 Parathyroid gland 

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Organs of the Endocrine system

The endocrine system is a collection of glands. These glands secrete a variety of

hormones, which travel to specific target organs via the bloodstream. Hormones have
specific functions such as regulating growth, metabolism, temperature and
reproductive development. Like the nervous system, the endocrine system acts as a
signaling pathway, although hormones are slower acting than nerve impulses.

Endocrine signals can last from a few hours to a few weeks. The main control center
for the organs in the endocrine system is the hypothalamus in the brain. The field of
medicine concerned with the endocrine system is known as endocrinology.

Key Facts

Hypothalamus
Borders: anteriorly -  anterior commissure, lamina terminalis, optic chiasm; posteroinferiorly -  posterior
perforated substance; inferiorly - infundibular stalk; superiorly -  hypothalamic sulcus and the base of the third
ventricle
Structure: chiasmatic region, tuberal region, mammillary bodies
Function: produces  releasing  and  inhibitng hormones  that affect the pituitary gland
Hormones: anti-diuretic (ADH), corticotropin-releasing (CRH), gonadotropin-releasing (GnRH), growth hormone-
releasing and -inhibiting (GHRH and GHIH), oxytocine, prolactine-releasing and -inhibiting (PRH and PIH),
thyrotropine-releasing (TRH)

Hypophysis
Location: pituitary fossa, connected to hypothalamus via infundibulum
Structure: adenohypophysis, neurohypophysis
Function: produces  stimulating-hormones  that affect endocrine glands of the body
Hormones of adenohypophysis: human-growth hormone (hGH), thyroid-stimulating (TSH), follicle-stimulating
(FSH), luteinizing (LH), prolactin (PRL), adenocorticotropic (ACTH), melanocyte-stimulating (MSH)
Hormones of neurohypophysis: oxytocin, antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
 

Pineal gland
Location: between superior colliculi
Function: regulates sleep-wake cycle
Hormone: melatonin

Thyroid gland
Location: anterior surface of neck at levels C5-T1
Structure: left lobe, right lobe, isthmus (connects the lobes)
Function: regulates metabolysm (by enhancing it)
Hormones: thyroxine (T4), triiodthyronine (T3), calcitonine

Parathyroid glands
Location: posteriorly to the lobes of thyroid gland
Function: regulates blood levels of calcium (by increasing it)
Hormone: parathyroid hormone

Endocrine pancreas and gastric mucosa

Location: Langerhans islets of the pancreatic tissue, gastric mucosa
Function: regulates blood levels of glucose, regulates digestion
Hormones: insulin, glucagone, gastrin, secretin, ghrelin, motilin, cholecystokinine, gastric inhibitory polypeptide

Adrenal glands
Location: superior poles of kidneys
Structure: adrenal cortex (secretes glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids), adrenal medulla (secretes biogene
amines)
Function: regulates blood pressure, electrolyte balance, stress response
Hormones: glucocorticoids - cortisol, corticosterone; mineralocorticoid - aldosteron; biogene amines -
epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine

Gonads
Function: regulates sexual development, behaviour and characteristics; regulates gametogenesis
Hormones of testes: testosterone
 Hormones of ovaries: estrogen, progesteron

Clinical relations
Hyperfunction, hypofunction, adenoma, carcinoma

This article will discuss all of the important anatomical and functional aspects of
endocrine system.

Contents

1. Organs of the Endocrine System

2. Hypothalamus
2.1. Borders
2.2. Structure
2.3. Function
3. Pituitary Gland
3.1. Location
3.2. Structure
3.3. Function
4. Pineal Gland
4.1. Location
4.2. Structure
4.3. Function
5. Thyroid Gland
5.1. Location
5.2. Structure
5.3. Function
6. Parathyroid Glands
6.1. Location and Characteristics
6.2. Function
7. Enteric Endocrine System
7.1. Pancreas
7.2. Function
8. Adrenal Glands
8.1. Location
8.2. Structure and Function
9. Reproductive
9.1. Testes
9.2. Ovaries
9.3. Functions  
 10. Highlights
11.  Related diagrams and images

Organs of the Endocrine System

Endocrine glands tend to be vascular and do not have ducts. Ducts are instead found
in exocrine glands, which produce hormonal signals outside of the body. The hormones
of endocrine glands are stored in vacuoles or granules, ready to be released.

