assurance engagement, explain
the relevance and importance of these issues and evaluate the relative merits of different standpoints
taken in debate
` Judge when to raise legal and ethical matters arising from assurance work with senior colleagues for
review and possible referral to external parties
` Discuss the purpose of laws, standards and other requirements surrounding assurance work
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The accountancy profession has a paradoxical image. On the one hand accountants are seen as pillars of
society, providing reliable financial information in their working lives and acting as treasurer for the PTA or
the local church in their spare time.
The other side of the coin is the image of aggressive tax schemes, financial scandals and money laundering.
Yet accountants believe that financial information is important. It is necessary for governments,
shareholders, trading partners, management and any number of other stakeholders, that the financial and
other reports and information provided by accountants are reliable and can be used by others as they go
about their daily lives. So the work that accountants and other assurance providers do has benefit for the
public interest.
It follows from this that, if the profession is to survive and thrive, and if its members are to maintain their
position there has to be a code of conduct so that the public are able to feel that they can trust
accountants.
The profession needs a code of professional ethics.
When a good deal of the profession’s income comes from audit and other assurance services, where the
users of those services are seeking to gain additional confidence in the reliability of information, it is no
exaggeration to say that the profession's income actually depends on accountants’ reputation for ethical
behaviour.
You have already studied professional ethics in relation to assurance services in your earlier studies for
your Assurance paper. The following summary is therefore revision, except in the case of the APB Ethical
Standards, which you have not yet looked at in detail.
2 Code of Ethics
Section overview
` IFAC issues a Code of Ethics, with which you should be familiar.
` The IFAC Code has been used as the basis for developing UK codes, in particular, compliance with
the ICAEW code ensures compliance with the IFAC Code.
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` Professional competence and due care. A professional accountant has a continuing duty to
maintain professional knowledge and skill at the level required to ensure that a client or employer
receives competent professional service based on current developments in practice, legislation and
techniques. A professional accountant should act diligently and in accordance with applicable technical
and professional standards when providing professional services.
` Confidentiality. A professional accountant should respect the confidentiality of information acquired
as a result of professional and business relationships and should not disclose any such information to
third parties without proper and specific authority unless there is a legal or professional right or duty
to disclose. Confidential information acquired as a result of professional and business relationships
should not be used for the personal advantage of the professional accountant or third parties.
` Professional behaviour. A professional accountant should comply with relevant laws and regulations
and should avoid any action that discredits the profession.
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Definition
Independence is 'freedom from situations and relationships which make it probable that a reasonable
and informed third party would conclude that objectivity either is impaired or could be impaired.'
ES1 Integrity, Objectivity and Independence
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Other auditors
Where other auditors – perhaps where there is a group of companies being audited – are involved with the
engagement, the firm has to be satisfied that they too comply with the ethics rules.
Communication with those charged with governance
The audit engagement partner should ensure that those charged with governance of the audit client are
appropriately informed on a timely basis of all significant facts and matters that bear on the auditors’
objectivity and independence.
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to a reasonable third party that the firm had acted in its own interests and therefore independence is
threatened.
The more involvement in the deal that the firm has, the more of a self-interest threat is created. If the IT
arm of the firm install the equipment, the firm earns additional fee income and the objectivity of the audit
might be threatened by the provision of other services and the overall increase in the firm's dependence on
Shoppa Ltd for fees. In addition, the IT system will support the financial reporting system which the auditing
arm of the firm might be seeking to rely on and will certainly be assessing as part of the audit, so there is
also a self-review threat.
Partners, staff or client staff moving between the audit firm and its audit client
The objective of this part of the statement is to prevent the auditor's independence and objectivity being
questioned, because former auditors join a client, or former clients join the auditor.
Where a partner – who could be:
` The engagement partner
` The partner who carries out an independent review of the audit files, or
` Another partner involved on the audit (known as a key audit partner or partner in the chain of
command)
is appointed a director or takes on some other key management position at the client, within two years of
being involved in the audit, the firm should resign as auditors/refuse reappointment.
If you understand this, reasonably clear, principle the other more detailed aspects of the standard flow from
it in a straightforward way.
So the firm needs procedures and rules so that:
` Partners intending to join a client know they must inform the firm of their intentions.
` If someone gives notification, they should be moved off the audit immediately.
` If someone joins the firm from a senior position at the client, they should not be allowed to work on
the audit for two years.
` If someone other than a partner joins the audit client, the firm has to consider the implications for its
independence, but has more discretion over its response.
Similarly the rules are extended to cover situations where close family members and other people
connected with those involved with the audit are employed by, or have financial dealings with, an audit
client.
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3.2.4 ES 4 Fees, Remuneration and Evaluation Policies, Litigation, Gifts and Hospitality
Again there are some relatively straightforward rules for you to understand:
` 'Contingent' fees for audit work are banned.
Definition
Contingent fees are fees where the amount of the fee is dependent on some event taking place or some
other condition being met. An example might be that the audit fee would be increased if the client’s bankers
agree to extend available borrowing facilities.
` Fees for audit and non-audit services for a listed client should not exceed 10% of the firm’s fee income.
` The limit for non-listed clients is 15%.
` Audit staff should not be assessed, or have their performance appraisal or their pay related to their
ability to cross sell the firm’s products.
` There should be a firm’s policy on the extent to which gifts, hospitality etc may be accepted from audit
clients.
` The firm should resign as auditor where there is actual or potential litigation between the firm and its
audit client.
The fee percentages are based on expected regular levels of fee income and relate to the whole firm or unit
within the firm where a 'reasonable and informed third party' might consider the firm/partner's objectivity
to be impaired.
Where fees amount to 5% – 10% (listed clients) or 10% – 15% (non-listed) the fact needs to be disclosed to
the ethics partner and those charged with governance at the client and appropriate safeguards adopted
where necessary; for non-listed clients an external hot review needs to be undertaken (listed clients will be
hot reviewed anyway).
The standard also recognises that in its early years a new firm may find the fee percentage limits difficult to
comply with and gives a two year grace period providing external hot reviews are conducted.
Similar 'reasonable and informed third party' considerations apply to the firm’s policy on gifts and hospitality
and whether there are overdue fees outstanding.
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ES 5 sets out a clear general approach to non-audit services provided by the auditor based on:
` What a reasonable and informed third party would think about the impact on the firm’s objectivity and
independence
` The need for the firm to have procedures to monitor and deal with potential threats
` The need for the client to have 'informed management' as defined below, where the audit firm
concludes it can provide non audit services
` It is never appropriate for the audit firm to find itself in a position where it undertakes, or is perceived
as undertaking, a management role
This approach states that the firm should:
` Consider the impact of the provision of non-audit services
` Establish safeguards to counter any threats (which may include resignation or refusal to accept
appointment as auditor or provider of the non-audit services)
` Communicate with 'those charged with governance', and
` Document the rationale for the decisions taken
ES 5 identifies the following non-audit services, although this is clearly not an exhaustive list:
` Internal audit
` IT
` Valuation
` Actuarial valuation
` Tax
` Litigation support
` Legal
` Recruitment and remuneration
` Corporate finance
` Transaction related
` Accounting
Some points concerning these services are highlighted below, but you need to read ES 5 and understand the
overall approach which is applied consistently throughout.
Internal audit
The firm should not undertake internal audit work, where its external audit opinion is based on significant
reliance on its internal audit role.
IT
The firm should not undertake work on IT systems which would be important to any significant part of the
accounting system on which the auditors would place significant reliance.
Valuation and actuarial valuation services
The firm should not undertake valuation services for an audit client where the valuation would both:
` Involve a significant degree of subjective judgment, and
` Have a material effect on the financial statements.
Tax
The firm should not undertake tax services where the outcome of the tax work is:
` Material to the financial statements, or
` Dependent on a future or contemporary audit judgement.
In particular the standard states that the audit firm should not undertake tax services which 'would involve
acting as an advocate for the audit client before an appeals tribunal or court in the resolution of the issue'.
Appeals tribunal or court is defined as appearing before the General or Special Commissioners in the UK
and any superior tribunals.
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This rule, when it was first discussed, was thought to be especially tricky for the smaller firm, and it may
prove to be so, but it is important to note that:
` The rule does nothing to prevent the usual discussions on points of detail with inspectors of taxes or
the provision of information if the case goes to the commissioners.
` Most tax issues are neither material nor dependent on future or contemporary audit judgments.
` Where the matter progresses to the commissioners, the conditions of the ESPASE may well apply.
Transaction related services
Transaction related services are 'one-off' engagements such as due diligence work.
Accounting services
The provisions dealing with accounting services were also expected to prove controversial for smaller
practitioners, but in the event this seems unlikely due to:
` The increase in the audit threshold
` The acceptability of appropriate safeguards
` The impact of the ESPASE
Nevertheless firms will need to remember:
` Providing accounting services for listed audit clients is banned except in emergencies.
` The auditors must never find themselves undertaking a management role.
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What potential threats to objectivity do each of these situations pose to your firm, and what safeguards
should be in place to address them?
See Answer at the end of this chapter.
Many of the independence issues covered by the ICAEW Code of Ethics are also covered by the APB
Ethical standards in section 4, so we shall concentrate on issues of confidentiality here.
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it is likely that the informant has approached the accountant on the basis that he is someone that the
informant can trust. In this situation the professional accountant should:
` Advise the informant to pass on the information to his employer in accordance with company
procedures.
` Protect the identity of the informant to the extent that this is possible.
` Take care in the way that this information is used, if at all.
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If there is no conflict of interest, firms may accept the assignment. If there is a conflict of interest, but it is
capable of being successfully mitigated by the adoption of suitable safeguards, firms should record those
safeguards.
There is nothing improper in a firm having two clients whose interests are in conflict provided that the
activities of the firm are managed so as to avoid the work of the firm on behalf of one client adversely
affecting that on behalf of another.
Where a firm believes that a conflict can be managed, sufficient disclosure should be made to the clients or
potential clients concerned, together with details of any proposed safeguards to preserve confidentiality and
manage conflict. If consent is refused by the client then the firm must not continue to act for one of the
parties.
Where a conflict cannot be managed even with safeguards, then the firm should not act.
4.3.2 Conflict between the interest of a professional accountant or his firm or a client
A self-interest threat to the objectivity of a professional accountant or his firm will arise where there is or
is likely to be a conflict of interest between them and the client, or where confidential information received
from the client could be used by them for the firm's or for a third party’s benefit.
The test to apply is whether a reasonable and informed observer would perceive that the objectivity of the
member or his firm is likely to be impaired. The member or his firm should be able to satisfy themselves
and the client that any conflict can be managed with available safeguards.
Safeguards might include:
` Disclosure of the circumstances of the conflict
` Obtaining the informed consent of the client to act
` The use of confidentiality agreements signed by employees
` Establishing information barriers
– Ensuring that there is no overlap between different teams
– Physical separation of teams
– Careful procedures for where information has to be disseminated beyond a barrier and for
maintaining proper records where this occurs
` Regular review of the application of safeguards by a senior individual not involved with the relevant
client engagement
` Ceasing to act
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Summary
Self-test
Answer the following questions.
1 What are the six general threats to integrity and objectivity?
1 ........................................
2 ........................................
3 ........................................
4 ........................................
5 ........................................
6 ........................................
2 Give three examples of when auditors are entitled to make a disclosure in breach of the duty of
confidence.
1 ........................................
2 ........................................
3 ........................................
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3 Name the nine qualities which the APB state should characterise an auditor.
1 ........................................
2 ........................................
3 ........................................
4 ........................................
5 ........................................
6 ........................................
7 ........................................
8 ........................................
9 ........................................
Exam-style questions
4 As auditor of Northend Ltd you prepare quarterly management accounts for the company, and these
are passed on to the company’s bankers. Northend Ltd’s overdraft is close to its limit and the bank
manager has contacted you to discuss the high level of bad debts disclosed in the latest management
accounts.
What considerations will determine the extent to which you divulge information to the bank manager?
(2 marks)
5 Three situations have arisen with audit clients of your firm.
(1) Due to cash flow difficulties, overdue fees from Doe Ltd have built up to include all bills
submitted by your firm in the last twelve months.
(2) The engagement partner of Ray Ltd has acted for the company for many years.
(3) To express his gratitude for the quality of service he has received from your firm, the managing
director of Mee Ltd has invited all partners and staff involved with his affairs for a golf day and
dinner at an exclusive club one weekend.
State the threats to objectivity that these matters represent and how the threats could influence
objectivity. (4 marks)
6 Your firm has been invited to tender for the audit of East Ltd. Your firm has not previously acted in
any capacity for this company but does act for West Ltd, which is East Ltd’s major competitor.
Identify and explain the principal ethical issue relating to this situation, and state the procedures you
would implement to address this issue. (3 marks)
7 Examples of situations when the auditors’ independence may be impaired include the following.
(1) Providing taxation services to the company and its directors.
(2) Providing accountancy services, including preparing periodic management accounts and annual
financial statements.
(3) Providing management consultancy, including advice on new computer systems and systems of
internal control.
(4) Preparing confidential reports to the company’s bank and other lenders on the financial position
of the client. The conclusions of these reports are not made available to the audit client.
Requirement
Describe how each of the situations listed above may compromise auditors’ independence, and the
ways in which an audit firm can minimise the effect which the provision of other services has on
independence. (13 marks)
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Technical reference
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Answers to Self-test
1 ` Self-interest
` Self-review
` Management
` Advocacy
` Intimidation
` Familiarity
2 ` Reporting of suspected money laundering
` Reporting of terrorist offences
` Defending oneself against negligence charges
3 ` Accountability
` Integrity
` Objectivity and independence
` Competence
` Rigour
` Judgment
` Clear, complete and effective communication
` Association
` Providing value
Exam-style questions
4 Disclosure of information
` Whether Northend Ltd’s permission has been obtained to discuss matters freely with bank
` Extent to which information has already been divulged by the bank to Northend Ltd’s
management
` Terms of engagement with Northend Ltd and/or bankers for preparation of management
accounts
` Duty/responsibility to bankers
5 Threats
(1) Self-interest ` Auditor may worry that fees will not be paid if report is qualified or
going concern doubts disclosed
(2) Familiarity ` Partner may be reluctant to upset or be too reliant on
representations from 'friend'
(3) Self-interest ` Partners and staff may be reluctant to appear ungrateful or hope for
further hospitality
General
` Proper audit may not be carried out
` Inappropriate opinion may be given
6 Principal ethical issue
` Confidentiality
` East and West may perceive a threat in respect of disclosure/use of information
` Conflict of interest
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Procedures to address
` Procedures to ensure staff are aware of confidentiality issues and such issues have been brought
to attention of staff (eg Chinese walls)
` Staff to certify awareness of these procedures
` Obtain informed consent of clients
` Use of different partners and teams
` Independent review of arrangements for ensuring confidentiality maintained
7 (1) Taxation services
Many audit firms prepare tax computations for their client companies and this should not
normally compromise independence.
Where taxation services are provided to the company, a conflict of interest could arise in dealing
with the tax affairs of the directors (eg if any of the directors are also shareholders, they may
have preferences as to dividends or bonuses, which are not in the best interests of the company’s
tax or cash flow position).
There may also be independence issues in relation to tax advisory work. For example, the firm
may have difficulty in giving an independent view on the acceptability of a scheme to the Revenue
or Customs and Excise if the firm designed the scheme itself in the first place.
As a safeguard, a tax manager (or partner) independent of the audit function should be assigned
to deal with individual director’s tax affairs.
(2) Accountancy services
For many audit clients it is common to provide a range of accountancy services including
participation in the preparation of accounting records. For listed or other public interest clients,
an audit firm should not participate in the preparation of the company’s accounts and accounting
records except in emergency situations.
Preparing periodic management accounts may draw the auditor, inadvertently, into performing
management functions.
Safeguards for non-listed companies include the following.
` The client accepting responsibility for the records as its own.
` The auditor not assuming an operational role.
` Conducting appropriate audit tests on records processed/maintained by the auditor.
(3) Management consultancy
An auditor’s independence may be compromised if a course of action is recommended to an
audit client. For example, if the auditor advises on a new computer system which is then found to
be unreliable, the auditor may be reluctant to report the weaknesses to management.
As a safeguard auditors should lay the facts before the directors and let them make the decision.
It is important that the auditor is not seen to be acting as part of the management function.
The additional guidance on best practice has also now provided that services involving the design
and implementation of financial information technology systems (FITS) should not be provided
unless
` Management accept overall responsibility in writing
` Management do not rely on the FITS work as the primary basis for determining the
adequacy of internal controls and financial reporting systems, and
` The design specifications are set by management.
In any case separate engagement teams are likely to be necessary to mitigate the potential threat
to independence.
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It would be preferable to advise only one of the two clients – probably Ace Ltd as already agreed
– and thereby avoid conflict. However, the knowledge of Black & Co’s business may be seen to
impair objectivity, and Black & Co might well object to assistance being provided to Ace Ltd.
It may therefore be best to advise neither client but to explain the predicament to both and
suggest that each consults another independent firm of accountants.
(2) Confidentiality
To inform the directors of Club Ltd that the accounts will not give a true and fair view unless a
provision is made against the debt due from Diamond Ltd would be a breach of confidentiality. It
could also have the undesirable effect of precipitating the collapse of Diamond Ltd since the
directors of Club Ltd would take steps to obtain payment from Diamond Ltd as soon as possible.
To ignore the information about Diamond Ltd’s financial position (since it is not publicly available)
and give an unqualified auditors’ report, in a situation where the accounts are known (by the
auditor) not to give a true and fair view, would be prima facie a breach of an auditor’s statutory
duty under the Companies Act 1985 and in breach of Section 140 Confidentiality of the Code of
Ethics.
If the auditor is to continue to act for Club Ltd the conflict must be resolved. To do so normal
audit procedures should be followed and enquiries made to enable the information about
Diamond Ltd to be obtained from another source. It may be possible to delay forming an opinion
until the situation crystallises. Under no circumstances must there be any disclosure of
confidential information outside the firm.
Tutorial note
Note how practical this question is. Your answer should not merely be a repetition of the ethical
guide but should apply it to the specific circumstances given. Part (2) is really 'unanswerable' and what
is required is simply a sensible discussion of the possibilities. In any question on ethics, try to use
common sense and come up with practical suggestions, and bear in mind that there may be no 'right'
answer.
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chapter 5
Quality control
Contents
Introduction
Examination context
Topic List
1 The need for quality standards
2 Leadership
3 Ethics
4 Acceptance of engagements
5 Human resources
6 Engagement performance
7 Monitoring
8 Getting the assurance opinion wrong
Summary and Self-test
Technical reference
Answers to Self-test
Answers to Interactive questions
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Introduction
` Understand and explain why firms need to have quality control procedures
` Understand and explain what these procedures are and how they operate
` Understand the concept of professional negligence and its potential impact on an assurance
firm
Specific syllabus references for this chapter are: 2a, d, e, f, g.
Practical significance
If you work in practice, you will be subject to the types of quality control procedures set out in this chapter
as they are a requirement for audit firms.
Working context
If you work in practice, you will soon be accustomed to the types of quality control procedures on
individual assignments. Your work will be supervised and reviewed by the people superior to you on the
assurance team, for example. You might also be involved in more general controls, such as confirming that
you do not own any shares that would cause a barrier to independence in relation to a particular client.
Even if you work outside of practice, as an ICAEW member, you will be required to verify that you have
undertaken continuing professional development.
Syllabus links
Your understanding of quality control issues will be necessary at the Advanced stage.
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QUALITY CONTROL 5
Examination context
Exam requirements
This is an area of the syllabus that is likely to be examined in conjunction with other issues such as client
acceptance or ethics. The sample paper contained 10 marks of a 40 mark question on quality control issues
in the context of audit planning.
In the assessment, candidates may be required to:
` Identify the legal, professional and ethical considerations that an individual or firm must consider
before accepting a specified assurance engagement
` Identify the sources of liability (including professional negligence) arising from an assurance engagement
and their impact upon the conduct of the engagement
` Formulate the approach suitable for management of the assurance engagement
` Discuss the principles and purpose of quality control of assurance engagements
` Demonstrate how the assurance function within an organisation can be monitored through
procedures for review
` Describe how quality can be monitored and controlled through procedures external to the
organisation
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The main reason the end user wants to have an assurance report prepared is to reduce the risk of making a
wrong decision. As a result someone is prepared to pay an assurance firm a fee.
As you know (and we shall look at this in more detail in Chapter 9) the amount of work the firm does is
dictated by the need to reduce assurance engagement risk to acceptable levels. If the firm does not do
this, it has not carried out a job which is acceptable when judged against professional standards.
The firm should ensure that the quality of its work does not fall short
` By trusting to luck (not a good idea), or
` By implementing its own quality control procedures
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The supervisor
` May not have an adequate understanding of the client’s business
` May not brief and direct the staff properly
` May not carry out sufficient supervision so that the wrong work is done by the audit team
` May fail to deal with issues raised adequately
` May fail to communicate the issues arising to the engagement partner
The engagement partner
` May have insufficient knowledge of the client and its environment
` May fail to pass knowledge of the business on to the audit team
` May select the wrong team for the audit
` May not adequately brief and supervise the team
` May not consult sufficiently with colleagues and outside experts
` May not review the work carried out by the team with sufficient care
` May fail to deal with issues raised adequately
` May not draw the correct conclusions from the evidence available
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2 Leadership
Section overview
` The ISQC points out the importance of quality being an established part of the culture of the firm.
` This must be instigated by the leaders of the firm, that is, the partners.
It is important that the culture of the firm is that quality is essential in performing assurance engagements.
This should be lead by the leaders of the firm, that is, the partners.
In practical terms, the people directing the firm and its resources should ensure that:
` Commercial considerations do not override the quality of work performed.
` The firm’s policies in relation to staff promotion, remuneration and performance review incorporate
the importance of quality work.
` Sufficient resources are allocated to the development, documentation and support of quality control
policies and procedures.
3 Ethics
Section overview
` The firm should have policies and procedures designed to ensure that ethical requirements are met.
We saw in the previous chapter how important ethics are to assurance providers, as they underpin the
public trust required to make assurance services viable.
The firm must put together policies and procedures to ensure that it meets ethical requirements.
4 Acceptance of engagements
Section overview
` The firm should also have policies and procedures designed to ensure that only appropriate clients
are accepted in the first place and retained.
The firm should also have policies and procedures designed to ensure that only appropriate clients are
accepted in the first place and retained. We shall look in more detail at acceptance issues in Chapter 6. The
engagement partner should carry out similar considerations as he did when he accepted the client every
year when bearing in mind whether to retain the client.
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5 Human resources
Section overview
` As part of the firm’s overall culture of quality control, it should have policies and procedures to
ensure that it employs and retains staff with the capabilities, competence and commitment to ethical
principles necessary to perform the engagements.
` There should be policies on recruitment, career development, performance evaluation and
promotion.
` It is also important to allocate staff to assurance engagements appropriately.
As part of the firm’s overall culture of quality control, it should have policies and procedures to ensure that
it employs and retains staff with the capabilities, competence and commitment to ethical principles
necessary to perform the engagements. This means it should have policies on all aspects of employing
professional staff. The ISQC lists the following:
` Recruitment
` Performance evaluation
` Capabilities
` Competence
` Career development
` Promotion
` Compensation (that is, how staff are remunerated)
` The estimation of personal needs (for instance, self-appraisal as well as appraisal by others)
These will cover matters such as professional education (for trainees), continuing professional development
(for everyone), practical work experience and coaching by more experienced staff.
ICAEW members are required to certify that they have carried out appropriate professional development
annually as part of their membership. For members in practice, the ISQC puts professional development on
the agenda of firms as well, as part of their overall quality control procedures.
Another important matter in relation to human resources is the allocation of staff to assurance teams.
Firms are required to have policies to ensure that:
` Clients are informed of the identity of the engagement partner.
` The engagement partner has the capabilities, competence, authority and time to perform his role.
` The responsibilities of the partner in respect of the assignment are clearly defined and communicated
to him.
The engagement partner should ensure that he allocates appropriate staff to the engagement team. Staff
need:
` Understanding of/practical experience with similar engagements
` Understanding of relevant professional and legal requirements in relation to the client
` Appropriate technical knowledge
` Knowledge of the relevant industry
` Ability to apply professional judgement
` Understanding of the firm’s quality control procedures and policies
You can see that the types of training and appraisal discussed above will be important as ongoing monitoring
of the staff member’s abilities and, therefore, capability to be assigned to particular engagements and in what
capacity.
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6 Engagement performance
Section overview
` Key issues are supervision, direction, review, consultation and resolution of disputes.
6.1 Direction
This is largely the responsibility of the engagement partner who controls how the assurance engagement
should be conducted, but this duty will be delegated to the most senior team member on site at the
engagement, who will direct the engagement in accordance with the overall strategy.
The engagement partner is responsible for ensuring team members know:
` What work they are supposed to be doing
` The nature of the entity’s business
` Any risks relevant to the engagement
` Problems that might arise during the engagement
` The detailed approach to the engagement
6.2 Supervision
ISA 220 lists four features of supervision:
` Progress tracking
` Monitoring the performance of the audit team
` Addressing significant issues arising during the audit
` Identifying matters for consultation or where a greater degree of expertise or experience is required
Good supervision can be a difficult skill to master:
` If it is too close it can stifle initiative and waste the time of supervisor and assistant alike
` If it is too loose, mistakes may be made or time wasted in ineffective work
The partner has overall responsibility for supervising the audit, but will normally delegate supervisory duties
to a manager or supervisor who will similarly delegate to the 'senior' or 'in charge' who is responsible for
the day-to-day management of the engagement.
6.3 Review
Work performed by staff is reviewed by other more senior staff or the engagement partner.
The purpose of the review is to consider whether the work done is in line with the audit strategy and
whether:
` The work has been performed in accordance with professional standards and regulatory and legal
requirements
` Significant matters have been raised for further consideration
` Appropriate consultations have taken place and the resulting conclusions have been documented and
implemented
` There is a need to revise the nature, timing and extent of work performed
` The work performed supports the conclusions reached and is appropriately documented
` The evidence obtained is sufficient and appropriate to support the report and
` The objectives of the engagement procedures have been achieved
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6.4 Consultation
When difficult or contentious issues arise, the assurance team must consult properly on the matter and the
conclusions drawn as a result of consultation must be properly recorded.
Any differences of opinion must be resolved prior to the assurance report being issued. This may mean that
a person independent of the engagement (such as the quality control reviewer) may have to be involved in
resolving the difference of opinion.
7 Monitoring
Section overview
` The firm must have policies in place to ensure that their quality control procedures are adequate and
relevant, that they are operating effectively and are complied with.
` Management of the assurance firm (that is, the partners) should receive an annual report on the
outcome of monitoring activities.
` The most important issues will be systematic or repetitive deficiencies.
The ISQC states that firms must have policies in place to ensure that quality control procedures are
adequate and relevant, that they are operating effectively and are complied with. The firm might have a
compliance or quality department which carries out such reviews.
Monitoring might take place by ongoing evaluation of the system and also by periodic review of selected
engagement files to assess whether policies and procedures were put into place during the engagement.
The partners in the firm (the management board) should receive at least an annual report of the results of
monitoring of quality control procedures. Key issues will be systematic or repetitive deficiencies that
require corrective action.
Where monitoring reveals a problem with an individual, then remedial action should be taken with that
individual, and possibly, additional quality control reviews might be required on that person’s work to
ensure that corrective action is taken.
The people checking compliance with quality control standards should liaise closely with the training
department or partner to ensure that any misunderstandings or problems with controls are corrected
during on-the-job training.
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Think for a moment about the possible cost of getting the audit opinion wrong:
` If someone can demonstrate that you owed them a duty of care and they suffered loss by relying on
the financial statements, they could sue you under the tort of negligence, as you saw previously whilst
studying for the Law Paper.
` As the law currently stands although you, as auditor, may not be the only person responsible for their
loss – the directors, who are responsible for preparing financial statements which give a true and fair
view, probably had a hand in it somewhere – you could find yourself solely liable.
` As a member of the ICAEW you could also face disciplinary proceedings, fines and penalties.
Audit firms must carry professional indemnity insurance, which means that any settlement will be paid out
by the insurance company, but there is quite a long list of audit firms which no longer exist – ranging from
Spicer and Oppenheim as a result of the British and Commonwealth/Atlantic Computers failure to
Andersens, the former auditor of Enron – as a result of the collapse of an audit client.
To some extent the final cost of the settlement is only a part of the overall cost. Lawyers do not come
cheap, particularly good corporate lawyers, and the time of partners and staff taken up with defending such
an action can also represent a huge cost.
There is a further substantial, but intangible cost, resulting from the damage to a firm’s reputation following
its involvement with a client collapse. This is the loss of other clients and often key members of staff who
no longer want to be associated with the firm.
Remember that many assurance firms operate as partnerships whose partners have unlimited and joint and
several liability (which you also will remember from your law studies). If one partner gets it wrong, all the
partners could be found liable.
Clearly in this context, quality control policies and procedures, which help to ensure that the wrong
opinion is not given, are very important. However, it is not just a question of quality. As you saw in your
studies for Assurance, and as we shall look at in more detail in the next chapter, it is a question of risk.
Increasingly, assurance firms are concluding that there are some clients which are too risky to take on,
leaving companies required to have an audit under the law unable to appoint an auditor.
This situation has needed resolution. One way of trying to restrict liability has been to look at the business
vehicles through which many assurance firms operate. As a result, many have incorporated in a limited way,
becoming Limited Liability Partnerships (LLPs), which were introduced into UK law in 2001.
However, there has also been a need to review the whole concept of who is to blame when things go
wrong. The profession has favoured a scheme of ‘proportional liability’, whereby the assurance provider
only pays for its share of the blame when things go wrong.
Companies’ law has recently been updated in the UK, in the Companies Act 2006, which received Royal
Assent on 9 November 2006 (although the Act will be implemented in stages through to 1 October 2008).
The Act provides for auditors to negotiate a liability cap with clients in respect of audits. This is a
compromise between the profession’s and the Government’s position, outlined above. Rather than there be
one statutory liability cap, it will be negotiable per client, so where a client is perceived to be risky (that is,
there is a higher chance that if the audit opinion is wrong that the client is also at fault) the auditors will
seek to negotiate a lower cap. This section of the Act is due to be implemented on 6 April 2008.
This provision in the Companies Act has disappointed mid-tier firms, as they believe that this could reduce
their chances of competing for audits with larger firms, as they would have to negotiate lower caps as their
resources are smaller. The Act theoretically gives the Government power to intervene if this appears to be
the case, but we will have to wait and see what the outcome is in practice.
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Summary
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Self-test
Answer the following questions.
1 Compliance with quality control policies and procedures as required by ISQC 1 will constitute a good
defence against allegations that the firm has been negligent.
True
False
2 The ICAEW's practice assurance scheme is primarily disciplinary.
True
False
3 Which one of the following statements about formal leadership is incorrect? Partners should ensure
that:
` Commercial considerations do not override the quality of work performed.
` Sufficient resources are allocated to developing quality controls polices and procedures.
` Staff prioritise quality control procedures over ethical considerations for listed clients.
` The firm's policies in relation to remuneration should reflect the importance of quality.
4 Explain an ICAEW member's responsibility with regards to CPD.
5 List four items the engagement partner should ensure the assurance team are aware of prior to
commencing an engagement.
1 ........................................
2 ........................................
3 ........................................
4 ........................................
6 Define hot review.
Exam-style questions
7 You are about to start work on an assignment. What would you expect the role of your senior to be
in terms of supervising you and explaining your role on the audit? (2 marks)
8 A qualified senior and yourself are due to start work on an assignment. He will review your work
before the file is passed on to the manager.
What aspects will he be considering when he is reviewing your work? (2 marks)
9 Your firm has recently been appointed as auditor of Jog Ltd ('Jog'), a company operating within the
sports and leisure sector. Your audit manager has arranged a meeting with the company’s finance
director for early next week and she has asked you to assist her, in advance of this meeting, with the
audit planning for the year ending 30 June 20X6. Your audit manager has also asked you to carry out
some preliminary analytical procedures on the year-end financial statements of Jog when these become
available.
Jog’s business can be split into the following three divisions
` Sports equipment retail outlets: 35 sports equipment retail outlets located in 'out of town' retail
parks
` Fitness clubs: 15 fitness clubs, each offering a fully equipped gym together with yoga, aerobics, and
circuit training classes
` Machine manufacture: a manufacturing unit in which running machines and rowing machines are
assembled using components sourced from overseas.
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Further information:
Sports equipment retail outlets
The retail outlets are all located close to major towns and cities throughout the whole of the UK.
Each outlet stocks a standard range of products which are supplied from a central warehouse
operated by Jog. Salaries for the core staff at the outlets are paid by Jog’s head office by direct bank
transfer. Each outlet is run on a day-to-day basis by a manager who is responsible for hiring casual
staff to cover peak periods. These casual staff members are generally paid using cash from the till.
Jog received some bad publicity during the year following its inclusion in a television documentary
which revealed that one of its non-UK sports shoe suppliers was making its employees work long
hours for very low wages. In an attempt to manage this adverse press attention, Jog has now had to
source these products from alternative suppliers based in the UK.
Fitness clubs
Jog’s 15 fitness clubs are all located directly above existing Jog retail outlets. Each club has its own on-
site manager and is operated independently of the adjacent retail outlet. Customers of the fitness
clubs pay by one of three methods: on a ‘pay per session’ basis over the fitness club counter; by
monthly direct debit paid into Jog’s head office bank account; or by annual subscription to head office.
Customers are then issued with a membership card which enables them to gain access to the club.
The company operates a bonus incentive scheme for the managers at both its retail outlets and fitness
clubs. The size of the bonus is linked to the profitability of their individual operation.
Machine manufacture
During the year Jog started to manufacture its own running machines and rowing machines. It sources
the machine components from China and Taiwan. These components are assembled in the UK at
Jog’s factory for sale both in Jog’s own stores under their own 'Jog' brand and also to independent
sports shops under the 'Iron Champ' brand. The latter accounts for approximately 80% of Jog’s total
production of both running and rowing machines. Sales to independent sports shops achieve a gross
profit margin of 50%, whereas sales to Jog’s own shops are made to that division at cost plus 10%.
Jog is invoiced by its non-UK component suppliers in their respective local currency. The components
are sent by sea, which means that Jog’s typical lead time for components from the placing of an order
to delivery in the UK is three months. Jog is required to pay its suppliers 50% with order and 50%
upon receipt of the components in the UK.
Quality control
In line with your firm’s system of quality control, procedures were conducted prior to accepting Jog as
an audit client, to ensure that it was appropriate to accept such an appointment. Your audit manager
has asked you to consider the other objectives of a system of quality control and why they may be
particularly relevant to Jog.
Requirements
(a) and (b) omitted until later chapter
(c) (i) State the objectives of a system of quality control within an audit firm.
(ii) Identify, with reasons, which of the above objectives are likely to be particularly relevant to
your audit of Jog. (8 marks)
Parts (a) and (b) of this question will be included in Chapter 7. Note that much of the information
given in the question relates to these parts, but has been left in so that you can use any relevant
information for the purposes of answering Part (c)(ii).
Now, go back to the Learning Objectives in the Introduction. If you are satisfied you have achieved these
objectives, please tick them off.
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Technical reference
` Requirement for quality control procedures ISQC (UK and Ireland) 1.3 and ISA
(UK and Ireland) 220.2
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Answers to Self-test
1 True
2 False, although disciplinary action may be taken as a result of a review if required.
3 Staff prioritise quality control procedures over ethical considerations for listed clients.
4 Every member is required to certify that he/she has carried out appropriate professional development
annually.
5 From:
` What work they are supposed to be doing
` The nature of the entity’s business
` Any risks relevant to the engagement
` Problems that might arise during the engagement
` The detailed approach to the engagement
6 A hot review is a review carried out by a partner not otherwise involved in the engagement or an
external consultant before the audit report is signed.
Exam-style questions
7 Supervision
` Inform you of your responsibilities
` Explain the objectives of the work you are carrying out
` Explain the nature of the entity’s business
` Highlight possible accounting and auditing problems which may affect the procedures you carry
out
8 Review of work
` Work properly conducted in accordance with plan/programmes
` Working papers to a standard/evidence recorded
` Conclusions valid
` Matters identified for further consideration
` Working papers headed, initialled, dated
9 (c) Objectives of quality control
The objectives of an audit firm’s system of quality control are to ensure that the auditor
performs the right work to a high standard and adequately records the work done. It involves
selecting the appropriate team, supervising staff, consulting sufficiently with colleagues and
outside experts and reviewing the work carried out by the team with sufficient care.
A system of quality control will also ensure that the auditor draws the correct conclusions from
the evidence available, forms the appropriate audit opinion and deals adequately with issues
raised including reporting to management.
Quality control is also designed to protect the auditor from risks arising as a result of
incompetence or negligence of the client’s staff and will protect the firm from the risk of
litigation.
Objectives relevant to the audit of Jog
Jog operates out of many locations and because it has a number of diverse activities, the audit
firm may not have staff with relevant expertise. It is therefore particularly important that a team
with appropriate skills and experience is selected for the audit and that the work is supervised
closely.
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As Jog is a new audit client and because its business is diversified it is particularly important that
the audit team has an adequate understanding of the business. The risks arising from the client’s
staff being incompetent or negligent are particularly relevant to Jog as the auditor does not yet
know the client very well.
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Engagement partner
An engagement partner is usually appointed to each audit engagement undertaken by the firm, to take
responsibility for the engagement on behalf of the firm. Assigning the audit to an experienced audit manager
is not sufficient.
The lack of an audit engagement partner also means that several of the requirements of ISA 220, about
ensuring that arrangements in relation to independence and directing, supervising and reviewing the audit,
are not in place.
Conflicting views
In this scenario the audit manager and senior have conflicting views about the valuation of inventory. This
does not appear to have been handled well, with the manager refusing to discuss the issue with the senior.
ISA 220 requires that the audit engagement partner takes responsibility for settling disputes in accordance
with the firm's policy in respect of resolution of disputes required by ISQC 1. In this case, the lack of
engagement partner may have contributed to this failure to resolve the disputes. In any event, at best, the
failure to resolve the dispute is a breach of the firm's policy under ISQC 1. At worst, it indicates that the
firm does not have a suitable policy concerning such disputes as required by ISQC 1.
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chapter 6
Accepting engagements
Contents
Introduction
Examination context
Topic List
1 Tendering
2 Risk analysis
3 Acceptance and legal issues
4 Terms of an audit engagement
Summary and Self-test
Technical reference
Answers to Self-test
Answers to Interactive questions
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Introduction
` Understand and explain the legal requirements for appointment and removal of auditors
` Identify the professional and ethical matters a firm should consider when accepting
appointment as assurance providers
` Understand the need to clarify the terms of engagement in writing and understand and
explain the issues involved
` Discuss the process by which an auditor obtains an engagement
Specific syllabus references for this chapter are: 2a, b, c, h, i, j.
Practical significance
It is of practical significance to both companies and assurance firms how assurance engagements are
obtained and the processes that assurance firms go through when determining whether to accept
engagements, because companies need assurance services, particularly audits which are a statutory
requirement in many cases and because assurance firms need to generate income. A key issue for firms to
consider, as raised in the previous chapter, is the risk associated with that client or potential client in terms
of getting the opinion wrong. In addition, they need to consider ethics and resources. Companies should
bear in mind when seeking auditors that audit firms generally prefer to take on clients which appear to have
integrity and commitment to internal control.
Working context
If you work in practice, you may become involved in the tender process for a new client in some way at
some stage during your training. If you work in industry, you may be responsible for evaluating audit
tenders and recommending who to appoint as auditors.
Syllabus links
Many of the considerations set out in this chapter have already been introduced in the Assurance paper. In
this paper, you are required to consider the matters at a higher level, and be able to explain and discuss the
matters in more detail.
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Examination context
Exam requirements
You may be asked to apply the principles discussed in this chapter to a scenario question in the exam. For
instance, in the sample paper, there was a short form question looking at an engagement letter for an
assurance engagement in relation to prospective financial information, and also part of a long form question
focused on issues that might prevent acceptance of a statutory audit.
In the assessment, candidates may be required to:
` Explain the main ways in which national legislation affects the appointment and removal of auditors
` Identify the legal, professional and ethical considerations that an individual or firm must consider
before accepting a specified assurance engagement
` Discuss the issues which underlie the agreement of the scope and terms of an assurance engagement
(new or continuing)
` Discuss the process by which an auditor obtains an audit engagement
` Discuss the issues and risks that an individual auditor or audit firm must consider with regard to the
acceptance of an audit engagement (new or continuing) with a client, including terms of engagement
and their documentation
` Identify the legal, professional and ethical considerations that an individual auditor or audit firm must
consider before accepting a specified audit engagement
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1 Tendering
Section overview
` An assurance firm might be invited to accept an engagement or to tender for an engagement.
` A tender is in effect a ‘bid’ for an engagement.
` The firm will set out the reasons why it is best placed to provide the engagement and the fee at
which it can do it.
` Lowballing may occur during a tender process, and while this is not ethically wrong, it may require
ethical safeguards to be put in place.
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2 Risk analysis
Section overview
` Firms carry out risk analysis prior to accepting engagements.
` This is in order to ensure that the risk of giving an inappropriate opinion on the engagement is not
too high.
` Matters to consider are whether the directors appear to have integrity, the company has a good
financial record and prospects, the attitude to internal control and the nature of the client’s
transactions.
As you learnt in Assurance, assurance firms will carry out a risk analysis before accepting clients. This is
partly to determine what fee they think is appropriate for the engagement (the higher risk the client, the
greater the benefit that the firm will want from undertaking the engagement) but also to lay foundations for
understanding the risks associated with the engagement if it is taken on and the amount of work that will
have to be undertaken to reduce assurance risk to an acceptable level for that assignment. As noted in
Chapter 5, it may be that an engagement is too risky for a firm to risk taking on.
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The trouble with clients like client B is that you are usually under a certain amount of pressure to finalise
the financial statements and there tend to be a few loose ends left about which you 'take a view', but it
would not be impossible to end the audit of client B feeling more confident about its figures than client A’s,
because you had looked at them in more depth.
Another question
If
` You were a fraudster, hoping to inflate the value of your company so that a venture capital fund would
invest, or a bank would continue with finance, or a large multinational would purchase it;
or
` You were a money launderer wanting to introduce the profits from your drug smuggling and dealing
activities into an otherwise legitimate business;
would you prefer to be operating client A or client B?
You could argue that things are so chaotic at client B that no one would notice a few stray transactions.
Or you might think that the auditors have to spend so much time on the detail that they would have quite a
good chance of picking something up.
Perhaps the well organised, reliable client A, where the auditors don’t seem to do very much detailed
checking, might be a better bet.
The most that can be said therefore is that the assessment of risk is something of a balancing act between
your judgement of how reliable the information coming from the client is likely to be and the things you can
actually do.
The example illustrates that such judgements are not simple, but generally speaking when carrying out risk
analysis prior to accepting a client, assurance providers will be seeking to determine:
` Whether the directors/management of the company appear to have integrity: this can be assessed by
looking at the accounting policies of the company (are they prudent and conservative or imprudent?)
and the qualifications of the finance director it employs, or by obtaining references for key personnel
from parties known to the assurance firm, such as bankers or solicitors, or the previous auditors.
` Whether the company has a good financial record, resources and outlook: this can be assessed by
looking at recent financial performance and reports and by making enquiries (with permission) from its
bankers.
` Whether the company appears to have good internal control, or, at minimum, a good control
environment: this might be indicated by the existence of an internal audit department, or assessed
through inquiries of management.
` Whether the company has unusual transactions: this can be assessed by reviewing published financial
statements.
In general terms, if the directors appear to have integrity, the financial record is strong and prospects look
good, there is a good attitude to internal control in the company and it has few unusual transactions, then it
is lower risk than a company for which those things are not true.
Remember, that if a firm determines that a company is a high risk client, this does not necessarily mean that
the firm will not accept the engagement, but this preliminary assessment of risk will be incorporated into
the audit procedures when risk assessment identification and procedures are carried out on the
engagement.
Another area constituting risk to the auditor, as indicated in the example above, is the risk that the client
may be money laundering. As you know, accountants are required to report suspicions of money laundering
and failure to report a suspicion is a criminal offence. The auditors are also required to carry out client due
diligence with respect to money laundering at the start of an engagement. This was all set out in your
manual for Assurance, and you should refer back to it for the details.
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When deciding whether to accept an assurance engagement, the auditors need to consider the following:
` The results of risk analysis (discussed above)
` Whether there are any ethical issues which prevent acceptance (discussed in Chapters 4 and 5)
` Whether the firm has sufficient experience and resources (mainly staff who are appropriately qualified,
experienced and available) to undertake the engagement
` For an audit engagement, whether all the legal requirements associated with the appointment of the
incoming auditors and the removal or resignation of the outgoing auditors have been met.
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With regard to audits, the scope of the engagement is determined by law and professional standards, but
the auditors must ensure that these terms are understood by the client. In addition, the following matters
will need to be agreed:
` The fee or the basis by which the fee will be determined
` The limited liability agreement, that is, the cap on the auditors’ liability for the engagement (discussed
in the previous chapter)
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ACCEPTING ENGAGEMENTS 6
` The scope of the audit (including reference to applicable legislation, regulations and auditing standards)
` The form of reports and communications that will arise from the audit
` The fact that due to the test nature and other limitations of an audit, there is an unavoidable risk that
some material misstatement may remain undiscovered
` The fact that auditors are entitled to unrestricted access to records, documents and other information
requested in connection with the audit
The letter may also cover practical matters, such as arrangements relating to planning, using the work of
experts, liaising with the internal audit department, the fee and restriction of auditor liability.
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Summary
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ACCEPTING ENGAGEMENTS 6
Self-test
Answer the following questions.
1 Define lowballing.
2 List four issues that ICAEW states should be referred to when determining fees
1 ........................................
2 ........................................
3 ........................................
4 ........................................
3 Why do firms undertake risk analysis?
4 If the client refuses the existing auditor permission to communicate with the prospective auditor, the
prospective auditor should decline the appointment.
True
False
5 An auditor can be appointed by which of the following methods?
True
False
Exam-style questions
7 Acer Ltd is a client of your firm and is seeking funding in order to expand the business. The directors
have prepared profit and cash flow forecasts for the next three years ending 30 June 20X9 in support
of the request for funding. The company's bankers require this information to be reviewed by
independent accountants and the board of directors has requested that your firm undertakes this
review.
Set out the matters that you would include in the engagement letter in relation to the respective
responsibilities of the directors and the reporting accountant. (2 marks)
8 Wrapper Ltd
Your firm, which has six partners, has been invited by Mr Packer, the managing director and majority
shareholder of Wrapper Ltd, to accept appointment as auditor of the company and also provide
assistance with the preparation of the financial statements and the corporation tax computation.
The principal activity of Wrapper Ltd is the production of paper carrier bags, serviettes, coffee cups
and lids which are sold to customers operating in the fast food sector. Wrapper Ltd was incorporated
on 1 October 20X4 and the financial statements will cover the 15 month period to 31 December
20X5. Although the company's revenue and assets are below the thresholds for statutory audit
purposes, the company's bankers require the annual accounts to be subjected to a full audit.
Mr Packer started the business using a combination of money inherited from his grandfather and a
bank loan. The loan agreement includes a covenant specifying that the company's debt equity ratio
should not exceed parity (ie 1:1).
The accounting records are computerised and the company uses software which was developed by IT
Systems Ltd, a company owned by Mr Packer's brother. The software has been customised to
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integrate inventory control with receivables and payables. IT Systems Ltd also provides support for the
company’s computer systems. The accounting records are maintained by Mrs Carlton, assisted by Mrs
Biggs who works one day a week and is responsible for payroll processing.
Requirements
(a) State, with reasons, the matters to be considered and procedures to be performed prior to your
firm accepting and commencing the audit of Wrapper Ltd for the period ending 31 December
20X5. (8 marks)
(b) Identify, from the information provided above, the factors which should be taken into account
when assessing the risk of misstatement in the financial statements of Wrapper Ltd and explain
why such factors should be taken into account when conducting the audit. (10 marks)
(18 marks)
9 The directors of Harmony Ltd ('Harmony') have approached you with a view to your firm accepting
appointment as its auditor for the year ending 31 July 20X6. Harmony manufactures satellite
navigation systems which it supplies to many of the major motor car manufacturers with UK-based
factories.
Harmony has a wholly-owned subsidiary undertaking located overseas which manufactures 'high-end'
audio systems for locally based motor car manufacturers. The subsidiary, which is of a similar size to
Harmony, is located in a country where there is no audit requirement for companies whose shares are
not publicly held. Harmony prepares consolidated financial statements.
The shareholders of Harmony are actively involved in the day to day running of the business and that
of the wholly-owned subsidiary.
The directors of Harmony have told their existing auditors that they will not be re-appointed at the
company’s forthcoming annual general meeting. They have not given them a reason for this, but the
existing auditors suspect that it is due to a dispute that arose during the audit of last year’s financial
statements. At 31 July 20X5 Harmony was carrying inventory totalling £375,000 in respect of a
cancelled order for a satellite navigation system from a motor car manufacturer that had gone into
liquidation. During September 20X5, modifications were made to the inventory, at a cost of £75,000,
to enable them to be sold to another customer for £195,000 that same month. The directors of
Harmony were concerned at the effect that any provision against the inventory in the financial
statements would have on their distributable profits for the year. The directors accordingly insisted
on including the inventory in the financial statements at £375,000, which gave rise to a modified audit
report.
In addition to your appointment as auditor, the directors of Harmony have also requested:
(i) That you, as the proposed engagement partner, attend the company’s monthly board meetings;
and
(ii) That your firm be appointed to provide internal audit services to Harmony.
Your firm has seven partners in total and has an office in each of three cities in the South of England.
Requirements
(a) Outline the reasons for and against the subsidiary of Harmony having an audit on its own basis
despite being owner-managed. (6 marks)
(b) Set out the key issues specific to Harmony that may prevent you from accepting the appointment
solely as its external auditor, and state what action you could take to resolve these issues.
(6 marks)
(c) Discuss the potential threats to objectivity caused by the provision of the additional services
requested by Harmony and describe what safeguards could be put in place to mitigate those
threats. (8 marks)
(20 marks)
Now, go back to the Learning Objectives in the Introduction. If you are satisfied you have achieved these
objectives, please tick them off.
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Technical reference
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Answers to Self-test
1 Lowballing is the practice of charging less than the market rate for assurance services.
2 From:
` The seniority and professional experience of the persons necessarily engaged on the work
` The time expended by each
` The degree of risk and responsibility which the work entails
` The nature of the client’s business, the complexity of its operation and the work to be performed
` The priority and importance of the work to the client
` Together with any expenses properly incurred
3 ` To ensure that the assurance provider believes an appropriate conclusion can be drawn.
` To assist in determining an appropriate fee (that reflects the risk of the assignment).
4 False. Not necessarily, although this might be an indicator that the auditor should have concerns about
director integrity.
5 All of them.
6 False. A statutory audit provides a reasonable level of assurance.
Exam-style questions
7 Directors
Responsible for
` Forecasts including the assumptions on which they are based
` Cooperating with the reporting accountant by making available records, documents and
personnel
Reporting accountant
` Forecast is properly prepared on the basis of the assumptions made
` Provide negative assurance that nothing has come to reporting accountant’s attention to cause
them to believe that the assumptions do not provide a reasonable basis for the forecast
8 Wrapper Ltd
(a) Matters/procedures prior to acceptance of audit
` Check adequacy of resources to enable
– Work to be completed to a high standard on a timely basis/use of competent staff
– Provision of tax/accountancy services without compromising independence (ie.
safeguards can be put in place) eg:
– Use of separate personnel to perform accountancy and tax
– Review by an independent partner/senior staff member with appropriate
expertise if tax computation prepared by audit team
– Review of the audit by an audit partner who is not involved in the audit
engagement
` Establish/document existence of informed management
– To ensure auditor does not take management role
` Consider relationships/familiarity threat
– To ensure independence/objectivity not impaired
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– We need to obtain an understanding of the accounting system in order to assess its adequacy as
a basis for the preparation of the financial statements.
– We need to obtain relevant and reliable evidence sufficient to enable us to draw reasonable
conclusions therefrom.