Endocrine glands are found throughout the body and have a variety of different roles.
The key endocrine glands and organs are listed below:

Hypothalamus

Pineal gland

Pituitary gland

Thyroid gland

Parathyroid gland

Ovaries

Testes

Pancreas

Adrenal glands

Gastrointestinal tract
 02:01

Recommended video: Endocrine system

Main organs of the endocrine system.

Hypothalamus

Borders

The hypothalamus is an almond-sized structure in the limbic system of the brain, and
the endocrine system’s control center. Its borders are the following:

Anteriorly: anterior commissure, lamina terminalis, and optic chiasm

Posteroinferiorly: the posterior perforated substance

Inferiorly: the infundibular stalk

Superiorly: the hypothalamic sulcus and the base of the third ventricle

Structure

Anteroposteriorly, the hypothalamus can be


divided into three regions: chiasmatic, tuberal and
the region of the mammillary bodies. The
chiasmatic region lies immediately above the
optic chiasm (hence its name) and is related with
the circadian rhythm and the variations of the
endocrine secretion throughout the day. The
 
tuberal zone contains the tuber cinereum. This
mass of grey matter is located between the
mammillary bodies and the optic chiasma. The
infundibulum projects from the tuber cinereum,
becoming continuous with the posterior lobe of
the pituitary gland. A structure called the median  Hypothalamus 
eminence is separated from the base of the
infundibulum by a tuberoinfundibular sulcus.  And
finally the region of the mammillary bodies, which are hemispheral and pea sized
structures situated anteriorly to the posterior perforated substance. Their role is to
control memory and emotional expression.  

Mediolaterally, the hypothalamus can be divided again into three zones:

periventricular, intermediate and, lateral. The regions and zones contain and border
several hypothalamic nuclei, each one being responsible for particular functions.

Function

The hypothalamus controls the endocrine system via several pathways. These include
direct projections to the posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis), and indirect control
over the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) via projections to the median eminence
and via the autonomic nervous system. The hypothalamus carries out its control by
producing releasing or inhibiting hormones, known as neurohormones. Releasing
hormones stimulate the production of hormones in the pituitary gland, whilst
inhibiting hormones inhibit it.

The neurohormones produced by the hypothalamus to manipulate hormone

production by the pituitary gland include:

Anti-diuretic hormone (ADH): This increases water absorption in the kidneys.

Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH): This stimulates the release of

corticosteroids by the adrenal glands, regulating metabolism and immune response.  

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH): GnRH stimulates the production of follicle

stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH), which combine to maintain
ovary and testes functioning.

Growth hormone-releasing hormone (GHRH) or growth hormone-inhibiting

hormone (GHIH): GHRH prompts the release of growth hormone (GH),  whilst GHIH
has the opposite effect. In children, GH is essential to maintaining a healthy body
composition. In adults, it ensures healthy bone and muscle mass and is involved in
fat distribution.

Oxytocin: This is involved in the release of breast milk, orgasm, and smooth muscle
contraction. It also regulates body temperature by helping to redistribute heat, and
sleep cycles as increasing levels of oxytocin are thought to help induce sleep.

Prolactin-releasing hormone (PRH) or prolactin-inhibiting hormone (PIH): PRH

stimulates the production of breast milk, whilst PIH inhibits it. This can also be seen
in males too, although it is a sign of significant health issues.
 Thyrotropin releasing hormone (TRH): TRH triggers the release of thyroid
stimulating hormone (TSH), causing the release of thyroid hormones which regulate
metabolism, energy, growth, and development.

Pituitary Gland

Location

The pituitary gland (hypophysis cerebri) is a pea-sized, ovoid shaped structure attached
via the infundibulum to the tuber cinereum of hypothalamus. It is located within the
pituitary fossa (sella turcica) of the sphenoid bone. The diaphragma sellae of the dura
mater only partially encloses the gland within the fossa because it contains an
aperture for the infundibulum. A venous sinus separates the gland from floor of the
fossa.

 
 Pituitary gland (Glandula pituitaria) 

Structure

The pituitary gland has two main parts:


neurohypophysis and adenohypophysis. The
neurohypophysis is an actual downgrowth of the
diencephalon directly connected to the
hypothalamus. Both parts include the
infundibulum. The neurohypophysis incorporates
the stem of the infundibulum, which is a
 
continuation of the median eminence of the tuber
cinereum. It also contains the posterior (neural)
lobe. The adenohypophysis can be separated into
the pars intermedia (the boundary between the
two pituitary lobes) and the pars anterior
(anterior lobe), both forming a part of the  Adenohypophysis 
adenohypophysis. The adenohypophysis also
contains the pars tuberalis, a vascularized sheath
surrounding the stem of the infundibulum.