– The nature and extent of our procedures will vary according to the assessment of the accounting
system and, where we wish to place reliance upon it, the system of internal control.
– We will endeavour to plan the audit so that we have a reasonable expectation of detecting
material misstatements in the financial statements or accounting records resulting from fraud,
error or non-compliance with law or regulations but that the examination ought not to be relied
upon to disclose all frauds, errors or instances of non-compliance which may exist (as some may
be immaterial).
– Due to the test nature and other inherent limitations of an audit, together with the inherent
limitations of any system of internal control, there is an unavoidable risk that even some material
misstatement may remain undiscovered.
– An explanation that management representations may be required in writing during the audit
(this will only be in the case of audit areas where we have to rely on your representations).
– The fact that we may send a letter of comment, adding value to the audit, by outlining ways in
which we discussed the business may be improved.
` Other matters such as
– Our billing arrangements
– Any arrangements in the future concerning the involvement of
– Other auditors and experts
– Internal auditors
– Previous auditors
– Management's responsibility to detect and prevent fraud
– Your complaints procedures
– A proposed timetable for the engagement (which will vary each year).
I hope this clarifies the need for the letter. Except for the timetable, we will only send out such letters in
future where absolutely necessary.
Yours sincerely
Mr A Accountant
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chapter 7
Planning
Contents
Introduction
Examination context
Topic List
1 The need to plan
2 Overall audit strategy and audit plan
3 Materiality
4 Analytical procedures
Summary and Self-test
Technical reference
Answers to Self-test
Answers to Interactive questions
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Introduction
` Understand and explain what goes into the key audit planning documents
` Explain the benefits and limitation of analytical procedures at the planning stage
Specific syllabus references for this chapter are: 3g, h, n.
Practical significance
Planning is an important aspect of the quality control processes relating to an assurance assignment and it is
key in determining whether the work carried out is capable of supporting a correct conclusion. It is
therefore of crucial importance.
Working context
If you work in practice, you may become involved in planning assignments, particularly as you progress, if
you have worked on a client in the previous year and acquired a degree of knowledge of the business.
If you work in industry, you may be involved in the other side of planning, providing auditors with necessary
planning information, such as budgets and draft financial information.
Syllabus links
You have studied these matters for your Assurance paper, so much of the technical detail covered here is
revision. It is important at this Application stage to be able to explain and apply the techniques outlined in
the chapter.
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PLANNING 7
Examination context
Exam requirements
A question which deals with planning in the exam is also very likely to deal with risks, which we shall look at
in more detail in the next chapter, hence the question practice given in this chapter is limited and more
practice will be given in the next chapter.
In the assessment, candidates may be required to:
` Assess the impact of risk and materiality on the engagement plan, including the nature, timing and
extent of audit procedures, for a given organisation
` Discuss the benefits and limitations of analytical procedures at the planning stage
` Specify and explain the steps necessary to plan the audit of the financial statements of a non-specialised
profit oriented entity in accordance with the terms of the engagement including appropriate auditing
standards
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Audits (and other assurance engagements) are planned because if they are not:
` Time might be wasted doing the wrong work
` The really important work might not be done at all
` Ultimately, the wrong conclusion might therefore be drawn
Planning an engagement is a key aspect of the quality control associated with that audit. If an audit is
planned, then the right work is done, it is easier to supervise and review that work, and therefore it adds to
the quality of the whole engagement.
In addition, as you know from your studies for Assurance, audits are planned because it is a requirement of
auditing standards. ISA (UK and Ireland) 300 Planning an Audit of Financial Statements requires audits to be
planned so that they can be carried out 'effectively'.
Much of the material we look at in this chapter, you have covered in your lower level studies. In this area,
you need to be able to apply your knowledge to the scenarios presented in the exam.
In summary, planning helps the auditor know:
` What to do
` How much to do
` Where to focus resources
` What the important matters are that need dealing with
As you know from your studies for Assurance, the key planning document is called an overall audit strategy.
This covers the main general areas of planning: materiality, risk, audit approach, use of experts and internal
audit, timing, team, budgets and deadlines.
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The technical details of many of these issues will be covered in later chapters.
Most audit firms have 'audit packs' which have a specific planning section and set out the key areas that
auditors must consider when planning an audit. However, care should be taken when using any standard
forms, as there is a risk that matters particular to the client might be forgotten. It is important to tailor the
plan to the client, not the other way around. Identifying key issues relating to the client and then adjusting
the audit approach will be necessary. This is why understanding the business (Chapter 8) and risk
assessment (Chapter 9) are very important.
The overall audit strategy should be updated as necessary during the course of the engagement.
As you also know from your earlier studies, the other key document in audit planning is the audit plan,
which is more detailed that the audit strategy, and sets out the nature, timing and extent of planned audit
procedures (including risk assessment procedures) to fulfil the requirements of the overall audit strategy
and auditing standards.
The audit plan should be updated as necessary during the course of the engagement.
3 Materiality
Section overview
` An item is material if its omission or misstatement could influence the economic decisions of users
taken on the basis of the financial statements.
` Items might be material by value or nature.
` Materiality is a matter of auditor judgement.
You learnt about materiality in your studies for Assurance. The following is therefore revision.
Definition
Material: Information is material if its omission or misstatement could influence the economic decisions
of users taken on the basis of the financial statements. Materiality depends on the size of the item or error
judged in the particular circumstances of its omission or misstatement. Thus, materiality provides a
threshold or cut-off point rather than being a primary qualitative characteristic which information must have
if it is to be useful.
Auditors should consider materiality when determining the nature, timing and extend of audit procedures.
Items might be material due to their:
` Amount/value/quantity
` Nature/quality
Hence, during planning, the auditors will often set a computed level of materiality, often based on the
following ranges:
Revenue: 0.5% – 1%
Profit before tax: 5% – 10%
Gross assets: 1% – 2%
In addition, some matters might be material by nature, for example:
` The £1 that turns a profit into a loss might be considered very important by some
companies/shareholders
` The £1 that changes the thresholds the company operates in (for example, becoming a medium-sized
rather than small company) might also be very important
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` Some matters are automatically material, such as matters relating to directors, or related parties
because these matters have to be disclosed in financial statements regardless of the value of them.
Auditors should always bear in mind that materiality is a matter of professional judgement. Materiality is
also important at the completion stage of an audit, when the auditors are evaluating the effect of discovered
misstatements. We shall look at this in Chapter 12.
4 Analytical procedures
Section overview
` Analytical procedures must be used in risk assessment.
` The benefits of analytical procedures in planning is the 'overall' perspective, the use of information
outside of the accounting records and the comparison of different elements of the financial
statements.
` The limitations of analytical procedures in planning are:
– Substantial knowledge of the business is required for results to be meaningful (therefore
experienced staff may be required to carry them out)
– They can be performed mechanically
– The relevant information may not be available
You looked at analytical procedures in some detail in your studies for Assurance. You should be able to
explain what analytical procedures are and carry out basic analytical procedures. If not, you should refer
back to Chapter 3 of your Assurance manual, which contains a worked example you may like to work
through again.
ISA 520 Analytical Procedures gives guidance. It states that the auditor should use analytical procedures in
risk assessment in order to obtain an understanding of the entity and its environment. We shall look at this
in detail in the next chapter.
In this syllabus you are required to be able to discuss the benefits and limitation of analytical procedures at
the planning stage.
These are the ratios students need for applying analytical procedures.
Performance
Profit before interest and tax
Return on capital employed Effective use of resources
Equity + net debt
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PLANNING 7
Profit before interest and tax ×100 Assess profitability after taking
Net margin/operating margin
Revenue overheads into account
Short-term liquidity
Current ratio Current assets : Current liabilities Assess ability to pay current
liabilities from current assets
Quick ratio Receivables + Current Investments Assess ability to pay current
+ cash : liabilities liabilities from reasonably liquid
assets
Long term solvency
Net debt Assess reliance on external
Gearing ratio
Equity finance
Efficiency
Revenue Assess revenue generated from
Net asset turnover
Capital employed asset base
Cost of sales
Inventory turnover Assess level of inventory held
Inventories
Trade receivables collection Trade receivables × 365 Assess ability to turn
period Revenue receivables into cash
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Summary
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PLANNING 7
Self-test
Answer the following questions.
1 State why audits are planned.
2 Why should care be taken if using a standardised audit pack?
3 Give an example of an item being material by its nature.
4 Analytical procedures should be carried out by an audit junior.
True
False
Exam-style questions
5 The gross profit percentage in your client’s draft financial statements is the same as in the previous
year.
What further information would you require in order to use this fact at the planning stage of the
audit? (1 mark)
6 Described below are situations which have arisen in three audit clients of your firm. The year end in
each case is 31 March 20X6.
Jay plc ('Jay')
The directors have included the following note to the financial statements for the year ended
31 March 20X6:
'Although the company has incurred significant trading losses and cash outflows during the last two
years, the directors believe that the effects of internal restructuring and corporate disposals
undertaken will bring about improved results as indicated in the detailed profit and cash flow forecasts
for the period to the end of March 20X7. These forecasts indicate that the company will be able to
trade within its agreed working capital facility for at least the next 12 months from the date of this
report. Considerable progress has been made on the financial restructuring of the company.
On the basis of the above factors the directors consider it is appropriate that the financial statements
are prepared on the going concern basis. Should the company fail to meet its forecasts, the going
concern basis may prove to be inappropriate. In such circumstances adjustments are likely to have to
be made to the net assets shown in these financial statements to reduce assets to their recoverable
amounts, to reclassify non-current assets and payables due after more than one year to current assets
and current liabilities and to provide for further liabilities that may arise.'
Finch plc ('Finch')
Finch has included the results of Wren Ltd ('Wren'), a subsidiary, in the consolidated financial
statements. Wren is audited by a different firm of auditors who have modified their opinion on
Wren's financial statements for the year ended 31 March 20X6 because a fire at the company's
premises destroyed the physical inventory count sheets which were the only record of the year end
inventory. Wren has included inventory at its estimated cost of £500,000 in the financial statements
for the year ended 31 March 20X6.
The consolidated pre-tax profit of Finch is £33.4 million and the pre-tax profit of Wren is £1.2 million
for the year ended 31 March 20X6.
Sparrow Ltd ('Sparrow')
On 30 April 20X6, the board of directors decided to undertake a restructuring programme which
would commence in June 20X6. A provision of £1.8 million in respect of the restructuring costs has
been included in the financial statements for the year ended 31 March 20X6.
The pre-tax profit of Sparrow for the year ended 31 March 20X6 is £7.2 million.
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Requirements
(a) Discuss what is meant by the concepts of materiality and a true and fair view. (6 marks)
(b) Explain why there can be difficulties for auditors regarding materiality and true and fair in relation
to the three cases above: Jay, Finch and Sparrow. (6 marks)
(12 marks)
7 Your firm has recently been appointed as auditor of Jog Ltd ('Jog'), a company operating within the
sports and leisure sector. Your audit manager has arranged a meeting with the company's finance
director for early next week and she has asked you to assist her, in advance of this meeting, with the
audit planning for the year ending 30 June 20X6. Your audit manager has also asked you to carry out
some preliminary analytical procedures on the year-end financial statements of Jog when these become
available.
Jog's business can be split into the following three divisions
` Sports equipment retail outlets: 35 sports equipment retail outlets located in 'out of town' retail
parks
` Fitness clubs: 15 fitness clubs, each offering a fully equipped gym together with yoga, aerobics, and
circuit training classes
` Machine manufacture: a manufacturing unit in which running machines and rowing machines are
assembled using components sourced from overseas.
Further information:
Sports equipment retail outlets
The retail outlets are all located close to major towns and cities throughout the whole of the UK.
Each outlet stocks a standard range of products which are supplied from a central warehouse
operated by Jog. Salaries for the core staff at the outlets are paid by Jog's head office by direct bank
transfer. Each outlet is run on a day-to-day basis by a manager who is responsible for hiring casual
staff to cover peak periods. These casual staff members are generally paid using cash from the till.
Jog received some bad publicity during the year following its inclusion in a television documentary
which revealed that one of its non-UK sports shoe suppliers was making its employees work long
hours for very low wages. In an attempt to manage this adverse press attention, Jog has now had to
source these products from alternative suppliers based in the UK.
Fitness clubs
Jog's 15 fitness clubs are all located directly above existing Jog retail outlets. Each club has its own on-
site manager and is operated independently of the adjacent retail outlet. Customers of the fitness
clubs pay by one of three methods: on a 'pay per session' basis over the fitness club counter; by
monthly direct debit paid into Jog's head office bank account; or by annual subscription to head office.
Customers are then issued with a membership card which enables them to gain access to the club.
The company operates a bonus incentive scheme for the managers at both its retail outlets and fitness
clubs. The size of the bonus is linked to the profitability of their individual operation.
Machine manufacture
During the year Jog started to manufacture its own running machines and rowing machines. It sources
the machine components from China and Taiwan. These components are assembled in the UK at
Jog's factory for sale both in Jog's own stores under their own 'Jog' brand and also to independent
sports shops under the 'Iron Champ' brand. The latter accounts for approximately 80% of Jog's total
production of both running and rowing machines. Sales to independent sports shops achieve a gross
profit margin of 50%, whereas sales to Jog's own shops are made to that division at cost plus 10%.
Jog is invoiced by its non-UK component suppliers in their respective local currency. The components
are sent by sea, which means that Jog's typical lead time for components from the placing of an order
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PLANNING 7
to delivery in the UK is three months. Jog is required to pay its suppliers 50% with order and 50%
upon receipt of the components in the UK.
Quality control
In line with your firm's system of quality control, procedures were conducted prior to accepting Jog as
an audit client, to ensure that it was appropriate to accept such an appointment. Your audit manager
has asked you to consider the other objectives of a system of quality control and why they may be
particularly relevant to Jog.
Requirements
(a) (i) List, with reasons, the information you would require in order to carry out analytical
procedures on the draft financial statements of Jog for the year ending 30 June 20X6.
(ii) Set out the limitations of using analytical procedures at the planning stage of an audit.
(8 marks)
(b) Identify which of the circumstances outlined above, should be taken into account when planning
the audit of Jog. Explain clearly why these matters are important and set out their effect on your
proposed audit work. (24 marks)
You attempted Part (c) of this question (for 8 marks) in Chapter 5.
(32 marks)
Now, go back to the Learning Objectives in the Introduction. If you are satisfied you have achieved these
objectives, please tick them off.
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Technical reference
5 Materiality
` Concept of materiality ISA (UK and Ireland) 320.4 – 7
` When materiality is relevant ISA (UK and Ireland) 320.8
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PLANNING 7
Answers to Self-test
1 To ensure that the right work is carried out resulting in the right conclusion being drawn.
2 It is important for the audit plan to be tailored to the client.
3 Examples include:
` Related party transactions
` Directors' transactions
` £1 that makes a company small/medium/large
` £1 that turns a profit into a loss
4 False, as experience and understanding are required to carry out analytical procedures properly.
Exam-style questions
5 ` Client’s expectation of GP%
` Changes in year that affect GP%
6 (a) Materiality
Information is material if its omission or misstatement could influence the economic decisions of
users taken on the basis of the financial statements.
Materiality
` Is not capable of mathematical definition
` Can be quantitative (size) or qualitative (nature)
` May be considered in the context of any individual primary statement within the financial
statements or of the individual items included within them
` Depends on the size of the item or error judged in the particular circumstances of its
omission or misstatement.
True and fair
True is generally accepted as meaning in accordance with the facts and fair as meaning objective
or unbiased and concerned with the presentational aspects of information including substance
over form. True and fair is not defined by statute, however, Counsel’s opinion is that financial
statements prepared in accordance with GAAP will give a true and fair view. Furthermore, there
may be more than one true and fair view for a given set of circumstances.
The concepts of materiality and true and fair require the exercise of professional judgement.
(b) Jay
Materiality/true and fair
The difference between the figures prepared on each basis may not be significantly different.
However, the effect on the business is so significant that the user needs to be made aware of the
situation. The auditor needs to judge whether the disclosures are sufficient for the user to
understand the circumstances.
Finch
Materiality/true and fair
Although material to Wren as 42% of pre-tax profits, it is unlikely to be considered material in
the context of the consolidated pre-tax profit as it is only 1.5% of consolidated pre-tax profit.
Materiality should be considered in the context of the entity on which the auditor is reporting.
However, it may be material by nature if a key ratio (eg current ratio) is affected.
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Audit and assurance
Sparrow
Materiality/true and fair
There is no obligation at the balance sheet date in respect of restructuring costs. The financial
statements therefore do not comply with GAAP as they include a provision in respect of
restructuring costs. The amount of the provision for restructuring costs is considered material
by size as it is 25% of pre-tax profit, thereby exceeding the commonly used yardstick of 5-10% of
pre tax profit.
7 (a) Information required
Individual income statements and split of the balance sheets for each division are required. Each
division has different profit margins and the split of the balance sheet figures will enable the
calculation of inventory and trade receivable days for each division.
Budget information for each division is required, together with the date from which the machine
division commenced trading, so that its figures can be adjusted to take account of a trading
period of less than one year. Comparative information by division from Jog’s previous financial
statements will also be needed. This information will allow actual and budget performance to be
compared. This could identify material or significant items, potential misstatements or variations
from expected results.
If available, financial information from companies in the same industries could be used to identify
where the company has performed well or badly and prompt areas for further enquiry by the
auditor.
Limitations of using analytical procedures
One limitation of analytical procedures at the planning stage of an audit is that the auditor needs
a good understanding of the business to interpret the results of analytical procedures. If analytical
procedures are performed mechanically, a consistency of results from one year to the next may
in fact conceal a material error which may not be identified. Effective analytical procedures need
to be carried out by experienced members of staff and they rely upon good quality and reliable
information being available from the client which may not always be available.
(b) This is a new audit client which means that there is a lack of cumulative prior knowledge which in
turn increases the risk of an undetected misstatement in the financial statements. The audit work
will include an evaluation of the company’s accounting systems and internal controls in addition
to consideration of opening balances. Adequate planning will be essential to avoid over-auditing in
the first year.
The company operates from 35 locations at which it holds material balances of inventory and
non-current assets. The risk of a breakdown in head office controls is higher in multi-site
locations. The year-end attendance at inventory counts should cover all material locations and it
would be efficient to take the inventory count attendance as an opportunity to inspect material
non-current assets and carry out selected cash counts. If the audit approach relies upon controls,
it must be ensured that the tests of controls sample covers all material locations.
The company makes cash sales in its retail outlets and fitness clubs and it pays its casual staff in
cash. Cash transactions increase the risk of misappropriation of cash and the understatement of
revenue in the financial statements. The employment of casual staff may also mean that the
company is failing to declare the appropriate amounts of PAYE, which could lead to penalties
from the tax authorities. The effect of this on the audit work is that controls over cash must be
evaluated and audit effort should be directed to confirming the completeness of recorded sales.
In addition, the company’s compliance with PAYE regulations should be considered and the
wages included in the financial statements should be checked to ensure that this agrees with the
company’s payroll records.
The company has received adverse publicity over the use of “sweatshops”. This may damage the
reputation of the company which could in turn affect the status of Jog as a going concern. The
audit work should attempt to assess the effect of the publicity on Jog’s business. The cost
implications of the switch by Jog to alternative suppliers in the UK also need to be considered as
part of the audit work.
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PLANNING 7
Jog fitness clubs receive annual subscriptions which may cause revenue to be recognised in the
wrong accounting year. The company’s accounting policy for revenue recognition will need to be
considered and audit work should include testing of new subscriptions close to the year end to
ensure that an appropriate proportion of income is deferred at the year end.
The company has a profit-related bonus scheme increasing the risk of manipulation of profit by
the company’s management. Audit work should include checks on income recognition to ensure
it has not been accelerated to boost profits. For similar reasons purchase cut-off should be
checked to identify any potential suppressed invoices.
The company purchases its machine components in a foreign currency, under payment terms
which specify 50% be paid with order. Foreign currency transactions may lead to the incorrect
translation of these transactions in the financial statements. The existence of a three-month
delivery lead time on these transactions may also give rise to adverse foreign currency exposure.
Component payment terms may also lead to cut-off errors arising from incorrect treatment of
the first 50% paid with order. The audit work should include sample checks of the company’s
foreign exchange translation to an independent source such as the FT. The steps taken to
minimise the company’s exposure to foreign exchange risk needs to be discussed with
management. Careful consideration should be given to cut-off for any goods in transit at the year
end.
Some of the machines manufactured using imported components are transferred to the
company’s retail outlets at cost plus 10%. This inter-divisional trading means the value of the
retail outlet inventory may contain some unrealised profit. In addition, the practice of adding only
10% onto the cost price, may cause outlets to under price these products, damaging the gross
profit margin of the company as a whole. The audit approach should ensure all inter-divisional
trading is separately analysed so that any unrealised profit can be identified.
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152
chapter 8
Introduction
Examination context
Topic List
1 Why?
2 How?
3 What?
Summary and Self-test
Technical reference
Answers to Self-test
Answers to Interactive questions
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Introduction
` Understand the crucial role of understanding the entity in the assessment of engagement risk
Practical significance
It is vital that assurance providers have a good understanding of the entity they are providing assurance to
and the environment in which it operates, or their work could be meaningless. For example, if they
misunderstand the nature of the business, they could miss key risks and items in the financial statements
could be seriously misstated. In addition, if they do not understand their client's business, they will be
incapable of carrying out an audit in accordance with auditing standards, which could lead to negligence
claims.
Working context
If you work in practice, this area will be an important area for you and you are likely to undertake a lot of
work to obtain knowledge about your clients before using that knowledge to assess risks. If you work in
industry, you are likely to be at the opposite end of that process, providing information about your business
to your assurance providers, so that they can provide you with a good service, as may some of your non-
financial colleagues.
Syllabus links
We introduced this topic in Assurance, where you learnt the basic content of ISA 315 Obtaining an
Understanding of the Entity and its Environment and Assessing the Risks of Material Misstatement. In this
syllabus you need to consolidate and build on this knowledge.
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UNDERSTANDING THE ENTITY AND ITS ENVIRONMENT 8
Examination context
Exam requirements
Understanding the entity is a key component of risk assessment. Risk assessment is the subject of chapter 9,
which is big exam topic.
In the assessment, candidates may be required to:
` Explain, in the context of a given scenario, why it is important to have a knowledge and understanding
of the business when planning an engagement
` Identify ways of gaining knowledge and understanding of a client's business
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Audit and assurance
1 Why?
Section overview
` It is important to understand the client's business:
– In order to assess risk
– In order to comply with auditing standards
You know from your previous studies and from what has already been said in this Study Manual that
assessing risk is very important in assurance engagements.
In general terms, it is clearly impossible to be sure how risky a client may be if you do not understand:
` Who they are
` What they do
` How they do it
` Whether there are any special circumstances (like specific laws and regulations) which govern their
business
` The integrity and competence of their staff
If you understand a client's business properly you will:
` Be able to assess the skills and competence which the audit team needs
` Be able to plan your audit work so that it is appropriate and efficient
` Be able to assess what controls have been put in place by the client which may reduce the level of
control risk
` Be able to assess any significant risks which need special attention
` Be able to perform analytical procedures
` Comply with professional requirements (the reports by the ICAEW, ICAS and ICAI to the DTI about
the results of monitoring visits to firms in the last five years have commented, every year, about the
need for recording and disseminating knowledge of the business)
Also, assessing risk is compulsory – ISAs 315 and 330 require it.
Finally, consider fraud – understanding the entity may not guarantee that you will uncover a clever, well
laid fraud, but not understanding the entity certainly will guarantee that you have very little chance of finding
it.
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UNDERSTANDING THE ENTITY AND ITS ENVIRONMENT 8
` You would be interested in the ability of its customers to pay, which might mean you would need to
know something about the general state of the economy and whether its customers had cash flow
problems. But on the whole this would be relatively general, background information.
Then Enron starts to buy power production facilities:
` How does it finance them?
` How is it regulated?
` Are there transfer pricing issues?
Then it starts to trade energy (and other things such as cargo space on ships) and this is when it starts to
get tricky! How is your knowledge of:
` Swaps
` Futures
` Options and similar transactions?
Enron starts to use an accounting technique called 'mark to market' whereby its earnings are calculated on
the movements in the market values of its deals, rather than on the traditional combination of invoicing and
cash flows.
` What do you know about this technique? It had a material impact on Enron's earnings. (Mark to
market is not in the syllabus – this is simply an example of how a client can become more and more
complex)
` Is it being used properly or is it being abused?
` Are the assumptions and calculations valid?
Finally we find that Enron is using 'Special Purpose Entities’ – usually offshore partnerships in which it has a
significant interest – to hide debt and generate earnings which are highly questionable.
` What do you know about the rules for excluding subsidiary undertakings from consolidation? (Again,
do not panic, if you do not know very much about this at this stage – it is simply an example to get
you thinking)
` What do you think about the ethics of using techniques which, whilst they may comply with the letter
of the rules, undoubtedly are highly artificial and do serve to conceal debt and generate controversial
earnings?
` How would you feel if your firm had either suggested such schemes or been consulted about their
acceptability before the audit had begun?
Source: BBC Money Programme 'Inside the Enron Scandal'
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Audit and assurance
2 How?
Section overview
` Understanding of the client's business can be obtained from:
– External sources of information (such as industry surveys/publications)
– The firm (permanent files (including previous years' audited financial statements),
correspondence files, personnel associated with the engagement in previous years)
– The client (personnel, correspondence/procedures manuals, watching procedures, current year
management accounts)
` Auditors are required to carry out a combination of procedures to understand the business:
– Inquiries of client personnel
– Analytical procedures
– Observation and inspection
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UNDERSTANDING THE ENTITY AND ITS ENVIRONMENT 8
This may appear both obvious and a bit woolly, but it is specifically dealt with in ISA 315. As you know,
there is a requirement for a discussion of the client's business as part of the planning process, and for that
discussion to be documented.
You also need to consider your own knowledge and background.
` Have you worked on similar clients before?
` What do you know of the industry?
` How would you expect it to work?
2.4 Summary
Figure 8.1 provides a general summary of how understanding the client's entity can be achieved.
Understanding
the
business
Other
You Industry surveys
Past experience Credit reference agencies
Companies House
The Internet
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3 What?