The main neurosecretory pathway through the neurohypophysis originates from the
supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus and terminates near the
sinusoids of the posterior lobe. As a result, hormones are released directly in the
circulation. Another group of neurons that end in the median eminence and
infundibular stem release the inhibitory and releasing hormones within the
hypophyseal portal system, ultimately controlling the secretory activity of the
adenohypophysis.

Function

The pituitary gland stores some of the hormones that the hypothalamus produces,
before releasing them into the blood. Out of the two lobes, the anterior lobe is larger,
making up 75% of the gland. It also has a larger role in the release of hormones,
although the posterior lobe still does some work.
The anterior lobe secretes a total of 7 different hormones into the bloodstream, which
are as follows:

Human-growth hormone (hGH): hGH stimulates tissue growth and protein synthesis
for tissue repair.

Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH): TSH causes hormone production by the thyroid

gland.

Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH): This causes estrogen production in females, as

well as the development of oocytes (immature egg cells). FSH also stimulates sperm
production in the testes .

Luteinizing hormone (LH): LH stimulates estrogen and progesterone production in

females, and testosterone production in males.

Prolactin (PRL): This stimulates milk production in the mammary glands.

Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): This is involved in the body’s stress response

and causes the production of cortisol in the adrenal cortex.

Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH): MSH can cause darkening of the skin. It may
also be involved in brain activity but its exact role in this is still unknown. The pars
intermedia manufactures MSH during fetal development.

Meanwhile, the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland is only involved in the release of
two hormones; oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH). Oxytocin is involved in
childbirth, milk production, and orgasm. ADH is important in reducing water loss by
decreasing urination and sweating, therefore increasing blood pressure.  

Pineal Gland

Location

Along with the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, the pineal gland (epiphysis cerebri) is
found in the brain. It is a small organ located in a depression between the superior
colliculi, inferiorly to the splenium of the corpus callosum. The gland is enclosed within
the lower layer of tela choroidea of the third ventricle.

Structure

The pineal gland has a base that is directed


anteriorly and is divided into a superior and
inferior laminae by the pineal stalk, which also
serves as a point of attachment to the roof of the
third ventricle. The laminae contain the posterior
and habenular commissures, respectively.  
The gland parenchyma is highly vascularized and
divided into lobules by several septa, which also
carry blood vessels and sympathetic nerves.
These adrenergic sympathetic axons originate
from the tentorium cerebelli and enter the gland
as the nervus conarii. The pineal gland
 Pineal gland (Glandula pinealis) 
parenchyma consists mainly of pinealocytes. The
pineal stalk consists mostly of glia.

Function

The pineal gland has a more specific function, being involved only in the secretion of
the hormone melatonin. It is released from bulbous expansions of the cell bodies of
pinealocytes. This hormone is involved in both sexual development and the sleep-
wake cycle. In terms of reproductive development, melatonin blocks the secretion of
gonadotropins (FSH and LH) from the pituitary glands.

Melatonin also regulates the sleep-wake cycle by reacting to the amount of light
hitting the retina. The retina relays this information to the hypothalamus, which in turn
sends information to the pineal gland. The pineal gland secretes melatonin depending
on the amount of light hitting the retina. The less light there is, the more melatonin is
produced, inducing sleep.
 02:01

Recommended video: Pineal gland

Anatomy and function of the pineal gland.

Thyroid Gland

Location

The thyroid and parathyroid glands are endocrine glands at the base of the neck. The
thyroid gland is the largest gland of the endocrine system. It is located in the anterior
portion of the neck at the level of the C5-T1 vertebrae, deep to the sternothyroid and
sternohyoid muscles.

Structure

It consists of two lobes, right and left, which


ascend upwards to the thyroid cartilage, joined
together by an isthmus. The lobes are
anterolaterally in relation to the larynx and
trachea, while the isthmus is anterior to the
second and third tracheal rings. In some
individuals, a conical pyramidal lobe ascends from
 
the isthmus towards the hyoid bone.