Section overview
` The auditors need to understand any aspect of the business which might affect the audit.
` ISA 315 contains a detailed list of potential areas to be understood in Appendix 1.
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– Management
– Systems
– Controls
– Accounting policies
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The appendix to ISA 250 gives the following list of indicators of non-compliance:
` Investigation by a government department
` Payment of fines or penalties
` Payments for unspecified services or loans to consultants, related parties, employees or
government employees
` Sales commissions or agents' fees that appear excessive in relation to those normally paid by the
entity or in its industry or to the services actually received
` Purchasing at prices significantly above or below market price
` Unusual payments in cash, purchases in the form of cashiers' cheques payable to bearer or
transfers to numbered bank accounts
` Complex corporate structures including offshore companies where ownership cannot be identified
` Unusual transactions with companies registered in tax havens
` Tax evasion such as the wider declaring of income and overclaiming of expenses
` Payments for goods or services made other than to the country from which the goods or
services originated
` Payments without proper exchange control documentation
` Existence of an accounting system that fails, whether by design or by accident, to provide
adequate audit trail or sufficient evidence
` Unauthorised transactions or improperly recorded transactions
` Media comment
` Transactions undertaken by the entity that have no apparent purpose or that make no obvious
economic sense
` Where those charged with governance of the entity refuse to provide necessary information and
explanation to support transactions and other dealings of the company
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3.4 Fraud
ISA 240 The Auditor's Responsibility to Consider Fraud in an Audit of Financial Statements stresses that
auditors have no responsibility for the prevention and detection of fraud as such – that is management's job,
but fraud can have a material impact on financial statements, so it becomes a part of audit after all!
Remember, the ISA makes a crucial distinction between two types of misstatements arising from fraud:
` Misstatements arising from fraudulent financial reporting
` Misstatements arising from misappropriation of assets
In understanding the client's business there are some key questions that need to be asked:
` Can the figures be manipulated and if so how?
` Which areas are most susceptible to manipulation?
` Can assets be misappropriated and if so how?
` Which areas are most at risk?
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Summary
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Self-test
Answer the following questions.
1 What key knowledge should an audit firm obtain about its client and why is this understanding of the
entity important? (3 marks)
2 G Co is a manufacturing company which has one factory and two warehouse sites. It imports raw
materials from Asia.
What are the key factors the auditors need to consider about G Co and how this may impact their
audit? (3 marks)
Now, go back to the Learning Objectives in the Introduction. If you are satisfied that you have achieved
these objectives, please tick them off.
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Technical reference
1 Why it is important to understand the ISA (UK and Ireland) 315.2 and 7
client's business
2 How to gain an understanding of the client's ISA (UK and Ireland) 315.6 to 40
business
3 What aspects of the client's business should IAS (UK and Ireland) 315 Appendix A
be understood ISA (UK and Ireland) 250 Appendix
ISA (UK and Ireland) 402
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UNDERSTANDING THE ENTITY AND ITS ENVIRONMENT 8
Answers to Self-test
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` Unusual
– Documentary evidence (eg alterations)
– Transactions/recording thereof
` Significant unrecorded differences
` Incomplete/inadequate accounting records
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chapter 9
Risk assessment
Contents
Introduction
Examination context
Topic List
1 Business risk
2 Audit risk
3 Assessing the risks of material misstatement
4 Significant risks
5 Documentation
Summary and Self-test
Technical reference
Answers to Self-test
Answers to Interactive questions
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Introduction
Practical significance
We have already focused on the importance of risk to auditors.
Working context
If you work in audit, you will carry out risk assessment procedures at some point in your career. If you
work in industry, you should see this in practice, as assurance providers carry out risk assessment
procedures in your business.
Syllabus links
Risk assessment has already been covered in some detail in the Assurance syllabus. At this Application level,
the key issue is being able to carry out risk assessment, that is, identify and assess, not merely understand
the components of risk and be able to identify them.
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Examination context
Exam requirements
Risk assessment is a very important area for your exam. There were 24 marks available in the 40 mark
question in the sample paper for risk assessment.
In the assessment, candidates may be required to:
` Identify the risks arising from, or affecting, a given set of business processes and circumstances and
assess their implications for the engagement
` Identify the risks arising from error, fraud and non-compliance with law and regulations and assess
their implications for the engagement
` Assess the significant business risks identified for their potential impact upon an organisation, in
particular, their potential impact on performance measurement
` Identify the components of risk for a specified assurance engagement
` Identify the components of risk for a specified audit engagement, including the breakdown of audit risk
into inherent risk, control risk and detection risk
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1 Business risk
Section overview
` There are three general categories of business risk:
– Financial risk
– Operational risk
– Compliance risk
Definitions
Business risk is the risk inherent to the company in its operations. It includes risks at all levels of the
business. There are three general categories of business risk:
` Financial risks are the risks arising from the financial activities or financial consequences of an
operation, for example, cash flow issues or overtrading
` Operational risks are the risks arising with regard to operations, for example, the risk that a major
supplier will be lost and the company will be unable to operate
` Compliance risk is the risk that arises from non-compliance with laws and regulations that surround
the business, for example a restaurant failing to comply with food hygiene regulations might face fines,
enforced closure, legal action from customers and so on.
Directors are required to manage business risks. In your Assurance Study Manual you were introduced to
the Turnbull guidelines, which set out recommendations for businesses in managing risks.
Business risk management is an area in which assurance can be required. Why? Because the risk that the
company accepts has a direct impact on the risk of the investment that anyone purchasing shares in a
company (a minority share or a company takeover) or loaning money to a company is making.
However, it is not simply shareholders and lenders that will want assurance in this area. Management might
want assurance services to provide an indication of how well they are performing in controlling the risks to
the company, to ensure it continues in business, but also as evidence that it is operating efficiently and cost-
effectively. Criteria for assurance services could be the Turnbull guidelines, or management’s own written
policy on risk. Management may employ an internal audit department to (among other things) monitor
internal controls or may seek external assistance.
Auditors are interested in business risk because issues which pose threats to the business may in some
cases also be a risk of the financial statements being misstated (which is a component of audit risk). For
example, if a particular division of a business was threatened with closure, the valuation of all the assets
associated with that division would be affected. In more general terms, if an economic downturn puts
pressure on a company to meet the expectations of providers of finance, management might be tempted to
manipulate the financial statements.
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2 Audit risk
Section overview
` There are three components of audit risk:
– Inherent risk
– Control risk
– Detection risk
You have already covered audit risk (the risk of giving an inappropriate opinion in relation to the financial
statements) in detail.
Remember that it has three components:
` Inherent risk
` Control risk
` Detection risk
Definition
Inherent risk is the susceptibility of an assertion to misstatement that could be material, individually or
when aggregated with other misstatements, assuming that there were no related internal controls.
In other words, how likely is it that, the account balance or transfer will be wrong? And how likely is it that,
as a result, the financial statements will be misstated by a material amount? Inherent risk can be analysed on
a number of levels which are covered in turn below.
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Remember that the inherent risk attached to different sectors changes over time – for example yesterday’s
dot com industry, the day before's biotechnology.
Definition
Control risk is the risk that a misstatement that could occur in an assertion and that could be material,
individually or when aggregated with other misstatements, will not be prevented or detected and corrected
on a timely basis by the entity's internal control.
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` Circumvention by collusion
` Changes in procedures
Definition
Detection risk is the risk that an auditor’s procedures will not detect a misstatement that exists in an
assertion that could be material, individually or when aggregated with other misstatements.
It is up to the auditor to organise the way the engagement is handled, so that the risk of material
misstatement is reduced to acceptable levels.
This will include:
` Ensuring the audit team (including the engagement partner) has the necessary mix and depth of
experience and skills
` Devising an audit plan which tackles the audit risks
The audit approach (which we shall look at in Chapter 10) is the way in which the auditor assembles
sufficient audit evidence to build up a satisfactory level of audit confidence, and which can come from tests
of controls, analytical procedures and tests of details.
Because the auditor cannot check every transaction, audit work is carried out on a test basis. The auditor
will select a sample.
The possibility that the opinions you form, perfectly validly, from the results of your sample, are different
from those you would have formed if you had been able to examine the whole population is called
sampling risk.
Non-sampling risk is the possibility of coming to the wrong conclusion about the financial statements for
any other reason, for example
` Lack of understanding of the nature of your client’s business
` Use of invalid sampling techniques
` Failure to investigate a particular class of assets, liabilities or transactions
Work through the following example, and then try the interactive questions.
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4 Significant risks
Section overview
` Significant risks are referred to in IAS 315.
` Significant risks are items that are unusual or one-offs.
Definition
A significant risk is a risk which requires special audit consideration.
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Of course, remember that what is unusual for one company is not necessarily unusual for another. Hence,
we are reminded of the importance of knowledge of the particular business being audited.
5 Documentation
Section overview
` ISAs 315 and 330 contain a number of requirements regarding documentation.
You know about the need for auditors to document their audit work from your Assurance studies. ISAs
315 and 330 contain a number of requirements about documentation, and we shall briefly run through
those here.
The following matters should be documented.
` The discussion among the audit team concerning the susceptibility of the financial statements to
material misstatements, including any significant decisions reached
` Key elements of the understanding gained of the entity including the elements of the entity and its
control specified in the ISA as mandatory, the sources of the information gained and the risk
assessment procedures carried out
` The identified and assessed risks of material misstatement
` Significant risks identified and related controls evaluated
` The overall responses to address the risks of material misstatement
` Nature, extent and timing of further audit procedures linked to the assessed risks at the assertion
level
` If the auditors have relied on evidence about the effectiveness of controls from previous audits,
conclusions about how this is appropriate
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Summary
Self-test
Answer the following questions.
1 As part of the audit planning for a client the auditor has evaluated the components of audit risk,
namely, control risk, detection risk and inherent risk.
His tests of controls reveal deficiencies in the operation of the system of internal control, and he is
now reassessing the risks to the audit.
Since control risk has increased, describe the effect of this on the other components of risk.
2 What is the meaning and implication of high inherent risk?
3 What is the meaning and implication of high detection risk?
4 If an auditor decides that an acceptable level of audit risk is 5%, what does this mean?
5 Auditors should plan and perform their audit procedures recognising that fraud and error may
materially affect the financial statements.
Give four examples of indicators in a business that the risk of fraud and error may be high.
6 Earthmovers Ltd is a civil engineering company that provides a pipe-laying service to the energy, water
and telecommunications industries. It uses much heavy plant and machinery, and is subject to the strict
provisions of health and safety at work regulations.
Identify the risks to which breaches of these regulations could expose the company, and the
implications for the audit in the event of such breaches.
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Exam-style questions
7 Your new client, Wheeler Ltd, sells new cars, parts and accessories and undertakes workshop repairs.
The company operates through five divisions/locations in the Midlands.
Each division deals with a different overseas vehicle supplier and has three managers, one for each
trading activity. Each division makes sales to companies and individuals, but only corporate customers
are granted credit terms.
The computer-based accounting system is based in the head office which is annexed to the premises of
the largest division. All nominal ledger codes are suffixed 1 to 5 to identify each division’s transactions.
Detailed inventory records include dates of movements, original purchase price and latest selling price.
Purchase requisitions are computer-generated when inventory line quantities fall to pre-determined
re-order levels.
Gross selling prices for cars and parts are established on receipt of each consignment at standard
markups on cost, as specified in the franchise agreements with each manufacturer. Parts transferred to
workshops are charged at cost plus 10%.
At the end of each month the computer generates trading and profit and loss accounts and balance
sheets for each division, and 'consolidated' results for the company.
New car sales managers prepare monthly returns showing the number of cars sold, gross selling
prices, extras and discounts.
All salaries and wages are processed centrally at head office. Divisional managers all have profit-related
bonus incentives.
Requirement
Identify, from the situation outlined above, circumstances particular to Wheeler Ltd that should be
taken into account when planning the audit. Explain clearly why these matters should be taken into
account and set out the effect on your audit approach. (20 marks)
8 Golden Pond Fisheries
Richard Pine is a senior audit manager for Ratcliffe, Barnes and Soammes, a firm with offices around
Birmingham and Exeter. These split locations have arisen from the merger two years previously of
Barnes, Soammes & Co (Birmingham), a firm specialising in the audit of property and service
companies, with Ratcliffe & Co whose fee income was based on the audit of farms and holiday resorts
in the South West. The merger was seen as an opportunity for both firms to break away from their
restricted markets.
Richard moved from Birmingham to take up a new portfolio of clients in Cornwall and Devon,
including Golden Pond Fisheries Ltd. This is a family business with John Carnes running the 80-acre
farm, and his wife, Claire, taking responsibility for the holiday cottages, fishing lakes and completion of
the books and records.
The farming operation has been significantly curtailed in recent years and now comprises a small beef
herd and, as a recent addition, two geese sheds. These birds are fed on a chemical-free diet to offer a
high quality alternative to turkeys over the Christmas period. John supplements the farm revenue by
letting pastures on a rotational basis to neighbouring farms for sheep grazing.
John is also considering the introduction of rare breeds (pigs and goats) to provide an additional
attraction to holidaymakers with young families.
Claire Carnes trained as a bookkeeper before her marriage 30 years ago, and has informed Richard
that the accounts are now maintained to a 'high standard' on her son's PC. This has apparently saved a
lot of time, and much of the previous paperwork is now superfluous.
Five years previously the family had borrowed a substantial sum to convert three derelict barns into
luxury holiday cottages, and these have proved to be a huge success, being fully booked from late May
to November. During this period two extra helpers are employed on a part-time basis to assist with
cleaning and maintenance. Both are paid in cash at the end of each week.
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Most of the visitors are fishermen and their families, as the farm boasts excellent fishing. John Carnes
is keen to maintain this quality and is always on the lookout for big fish to stock. He has recently
become interested in the possibility of introducing from China some 60lb blue carp, which could be
'sneaked in' with a batch of koi carp being imported for a local garden centre.
A good relationship has always existed with the auditors and the Carnes are confident that this will be
another quick audit.
Requirement
Identify, from the information above, the potential audit risks, and for each risk explain why it is a risk.
(14 marks)
9 Shades Ltd
You are planning the audit of Shades Ltd for the year ending 30 June 20X9. The principal activities of
the company are the manufacture and distribution of a range of window blind systems and of the
component parts for window blinds. Approximately 50% of revenue is generated from overseas
customers.
During your preparation for the planning meeting with the finance director, the following matters have
been highlighted as significant.
(1) Operating results
The company has had a successful year to date with revenue, gross and operating margins up on
the previous year.
10 months to 10 months to Year to
30 April 30 April 30 June
20X9 20X8 20X8
£'000 £'000 £'000
Revenue 22,656 19,597 22,557
Cost of sales 13,367 12,472 14,313
Gross profit 9,289 7,125 8,244
Operating expenses 4,531 4,115 4,732
Operating profit 4,758 3,010 3,512
Gross profit margin 41% 36% 37%
Operating profit margin 21% 15% 16%
Inventories at 30 April 20X9 were £4.3 million compared with £3.6 million at 30 April 20X8 and
£3.4 million at 30 June 20X8.
(2) New computer system
During the year the company replaced its accounting software with a fully integrated standard
package modified by the supplier to the company’s requirements.
(3) Incentive scheme
During the year the company introduced an incentive scheme under which the executive
directors are entitled to a bonus based on pre-tax profits. The bonus will be paid thirty days after
the audited accounts are available.
Requirement
In respect of the above, identify and explain the potential audit risks and indicate the matters you
would discuss with the finance director at your planning meeting. (20 marks)
Now, go back to the Learning Objectives in the Introduction. If you are satisfied you have achieved these
objectives, please tick them off.
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Technical reference
3 Assessing the risks of material misstatement IAS (UK and Ireland) 315 Appendix 3
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Answers to Self-test
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RISK ASSESSMENT 9
Exam-style questions
7
Circumstance Why taken into account Effect on audit approach
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RISK ASSESSMENT 9
` Sales are made ` A breach of franchise ` This aspect of inherent risk must
under franchise terms and conditions (eg be assessed, eg
agreements with concerning prescribed
– If low, there may be no
each mark-ups) could bring
implications for the financial
manufacturer. penalty clauses into
statements (eg any contingent
effect.
liability may be disregarded as
being remote)
– If high (see also management
bias) a provision for penalties
could be required.
` The appropriateness of the going
concern assumption should be
considered in the light of
– Any known breaches
– Foreseeable renewals.
` Monthly accounts ` These indicate a control- ` The disaggregated financial
and returns are conscious head office to information (by divisions and
prepared mitigate the inherent risk certain activities) should highlight
attributable to divisional key audit areas and fluctuations
operations. requiring investigation.
` For analytical procedures on the
company’s 'consolidated' accounts,
the inter-divisional trading and
balances must be eliminated.
` Divisional ` Inherent risk is increased ` This bias may reduce other aspects
managers have by possible management of inherent risk (eg of loss of
profit-related bias to overstate profit cash/inventory through unrecorded
bonus incentives. by sales).
– Overstating sales ` Risk of sales overstatement may
not be great, since
– Understating
expenses. – Maximum prices set by
franchise agreement, and
– Market is fiercely competitive
at present time.
` Risk of expense understatement is
restricted (eg because head office
controls payroll expenditure).
` Audit tests should be directed to
most likely area of misstatement
(eg cut-off 'errors' arising through
suppression of invoices).
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Audit and assurance
` Richard Pine, the new audit ` Errors in the financial statements may be missed
manager is from the property and due to Richard’s non-familiarity with the Carnes’
service client base. business.
` The Carnes are expecting 'another ` Richard is likely to need to carry out more work
quick audit'. than usual to become familiar with the client. This
may be interpreted by the Carnes as mistrust, with
the consequence that they are reluctant to
volunteer assistance.
` The business is run and managed ` There is limited scope for supervisory or
by a husband and wife team. authorisation controls and segregation of duties.
` Those controls in place are likely to be unreliable
due to the risk of management override.
` There has been a loss of revenue ` The loss of revenue from the original business may
from the original farming threaten the viability of the farm as a going
operations, which the Carnes are concern.
addressing by diversification.
Although the Carnes are addressing this by
diversification, the process of change also carries a
risk as it involves adapting to new markets and
learning new skills.
` The Carnes are raising organically ` This source of revenue assumes that customers of
fed geese as an alternative to the meat distributors used can be persuaded to
turkey. change from the traditional turkey. There is a
significant possibility that this market will not
materialise.
` Organic food supplies for the geese will carry a
higher price tag. There is no evidence to suggest
that John Carnes has evaluated if this cost can be
recouped. It is possible that in spite of generating
revenue the sale of geese may realise no overall
profit.
` This is a markedly seasonal business. Income will
have ceased before the first holidaymakers arrive
in May, thereby putting a strain on the servicing of
debt.
` Pastures are being let for sheep ` If John Carnes has entered into contracts for the
grazing. supply of grazing, this could prohibit future
expansion of holiday/fishing facilities by restricting
the availability of land.
` As these are the most successful elements of Gold
Pond Fisheries Ltd, their curtailment could
threaten the going concern status of the company.
If no such contracts exist, then grazing revenues
could cease at any time – there is no evidence that
such a prospect has been considered.
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RISK ASSESSMENT 9
` John Carnes appears to imply that ` Any such breach of import regulations when
blue carp are to be imported discovered will result in severe penalties, extending
illegally. to fines, quarantine of inventories, etc.
` The consequence would be a loss of revenue and
reputation in the core business.
` The importing of alien species will threaten existing
inventories with diseases and parasites to which
they are not resistant.
` In the UK holiday cottages are a ` Cash flows will fluctuate widely over a 12 month
seasonal business. period. This places strain on debt repayment terms
and going concern.
` The development of the holiday ` Financing a business by way of borrowing always
cottages was financed by carries the risk that repayment of capital and
borrowing. interest does not cease in less successful periods.
` The provider of finance will want to review the
financial statements, increasing the risk of
management bias in preparing the financial
statements to show a favourable position.
` Accounting records are maintained ` The use of a PC, with its associated risks of data
on a PC. corruption and lack of sufficient controls, increases
risks re the completeness and accuracy of
accounting records.
` The amount of paperwork has ` Audit trails may be lost without hard copies,
decreased. increasing the risk that insufficient evidence will be
available.
` Data has recently been transferred ` Increased risk of errors due to inaccurate transfer
to the computer system. of data onto the PC.
` Claire trained as a bookkeeper 30 ` Claire’s bookkeeping training may prove to be of
years ago. limited advantage as there has been a significant
amount of change over recent years. Again, this
reduces confidence in the accuracy of the financial
statements.
` Part-time staff are employed for six ` It is important to ensure that these individuals
months of the year and are paid in appear on the payroll, and that PAYE/NI
cash. regulations have been complied with.
` Insufficient records may be available due to the
cash nature of transactions.
` The current audit firm has resulted ` It will take time to create and adopt a truly
from a merger of two firms with uniform audit approach, and this will increase the
very different client bases from detection risk associated with all work undertaken.
different parts of the country.
` This arises from non-familiarity, and increases the
risk of procedures being omitted or conducted
inefficiently.
` Mergers of any type always create the risk of
'culture clashes', and this can reduce the efficiency
of audit work undertaken.
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Audit and assurance
9 Shades Ltd
Manufacturing company
` Inventories may be materially ` The methods used by the company to determine
misstated due to difficulties in the stage of completion and valuation of WIP.
estimating the degree of completion
` The NRV of window blind systems awaiting sale
of work in progress (WIP).
or installation.
` Estimating the net realisable value
(NRV) of certain window blind
systems.
Overseas customers
` Sales in foreign currencies may not ` The rate used to translate transactions on
be translated at an appropriate rate, foreign currencies.
resulting in revenue and receivables
` The procedures adopted to ensure compliance
being misstated in the financial
with accounting standards.
statements.
Bad debts
` There may be insufficient provision ` The techniques used to assess credit worthiness
made for bad debts as a result of of customers, particularly those based overseas.
increased difficulties in assessing
` Method used to monitor and chase slow payers.
credit worthiness and recoverability
for overseas customers. ` Whether there are any known bad or doubtful
debts.
` The reasons for any seasonal variations within
the company’s sales.
` The methods of managing cash flow and working
capital to address the impact of seasonal
variations.
Seasonal business
` Misstatements in monthly revenue
and expenditure figures may be more
difficult to detect as a result of
seasonal variations in the business.
Revenue growth
` Revenue may be overstated. The ` The reasons for the increase in revenue this
increased volume of sales may period.
increase the extent of errors arising
` Whether any noticeable increase in error rates
within the accounting records.
within the accounting records has occurred.
Gross profit increase
` Gross profit may be overstated as a ` The reasons for the increase this period.
result of items in transit to overseas
` Procedures used to ensure that transactions just
customers being included in both
before or after the year end are recorded in the
year end inventories and revenue
correct accounting period.
purchases being understated.
` How adequate provision is made for purchases,
particularly those invoiced post year end.
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RISK ASSESSMENT 9
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Audit and assurance
` This is the first year that the ` In order to be satisfied about the previous financial
firm has undertaken the audit statements
of Vax plc.
– Hold consultations with management
– Review client’s records, working papers and accounting
and control procedures for the previous period
– (Possibly) hold consultations with the previous auditor.
` Familiarisation with the nature of the business, market,
accounting systems etc by
– Discussions with management
– Review of interim/management accounts.
` Vax plc has ` Staff must be planned to carry out the audit from the firm’s
offices throughout the country.
– A head office in
Manchester ` They must all be adequately briefed and provided with a
copy of the audit plan detailing their specific tasks and
– A factory in Liverpool
deadlines.
– Ten depots throughout
the country.
` No inventory records have ` It is vital that the auditors are satisfied with the inventory
been maintained but a full count.
inventory count is to be
` The written count instructions must be reviewed well in
carried out at the year end.
advance of the year end, so that improvement can be
suggested by the auditors and incorporated into the client’s
instructions.
` The auditors should ensure that sufficient staff with the
necessary experience are available to attend the count at all
material locations.
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RISK ASSESSMENT 9
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chapter 10
Audit approach
Contents
Introduction
Examination context
Topic List
1 Responding to the risk assessment
2 Reliance on controls
3 Substantive approach
4 Reliance on the work of others
5 Practical issues
Summary and Self-test
Technical reference
Answers to Self-test
Answers to Interactive questions
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Audit and assurance
Introduction
` Understand the sources of audit confidence and be able to determine audit approach
` Understand when an auditor may rely on the work of others as part of the audit
` Identify practical issues that need to be included in the overall audit strategy
Specific syllabus references for this chapter are: 3g, i.
Practical significance
The importance of audit approach is two-fold:
` It is important for an audit firm that its audits are carried out in accordance with professional
standards
` How the tests used impact on audit cost
Working context
While training in practice, trainees are unlikely to be involved in the judgements going into audit approach.
However, as you progress in your career, you may become more involved in making such judgements. If
you work in industry, you will see the impact of the approach the auditors are using from the other side.
Syllabus links
This area was introduced, in connection with evidence, in Assurance.
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AUDIT APPROACH 10
Examination context
Exam requirements
In the exam, you could be asked to identify risks and then justify an approach towards those risks.
In the assessment, candidates may be required to:
` Assess the impact of risk and materiality on the engagement plan, including the nature, timing and
extent of assurance procedures, for a given organisation
` Determine an approach appropriate for an engagement for a specified organisation which addresses:
– Possible reliance on controls (including those within the IT system)
– Possible reliance on the work of internal audit or other experts
– Possible reliance on the work of another auditor
– Probable extent of tests of controls and of substantive procedures, including analytical
procedures
– Nature and extent of client-generated information
– Probable number, timing, staffing and location of assurance visits
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The main requirement of ISA (UK and Ireland) 330 The Auditor's Procedures in Response to Assessed
Risks is 'in order to reduce audit risk to an acceptably low level, the auditor should determine overall
responses to assessed risks at the financial statement level, and should design and perform further audit
procedures to respond to assessed risks at the assertion level'.
In other words, having assessed the risks of material misstatements in the financial statements, the auditor
has to plan the work that will be carried out to ensure that he can draw a conclusion about whether
the financial statements give a true and fair view, that is, that any material misstatements have been
identified and amended if necessary.
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Tests of Analytical
details procedures
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In practice you are likely to do a combination of all three. Auditing standards require you to carry out some
substantive procedures (tests of details or analytical procedures). Carrying out some controls testing
reduces the amount of substantive testing to be carried out. The precise mix changes depending on the
nature of the client:
` For a small scale client at a single location it may be just as efficient to observe the inventory count
and to carry out a number of test counts as it is to spend a great deal of time evaluating the system, or
calculating ratios. You will be relying on controls such as the reliability of the inventory checkers to a
limited extent, but you will also have a good deal of confidence about the final figure deriving from the
substantive work you have done; ie your own test counts.
` For a large national building supplies company with a large number of depots, you are likely to rely to a
greater extent on your assessment of controls and analytical review.
You may be tempted to say that, with all those depots, it would be simply impossible to visit them all.
However, this is not the appropriate reason for your chosen audit approach. What matters is the level of
risk and reducing it to an acceptable level. If the only way to be confident enough that there are no material
errors in the inventory figure was to attend all the depots, then that is what you would have to do.
However, in order to control a business of that size management will need to have installed systems and
controls, so rather than attend all the depots and test count everything yourself, assuming the controls
appear capable of being effective, you can chose to rely on them and test that they are effective.
` For a business such as a software company or a consultancy business, where the 'inventory' is going to
consist of people’s time costs carried forward to be amortised against sales in future periods, you are
likely to rely to a very large extent on analytical review for your audit confidence.
2 Reliance on controls
Section overview
` The auditors carry out tests of controls when:
– They are intending to rely on controls
– They are unable to derive sufficient evidence from substantive procedures
` In summary, ISA 330 says that if auditors want to rely on a control:
– They have to test it
– The have to obtain evidence that it is effective
– They have to obtain evidence that it operated throughout the period under review
– They have to flex their approach in accordance with the nature of the control and the risk it is
seeking to mitigate
ISA 500 says auditors need to carry out tests of controls under two sets of circumstances:
` When they are intending to rely on controls to reduce audit risk
` When they are unable to derive sufficient evidence from substantive procedures.
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(b) The supervisor has also asked you to explain some internal control terminology which she does not
understand.
Explain the meaning of the following terms, using payroll examples different from those you have given
above.
(i) Segregation of duties
(ii) Approval and control of documents
See Answer at the end of this chapter.
3 Substantive approach
Section overview
` Substantive procedures constitute tests of details and/or analytical procedures.
` Auditors always carry out a number of substantive procedures.
` The number of substantive procedures carried out will depend on the level of risk, the amount of
reliance on controls and the results of controls testing.
As you know, substantive procedures fall into two categories: analytical procedures and tests of details.
The auditor must always carry out substantive procedures on material items.
ISA 330 says 'irrespective of the assessed risk of material misstatement, the auditor should design and
perform substantive procedures for each material class of transactions, account balance and disclosure'.
In addition, the auditor must carry out the following substantive procedures:
` Agreeing the financial statements to the underlying accounting records
` Examining material journal entries
` Examining other adjustments made in preparing the financial statements
The auditor must determine when it is appropriate to use which type of substantive procedure.
Analytical procedures tend to be appropriate for large volumes of predictable transactions (for example,
wages and salaries). Other procedures (tests of detail) may be appropriate to gain information about
account balances (for example, inventories or trade receivables), particularly verifying the assertions of
existence and valuation. Substantive procedures were covered in detail in your studies for Assurance.
Tests of detail rather than analytical procedures are likely to be more appropriate with regard to matters
which have been identified as significant risks, but the auditor must determine procedures that are
specifically responsive to that risk, which may include analytical procedures. Significant risks are likely to be
the most difficult to obtain sufficient appropriate evidence about.
How much substantive testing is carried out will depend on:
` Whether the auditor wants to rely on controls in the first place (in which case substantive testing
might be reduced)
` Whether controls testing reveals that controls can be relied on (if they cannot, the auditors will have
to increase substantive testing)
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Organisational Consider to whom internal audit reports (should be the board or the audit
status committee, a subcommittee of the board, which, when it exists, monitors the work
of internal audit), whether internal audit has any operating responsibilities and
constraints or restrictions on it (eg that it is not adequately resourced)
Scope of function Consider extent and nature of assignments performed and the action taken by
management as a result of internal audit reports
Technical Consider whether internal auditors have adequate technical training and
competence proficiency
Due professional Consider whether internal audit is properly planned, supervised, reviewed
care and documented
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When reporting, internal auditors should report to the whole board or the audit committee and should be
free to discuss their concerns with external auditors. They should not report to management upon whose
work or responsibilities they are likely to comment; this may mean for example that they should not report
to the finance director.
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Recording an The external auditor should carry out walkthrough tests on the records to
accounting system ensure that the recording undertaken by the internal auditor is accurate (rather
than record the accounting system themselves).
Evaluating and If the external auditors are to rely on the work done, say the completion of an
testing internal internal control evaluation questionnaire, they should check that the method of
control evaluation is appropriate. They should confirm that internal audit has
satisfactorily tested controls in detail by re-performing a sample of internal
audit's tests; if internal audit's work is satisfactory, external auditors can make a
reduced assessment of control risk as a consequence.
In particular external audit may be able to rely on internal audit's assessment of
computer systems, since internal audit may have carried out extensive testing on
aspects of the system including controls over development and operation of the
system and general controls such as access controls.
Most internal auditors will produce an annual report for the board on the
effectiveness of the internal controls and risk management of the company which
external auditors might read as part of their own risk assessment procedures.
Substantive As external auditors are primarily interested in internal audit's role as a control,
procedures the importance of internal audit as a source of substantive evidence will be less.
However internal audit procedures may be a source of substantive evidence in
particular areas, for example comparing supplier statements with the payables
ledger. If the client has several sites, internal audit may have visited sites that
external auditors will not have the chance to visit, and external audit may be able
to place some reliance on the work done by internal audit on those sites.
Evaluation
Training and Have the internal auditors had sufficient and adequate technological training to carry
proficiency out the work?
Are the internal auditors proficient?
Supervision Is the work of assistants properly supervised, reviewed and documented?
Evidence Has sufficient, appropriate audit evidence been obtained to afford a reasonable basis
for the conclusions reached?
Conclusions Are the conclusions reached appropriate, given the circumstances?
Reports Are any reports produced by internal audit consistent with the result of the work
performed?
Unusual Have any unusual matters or exceptions arising and disclosed by internal audit been
matters resolved properly?
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Evaluation
Plan Are any amendments to the external audit plan required as a result of the matters
identified by internal audit?
Testing Has the work of internal audit been sufficiently tested by the external auditor to
confirm its adequacy?
The nature, timing and extent of the testing of the specific work of internal auditing will depend upon the
external auditor's judgement of the risk and materiality of the area concerned, the preliminary assessment
of internal auditing and the evaluation of specific work by internal auditing. Such tests may include
examination of items already examined by internal auditors, examination of other similar items and
observation of internal auditing procedures.
If the external auditors decide that the internal audit work is not adequate, they should extend their own
procedures in order to obtain appropriate evidence.
Definition
An expert is a person or firm possessing special skill, knowledge and experience in a particular field other
than accounting and auditing.
Professional audit staff are highly trained and educated, but their experience and training is limited to
accountancy and audit matters. In certain situations it will therefore be necessary to employ someone else
with different expert knowledge.
Auditors have sole responsibility for their opinion, but may use the work of an expert. An expert may be
engaged by:
` A client to provide specialist advice on a particular matter which affects the financial statements
` The auditors in order to obtain sufficient audit evidence regarding certain financial statement
assertions
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The auditor will generally consider whether there is an expert in the client entity with relevant skill, or if
not, whether those charged with governance will contract an expert. If they are unwilling, the auditor will
consider hiring an expert.
The following list of examples is given by ISA (UK and Ireland) 620 Using the Work of an Expert of the
audit evidence which might be obtained from the opinion, valuation etc of an expert.
` Valuations of certain types of assets, eg land and buildings, plant and machinery
` Determination of quantities or physical condition of assets
` Determination of amounts using specialised methods, eg pensions accounting
` The measurement of work completed and work in progress on contracts
` Legal opinions
The ISA gives the following requirements in relation to using the work of an expert:
` 'When using the work performed by an expert, auditors should obtain sufficient appropriate audit
evidence that such work is adequate for the purposes of an audit'
` 'When planning to use the work of an expert the auditors should assess the professional competence
of the expert and the professional qualifications, experience and resources of the expert … the
auditor should [also] evaluate the objectivity of the expert'
` 'The auditors should obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence that the scope of the expert's work is
adequate for the purposes of the audit'
` 'The auditors should assess the appropriateness of the expert's work as audit evidence regarding the
assertion being considered'
` 'If the results of the expert's work do not provide sufficient appropriate audit evidence, or if the
results are not consistent with other audit evidence, the auditor should resolve the matter'
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the subsidiary companies, whether they be different auditors from the same firm, or auditors from a
different firm altogether.
Definitions
Principal auditors are the auditors with responsibility for reporting on the financial statements of an
entity when those financial statements include financial information of one or more components audited by
other auditors.
Other auditors are auditors, other than the principal auditors, with responsibility for reporting on the
financial information of a component (for example a subsidiary company – see below) which is included in
the financial statements audited by the principal auditors. Other auditors include affiliated firms, whether
using the same name or not, and correspondent firms, as well as unrelated auditors.
Correspondent firms are firms which are loosely associated, generally for the purposes of referring work.
Component is a division, branch, subsidiary, joint venture, associated undertaking or other entity whose
financial information is included in financial statements audited by the principal auditors.
The duty of the principal auditors is to report on the group accounts, which includes balances and
transactions of all the components of the group.
In the UK, the principal auditors have sole responsibility for this opinion even where the group financial
statements include amounts derived from accounts which have not been audited by them. As a result, they
cannot discharge their responsibility to report on the group financial statements by an unquestioning
acceptance of component companies' financial statements, whether audited or not.
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` The performance of additional procedures as set out in the ISA regarding the components
audited by the other auditor resulting in the principal auditor having significant participation in such an
audit, and
` The nature of the principal auditor's relationship with the firm acting as other auditor.
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If the other auditors are unable to perform any aspect of their work as requested, they should inform the
principal auditors.
Similarly the principal auditors should advise of any matters that may have an important bearing on the other
auditors' work. This is subject however to legal and professional requirements such as confidentiality rules.
5 Practical issues
Section overview
` The audit strategy will also address practical issues such as audit timing, staffing and location.
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There should normally be at least one other person involved on the audit to review the work done.
Beyond this the precise make-up of the team will depend on the scale of the engagement and the different
roles can be filled by people with different levels of experience within the firm.
However, most engagements will have a 'senior' or 'in charge' responsible for the day-to-day running of the
audit and supervising assistants.
There may well be a 'manager' or 'supervisor' who has more responsibilities for the administration, planning
and review of the engagement and would be expected to do less of the detailed testing work than the
senior.
Finally there are the assistants who, depending on their experience will take on the execution of the more
detailed audit tasks.
The audit strategy should make clear who is responsible for which aspects of the audit, and should strike
the difficult balance between:
` Ensuring each member of the team has sufficient experience for the job in hand
` Setting new challenges so that experience can be gained, and
` Cost
5.4 Location
As hinted at above, the location that the audit work takes place at will depend on the nature of the client
and the risk assessment. Some clients will only have one location, in which case the audit will take place at
that location. Other clients may have several locations, and the auditors will have to make judgements
about which locations are more risky than others and need the auditor to visit them. It may be necessary to
attend all locations that a client has at some stage during the audit.
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Summary
Self-test
Answer the following questions.
1 The three sources of audit confidence are:
1 ........................................
2 ........................................
3 ........................................
2 It is appropriate to rely solely on controls testing in relation to the existence of inventory.
True
False
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True
False
4 Which of the following will external auditors consider in their assessment of whether to use the work
of internal audit?
True
False
6 Principal auditors may refer to the work of other auditors in their report on the group financial
statements.
True
False
7 Principal auditors will not be able to form an opinion on group financial statements if:
A The other auditors are not from the same firm
B They have knowledge of the whole group
C The other auditors do not carry out all the procedures as specified by the principal auditors
D The portion of the financial statements they do not audit is material
8 The minimum ideal number of staff used in an audit is:
A 1
B 2
C 3
D 4
Exam-style question
9 Gasoleum Ltd
Your firm is the auditor of Gasoleum Ltd which operates 15 petrol stations in and around London.
You are the senior in charge of the audit for the year ending 31 July 20X7 and are engaged on the
audit planning.
Most of the company’s sites are long-established and, as well as supplying fuel, oil, air and water, have a
car wash and a shop.
Over the last few years, due to the intense price competition in petrol retailing, the shops have been
expanded into mini-markets with a wide range of motor accessories, food, drinks and household
products. They also now sell National Lottery tickets.
Point-of-sale PCs are installed in all the petrol stations, linked on-line via a network to the computer at
head office. Sales and inventory data are input direct from the PCs.
The company has an internal auditor, whose principal function is to monitor continuously and test the
operation of internal controls throughout the organisation. The internal auditor is also responsible for
co-ordinating the year end inventory count.
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Requirements
Prepare notes for a planning meeting with the audit partner which
(a) Identify, from the situation outlined above, circumstances particular to Gasoleum Ltd that should
be taken into account when planning the audit, explaining clearly why these matters should be
taken into account. (6 marks)
(b) Describe the extent to which the work performed by the internal auditor may affect your
planning, and the factors that could limit the use you may wish to make of his work. (6 marks)
(12 marks)
Now, go back to the Learning Objectives in the Introduction. If you are satisfied that you have achieved
these objectives, please tick them off.
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Technical reference
` Responses to risks of material misstatement at the assertion ISA (UK and Ireland) 330.7 – 21
level
2 Reliance on controls ISA (UK and Ireland) 330.22 – 47
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Answers to Self-test
1 1 Tests of controls
2 Analytical procedures
3 Tests of details
2 False
3 True
4 To whom they report
Their technical training
Whether internal audit work is properly documented
5 False
6 False
7 C
8 B (one to carry out the work and another to review it)
Exam-style question
9 Notes for a planning meeting
(a)
Circumstance Why taken into account
` Multiple business locations. ` Increases inherent risk (eg if the organisational
structure is loose and difficult to manage).
` Intense price competition. ` May lead to uneconomic price discounting,
possibly threatening viability of business.
` Recent expansion of outlets into ` Increases complexity of business and may lead
minimarkets. to loss of management control.
` Perishable nature and limited shelf- ` Increase risk of overstatement of inventory
life of food and drinks inventories. values.
` Large volume of cash transactions. ` Increases risk of incomplete income
recording.
` Nature of the business (garage ` Increases risk of loss of inventories and cash
environment). due to theft or staff pilferage.
` May limit effectiveness of physical security
controls (eg over access to terminals).
` Recent introduction of sales of ` Increases inherent risk (eg the risk of loss to
National Lottery tickets. Gasoleum Ltd if incorrect amounts are paid
out on winning tickets).
` Direct input via PCs at branches. ` Increases risk of misstatement, as batch
controls will not be feasible and scope for
other input controls may be limited.
` Small number of staff at each ` Limits scope for segregation of duties within
location (eg one or two). branches and therefore increases control risk.
` Branch-based nature of business. ` Limits effectiveness of management control
over activities of individual branches thereby
increasing control risk.
` Use of part-time staff and high staff ` May inhibit effectiveness of controls within
turnover. branches.
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(ii) Accuracy
To prevent errors in payroll deductions
` Calculations of PAYE, NICs etc can be checked prior to processing, and
` Non-statutory deductions (eg pension contributions, union subscriptions) should require
prior authorisation in writing.
However,
Human error/misunderstanding
Errors in deductions may not be detected, due to fatigue, distraction, misjudgment or
misinterpretation.
Non-routine transactions
Systematic checking procedures may be directed at routine deductions (eg PAYE) rather than
non-routine transactions (eg give as you earn, maintenance payments).
(iii) Validity
To ensure that employees are only paid for work done
` Hours worked per time sheets (or clock cards) can be approved by a departmental manager
(or supervisor), and
` The duties of payroll preparation and payment should be segregated.
However,
Abuse or override
Authorisation could be given for a new employee to be added to the payroll without the proper
checks being carried out by the authoriser.
Collusion
The person responsible for paying wages could collude with the person responsible for
accounting for wages to perpetrate and conceal a theft of wages.
(b) Internal control terminology
(i) Segregation of duties
Meaning
Segregation of duties is a factor reflected in the control environment (the overall attitude,
awareness and actions of management regarding internal controls in the entity).
If one person has responsibility for the recording and processing of a complete transaction, he
may also have the power to falsify the records or to misappropriate money or assets without
being discovered.
Separation of these responsibilities will reduce the risk of intentional or unintentional errors
occurring.
The functions that should normally be separated include authorisation, execution, custody and
recording.
Examples
` Calculations of PAYE and NIC deductions should be reviewed and authorised by the payroll
supervisor who is not actually involved in performing the calculations.
` Unclaimed wages should be kept by someone (eg the cashier) other than the person
responsible for recording payroll entries, otherwise there could be a temptation to falsify
the figures and pocket some of the wages.
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` Analyse revenue per product type by A difference in the rate of increase would indicate
month. a switch from one product to the other.
Seasonal variations are expected as Glowvine is
largely a winter product and Eau Vital a summer
product.
` Analyse gross profit per product type by GP margin has increased from 55.5% to 59.1%. The
month. higher margin indicates a move from Glowvine to
Eau Vital (possibly due to a mild winter in
20X5/X6).
` Analyse cost of goods sold per product Cost of goods sold only increased by 60.6%, while
type by month. revenue increased by almost 75%. Again, a possible
reason could be the switch from one product to
the other. It does seem a disproportionately small
increase, especially as royalties are included in cost
of goods sold and remain constant per bottle sold,
regardless of product.
However, recycling of glass bottle returns could
account for the slower rate of increase.
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AUDIT APPROACH 10
` Analyse distribution and administrative These have increased by 153%, contributing to the
costs into: fall in net profit margin from 43% to 41%. The
increase in these costs could have been caused by:
– Administrative cost (especially deposit ` Implementation of the deposit scheme (unlikely
scheme) to account for the whole increase as not
operational for the whole year)
– Advertising costs ` Increased advertising costs to promote the
deposit scheme and “environment friendly”
nature of the products (this could also have
contributed to the increase in revenue)
– Transport costs ` Increased transport costs in proportion to the
75% increase in revenue
– Labour costs ` Increased labour costs, again in proportion to
the rise in revenue
` Analysis of nature, valuation and The disproportionately smaller increase in cost of
consistency of treatment of closing goods sold could be caused by an error in the
inventories. Compare with inventories counting or valuation of closing inventories, causing
held at end of previous years. The them to be overstated and thus cost of goods sold
disproportionately smaller increase in cost reduced.
of goods sold could be caused by an error
in the counting or valuation of closing
inventories, causing them to be overstated
and thus cost of goods sold reduced.
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Audit and assurance
Information Reasons
` The organisational status and reporting ` The degree of objectivity is increased when
responsibilities of the internal auditor and internal audit
any constraints and restrictions thereon.
– Is free to plan and carry out its work and
communicate fully with the external auditor
– Has access to the highest level of
management
` Areas of responsibility assigned by ` Not all areas in which internal audit may
management to internal audit, such as operate will be relevant to the external auditor.
review of
– Accounting systems and internal (Relevant)
controls
– Implementation of corporate plans (Not relevant)
` Routine tasks carried out by internal audit ` In these respects staff are not functioning as
staff such as authorisation of petty cash internal audit (simply as an internal control).
reimbursements.
` Internal auditor’s formal terms of ` Internal auditor’s role will be most relevant
reference. where it
– Has a bearing on the financial statements
– Involves a specialisation
` Internal audit documentation such as an ` It is more likely that due professional care is
audit manual and audit plans. being exercised where the work of internal
audit is properly planned, controlled, recorded
and reviewed.
` Professional membership and practical ` Unless internal audit is technically competent it
experience (including computer auditing is inappropriate to place reliance on it.
skills) of internal audit staff.
` Internal audit reports generated and ` How the company responds to internal audit
feedback thereon. findings may be regarded as a measure of the
department's effectiveness.
` Number of staff, computer facilities and ` The effectiveness of internal audit (and hence
any other resources available to internal the reliance placed thereon) will be limited if
audit. the department is under-resourced.
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AUDIT APPROACH 10
(iii) Cash
Cash counts should be carried out on cash register takings (and petty cash floats) whenever
shops (and warehouses) are visited on a 'surprise' basis.
(iv) Goods despatch
Internal control procedures should be observed to be in operation, for example, to ensure that
all despatches are documented and destined for the company’s retail outlets.
(v) Employee verification
Payroll procedures are likely to be carried out at HO, warehouses and shops informing HO on a
weekly basis of hours worked by employees, illness and holiday etc. However, new employees,
especially in the shops (and probably also in the warehouses) will be recruited locally and their
details notified to HO.
Internal audit will be able to select a sample of employees from HO records and ensure on their
visits to shops and warehouses that these represent bona fide employees.
(c) Effect on audit
(i) Systems documentation
The accuracy of systems documentation which has been prepared by internal audit need only be
confirmed using 'walk-through tests'. This saves time (if the systems documentation is correct)
since only copies will be required for the audit file.
(ii) Tests of controls
The level of independent testing (ie by the external auditor) can be reduced where controls have
been satisfactorily tested by internal audit, especially if error rates are found to be similar. In
particular, attendance at stocktaking at the year end may be limited to those locations with the
highest stockholdings.
(iii) Substantive procedures
Internal audit’s evidence (eg concerning the existence of tangible non-current assets) will reduce
sample sizes for year end verification work. Substantive procedures may also be reduced where
the internal audit checks reconciliations (eg of suppliers’ statements to ledger balances,
receivables and payables control accounts and bank reconciliations).
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Audit and assurance
before relying on financial statements not audited by them. The principal auditors need to be satisfied that
all material areas of the financial statements of subsidiaries have been audited satisfactorily and in a manner
compatible with that of the principal auditors themselves.
Work to be carried out by principal auditors in reviewing the other auditors' work
(i) Send a questionnaire to all other auditors requesting detailed information on their work, including:
` An explanation of their general approach (in order to make an assessment of the standards of
their work)
` Details of the accounting policies of major subsidiaries (to ensure that these are compatible
within the group)
` The other auditors' opinion of the subsidiaries' overall level of internal control, and the reliability
of their accounting records
` Any limitations placed on the scope of the auditors' work
` Any qualifications, and the reasons for them, made or likely to be made to their audit reports
(ii) Carry out a detailed review of the other auditors' working papers on each subsidiary whose results
materially affect the view given by the group financial statements. This review will enable the principal
auditors to ascertain whether (inter alia):
` An up-to-date permanent file exists with details of the nature of the subsidiary's business, its staff
organisation, its accounting records, previous year's financial statements and copies of important
legal documents.
` The systems examination has been properly completed, documented and reported on to
management after discussion.
` Tests of controls and substantive procedures have been properly and appropriately carried out,
and audit programmes properly completed and signed.
` All other working papers are comprehensive and explicit.
` The overall review of the financial statements has been adequately carried out, and adequate use
of analytical procedures has been undertaken throughout the audit.
` The financial statements agree in all respects with the accounting records and comply with all
relevant legal requirements and accounting standards.
` Minutes of board and general meetings have been scrutinised and important matters noted.
` The audit work has been carried out in accordance with approved auditing standards.
` The financial statements agree in all respects with the accounting records and comply with all
relevant legal and professional requirements.
` The audit work has been properly reviewed within the firm of auditors and any laid-down quality
control procedures adhered to.
` Any points requiring discussion with the parent company's management have been noted and
brought to the principal auditors' attention (including any matters which might warrant a
qualification in the audit report on the subsidiary company's financial statements).
` Adequate audit evidence has been obtained to form a basis for the audit opinion on both the
subsidiaries' financial statements and those of the group.
If the principal auditors are not satisfied as a result of the above review, they should arrange for
further audit work to be carried out either by the other auditors on their behalf, or jointly with them.
The other auditors are fully responsible for their own work; any additional tests are those required
for the purpose of the audit of the group financial statements.
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chapter 11
Introduction
Examination context
Topic List
1 Non-specialised entities
2 Specialised entities
3 Not-for-profit entities
Summary and Self-test
Technical reference
Answers to Self-test
Answers to Interactive questions
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Audit and assurance
Introduction
Practical significance
Although all companies are unique, many are fairly standard for audit purposes, and would be described as
non-specialised. However, some entities and companies have specialised requirements which add
complexity to the audit being carried out.
Working context
Many firms have specialisms within their audit departments, so if you work in practice, you may find you
specialise in the audit of certain specialised entities or not-for-profit entities. You may work for an audit
firm such as the National Audit Office that undertakes public sector audit work. Alternatively, you do not
audit one of these entities at all.
Syllabus links
You have covered the key issues relating to planning non-specialised audits in this Study Manual. You
covered obtaining evidence on non-specialised audits in greater detail in your Assurance studies.
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Examination context
Exam requirements
Complex auditing requirements relating to specialised entities are not examinable.
In the assessment, candidates may be required to:
` Discuss the differences between the audit of a non-specialised profit oriented entity and the audit of a
given specialised profit oriented entity
` Discuss the differences between the audit of a non-specialised profit oriented entity and the audit of a
given not-for-profit entity
` Specify and explain the steps necessary to plan, perform and conclude and report on the audit of the
financial statements of a non-specialised profit oriented entity in accordance with the terms of the
engagement including appropriate auditing standards
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Audit and assurance
1 Non-specialised entities
Section overview
` The majority of audits relate to non-specialised profit orientated entities.
` The standard audit features outlined in this manual and the Assurance manual apply to this type of
entity.
Many audits undertaken in the UK relate to non-specialised profit-making entities (that is a 'normal'
company operating for profit. For example, a manufacturing company, a service company, a retail company).
The audit procedures outlined in this Study Manual so far and in your Assurance manual all relate to this
type of entity.
The majority of questions in your paper are likely to be set in this context. You must be able to answer
questions relating to obtaining evidence on such engagements. You covered the main issues in relation to
obtaining evidence on assurance engagements in Assurance. At this level, the questions will be in written
test format rather than objective test, so it is important that you practice the skill of tackling such
questions.
Although the vast majority of companies are non-specialised profit entities, even within this general bracket,
companies are subject to different degrees of regulation.