The thyroid gland is enclosed inside a fibrous

capsule, which is attached to the cricoid cartilage
and tracheal rings by dense connective tissue. The
fibrous capsule itself is enclosed in a loose sheath  Right lobe of the thyroid gland
(Lobus dexter glandulae thyroideae) 
of fascia. The gland is highly vascularised. The
arteries supplying it are the superior and inferior
thyroid arteries, which lie between the fibrous capsule and the sheath of fascia.
Venous drainage of the gland is via the superior, middle and inferior pairs of thyroid
veins, which form the thyroid plexus of veins. Innervation is from the cervical
sympathetic ganglia, as well as parasympathetic fibers from the vagus nerves.

Function
The thyroid gland is important in regulating metabolism. It  produces 2 important
metabolic hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). T4 contains 4 iodine
atoms, whilst T3 contains 3 iodine atoms. T3 and T4 both affect the body’s metabolism
by influencing protein production of every cell in the body. This protein production in
turn affects tissue growth, temperature, energy use, and heart rate.  The thyroid gland
also produces calcitonin, which is an antagonist to parathyroid hormone.

Parathyroid Glands

Location and Characteristics

The parathyroid glands (usually 4 in total) are


small, flattened, and oval structures located on
the posterior surface of each lobe of the thyroid
gland. They normally lie between the fibrous
capsule of the thyroid gland and its external
fascial sheath.
 
The glands are separated into two superior and
two inferior ones. The location of the superior
parathyroid glands is quite constant, at the level
of the inferior border of the cricoid cartilage, 1 cm
superior to the entry point of the inferior thyroid
arteries into the thyroid gland. The inferior  Parathyroid gland (Glandula
parathyroidea) 
parathyroid glands are usually situated near the
inferior poles of the thyroid gland but have a
more varied location.

Arteries supplying the parathyroid glands branch from the inferior thyroid arteries.
Venous drainage is via parathyroid veins which subsequently drain into the thyroid
venous plexus. Innervation is from the parasympathetic fibers from the vagus nerves,
similar to the thyroid gland.  

Function

The parathyroid glands maintain calcium levels in the blood by producing parathyroid
hormone.  Together with  calcitonin, these two hormones  maintain the level of calcium
ions in the blood, which is important in bone health, as well as muscle and nervous
system function.
Enteric Endocrine System

The gastrointestinal tract itself can produce hormones and is known as the enteric
endocrine system. Hormone secreting cells are dispersed throughout the lining of the
stomach and small intestine. These cells do not produce hormones continuously,
instead they do so in response to the environment inside the stomach and intestine,
reacting to the amount of food moving through.

Pancreas

The pancreas is particularly important in the enteric endocrine system, as it releases

the hormones insulin and glucagon, which regulate blood sugar levels. The pancreas is
an accessory digestive gland. It crosses the bodies of the L1 and L2 vertebrae
transversely. The pancreas is situated anteriorly to the stomach and between the
duodenum on the right and the spleen on the left. Its anterior margin is in contact
with the transverse mesocolon.

This gland has four parts: a head, neck, body, and tail.

The head is attached to the descending and


horizontal parts of the duodenum, embracing it
in a C-shaped fashion. The uncinate process is an
inferior projection from the head, which extends
posterior to the superior mesenteric artery
(SMA).
 
The short neck of the pancreas is covered by
peritoneum and is located adjacent to the
pylorus of the stomach. The hepatic portal vein
is formed posterior to it, by the joining of the
splenic vein and the superior mesenteric vein
(SMV).  Pancreas 
The body of the pancreas continues transversely
from the neck, passing anteriorly to the aorta and L2 vertebra and posterior to the
omental bursa. The anterior surface is covered by peritoneum and also forms part of
the stomach bed.

The tail is situated anterior to the left kidney and it is an intraperitoneal structure. It
is closely related to the hilum of the spleen and the left colic flexure.
Running from the tail to the head, through the parenchyma, is the main pancreatic
duct. It joins the common bile duct, just outside the duodenum, forming the short
hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla of Vater). This structure opens into the descending
part of the duodenum. The hepatopancreatic sphincter (sphincter of Oddi) prevents
the reflux of duodenal content into the ampulla. The main pancreatic duct also
contains a sphincter that controls the flow inside it.

The blood supply is via pancreatic arteries, which branch off several vessels located
nearby. Venous drainage is via pancreatic veins and most of these empty in the splenic
vein. Innervation of the pancreas is from the vagus and abdominopelvic splanchnic
nerves.  

Function

There are six key gastrointestinal hormones:

Gastrin: This is stimulated by the presence of peptides and amino acids in the gastric
lumen, and is important in the secretion of gastric acid.

Secretin: This is produced in response to acidic pH levels, and causes the production
of water and bicarbonate from the pancreas and bile duct to help increase pH again.

Ghrelin: Ghrelin stimulates appetite and feeding.

Motilin: Motilin is involved in movement and contractions of the gastrointestinal

tract.

Cholecystokinin: This stimulates the secretion of pancreatic enzymes and emptying

of the gallbladder in response to an increase in fatty acids and amino acids in the
small intestine.

Gastric inhibitory polypeptide: This prevents gastric movement and secretions, and
causes the release of insulin in response to an increase in glucose and fat in the
small intestine.
 02:01

Recommended video: Pancreas in situ

Pancreas in situ seen from the anterior view.

Adrenal Glands

Location

The adrenal (suprarenal) glands are two triangular


shaped glands found on top of the kidneys. They
have a yellowish appearance and are located
between the superomedial aspects of the kidneys
and the diaphragm. The glands are surrounded by
renal fascia, which also provide an attachment
point to the crura of the diaphragm. A septum
 
separates the glands from the kidneys. The two
glands are not identical. The right one is more
pyramidal and apical, while the left one is more
crescent-shaped. They also have slightly different
positions and relations. Veins and lymphatic
vessels enter and leave each gland via the hilum.  Adrenal gland (Glandula suprarenalis) 
The blood supply to the adrenal glands is via
superior, middle, and inferior suprarenal arteries. Venous drainage is via the right and
left suprarenal veins, which subsequently drain into the inferior vena cava and left
renal vein, respectively. Innervation is from the celiac plexus and abdominopelvic
splanchnic nerves.

Structure and Function

The glands are divided into two parts; the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla. The
adrenal cortex is the outer part of an adrenal gland, and produces hormones vital to
life such as glucocorticoids - the horomes  hydrocortisone  (cortisol), and
corticosterone. Hydrocortisone regulates energy production, blood pressure, and heart
function. Corticosterone plays a role in immune responses and reduction in
inflammation. The adrenal cortex also produces aldosterone, which controls blood
pressure.

The adrenal medulla is the inner portion of the gland. It is actually a mass of nervous
tissue containing many capillaries and sinusoids. The medulla produces hormones such
as adrenaline. The adrenal medulla helps the body deal with stress by producing two
hormones, epinephrine and norepinephrine. Epinephrine is more commonly known as
adrenaline and is involved in the body’s fight or flight response, increasing heart rate
and blood glucose levels, and causing an increase in blood flow to the brain and
muscles. Norepinephrine works with adrenaline, by constricting blood vessels and
increasing blood pressure during the stress response.

Reproductive

Testes

The endocrine organs in the reproductive systems


are the ovaries and testes, in females and males
respectively. The testes are paired ovoid glands
that produce spermatozoa and the male
hormones, mainly testosterone. Each testis is
suspended in the scrotum by its own spermatic
cord, the left one hanging more inferiorly than
 
the right one, mostly due to the length of the
spermatic cord. The testes are almost completely
covered by the visceral layer of the tunica
vaginalis, a closed peritoneal sac. A recess in the
tunica vaginalis represents the sinus of the
epididymis. The tunica vaginalis also has a parietal  Testis 
layer, which is adjacent to the internal spermatic
fascia. A fluid filled cavity is located between the
visceral and parietal layers, conveying some degree of mobility for the testes.

The testes have a tough fibrous outer surface called the tunica albuginea. On the
internal, posterior aspect of the fibrous there is a ridge called the mediastinum of the
testis. Fibrous septa extend from this ridge between lobules formed by seminiferous
tubules. Spermatozoa are produced inside these tubes. Straight tubules join the
seminiferous tubules to the rete testis, which are canals situated in the mediastinum
of the testes.

These glands receive their blood supply from the testicular arteries, originating from
the abdominal aorta. The venous drainage is via the pampiniform venous plexus, which
surrounds the testicular artery. The plexi of each testis join to form the left and right
testicular veins. They drain into the left renal vein and inferior vena cava, respectively.
Innervation of the testes is via the testicular plexus, which originates from the renal
and aortic plexi.