For example, as discussed in Chapter 1, companies that qualify as 'small' under the law have reduced
requirements in terms of filing financial statements with Companies House.
Some larger companies may be listed on Stock Exchanges so that their shares are available for the public at
large to trade in. Such 'listed' companies are subject to a higher degree of regulation than 'non-listed' ones,
as they are required to conform with the combined code.
UK companies that are subsidiaries of companies listed on the US Stock Exchange are required to conform
with the US Sarbanes-Oxley Act (some provisions of which were outlined in Chapter 2 and which you were
introduced to in your Business and Finance Paper).
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Requirements
(a) Explain the factors that should be considered in determining an approach to the audit of property,
plant and equipment of Xantippe Ltd.
(b) State the procedures you would perform in order to reach a conclusion on property, plant and
equipment in the financial statements of Xantippe Ltd for the year ended 31 December 20X6.
See Answer at the end of this chapter.
2 Specialised entities
Section overview
` Some entities are ‘special’ in some way, for example:
– The entity is subject to extra regulations, such as banks or insurers, or charities (note that we
shall look in particular at not-for-profit entities below)
– The entity is subject to professional rules, such as solicitors
` Such entities may be subject to special auditing guidance, all of which is outside the scope of your
syllabus.
` It is important to note that many of these entities require a ‘normal’ statutory audit as well as any
additional requirements upon them.
` In which case, the auditors need to assess the particular risks associated with the specialised entities
which will cause any differences in audit approach.
All entities, even those described as ‘non-specialised’ above, are unique, and when carrying out audit work,
the auditor needs to assess the specific risks relating to that particular entity and understand its particular
nuances in order to carry out an appropriate audit.
However, some entities are ‘special’ in some way, for example, they are subject to extra laws and
regulations (for example, banks or insurers) or they are subject to particular professional rules, such as
solicitors.
Such entities may or may not require a statutory audit. If they are a company it is likely that they will, unless
they qualify as small (remember however, that banks and insurance companies cannot qualify as small, they
are simply required to have an audit whatever their size). The statutory audit of such specialised entities will
be the same as for non-specialised entities as discussed above. As always, the auditor must know the
particular business well in order to assess the particular risks associated with that business and in order to
understand the audit evidence obtained in relation to it.
However, specialised entities are often subject to particular requirements that pose additional factors for
auditors. For example, under their professional rules, solicitors require a 'solicitors' accounts rules audit’.
Some specialised entities are subject to special accounting and auditing guidance, which adds detail to the
audit, in addition to the normal statutory audit that is being carried out. Such specialised guidance is beyond
the scope of your syllabus. You should simply be aware that audits of such specialised entities will have
special requirements in addition to normal audit requirements that makes auditing them more complex.
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3 Not-for-profit entities
Section overview
` There are various types of organisations which do not exist for the purpose of maximising
shareholder wealth, which may require an audit.
` The audit risks associated with not-for-profit organisations may well be different from other entities.
` Cash may be significant in small not-for-profit charities and controls are likely to be limited. Income
may well be a risk area, particularly where money is donated or raised informally.
` Obtaining audit evidence may be a problem, particularly where small charities have informal
arrangements and there might be limitations on the scope of the audit.
` In all not-for-profit audits it will be necessary to ensure accounting policies used are appropriate.
` The nature of the report will depend on statutory and entity requirements, but it should conform to
ISA 700 criteria.
` The public sector comprises a large number of varied not-for-profit organisations, and also private
companies which are profit oriented, running (outsourced) public services.
The key objective of most companies is to manage the shareholders' investments well. In a large majority of
cases, 'manage the shareholders' investment' means 'create a profit', as this will create returns to the
shareholders in the terms of dividends or growth in the capital value of the share. However, some
companies and other entities do not operate for the purpose of making profit but have other objectives.
Examples include charities and organisations in the public sector.
Many of these organisations are legislated for and the Acts which relate to them may specify how they are
to report their results. Some of the organisations mentioned above may be companies (often companies
limited by guarantee) and so are required to prepare financial statements and have them audited under
companies legislation.
Where a statutory audit is required, the auditors will be required to produce the statutory audit opinion
concerning the truth and fairness of financial statements.
Where a statutory audit is not required, it is possible that the organisation might have one anyway for the
benefit of interested stakeholders, such as the public or people who give to a charity.
It is also possible that such entities will have special, additional requirements of an audit. These may be
required by a Regulator, or by the constitution of the organisation. For example, a charity's constitution
may require an audit of whether the charity is operating in accordance with its charitable purpose.
An audit of a not-for-profit organisation may vary from a 'for-profit audit' due to:
` Its objectives and the impact on operations and reporting
` The purpose an audit is required
When carrying out an audit of a not-for-profit organisation, it is vital that the auditor establishes:
` Whether a statutory audit is required
` If not, what the objectives of the engagement are
` What the engagement is to report on, and
` To whom the report should be addressed, and
` What form the report should take
3.1 Charities
Charities are regulated under the Charities Act 2006. This sets out what a charity is and outlines how they
are regulated. The Act applies to all accounting periods beginning on or after 27 February 2007. The
charities' regulator is the Charity Commission.
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Definition
Charity: An institution which:
` Is established for charitable purposes only and
` Falls to be subject to the control of the High Court in the exercise of its jurisdiction with respect to
charities
For our purposes, the first bullet is the most important. The Charities Act 2006 sets out twelve charitable
purposes:
` Prevention or relief of poverty
` Advancement of one or more of the following:
– Education
– Religion
– Health/saving lives
– Citizenship/community development
– Arts/culture/heritage/science
– Amateur sport
– Human rights/conflict resolution/promotion of religious or racial harmony/equality/diversity
– Environmental protection/improvement
– Animal welfare
` The relief of those in need by reason of youth, age, ill-health, disability, financial hardship or other
disadvantage
` The promotion of the efficiency of the armed forces of the Crown, the police, fire and rescue or
ambulance services
There is a Charities SORP 2005 outlining what a charity's accounts should comprise. It suggests:
` A statement of financial activities (SOFA) that shows all resources made available to the charity
and all expenditure incurred and reconciles all changes in its funds
` Where the charity is required to prepare accounts in accordance with the 1985 Companies Act, or
similar legislation, or where the governing instrument so requires, a summary income and
expenditure account (in addition to the SOFA) in certain circumstances
` A balance sheet that shows the assets, liabilities and funds of the charity. The balance sheet (or its
notes, see (e) below) should also explain, in general terms, how the funds may, because of restrictions
imposed by donors, be utilised
` A cash flow statement, where required by accounting standards
` Notes
The rules for deciding whether an audit is required are complicated but in general terms charities are
required to have an audit if they have annual income of more than £500,000 and assets of £2,800,000. (If
they are not a company this limit is annual income of £500,000 or assets of £2,800,000 and income of
£10,000.)
Charities with an income between £10,000 and £500,000 are required to have an independent verification
of their financial statements. There is a requirement for the independent examiner to be a professionally
qualified accountant if income is over £250,000. For charities with income below £250,000, the trustees of
the charity must have reasonable assurance that the verifier is competent.
Non company charities with an income between £10,000 and £500,000 are required to have an
independent verification of their financial statements.
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This verification process is a less onerous form of scrutiny than an audit and correspondingly gives a lower
level of assurance. The examiner is not required to give an opinion as to whether the accounts show a true
and fair view. Instead he must report whether or not any matter has come to his attention indicating that:
` Proper accounting records have not been kept
` The accounts do not comply with such records
` The accounts fail to comply with relevant Regulations
In addition, if such matters have become apparent, the report should include details of:
` Material expenditure or actions contrary to the trusts of the charity
` Failure to provide information or explanations to which the examiner is entitled
` Evidence that the accounts prepared on an accruals basis are materially inconsistent with the trustees'
annual report.
In order to produce this report, the verifier should:
` Carry out procedures to be satisfied the charity qualifies for this independent verification
` Obtain an understanding of the charity and its environment
` Record the examination procedures carried out and any matters important to support the statements
made in the report
` Compare the accounts of the charity with the charity's accounting records in sufficient detail to be
able to decide the accounts are in accordance with the records
` Review the accounting records
` Carry out analytical procedures to identify unusual items in the accounts
` Carry out detailed procedures as judged necessary
` Consider whether accounting policies are reasonable
` Enquire about subsequent events
` Consider if the Trustee's report is consistent with the accounts
` Review the evidence obtained
3.1.1 Planning
When planning the audit of a charity, the auditors should particularly consider the following:
` The scope of the audit
` Recent recommendations of the Charity Commissioners or the other regulatory bodies
` The acceptability of accounting policies adopted
` Changes in circumstances in the sector in which the charity operates
` Past experience of the effectiveness of the charity's accounting system
` Key audit areas
` The amount of detail included in the financial statements on which the auditors are required to
report
In order to identify the key audit areas, the auditors will have to consider audit risk.
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There are certain risks applicable to charities that might not necessarily be applicable to other companies.
The auditors should consider the following:
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Cash donations
Other donations
Gift aid ` Regular checks and follow-up procedures to ensure due amounts are received
` Regular checks to ensure all tax repayments have been obtained
Legacies ` Comprehensive correspondence files maintained in respect of each legacy
` Regular reports and follow-up procedures undertaken in respect of
outstanding legacies
Donations in ` In the case of charity shops, separation of recording, storage and sale of
kind inventory
Other income
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Use of resources
Restricted funds ` Separate records maintained of relevant revenue, expenditure and assets
` Terms controlling application of fund
` Oversight of application of fund monies by independent personnel or trustees
Grants to ` Records maintained, as appropriate, of requests for material grants received
beneficiaries and their treatment
` Appropriate checks made on applications and applicants for grants, and that
amounts paid are intra vires
` Records maintained of all grant decisions, checking that proper authority
exists, that adequate documentation is presented to decision-making meetings,
and that any conflicts of interest are recorded
` Control to ensure grants made are properly spent by the recipient for the
specified purpose, for example requirements for returns with supporting
documentation or auditors' reports concerning expenditure, or monitoring
visits
Conversely, large charities might have very strong controls and the auditors may find that they are able to
rely on them to a great extent. Remember, however, that while relying on controls might be acceptable in
order to determine whether the financial statements give a true and fair view, it might not be acceptable to
meet any special additional auditing requirements that the charity has.
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Charities without significant endowments or accumulated funds will often be dependent upon future income
from voluntary sources. In these circumstances auditors may question whether a going concern basis of
accounting is appropriate.
3.1.5 Reporting
On not-for-profit audits where a statutory audit report is required, the auditors should issue the standard
audit report which we will consider in Chapter 13. They should also consider whether any additional
statutory requirements fall on the audit report.
Where an association or charity is having an audit for the benefit of its members or trustees, the standard
audit report may not be required or appropriate. The auditor should bear in mind the objectives of the
audit and make suitable references in the audit report. However, the ISA 700 format will still be relevant.
The auditor should ensure that he makes the following matters clear:
` The addressees of the report
` What the report relates to
` The scope of the engagement
` The respective responsibilities of auditors and management/trustees/directors
` The work done
` The opinion formed
The points made above are general points. Remember that not all clubs and charities will be the same. If
you have a question in the exam relating to a charity, apply this general knowledge to the specifics given in
the question and be logical when formulating your answer.
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The issues relating to cash donations and grants will be particularly relevant.
Particular matters which might be an issue at Headington Hospice are:
` Completeness of cash income from various sources
` Accounting for the grants from the local authority
Notes
(a) Income from gifts under non-taxing arrangements is stated net. Each person who pays by gift aid has
filled in a special tax form, which is kept by the secretary, Mrs Beech.
(b) All gifts under non-taxing arrangements are paid by banker's order – they are credited directly to the
charity's bank account from the donor's bank. Donors make their payments by gift aid either monthly
or annually.
(c) The tax reclaimed on these gifts is 28.2% (22/78) of the net value of the gifts, and relates to income
received during the year – as the tax is received after the year-end, an appropriate amount
recoverable is included in the balance sheet. The treasurer, who is a voluntary (unpaid) member of the
management committee, completes the form for reclaiming the income tax, using the special tax forms
(in (a) above) and checks to the full-time secretary's records that each donor has made the full
payment in the year required by the arrangement.
(d) Donations received through the post are dealt with by Mrs Beech. These donations are either cheques
or cash (bank notes and coins). Mrs Beech prepares a daily list of donations received, which lists the
cheques received and total cash (divided between the different denominations of bank note and coin).
The total on this form is recorded in the cash book. She then prepares a paying-in slip and banks these
donations daily. When there is a special fund-raising campaign, Mrs Beech receives help in dealing with
these donations from voluntary members of the management committee.
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(e) The Autumn Fair takes place every year on a Saturday in October – members of the management
committee and other supporters of the charity give items to sell (for example food, garden plants,
clothing) – a charge is made for entrance to the fair and coffee and biscuits are available at a small
charge. At the end of the fair, Mrs Beech collects the takings from each of the stalls, and she banks
them the following Monday.
(f) Legacies are received irregularly, and are usually sent directly to the director of the charity, who gives
them to Mrs Beech for banking – they are stated separately on the daily bankings form (in (d) above).
(g) Bank deposit account interest is paid gross of income tax by the bank, as the Links Famine Relief is a
charity.
Requirement
List and briefly describe the work you would carry out on the audit of income of the charity, the controls
you would expect to see in operation and the problems you may experience for the following sources of
income, as detailed in the income statement above.
(a) Gifts under non-taxing arrangements
(b) Tax reclaimed on gifts made under non-taxing arrangements
(c) Donations received through the post
(d) Autumn Fair
See Answer at the end of this chapter.
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` Confirm that transactions have appropriate Parliamentary authority and that resources have been
spent in line with Parliament’s intentions (regularity and propriety)
` Examine and report on the economy, efficiency and effectiveness of public spending (value for money)
` Report to Parliament on how EU money has been spent in the UK.
The NAO ensures that the public sector is accountable. The C&AG can report to Parliament on the way
that public money is spent by central government. Evidence from reports produced by the C&AG may be
used by The Committee of Public Accounts to make recommendations to Government. The C&AG is
appointed by the Queen, on the advice of the prime minister, and is accountable to The Committee of
Public Accounts. The current C&AG is Sir John Bourn.
Accounting officers are normally the senior most official in a public sector entity with a personal
responsibility for the propriety and regularity of the public finances for which he or she is answerable; for
the keeping of proper accounts; for prudent and economical administration; for the avoidance of waste and
extravagance; and for the efficient and effective use of all the available resources (HM Treasury definition).
Accounting officers may be called to give evidence before The Committee of Public Accounts on the basis
of reports by the C&AG.
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The relationships between individual financial statement items traditionally considered in the audit of
business entities may not always be appropriate in the audit of governments or other non-business
public sector entities: for example, in many such public sector entities there is often little direct
relationship between revenues and expenditures.
In the public sector industry data or statistics for comparative purposes may not be available.
` ISA 570 Going Concern
The appropriateness of the use of the going concern assumption in the preparation of the financial
statements is generally not in question when auditing either a central government or those public
sector entities having arrangements backed by central government. However where such
arrangements do not exist, or where central government funding of the entity may be withdrawn and
the existence of the entity may be at risk, this ISA will provide useful guidance. As governments
privatise government entities, going concern issues will become increasingly relevant to the public
sector.
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Summary
Self-test
Answer the following questions.
1 Which of the following might require a specialist audit and why?
True
False
5 What four issues are likely to fall within the scope of a public audit?
(1) ........................................
(2) ........................................
(3) ........................................
(4) ........................................
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Exam-style question
6 You have been appointed the auditor of Safe Haven which has a year end of 31 May. Safe Haven is a
small registered charity based in a small town in Warshire. The organisation provides shelter for
abandoned dogs and puppies with the aim of finding new homes for as many as possible.
The charity is managed by a voluntary committee, including a Chairman (Alun Jenkins), a Treasurer
(Gordon Brand) and a Secretary (Amanda Jones). Appointment is by annual election by the committee
each year however Alun, Gordon and Amanda have held their posts for a number of years as other
committee members feel unable to give the required time commitment.
Safe Haven also employs a number of paid employees. The shelter is managed by John and Jane
Sheldon, who are husband and wife. There is a kennel maid and a part time bookkeeper. In addition a
number of unpaid volunteers help out at the shelter as and when they are needed depending on the
number of animals at the centre at a particular point in time.
The main sources of income are as follows:
` Charity shop
This is run by a full time manager, assisted by a team of volunteers. Members of the public make
donations (primarily clothes and toys) which are then sold in the shop. All transactions are in
cash. The shop does not accept cheques or credit cards. The transactions are recorded by the
till, with completed till rolls being passed on to the bookkeeper.
` Collections
Volunteers make house to house calls on a regular basis. In addition, on Saturday mornings
volunteers make collections in three local town centres. All cash is counted by the volunteers,
and returned to the bookkeeper with a receipt confirming the amount.
` Dog Show
Each year on 1st June, a Peace Festival is held in the town. As part of this event Safe Haven
organise a dog show. Any member of the public can enter their dog by completing an entry form
which can be obtained from the shop.
Tickets to see the show can be purchased up to two weeks in advance from the shop or can be
purchased on the day at the Festival. In recent years the show has been a great success although
two years ago it had to be cancelled due to bad weather.
T-shirts can also be purchased from a stall manned by volunteers.
` Sponsorship
Safe Haven is sponsored by a local pet supplies company. The company makes an annual donation
and provides prizes for the winners of the dog show. In return for this their services are
advertised in the event programme and their logo is printed on the T shirts.
The main expenses are as follows:
` Rent, rates, heat and light
Both the shelter and the shop are rented properties. These expenses are all paid by monthly
direct debit.
` Employee costs
John and Jane Sheldon and the shop manager are salaried. They are paid directly into their bank
accounts on a monthly basis. The kennel maid and the bookkeeper are paid by the hour. They
are paid by cheque on a weekly basis.
` Vet bills
The local vet provides his time free but any medicines etc do need to be paid for. Payments are
made by cheque on receipt of the invoice.
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` Printing costs
Leaflets are produced to support fund raising campaigns. The most significant element of this cost
is the dog show programme which outlines the timetable of events. The programmes are printed
and delivered to Safe Haven in May. The printer invoices at the time of delivery.
The accounts are maintained by the bookkeeper on a computerised spreadsheet. Occasionally, the
treasurer may also assist with the preparation of accounting information at particularly busy times in
the year, for example, immediately after the dog show.
Requirements
(a) List the factors specific to the audit of a charity which would affect inherent and control risk.
(b) As the auditor of Safe Haven discuss the key planning issues based on the above scenario.
(c) Outline the audit work you would plan to perform in respect of the following expenses:
(i) Rent, rates, light and heat
(ii) Employee costs
(iii) Vet bills
(iv) Printing costs. (20 marks)
Now, go back to the Learning Objectives in the Introduction. If you are satisfied you have achieved these
objectives, please tick them off.
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Technical reference
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Answers to Self-test
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boxes are not sealed. Those responsible for collecting the cash are also responsible for opening the
boxes and counting the cash before handing it over to the bookkeeper. This increases the risk of
misappropriation.
Dog show tickets and T-shirts sales
Completeness of income in respect of these sources of revenue is still a concern due to the cash
nature of these transactions but more reliable evidence should be available. Revenue generated
from ticket sales can be reconciled to the number of tickets sold. This assumes that the charity
exercises some control over the issue of tickets for example, tickets are numbered so that it is
possible to determine the number sold.
For the T-shirt sales it should be possible to validate the income by comparing the number of
items sold with the revenue generated. This depends on the charity adopting very simple stock
control.
Sponsorship
Completeness should not be an issue here as the amount involved is predetermined and is likely
to be paid by cheque or by bank transfer.
Controls
In addition to the specific control issue mentioned above the assessment of the overall control
environment will be essential at the planning stage of the audit. As there are concerns about the
completeness of income the control environment will provide key evidence about the integrity of
the revenue balance.
The auditor will need to consider the ability of the committee to run the organisation effectively.
The information suggests that the three main committee members are responsible for the
majority of the management so it will be important to determine their respective skills and
whether they are able to devote sufficient time.
The ability of the bookkeeper will also need to be established in particular the possible lack of
segregation of duties and the fact that the job is currently only done on a part time basis. It may
be that records are not being maintained as they should be due to the limited number of hours
being worked by that individual. This is emphasised by the fact that the Treasurer is sometimes
required to help out.
Accounting Treatment
At the planning stage the accounting policies of the charity will need to be reviewed to ensure
that they are appropriate and consistent. In particular the point at which income is recognised
will need to be established together with any related costs. This is relevant to the income
generated from the sale of tickets for the annual dog show. Tickets are available in the last two
weeks in May, that is, the last two weeks before the year end and the main cost involved in the
show, being the printing of the show programme is also incurred and invoiced in May. The show
itself takes place in June.
In respect of the ticket sales made in May it could be argued that this income should not be
recognised until the show takes place as it is only earned at this point. However, if the proceeds
are non-returnable irrespective of whether the show takes place or not it could be argued that it
represents a donation which can be recognised on receipt.
In respect of the programme costs the treatment is a little clearer. These should be provided for
at the end of the year even though they relate to an activity which will take place after the year
end. Per FRS 12 there is an obligation to pay for the programmes as a result of a past event that
is, the printing company have produced and delivered the programmes.
Evidence
At the planning stage the overall strategy to adopt will need to be determined. In this case it is
likely that a controls based approach will be adopted (as completeness of income is one of the key
risks) supported by substantive testing, the extent of which will depend on the results of the tests
of controls. The use of analytical review will be more limited due to the lack of predictive patterns
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in relation to many aspects of the organisation and the lack of relationships between account
balances.
(c) The audit plan would include the following:
Rent, rates, light and heat
` Agree total rent/rates for the year to the lease/ annual bill
` Check direct debit amounts in the cash book/bank statement
` Compare the cost of heat and light for this year and the previous year and follow up if there
are any major differences
` Look at the date on the last utility bill to determine the need for any prepayment or accrual
adjustment.
Employee costs
` For salaried staff check annual salary to personnel details/contract of employment.
` For the bookkeeper and the kennel maid review the controls over the recording of hours
worked and check the hourly rates applied to personnel details/contracts of employment.
` Check a sample of standing data used to process the payroll.
` Recalculate a sample of monthly calculations to ensure that deductions are being made
correctly.
` Review controls over the weekly authorisation of pay checks and monthly bank transfers.
Vet bills
` Confirm with the vet that he has given his time for free.
` Compare the total vet bill for this year and last year and calculate a 'cost per animal
rescued' if possible.
` Trace a sample of entries made in the cash book in respect of vet fees back to the original
invoice to confirm that the cost is in respect of this.
` Review invoices received after the year end to ensure that any necessary accruals have been
recognised.
Printing costs
` Obtain the printers' invoice and check that a provision has been included in the accounts at
the year end for an amount matching that on the invoice.
` Confirm that the programmes have been received.
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Notwithstanding the above reservations, specific audit tests required would be as follows.
(i) Check the details on the daily listings of donations received to the cash book, bank statements
and paying-in slips, ensuring that the details agree in all respects and that there is no evidence of
any delay in the banking of this income.
(ii) Check the donations received by reference to any correspondence which may have been
received with the cheques or cash.
(iii) Consider whether the level of income appears reasonable in comparison with previous years and
in the light of any special appeals that the charity is known to have made during the course of the
year.
(iv) Carry out, with permission of the management committee, surprise checks to vouch the
completeness and accuracy of the procedures relating to this source of income.
(d) Autumn Fair
Once again there is a potential problem here because of the level of responsibility vested in one
person, namely Mrs Beech.
Specific work required would be as follows.
(i) Attend the event to observe the proper application of laid down procedures and count the cash
at the end of the day.
(ii) Check any records maintained by individual stallholders to the summary prepared by Mrs Beech.
(iii) Check the vouchers supporting any expenditure deducted from the proceeds in order to arrive
at the net bankings.
(iv) Agree the summary prepared by Mrs Beech to the entry in the cash book and on the bank
statement.
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chapter 12
Audit completion
Contents
Introduction
Examination context
Topic List
1 Introduction
2 Objective
3 Financial statement review
4 Other matters
5 Audit completion memorandum
Summary and Self-test
Technical reference
Answers to Self-test
Answers to Interactive questions
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Introduction
` Understand the processes that auditors carry out at the end of the audit
` Be aware of the procedures that are carried out in respect of subsequent events and going
concern
` Be able to draw conclusions on audit matters
Specific syllabus references for this chapter are: 4a, b, c, f, g.
Practical significance
Completion is a very critical stage of the audit because the partner is required to make the important
judgements of whether sufficient evidence has been obtained to support the audit opinion and what that
opinion should be.
Working context
If you work in practice, you may be involved in any part of audit completion. The more senior you become
in the firm, the more likely you are to be involved in completing the memorandum to the audit partner.
Syllabus links
You will have considered the issue of going concern in Accounting.
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Examination context
Exam requirements
The reviews carried out at the end of the audit, such as going concern and subsequent events reviews are
extremely important so could easily be examined in a short form or a long form question in the exam.
Candidates will be able to conclude and report on assurance engagements in accordance with the terms of
the engagements and appropriate standards.
In the assessment, candidates may be required to:
` Describe the nature and timing of specific procedures designed to identify subsequent events that may
require adjustment or disclosure in relation to the matters being reported on
` Evaluate, quantitatively and qualitatively (including the use of analytical procedures), the results and
conclusions obtained from assurance tests and procedures
` Draw conclusions on the ability to report on an assurance engagement which are consistent with the
results of assurance work
` Judge when to refer reporting matters for specialist help
` Draw conclusions on the ability to report on an audit engagement, including the opinion for a
statutory audit, which are consistent with the results of audit work
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1 Introduction
Section overview
` Although completion should in theory be simple if the audit has been well-planned and executed,
there are a number of aspects to it which can make it complex.
2 Objective
Section overview
` The partner needs to consider:
– The financial statements
– The work done to support the audit opinion
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3.1 Do the financial statements comply with the Companies Act 1985?
Determining this ought to be relatively simple – every firm should use a checklist to ensure that the
financial statements comply with the disclosure requirements of the Companies Act and relevant accounting
standards. Such checklists usually form a part of the 'audit packs' which firms use.
To some extent the job has been made easier by the widespread use of accounts production software, but
software is only as good as the people writing it, installing it and using it.
For example:
` If directors' emoluments are not coded to the right account in the chart of accounts they will not be
disclosed properly in the financial statements
` If the client has a material accounting policy which is not in the 'standard list' in the template on which
the financial statements are based, it will not appear in the accounting policies note unless you add it.
Checklisting the accounts, therefore is still a good idea.
As you know from your other studies, the nature of financial statements these days is incredibly complex.
For UK companies be aware that:
` There are a large number of financial reporting standards – either UK or International – applicable to
financial statements
` The Companies Act itself is a substantial document which determines the format to be used in
financial statements and the disclosures to be made on the face of the income statement and balance
sheet and in the supporting notes
` The directors' report and other information released with the financial statements, need to be
consistent with the financial statements so the auditor must read that information and resolve any
inconsistencies.
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The steps for carrying out analytical procedures at this stage of the audit are very similar to those used as
part of the risk assessment process at the planning stage, but they happen in a rather different way
` Interpretation
` Investigation
` Corroboration
3.2.1 Interpretation
The person carrying out the analytical procedures, reads through the financial statements and interprets
them, considering the absolute figures themselves and relevant ratios.
3.2.2 Investigation
When analytical procedures are used as risk assessment procedures or as a substantive procedure, the aim
is to identify potential problems. The problems are then investigated during fieldwork by making enquiries
and gathering audit evidence.
At the completion stage the reviewer will expect to find the answers to the issues raised by the review on
the audit file.
3.2.3 Corroboration
Should those answers not be on the file, further work will need to be done.
From a practical point of view it is worth remembering the following:
` For the smaller client the working papers supporting the final analytical procedures may well be simply
an update of the work done at the planning stage.
` For the larger client the review becomes a much more specific exercise.
` The financial statements used for the analytical procedures need to incorporate any adjustments made
as a result of the audit.
` Any problems identified by the procedures, which indicate that the financial statements should to be
amended, need to be actioned.
4 Other matters
Section overview
` The auditor needs to:
– Evaluate discovered errors
– Ensure opening balance and comparatives are correct
– Review whenever the going concern basis of the financial statements is appropriate
– Review subsequent events
– Obtain necessary management representations
At the completion stage the reviewer has to consider the issues which have been raised by the audit and
what the firm's response in the audit report should be.
At this stage the reviewer needs to consider:
` Is the impact of errors and misstatements uncovered during the audit likely to be material?
and
` Are there matters of principle where the auditor disagrees with the client?
The second of these questions can cause severe difficulties for the audit firm in exercising its professional
judgement.
It is possible for there to be points of principle which although not material in themselves, in the current
period, could lead to problems in the future, or lead to the reassessment of audit risk.
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The argument used in the example also applies to a number of other assets. If the company's complete
inventory had to be disposed of, or the receivables all collected in on the first day of the new year, it is
highly probable that the amounts realised would be less than those shown in the balance sheet. In addition,
liabilities not reflected in the financial statements will crystallise, such as redundancy payments or lease
penalty clauses.
It follows from this that, if the going concern concept is not an appropriate basis on which to prepare the
financial statements, the implications will be very serious, as almost all of the normal assumptions made will
be called into question.
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– Major debt repayment falling due where refinancing is necessary to the entity's continued
existence
– Major restructuring of debt
– Indications of withdrawal of financial support by creditors
– Negative operating cash flows indicated by historical or prospective financial statements
– Adverse key financial ratios
– Substantial operating losses or significant deterioration in the value of assets used to generate
cash flows
– Major losses or cash flow problems which have arisen since the balance sheet date
– Arrears or discontinuance of dividends
– Inability to pay creditors on due dates
– Inability to comply with terms of loan agreements
– Reduction in normal terms of credit by suppliers
– Change from credit to cash-on-delivery transactions with suppliers
– Inability to obtain financing for essential new product development or other essential investments
– Substantial sale of fixed assets not intended to be replaced
` Operating indications
– Loss of key management without replacement
– Loss of key staff without replacement
– Loss of a major market, franchises, license, or principal supplier
– Labour difficulties or shortages of important supplies
– Fundamental change in the market or technology to which the entity is unable to adapt
adequately
– Excessive dependence on a few product lines where the market is depressed
– Technical developments which render a key product obsolete
` Other indications
– Non-compliance with capital or other statutory requirements
– Pending legal proceedings against the entity that may, if successful, result in judgements that could
not be met
– Changes in legislation or government policy
– Issues which involve a range of possible outcomes so wide that an unfavourable result could
affect the appropriateness of the going concern basis
ISA 570 also says that the auditors have to discuss the going concern issue with the client's management, to
test the assumptions they have made to ensure they are justified, to obtain written representations from
management about the things they are intending to do in the future to ensure that the going concern basis
is appropriate and to review that disclosures made in the financial statements relating to going concern are
sufficient to give a true and fair view in the UK. If, in making their assessment, the directors have used a
period of less than a year from the date of approval of the financial statements and have not disclosed that
fact in the financial statements, the auditors should do so in the auditor's report.
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Up to the date of the audit report ` Carry out audit procedures outlined in ISA 560
` Consider whether the appropriate amendments/disclosures
have been made in the financial statements
` Consider whether there is a need to amend the audit report
Between the date of the audit No responsibility for further work in this period, but if the auditor
report and the date the financial becomes aware of material facts:
statements are issued ` Discuss with management
` Take appropriate action
After the financial statements are No responsibility for further work in this period, but if the auditor
issued becomes aware of material facts:
` Discuss with management
` Take appropriate action
Where the relevant fact did not exist at the date of the auditors'
report there are no statutory provisions for revising the financial
statements:
` Discuss with management whether to withdraw the financial
statements
` Take advice on possibility of withdrawing audit report.
Enquiries of ` Status of items involving subjective judgement/accounted for using preliminary data
management
` Whether there are any new commitments, borrowings or guarantees
` Whether there have been any:
– Sales or destruction of assets
– Issues of shares/debentures or changes in business structure
– Developments involving risk areas, provisions and contingencies
– Unusual accounting adjustments
– Major events (eg going concern problems) affecting appropriateness of
accounting policies for estimates
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Other ` Review management procedures for identifying subsequent events to ensure that
procedures such events are identified
` Read minutes of general board/committee meetings and enquire about unusual items
` Review latest accounting records and financial information and budgets and
forecasts
` Obtain evidence concerning any litigation or claims from the company's solicitors
(only with client permission)
'Matters for the attention of partners' (MAPS) seems to be the most commonly used acronym for the audit
completion memorandum. However, don’t use this acronym in the exam without first stating what it
actually is.
This procedure, if carried out effectively is the single, most effective way of ensuring that work is complete
and budgets are not broken.
It will radically reduce review time.
It should:
` Be completed with care
` Be typed
` Be organised along good report writing principles
` Have space for the partner's comments
It should be completed by 'the senior' – by this we mean the person with day-to-day responsibility for
completing the audit work.
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The length and detail of the matters for the attention of partners will be determined by the nature and
complexity of the engagement. However, the matters for attention in relation to the Companies Act audit
would normally be expected to contain the following:
5.5 Other
` Details of any significant cost overrun against audit budget
` Details of any opportunities for providing additional services
The partner should evidence that he has reviewed the matters for attention and record what actions need
to be taken to address any unresolved or outstanding matters. Often this will involve discussing the matter
with the directors of the client, to identify what additional evidence is needed to enable the auditor to
conclude on a matter or to resolve a matter of judgement. The matters for attention must be updated to
show how the matters have been addressed and identify the additional evidence that has been obtained.
A final conclusion must be recorded detailing the opinion to be given on the financial statements.
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It increases the likelihood of the file being well organised, so the partner finds the bits he or she needs to
see easier to locate.
An example of a set of matters for the attention of partners in relation to a Companies Act is given below,
as an illustration of how many different aspects of the audit process are bought together. It is an example
which is drawn from real life, suitably modified to protect client confidentiality.
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(c) Receivables
Trade receivables are higher at the year end due to the higher volume during the year and the
timing of deliveries at the year end.
(d) Current liabilities
Tighter inventory control has resulted in a reduction in trade payables. 200X figure included a
large payable in respect of new capital equipment.
3 Significant weaknesses in the company's systems
The only significant weakness identified relates to the failure to count inventory at the
Wolverhampton distribution depot. In the management letter, which will also detail several minor
weaknesses identified, we shall remind the directors of the importance of counting inventory
periodically as a means of control.
4 Significant overrun against budget
The only significant overrun arose from the alternative audit procedures applied as a result of the
cancellation of the Wolverhampton inventory check. Additional staff time was required to test the
Wolverhampton inventories, creating an overrun of some 30 hours at a cost of £2,000. We should
seek to recover this excess from the client.
5 Scope for the provision of other services
Our international associates:
The proposed acquisition of the pastry maker in Lille provides an opportunity for introducing our
associate in France as auditors of the new subsidiary.
6 Areas of the audit requiring particular attention and significant unresolved matters
(a) Inventories
200Y 200X
£'000 £'000
Darlington
Finished goods 70 99
Raw materials 67 78
Packing materials 62 76
199 253
Wolverhampton
Finished goods 29 64
228 317
Audit work at Darlington was carried out as planned. The results of all tests performed were
satisfactory.
The planned inventory check at Wolverhampton was not held due to staff shortages. Revised
audit procedures were adopted for testing this balance.
This involved an audit visit to the Wolverhampton depot. The inventory balance in the accounts
was agreed to the inventory records and extensive cut-off testing was performed. Specific
substantive testing was performed on the Wolverhampton inventory records for both
overstatement and understatement. A detailed review of the inventory balance was performed
and the results discussed with the branch manager.
A representation will be requested concerning the Wolverhampton inventory balance and the
management letter will remind the client of the importance of carrying out planned inventory
checks.
On the basis of the work performed, the Wolverhampton inventory is fairly stated.
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(b) Receivables
200Y 200X
£'000 £'000
Trade receivables 869 809
Loan to Roberts Limited 195 33
Prepayments 93 128
1,157 970
(c) Trade Receivables
A sample of 48 receivables was circularised. The results of the circularisation were:
Notes £'000 No. % of value
Agreed 177 18 30
Reconciled 1 228 14 37
Disagreed 2 50 1 8
No reply 3 154 15 25
609 48 100
Notes
1 Reconciling items due to differences between the dates at which invoices and payments
were entered in customers' and International Foods' records. These differences appear to
have been short term and these balances are technically agreed.
2 The disagreement relates to an invoice for £3,000 sent to the customer in December 200X.
The customer is refusing to pay, on the grounds that the goods were damaged in transit.
This item is not material. However, the client is currently investigating the cause of this
dispute and is seeking to confirm that this is an isolated incident. The results of this
investigation should be available for the clearance meeting.
3 These balances have been verified by
(i) Matching of paid balances to evidence of receipt including remittance advices and bank
paying-in vouchers.
(ii) Vouching a sample of unpaid balances to supporting evidence to confirm the validity of
the sale. This evidence includes sales invoices, delivery notes and customer orders.
(d) Loan to Roberts Limited
Roberts Limited is a company in which International Foods owns 10 per cent of the share capital.
The loan is unsecured. The original loan of £33k, made in 200X to provide working capital,
increased to £195k during the year. No repayments have been received. The finance director was
not willing for this balance to be included in the circularisation and has stated to us that the
balance is wholly recoverable.
At the clearance meeting we should request the finance director to obtain a certificate confirming
this loan for us. We should also request evidence in the form of accounts and forecasts as to
Roberts' ability to repay the loan and the anticipated timing of repayment. A representation
concerning the existence and recoverability of the loan should be requested. We shall discuss the
possibility that the loan should be treated as being recoverable after more than one year.
(e) Property, plant and equipment
Two issues arise which require resolution at the clearance meeting.
(i) Revaluation of land and building
The surplus on a revaluation performed this year has been treated as an 'addition'. This
should be disclosed as a revaluation surplus. The financial statements should disclose that
the valuation was performed by a director. The letter of representation should confirm that
the land and buildings were revalued on an open-market basis, and the board's
acknowledgement of the results.
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Summary
Self-test
Answer the following questions.
1 What three questions will the partner responsible for signing the audit report seek to answer at
completion?
1 ........................................
2 ........................................
3 ........................................
2 It is appropriate to use a checklist to determine whether the financial statements comply with the
Companies Act.
True
False
3 Opening balances need only be checked in a new auditor situation.
True
False
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AUDIT COMPLETION 12
4 List five financial indicators that a company has going concern problems.
1 ........................................
2 ........................................
3 ........................................
4 ........................................
5 ........................................
5 Is the auditor responsible for discovering relevant subsequent events after the audit report has been
signed?
6 List five matters that might be referred to in a MAPS.
1 ........................................
2 ........................................
3 ........................................
4 ........................................
5 ........................................
Exam-style questions
7 You have recently been appointed auditor of Supachill Ltd and are planning the audit for the year
ending 31 December 20X5. You have obtained the following background information about the
company.
The company prepares chilled foods and sells them to supermarkets under its own brand name and
that of a national supermarket chain, with which it has a one year renewable contract. At present this
contract represents 45% of revenue. The company is currently negotiating a substantial contract with
another supermarket chain, but is reluctant to agree to the prices and 60 days' credit facility
demanded.
On 1 January 20X5 the managing director, who was previously involved in property development,
acquired all the shares in Supachill Ltd from Omega plc, a conglomerate, which was rationalising its
operations.
Immediately following the acquisition Supachill Ltd had net assets of £2 million, after taking account of
low interest loans of £5 million from Omega plc. These loans are secured on the freehold property of
the company and are repayable in equal quarterly instalments over a five-year period until 31
December 20X9. Day-to-day working capital is funded by an overdraft facility of £1.5 million, secured
by a fixed and floating charge on the other assets of the company. This facility is to be reviewed by the
bank early in 20X6 after the audited accounts are available.
The original business plan envisaged the acquisition of an adjacent factory to enable the company to
double its output, but this expansion has been postponed.
The managing director has explained that there will be a delay in preparing the draft accounts as the
finance director has left and has yet to be replaced. The accountant is assisted in the day-to-day
accounting function by temporary staff. There is a projected loss for the year but forecasts indicate a
return to profitability in the next financial year.
Requirements
(a) From the situation outlined above, identify circumstances particular to Supachill Ltd that give you
cause for concern. Explain why such factors give cause for concern. (12 marks)
(b) Describe the procedures that you would undertake during the course of your audit in order to
satisfy yourself on the status of Supachill Ltd as a going concern. (6 marks)
(18 marks)
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8 Your client has lost a contract with its major customer. As a result the company is in financial
difficulties. The bank is threatening to foreclose on its loan.
You are concerned that the company may not be a going concern, although, looking ahead nine
months from the date of approval of the financial statements, the directors inform you that there is a
good future for the business.
What steps would you take to enable you to assess whether the directors' assertions are reasonable?
What impact would the nine month period referred to above have on your audit report?
(3 marks)
Now, go back to the Learning Objectives in the Introduction. If you are satisfied you have achieved these
objectives, please tick them off.
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Technical reference
` Do the financial statements make sense? ISA (UK and Ireland) 520.2, 13
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Audit and assurance
Answers to Self-test
1 ` Do the financial statements comply with the provisions of the Companies Act 1985?
` Do the financial statements make sense?
` Has the audit report been drafted properly?
2 True
3 False
4 From:
` Net liabilities or net current liability position
` Necessary borrowing facilities have not been agreed
` Fixed-term borrowings approaching maturity without realistic prospects of renewal or
repayment, or excessive reliance on short-term borrowings
` Major debt repayment falling due where refinancing is necessary to the entity's continued
existence
` Major restructuring of debt
` Indications of withdrawal of financial support by creditors
` Negative operating cash flows indicated by historical or prospective financial statements
` Adverse key financial ratios
` Substantial operating losses or significant deterioration in the value of assets used to generate
cash flows
` Major losses or cash flow problems which have arisen since the balance sheet date
` Arrears or discontinuance of dividends
` Inability to pay creditors on due dates
` Inability to comply with terms of loan agreements
` Reduction in normal terms of credit by suppliers
` Change from credit to cash-on-delivery transactions with suppliers
` Inability to obtain financing for essential new product development or other essential investments
` Substantial sale of fixed assets not intended to be replaced
5 No – but he will have to take appropriate steps if made aware of them
6 1 Comments on significant changes to the business
2 Issues relating to the financial statements
3 Matters arising from the audit strategy/plan
4 Issues referred to in the management letter
5 From related issues (such as budget overruns/opportunities for other services)
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Exam-style questions
7 (a)
Circumstance Explanation
` The client’s economic dependence ` The going concern assumption may not be
on its principal customer (45% of appropriate if, for any reason, this major
revenue on a one year renewable contract is not renewed.
contract).
` Deterioration of cash flows, due to ` The risk of bad and doubtful debts is
customers demanding/taking increased, and year end receivables may be
extended periods of credit (up to materially overstated if provisions are not
60 days). adequate.
` Pressure from the potential ` Profit margins may be adversely affected,
customer’s demands. increasing doubts about the company’s
continuation as a going concern.
` Sale by conglomerate on favourable ` Omega plc may not have been optimistic
terms (low interest loans). about Supachill Ltd’s future prospects, which
therefore raises going concern doubts.
` High gearing with repayments due ` Any breach in loan terms (eg if instalments
in near future (£250,000 per are not being met) may result in foreclosure.
quarter).
` Additional funding may be difficult to raise as
security base is diminished.
` The postponement of plans for ` The adequacy of the working capital available,
expansion (but it could be both the short and medium term must be
considered a mitigating factor). assessed.
` The managing director’s (MD) lack ` The MD may lack the acumen to trade out of
of knowledge of the nature of the the loss-making situation, thereby increasing
business and the industry. which it operates. Inherent risk.
` The loss of key staff (finance ` The reduction in supervision over the
director). accounting functions may increase both
inherent and control risk and result in
– more errors arising with the increase in
the accountant’s workload
– failure to detect and correct errors
` The delay in preparing draft ` Increased pressure on the audit timetable to
accounts may increase inherent meet a possible bank deadline late in the year
risk if the audit deadline cannot be could result in a material misstatement being
postponed. undetected by audit procedures.
` Only temporary accounts staff are ` The risk of errors arising is increased (eg due
available to assist accountant. to insufficient training/ supervision).
` The bank’s reliance on audited ` Particular attention should be given to
accounts, increasing management’s
– the accuracy of bank overdraft/ payables
motive to 'inflate' profit.
cut-off
– the impact of potential adjustments on
key ratios (eg acid test ratio)
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Circumstance Explanation
` The projected loss may cause the ` Attention should be given to all matters of
MD to bias the results. judgement which materially affect the income
statement. In particular, the need for
If, for example, the bank is already
inventory and receivable provisions should be
aware of (and accepts) the
assessed (ie tested for overstatement) as well
projection, the MD may ensure
as their adequacy (ie tested for
that the loss is met (eg by over-
understatement).
providing against asset values).
Alternatively, the reported loss
may be understated by
understating provisions.
` Lack of cumulative/prior knowledge ` Adequate planning is essential to audit
from which assurance can be efficiency to avoid over-auditing (due to
derived. increase in inherent risk) in the first year.
` The nature of the client’s business. ` Chilled foods increase inherent risk as they
are perishable and there may be
understatement of year end inventory
provisions.
(b) Procedures
To ensure that the company can meet its debts as they fall due
` Obtain a written statement from the managing director confirming his considered view that
the company is a going concern.
` Review management’s profit and cash flow forecasts for the next financial year (and beyond,
if available) to ascertain the company’s working capital requirements.
` Confirm the appropriateness of relevant assumptions, eg average debt collection period, by
comparison with ratios obtained through analytical procedures.
` Request a statement of borrowing facilities to be included in the bank confirmation letter.
` Review the day-to-day utilisation of the bank overdraft facility and its proximity to the
current limit.
` Obtain confirmation of loan from Omega plc and that all quarterly instalments of loan
repayment to date have been met.
` Discuss with the credit controller (or financial accountant) the current pressures under
which the company is being placed by larger customers seeking extended credit terms.
` Review the MD’s agreement with Omega plc for the purchase of Supachill Ltd to ascertain
the circumstances under which interest rates or repayment terms could be varied.
` Review the level of trade and other payables, including VAT and PAYE/NIC and whether any
penalties are being incurred, and the extent to which they are financing short-term needs.
To ensure that the company can otherwise continue in business
` Obtain a copy of correspondence to date concerning the contract currently being
negotiated, and monitor all subsequent developments.
` Review production records and order books, and discuss with management how current
spare capacity can accommodate substantial new contracts (as the expansion plans have
been postponed).
` Review the terms of the existing one-year renewable contract and correspondence with
this customer, to ascertain whether there are any grounds for this contract not to be
renewed.
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AUDIT COMPLETION 12
` Discuss with the MD any possible new sources of finance for the expansion.
` Obtain written confirmation from the company’s legal advisor as to whether or not there
are any pending legal claims (eg in respect of food poisoning).
` Discuss with the MD and/or the company’s recruitment adviser the response to any
advertisement for the position of finance director.
8 Regarding ability to continue in business
` Discuss with directors eg
– Likelihood of alternative sales markets
– Advertising/marketing strategy
– Prospects of product diversification
` Scrutinise current year’s order book
` Review tenders for new contracts
` Review published trading results for industry (expanding or in decline)
Regarding ability to meet debts as fall due
` Discuss with directors eg
– Any intention to sell surplus assets
– Impending negotiations for new sources of finance
– Professional advice sought from bank
– Confirm with bank/other lenders negotiations to date
Nine month period – effect in UK
` If period used for going concern assessment < 1 year from date of approval of financial
statements
` And that fact not disclosed in financial statements
` Disclose in audit report
` But do not qualify audit report regarding this
Now, go back to the Learning Objectives in the Introduction. If you are satisfied you have achieved those
objectives, please tick them off.
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` Undertake sensitivity analysis on client's forecasts to variable factors both within the managing
director's control and outside it.
` Review the level of trade and other payables (including VAT and PAYE/NIC and whether any
penalties are being incurred) after the balance sheet date and the extent to which they are
financing short-term needs.
To ascertain whether Gamston Burgers plc can otherwise continue in business (ie return to profitable
trading)
` Obtain a copy of tenders submitted/correspondence to date concerning any new contracts
currently being negotiated and monitor all subsequent developments.
` Review drivers' logs, reports on warehouse utilisation etc and discuss with management how
current spare capacity will be utilised by new contracts obtained.
` Review the terms of the contract with the long-standing customer which was lost and the
grounds on which it was lost to a competitor.
` Verify reasonableness of estimates arising from closure of workshop (eg concerning costs of
external servicing of the transport vehicle fleet).
` Obtain written confirmation from the company's legal adviser as to whether or not there are any
pending legal claims (eg in respect of inventory losses from warehouses, late deliveries, damage
to goods in transit etc).
(c) Effect on audit report
(i) Agree with director's assertion
If doubt surrounding the going concern status of the company is minimal, disclosure in the
financial statements would not be required in order to give a true and fair view. The audit report
would therefore be unqualified.
If the branch is so material that its inability to trade could affect the going concern status of the
company (unlikely), the matter should be disclosed in the financial statements. If adequate
disclosure is made in the financial statements, the auditor should express an unqualified opinion
but modify his report by adding an emphasis of matter paragraph that
` Highlights the existence of a material uncertainty relating to the event or condition that may
cast significant doubt on the company's ability to continue as a going concern, and
` Draws attention to the note in the financial statements that discloses these matters.
(ii) Disagree with director's assertion
The form of audit report will depend upon the materiality of the branch and extent to which the
uncertainty has been disclosed in the financial statements.
As the director appears confident about the future of this branch, it is unlikely that adequate (if
any) disclosure has been made. The audit report would therefore be qualified on the grounds of
disagreement due to the inadequate disclosure of the uncertainty.
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chapter 13
Reporting
Contents
Introduction
Examination context
Topic List
1 Reporting to those charged with governance
2 Assurance reports
3 Standard unqualified audit reports
4 Modified audit reports
Summary and Self-test
Technical reference
Answers to Self-test
Answers to Interactive questions
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Introduction
` Understand the types of reports that assurance providers and auditors issue
Practical significance
The report is the last aspect of the assurance process. It is the purpose of the assurance process – it
communicates the assurance provider's conclusion on the subject matter to the users. It is therefore of
critical practical significance. Unfortunately, historically, problems with the wording of reports have
contributed largely to the expectations gap.
Working context
If you work in practice, you are more likely to be involved in carrying out disclosure checklists on the
financial statements (as discussed in the previous chapter) than drafting the audit report. However, you
should be aware when a modified audit report might be required, so that you can highlight that fact to
senior audit staff members.
Syllabus links
The basic unqualified audit report was introduced in Assurance.
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REPORTING 13
Examination context
Exam requirements
This is an important area for the exam. The sample paper contained a short form question on management
letters and a part of a long form question focused on audit report implications of three different matters.
In the assessment, candidates may be required to:
` Draft suitable extracts for an assurance report (including any report to management issued as a part of
the engagement) in relation to a specified organisation on the basis of given information, including in
the extracts (where appropriate) statements of facts, their potential effects, and recommendations for
action relevant to the needs and nature of the organisations being reported upon
` Advise on reports to be issued to those responsible for governance in accordance with International
Standards on Auditing, legislation, regulation, codes of corporate governance
` Explain the elements (both explicit and implicit) of the auditor's report issued in accordance with the
International Standards on Auditing and statutory requirements and recommend the nature of an audit
opinion to be given in such a report
` Draft suitable extracts for an audit report (including any report to the management issued as part of
the engagement) in relation to a specified organisation on the basis of given information, including in
the extracts (where appropriate) statements of facts, their potential effects, and recommendations for
action relevant to the needs and nature of the organisation being reported upon
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Audit and assurance
Various auditing standards require auditors to report certain audit matters arising to those charged with
governance. This report will be 'private' and just for the attention of those charged with governance, as
opposed to the audit report, which is a published document.
The requirements in relation to this private reporting are found in the main in ISA (UK and Ireland) 260
Communication of Audit Matters with those Charged with Governance which says 'the auditor should
communicate audit matters of governance interest arising from the audit of financial statements with those
charged with governance of an entity'.