Ovaries

The ovaries are almond-shaped glands in which


oocytes develop and produce the female
hormones. Each one is suspended by the
mesovarium, a peritoneal fold subdivision of the
broad ligament of the uterus. Before puberty, the
surface of the ovary is covered by the ovarian
mesothelium, also known as surface epithelium,
 
giving it a shiny appearance. This structure
consists of a single layer of cuboidal cells. After
puberty, the surface of the ovary becomes
scarred due to ovulation, which involves ruptures
of ovarian follicles and oocyte discharge.
 Ovary (Ovarium) 
The ovaries lie suspended inside the pelvic cavity
on each side of the uterus, close to the lateral
wall of the pelvis. Specifically, they are located inside the ovarian fossa. Attached to
the superolateral aspect of the ovary is the suspensory ligament of the ovary. This is a
peritoneal fold enclosing the ovarian vessels, lymphatics, and nerves, which become
continuous with the mesovarium. The ligament of the ovary passes through the
mesovarium, keeping the ovary attached to the uterus. It is the remnant of the ovarian
gubernaculum of the fetus.

Blood supply to the ovaries is via the ovarian arteries arising from the abdominal aorta.
Venous drainage is via the pampiniform venous plexus inside the broad ligament. The
veins from the plexus join to form the ovarian veins, which accompany the ovarian
arteries. The right ovarian vein drains in the inferior vena cava, while the left one drains
in the left renal vein. Innervation is from the ovarian plexus.

Functions  
Sex hormones are produced in these organs as a result of LH and FSH production by
the pituitary gland. The hormones they produce are important in sexual development,
reproduction, and regulation of the menstrual cycle.

The two key hormones produced by the ovaries are estrogen and progesterone. Their
production is triggered by the release of hormones by the hypothalamus. There are
three types of estrogen: estradiol, estrone, and estriol. These combine to ensure
healthy sexual development and fertility. Estradiol is important in breast development,
fat distribution, and development of the reproductive organs. Progesterone is most
important during pregnancy and ovulation, where it ensures that the lining of the
uterus is suitable for foetus growth.

In males, testosterone is produced by the testes. Testosterone enhances bone

growth, hair growth, and the development of sexual organs during puberty.
Testosterone is also important in increasing muscle strength.

02:01

Recommended video: Uterus and ovaries

Structures of the uterus and ovaries seen with uterus straightened.

 Highlights
The endocrine system is a collection of glands that secrete a variety of
hormones, which travel to specific target organs via the
bloodstream.  Endocrine glands tend to be vascular and do not have
ducts. The hormones of endocrine glands are stored in vacuoles or granules,
ready to be released.

The hypothalamus is the endocrine system's control center. It can be divided

into chiasmatic, tuberal and mammillary bodies regions. Its control over the
endocrine system is via direct projections to the neurohypophysis and
indirect ones to the adenohypophysis.

The pituitary gland is located within the pituitary fossa, partially covered by
the diaphragma sellae. It is divided into an anterior lobe (adenohypophysis)
and a posterior lobe (neurohypophysis). The secretion of the hypophysis is
controlled directly by the hypothalamus via tracts to the neurohypophysis
and indirectly, via the hypophyseal portal system, to the adenohypophysis.

The pineal gland is located at the level of the superior colliculi. It consists of
pinealocytes that produce melatonin, an important hormone in the sleep-
wake cycle. 

The thyroid gland is the largest endocrine gland and it is located in the neck
at the level of C5-T1 vertebrae. It consists of two lobes joined together by an
isthmus. It produces the hormones thyroxine, triiodothyronine and calcitonin.

The parathyroid glands are located on the posterior surface of the thyroid
gland. There are two superior and two inferior ones. These glands produce
the parathyroid hormone.

The enteric endocrine system is located in the gastrointestinal tract. The

pancreas comprises an important part of it, secreting the hormones insulin
and glucagon. This gland has a head, a neck, a body and a tail. It releases its
hormones within the main pancreatic duct, which opens in the duodenum. 

The adrenal glands are located on top of the kidneys, from which they are
separated by a septum. The glands consist of an outer part (adrenal cortex)
and inner part (adrenal medulla). The adrenal cortex produces glucocorticoids,
while the adrenal medulla produces adrenaline and epinephrine.

The testes and ovaries are considered as the endocrine organs of the
reproductive systems. The testes produce spermatozoa and mainly the
hormone testosterone. They are suspended in the scrotum by the spermatic
cord. The ovaries are the site for oocyte development and the production of
 estrogen and progesterone hormones. The ovaries are located in the ovarian
fossa.

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 Related diagrams and images

Endocrine system