Definition
Those charged with governance is the term used to describe the role of persons entrusted with the
supervision, control and direction of the entity. Those charged with governance ordinarily are accountable
for ensuring that the entity achieves its objectives, financial reporting and reporting to interested parties.
Those charged with governance include management only when it performs such functions.
In the UK and Ireland, those charged with governance include the directors (executive and non-executive)
of a company or other body, the members of an audit committee where one exists, the partners,
proprietors, committee of management or trustees of other forms of entity, or equivalent persons
responsible for directing the entity's affairs and preparing its financial statements.
The auditors may communicate with the whole board, the supervisory board or the audit committee
depending on the governance structure of the organisation. The auditor should ensure that those charged
with governance are provided with a copy of the audit engagement letter on a timely basis.
To avoid misunderstandings, the engagement letter should explain that auditors will only communicate
matters that come to their attention as a result of the performance of the audit. It should state that the
auditors are not required to design procedures for the purpose of identifying matters of governance
interest.
The letter may also:
` Describe the form which any communications on governance matters will take
` Identify the relevant persons with whom such communications will be made
` Identify any specific matters of governance interest which it has agreed are to be communicated
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REPORTING 13
1.3 How?
Matters may be communicated orally or in writing, but they should be recorded in the audit working
papers, however discussed. Auditors should make clear that the audit is not designed to identify all relevant
matters connected with governance and they should have regard to local laws and regulations, and local
guidance on confidentiality when communicating with management.
289
Audit and assurance
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REPORTING 13
Requirement
Identify
(a) The internal control weaknesses arising from the above
(b) The risks to which each identified weakness exposes the company
(c) Actions that the company should take to mitigate those risks.
See Answers at the end of this chapter.
2 Assurance reports
Section overview
` There is less formal requirement in relation to assurance reports generally than there is for audit
reports.
` Proformas for review reports and other assurance reports are given in international standards.
As we shall see in the following sections of this chapter, audit reports are proscribed by International
Auditing Standards and also by additional guidance and legal requirements in the UK.
There is less formality surrounding more general assurance reports and these reports will often take the
most appropriate form.
Some guidance is given in international standards, notably International Standard on Assurance Engagements
3000 Assurance Engagements other than Audits or Reviews of Historical Financial Information.
It sets out that the assurance report should be in writing and should contain a clear expression of the
practitioner's conclusion about the subject matter.
International Standard on Review Engagements (ISRE) 2400 Engagements to Review Financial Statements
gives the following guidance about review reports. Negative assurance is given on review assignments. The
ISRE says 'the review report should contain a clear written expression of negative assurance. The
auditor should review and assess the conclusion drawn from the evidence obtained as the basis for the
expression of negative assurance.
Based on the work performed, the auditor should assess whether any information obtained during the
review indicates that the financial statements do not give a true and fair view (or 'are not presented fairly, in
all material respects,') in accordance with the identified financial reporting framework.'
If no matters have come to the attention of the auditor, he should give a clear expression of negative
assurance in his report. An example of an unqualified review report is given in the appendix to the ISRE, and
it is reproduced here.
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Audit and assurance
Based on our review, nothing has come to our attention that causes us to believe that the accompanying
financial statements do not give a true and fair view (or 'are not presented fairly, in all material respects,') in
accordance with International Accounting Standards.
Date REPORTING ACCOUNTANT
Address
If matters have come to the attention of the reporting accountant, he should describe those matters.
The matters may have the following effects.
The reporting accountant may feel there has been a limitation in the scope of the work he intended to
carry out for the review. If so, he should describe the limitation. The limitation may have the following
effects.
Material to Express a qualification of the negative assurance provided regarding the possible
one area adjustments to the financial statements that might have been determined to be necessary
if the limitation did not exist
Pervasive Do not provide any assurance
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REPORTING 13
Title Independent
Addressee
Standards
What is an audit?
Signature
Address
Figure 13.1: Overview: unmodified report
3.2.1 Title
The report needs an appropriate title to distinguish it from the other material included with the financial
statements and to try to reduce the 'expectations gap'.
In order to do this the title will include the words 'Independent auditor' to stress that, whilst the
financial statements are management's responsibility, the audit report is the responsibility of the auditor
alone.
The title usually also refers to the people to whom the report is addressed.
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Audit and assurance
3.2.2 Addressee
Because in carrying out their audit work the auditors have to deal with management and work closely with
the client's management team, it may be forgotten that their report is not directed towards management.
Remember the fundamental structure of an assurance engagement (Figure 13.2).
Responsible
party
Assurance work
Subject matter Practitioner
Report/Conclusion
User
294
REPORTING 13
295
Audit and assurance
3.2.8 Date
The date of the report should be the date when the auditor has obtained sufficient appropriate evidence to
support the opinion.
It should not be earlier than the date when management approves the financial statements.
3.2.10 Address
Again this is to ensure that there is no doubt who is responsible for the report.
ISA 700 suggests that a location, normally the city where the auditor practices should be specified.
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REPORTING 13
Opinion
In our opinion:
` The financial statements give a true and fair view in accordance with United Kingdom Generally
Accepted Accounting Practice of the state of the company's affairs as at … and of its profit (loss) for
the year then ended
` And the financial statements have been properly prepared in accordance with the Companies Act
1985.
` The information given in the Directors' report is consistent with the financial statements.
3.3.2 Bannerman
Following a Scottish legal case when it was found that the Royal Bank of Scotland was entitled to rely on the
published financial statements of a company for the purposes of lending the company money, many UK
auditors have introduced an extra paragraph into their audit reports. Many previous legal cases on the
subject had restricted the auditors' legal duty of care to the members of the company only, but the
Bannerman decision (named after the auditors in the case, Bannerman Johnstone Maclay) called this into
question. The wording of the paragraph is designed to restrict the auditor's duty of care.
The wording of a 'Bannerman' paragraph is as follows:
'This report is made solely to the company's members, as a body, in accordance with Section 235 of the
Companies Act 1985. Our audit work has been undertaken so that we might state to the company's
members those matters we are required to state to them in an auditor's report and for no other purpose.
To the fullest extent permitted by law, we do not accept or assume responsibility to anyone other than the
company and the company's members as a body for our audit work, for this report, or for the opinion we
have formed.'
The APB did not include such a paragraph in their standard report example.
297
Audit and assurance
Modified reports
Adverse Disclaimer
Figure 13.3: Overview: modified report
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REPORTING 13
Solution
The auditor issues an unqualified auditor's report with an emphasis of matter paragraph describing the
situation giving rise to the emphasis of matter and its possible effects on the financial statements, including
that the effect on the financial statements of the resolution of the uncertainty cannot be quantified.
Opinion
In our opinion:
` The financial statements give a true and fair view, in accordance with United Kingdom Generally
Accepted Accounting Practice, of the state of the company's affairs as at ........................................ and of
its profit (loss) for the year then ended
` The financial statements have been properly prepared in accordance with the Companies Act 1985
and
` The information given in the Directors' Report is consistent with the financial statements.
Emphasis of matter – possible outcome of a lawsuit
In the forming of our opinion on the financial statements, which is not qualified, we have considered the
adequacy of the disclosures made in note x to the financial statements concerning the possible outcome of
a lawsuit, alleging infringement of certain patent rights and claiming royalties and punitive damages, where
the company is the defendant. The company has filed a counter action, and preliminary hearings and
discovery proceedings on both actions are in progress. The ultimate outcome of the matter cannot
presently be determined, and no provision for any liability that may result has been made in the financial
statements.
Registered auditors Address
Date
299
Audit and assurance
Solution
Qualified opinion arising from disagreement over accounting treatment
Included in the receivables shown on the balance sheets of 31 December 20X4 and 31 December 20X5 is
an amount of £Y which is the subject of litigation and against which no provision has been made. In our
opinion, full provision of £Y should have been made in the year ended 31 December 20X4. Accordingly,
receivables at 31 December 20X4 and 20X5 should be reduced by £Y, deferred taxes at 31 December
20X4 and 20X5 should be reduced by £X, and profit for the year ended 31 December 20X4 and retained
earnings at 31 December 20X4 and 20X5 should be reduced by £Z.
In our opinion the financial statements give a true and fair view, in accordance with the United Kingdom
Generally Accepted Accounting Practice, of the company's profit (loss) for the year ended 31 December
20X5.
Except for the financial effect of not making the provision referred to in the preceding paragraph, in our
opinion the financial statements:
` Give a true and fair view, in accordance with United Kingdom Generally Accepted Accounting
Practice, of the state of the company's affairs as at 31 December 20X5 and
` Have been properly prepared in accordance with the Companies Act 1985.
In our opinion the information given in the Directors' Report is consistent with the financial statements.
Registered auditor Address
Date
300
REPORTING 13
Solution
` The limitation in audit scope causes the auditor to issue a qualified opinion – except for any
adjustments that might have been found necessary had they been able to obtain sufficient evidence
concerning inventory.
` The limitation of scope was determined by the auditor not to be so material and pervasive as to
require a disclaimer of opinion.
Basis of audit opinion
We conducted our audit in accordance with International Standards on auditing (UK and Ireland) issued by
the Auditing Practice Board, except that the scope of our work was limited as explained below.
An audit includes examination, on a test basis, of evidence relevant to the amounts and disclosures in the
financial statements. It also includes an assessment of the significant estimates and judgements made by the
directors in the preparation of the financial statements, and of whether the accounting policies are
appropriate to the company's circumstances, consistently applied and adequately disclosed.
We planned our audit so as to obtain all the information and explanations which we considered necessary
in order to provide us with sufficient evidence to give reasonable assurance that the financial statements are
free from material misstatement, whether caused by fraud or other irregularity or error.
However, with respect to inventory having a carrying amount of £X the evidence available to us was limited
because we did not observe the counting of the physical inventory as of 31 December 20X1, since that date
was prior to our appointment as auditor of the company. Owing to the nature of the company's records,
we were unable to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence regarding the inventories quantities by using
other audit procedures.
In forming our opinion we also evaluated the overall adequacy of the presentation of information in the
financial statements.
Qualified opinion arising from limitation in audit scope
Except for the financial effects of such adjustments, if any, as might have been determined to be necessary
had we been able to satisfy ourselves as to physical inventory quantities, in our opinion the financial
statements:
` Give a true and fair view, in accordance with United Kingdom Generally Accepted Accounting
Practice, of the state of the company's affairs as at 31 December 20X1 and of its profit (loss) for the
year then ended and
` Have been properly prepared in accordance with the Companies Act 1985.
In respect solely of the limitation on our work relating to inventory:
` We have not obtained all the information and explanations that we considered necessary for the
purposes of our audit and
` We were unable to determine whether proper accounting records had been maintained.
In our opinion the information given in the Directors' Report is consistent with the financial statements.
Registered auditors Address
Date
301
Audit and assurance
Solution
The auditor has been unable to form a view on the financial statements and issues a modified opinion
disclaiming the view given by the financial statements.
Basis of audit opinion
We conducted our audit in accordance with International Standards on Auditing (UK and Ireland) issued by
the Auditing Practices Board, except that the scope of our work was limited as explained below.
An audit includes examination, on a test basis, of evidence relevant to the amounts and disclosures in the
financial statements. It also includes an assessment of the significant estimates and judgments made by the
directors in the preparation of the financial statements, and of whether the accounting polices are
appropriate to the company's circumstances, consistently applied and adequately disclosed.
We planned our audit so as to obtain all the information and explanations which we considered necessary
in order to provide us with sufficient evidence to give reasonable assurance that the financial statements are
free from material misstatement, whether caused by fraud or other irregularity or error. However, the
evidence available to us was limited because we were unable to observe the counting of physical inventory
having a carrying amount of £X and send confirmation letters to trade receivables having a carrying amount
£Y due to limitations placed on the scope of our work by the directors of the company. As a result of this
we have been unable to obtain sufficient appropriate audit evidence concerning both inventory and trade
receivables. Because of the significance of these items, we have been unable to form a view of the financial
statements.
In forming our opinion we also evaluated the overall adequacy of the presentation of information in the
financial statements.
Opinion: disclaimer on view given by the financial statements
Because of the possible effect of the limitation in evidence available to us, we do not express opinion as to
whether the financial statements:
` Give a true and fair view, in accordance with United Kingdom Generally Accepted Accounting
Practice, of the state of the company's affairs at ........................................ and of its profit (loss) for the
year then ended; and
` Have been properly prepared in accordance with the Companies Act 1985.
In respect solely of the limitation of our work referred to above:
` We have not obtained all the information and explanations that we considered necessary for the
purpose of our audit; and
` We were unable to determine whether proper accounting records have been maintained.
Notwithstanding our disclaimer on the view given by the financial statements, in our opinion the
information given in the Directors' Report is consistent with the financial statements.
Registered auditors Address
Date
302
REPORTING 13
Solution
` In the auditor's opinion, provision should be made for foreseeable losses on individual contracts as
required by (specify accounting standards).
` The auditor issues an adverse opinion due to the failure to provide losses and quantifies the impact on
the profit for the year the contract work in progress and deferred taxes payable at the year end.
Adverse opinion on the financial statements
As more fully explained in note x to the financial statements no provision has been made for losses
expected to arise on certain long-term contracts currently in progress, as the directors consider that such
losses should be off-set against amounts recoverable on other long-term contracts. In our opinion,
provision should be made for foreseeable losses on individual contracts as required by (specify accounting
standards) ......................................... . If losses had been so recognised the effect would have been to reduce
the carrying amount of contract work in progress by £X, deferred taxes payable by £Y, and the profit for
the year and retained earnings at 31 December 20X1 by £Z.
In view of the effect of the failure to provide for the losses referred to above, in our opinion the financial
statements do not give a true and fair view, in accordance with United Kingdom Generally Accepted
Accounting Practice, of the state of the company's affairs as at 31 December 20X1 and of its profit (loss) for
the year then ended.
In all other respects, in our opinion the financial statements have been properly prepared in accordance
with the Companies Act 1985.
Notwithstanding our adverse opinion on the financial statements, in our opinion the information given by
the Directors' Report is consistent with the financial statements.
Register auditors Address
Date
303
Audit and assurance
Remember, that if an error or a lack of evidence is immaterial the audit report will not be qualified at all.
304
REPORTING 13
Summary
305
Audit and assurance
Self-test
Answer the following questions.
1 A report to those charged with governance should be in writing.
True
False
2 Which of the following might be included in a report to those charged with governance?
306
REPORTING 13
Orders which take a customer over his credit limit are referred to the credit controller who decides,
in consultation with the chief accountant, whether or not the customer should be allowed to exceed
the credit limit or have the credit limit raised. Any adjustments in respect of overrides of, or
increases in, credit limits are input, via a terminal in the accounts department, by the credit controller.
Printouts of these amendments are not generated and no other review of credit limits is undertaken.
New customers are referred to the credit controller who obtains credit ratings and references and,
on the oral authority of the chief accountant, enters the customer account details onto the sales
ledger master file via a terminal in the accounts department.
Despatch of goods
Sequentially-numbered packing notes in respect of accepted orders are printed out in the warehouse,
and the goods are selected, packed and checked by warehouse staff. Confirmations of packing and any
notifications of shortfalls are entered into the computer, via a terminal in the warehouse, by the
warehouse supervisor. Two copies of the sequentially-numbered delivery advice are printed in the
warehouse and sent with the goods to the customer who is required to sign a copy which is returned
by the driver to the accounts department. All despatches are checked at the gatehouse to ensure that
they are accompanied by the appropriate documentation. The packing notes are filed in numerical
order in the warehouse and the sequence is checked for completeness, on a daily basis, by the
warehouse supervisor.
The system does not automatically generate purchase orders with manufacturers when a customer's
order cannot be fulfilled.
Computer system
All users of the system are required to log on using identification codes and individual passwords
which control their level of access to the system. All passwords are changed every 90 days and when
employees leave. Systems support is provided by a supplier where the service agreement provides for
availability of a back-up system within 72 hours of a systems failure.
Requirements
(a) Identify the objectives of exercising internal controls over sales order processing. For each
objective discuss the extent to which the procedures exercised by Mota Ltd achieve the objective.
Note: You are not required to consider sales invoicing or ledger processing. (8 marks)
(b) Set out, in a manner suitable for inclusion in a report to management, any weaknesses in the
system described above. For each weakness you should include the possible consequence of the
weakness and a recommendation to remedy the weakness.
Note: You are not required to write a covering letter. (10 marks)
(18 marks)
11 You attempted parts (a) and some of (b) of this sample paper question in Chapter 7. Now try the rest
of part (b) about the reporting implications.
Described below are situations which have arisen in three audit clients of your firm. The year end in
each case is 31 March 20X6.
Jay plc ('Jay')
The directors have included the following note to the financial statements for the year ended
31 March 20X6:
'Although the company has incurred significant trading losses and cash outflows during the last two
years, the directors believe that the effects of internal restructuring and corporate disposals
undertaken will bring about improved results as indicated in the detailed profit and cash flow forecasts
for the period to the end of March 20X7. These forecasts indicate that the company will be able to
trade within its agreed working capital facility for at least the next 12 months from the date of this
report. Considerable progress has been made on the financial restructuring of the company.
On the basis of the above factors the directors consider it is appropriate that the financial statements
are prepared on the going concern basis. Should the company fail to meet its forecasts, the going
307
Audit and assurance
concern basis may prove to be inappropriate. In such circumstances adjustments are likely to have to
be made to the net assets shown in these financial statements to reduce assets to their recoverable
amounts, to reclassify non-current assets and payables due after more than one year to current assets
and current liabilities and to provide for further liabilities that may arise.'
Finch plc ('Finch')
Finch has included the results of Wren Ltd ('Wren'), a subsidiary, in the consolidated financial
statements. Wren is audited by a different firm of auditors who have modified their opinion on
Wren's financial statements for the year ended 31 March 20X6 because a fire at the company's
premises destroyed the physical inventory count sheets which were the only record of the year end
inventory. Wren has included inventory at its estimated cost of £500,000 in the financial statements
for the year ended 31 March 20X6.
The consolidated pre-tax profit of Finch is £33.4 million and the pre-tax profit of Wren is £1.2 million
for the year ended 31 March 20X6.
Sparrow Ltd ('Sparrow')
On 30 April 2006, the board of directors decided to undertake a restructuring programme which
would commence in June 20X6. A provision of £1.8 million in respect of the restructuring costs has
been included in the financial statements for the year ended 31 March 20X6.
The pre-tax profit of Sparrow for the year ended 31 March 20X6 is £7.2 million.
Requirements
(a) Discuss what is meant by the concepts of materiality and a true and fair view. (6 marks)
(b) Explain why there can be difficulties for auditors regarding materiality and true and fair in relation
to the three cases above: Jay, Finch and Sparrow, and state how you might modify your audit
report in each case. (14 marks)
(20 marks)
12 Described below are three situations which have arisen in three audits. The year end in each case is 31
March 20X8.
(1) Ash Ltd uses leased motor vehicles which have been accounted for as operating leases. However,
you believe that these leases are finance leases and should have been capitalised at £51,000. The
current treatment does not comply with accounting standards which require finance leases,
where the user takes on the risks and rewards of ownership, to be included within non-current
assets and capitalised. Profit for the year would then have been reduced by £4,000.
The pre-tax profits of Ash Ltd for the year ended 31 March 20X8 were £600,000, and total
assets at 31 March 20X8 were £5.4 million.
(2) A fire in the warehouse of Oak Ltd in April 20X8 destroyed the inventory sheets, which were
the only record of the company's inventories at the year end. The company has included an
estimated inventory figure of £780,000.
The pre-tax profits of Oak Ltd for the year ended 31 March 20X8 were £1.1 million and total
assets at 31 March 20X8 were £6.5 million.
(3) Elm Ltd has included a note in the financial statements explaining that 90% of its revenue is
derived from a national retailer with whom it has a three-year renewable contract. This contract
is due for renewal in September 20X8. However, the directors require the audit report on the
financial statements to be signed on 31 May 20X8.
Requirements
(a) Critically evaluate the use of standardised audit reports. (5 marks)
(b) Discuss briefly each of the situations outlined above, referring to materiality considerations. For
each situation describe the effect on the audit report. (10 marks)
(15 marks)
Now, go back to the Learning Objectives in the Introduction. If you are satisfied that you have achieved
these objectives, please tick them off.
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REPORTING 13
Technical reference
1 Reporting to those charged with governance ISA (UK and Ireland) 260.2
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Audit and assurance
Answers to Self-test
1 True
2 Approach, adjustments, material control weaknesses. Although any expected modification to the audit
opinion might be noted, the full audit opinion would not be given.
3 Assurance of a matter in the absence of any evidence to the contrary
4 When there was a pervasive limitation in the scope of the review or where the practitioner is of the
opinion that the report being reviewed is incorrect.
5 The financial statements:
1 Give a true and fair view
2 Have been properly prepared in accordance with the Companies Act
3 Are consistent with the directors' report
6 1 A reference to auditing standards
2 A reasonable assurance statement
3 A summary of the nature of audit work
7 A statement limiting the liability of the auditors to the company and its members.
8 1 There has been a limitation on the auditors' work
2 There is a disagreement with management about an item in the financial statements
Exam-style questions
9 Consequences
Incorrect prices resulting in undercharging of customers and loss to company or overcharging of
customers and loss of customer goodwill.
Recommendations
` All price changes to be recorded on standard documentation which should be signed as
authorised by sales director
` Printout of amendments obtained and checked to document authorising amendment
` Printout signed as evidence of checking
` Periodic printout of all selling prices checked on one for one basis to authorised price list held by
sales director
` Standing data protected by high level password not known to sales ledger clerk
` Spot checks on invoices prior to despatch
310
REPORTING 13
311
Audit and assurance
312
REPORTING 13
If the auditor does not agree with the basis used to prepare the accounts, e.g. going concern used
when break-up is required, then the audit report will be modified, normally on a disagreement
qualification.
Finch
If not material by nature, the audit report on the consolidated financial statements will be
unmodified. If material by nature then the audit report will be qualified (except for) on the
grounds of limitation on scope. This would require modifications to the basis of opinion section
and the opinion section of the audit report. It would also require the auditor to report by
exception on accounting records and the availability of information.
Sparrow
As the disagreement over the accounting treatment has a material impact on the financial
statements, the audit report will be an ‘except for’ qualification.
313
Audit and assurance
314
REPORTING 13
` If the auditor disagrees with the treatment adopted (ie if he feels that it is unlikely that
the contract will be renewed) or the level of disclosure is inadequate, the report will
be qualified on the grounds of disagreement.
` Normally the matter is of such significance that an adverse opinion is issued (ie the
accounts do not give a true and fair view).
If the accounts are prepared on a break-up basis
` Provided the auditor agrees with this treatment and that the basis of preparation is
fully disclosed, an unqualified audit report will be issued.
In this instance the most likely outcome would be an unqualified report with reference to
the significant uncertainty
Tutorial note
Other disadvantages which could have been mentioned in part (a) include
(i) Exception reporting in the UK of certain items, eg proper accounting records means important
responsibilities omitted from unqualified report
(ii) Technical distinction between different types of qualifications may not be appreciated by users.
315
Audit and assurance
316
REPORTING 13
(1) Unqualified but modified by an emphasis ` Significant uncertainty, properly disclosed, does
of matter paragraph regarding the legal not require a qualification
case if considered significant
(2) Qualified – probably disclaimer ` Loss of records results in limitation of scope
` 'Significant number' implies that auditors will
probably be unable to form an opinion
(3) Qualified – disagreement 'except for' ` Audit partner disagrees with size of provision
necessary
` Problem limited to one area – unlikely to require
adverse opinion
317
Audit and assurance
318
INDEX
319
320
INDEX
321
Audit and assurance
322
INDEX
M Q
Management representations, 29, 268 Qualified audit report, 299
Management responsibilities, 22 Qualified opinion – disagreement, 300
Management threat, 71 Qualified opinion – limitation on scope, 300
Materiality, 141 Quality control, 102
Matters for the attention of partners Quality failure, 101
(MAPS), 268 Quick ratio, 143
Modified audit report, 298
Money laundering, 35, 83, 162
Money Laundering Regulations 2003 R
(MLR), 35, 162
Reasonable assurance engagements, 4
Money Laundering Reporting Officer (MLRO), 36
Related parties, 33
Monitoring, 106
Removal of auditors, 125
Reporting, 240
Reporting on internal control weaknesses, 27
N Resignation of auditors, 125
National Audit Office (NAO), 243 Responding to the risk assessment, 201
Negative, 291 Review, 105
Net asset turnover, 143 Risk analysis, 121
Net margin/operating margin, 143 Risk assessment, 29, 31
Non-assurance services, 25
Non-compliance with laws and regulations, 31
Non-sampling risk, 177 S
Non-specialised entities, 232
Safeguards, 72
Not-for-profit entities, 234
Sampling risk, 177
Sarbanes-Oxley Act, 24, 26, 232
Segregation of duties, 238
O Self-interest threat, 71
Objectivity, 70 Self-review threat, 71
Opening balances, 263 Serious Organised Crime Agency (SOCA), 36
Operating cost percentage, 143 Statutory audit, 24
Operational risks, 174 Subsequent events, 267
Other auditors, 211, 212 Substantive approach, 201, 204
Substantive procedures, 239
Supervision, 105
P
Practice Assurance', 101 T
Preface to International Standards on Quality
Control, Auditing, Assurance and Related Tendering, 120
Services, 54 Tests of details, 201
Principal auditors, 212 The Committee of Public Accounts, 244
Proceeds of Crime Act 2002 (POCA), 35, 162 The Financial Reporting Council (FRC), 56
Professional behaviour, 71 Those charged with governance, 288
Professional competence and due care, 71 Threats to objectivity and independence, 71
Professional ethics, 70 Tipping off, 36
Trade payables payment period, 143
323
Audit and assurance
U
Understanding the business, 159
W
Using the work of an expert, 209 Walkthrough testing, 201
324
REVIEW FORM – AUDIT AND ASSURANCE STUDY MANUAL
Your ratings, comments and suggestions would be appreciated on the following areas of
this Study Manual.
Hazel Rogers
Learning Delivery Coordinator, Learning & Professional Development
Email [email protected]
ICAEW
Learning & Professional Development
Chartered Accountants' Hall
PO Box 433
Moorgate Place
London, EC2P 2BJ
www.icaew.com
REVIEW FORM (continued)