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WWW Kenhub Com en Library Anatomy Endocrine System
WWW Kenhub Com en Library Anatomy Endocrine System
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Endocrine signals can last from a few hours to a few weeks. The main control center
for the organs in the endocrine system is the hypothalamus in the brain. The field of
medicine concerned with the endocrine system is known as endocrinology.
Key Facts
Hypothalamus
Borders: anteriorly - anterior commissure, lamina terminalis, optic chiasm; posteroinferiorly - posterior
perforated substance; inferiorly - infundibular stalk; superiorly - hypothalamic sulcus and the base of the third
ventricle
Structure: chiasmatic region, tuberal region, mammillary bodies
Function: produces releasing and inhibitng hormones that affect the pituitary gland
Hormones: anti-diuretic (ADH), corticotropin-releasing (CRH), gonadotropin-releasing (GnRH), growth hormone-
releasing and -inhibiting (GHRH and GHIH), oxytocine, prolactine-releasing and -inhibiting (PRH and PIH),
thyrotropine-releasing (TRH)
Hypophysis
Location: pituitary fossa, connected to hypothalamus via infundibulum
Structure: adenohypophysis, neurohypophysis
Function: produces stimulating-hormones that affect endocrine glands of the body
Hormones of adenohypophysis: human-growth hormone (hGH), thyroid-stimulating (TSH), follicle-stimulating
(FSH), luteinizing (LH), prolactin (PRL), adenocorticotropic (ACTH), melanocyte-stimulating (MSH)
Hormones of neurohypophysis: oxytocin, antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
Pineal gland
Location: between superior colliculi
Function: regulates sleep-wake cycle
Hormone: melatonin
Thyroid gland
Location: anterior surface of neck at levels C5-T1
Structure: left lobe, right lobe, isthmus (connects the lobes)
Function: regulates metabolysm (by enhancing it)
Hormones: thyroxine (T4), triiodthyronine (T3), calcitonine
Parathyroid glands
Location: posteriorly to the lobes of thyroid gland
Function: regulates blood levels of calcium (by increasing it)
Hormone: parathyroid hormone
Adrenal glands
Location: superior poles of kidneys
Structure: adrenal cortex (secretes glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids), adrenal medulla (secretes biogene
amines)
Function: regulates blood pressure, electrolyte balance, stress response
Hormones: glucocorticoids - cortisol, corticosterone; mineralocorticoid - aldosteron; biogene amines -
epinephrine, norepinephrine, dopamine
Gonads
Function: regulates sexual development, behaviour and characteristics; regulates gametogenesis
Hormones of testes: testosterone
Hormones of ovaries: estrogen, progesteron
Clinical relations
Hyperfunction, hypofunction, adenoma, carcinoma
This article will discuss all of the important anatomical and functional aspects of
endocrine system.
Contents
Endocrine glands tend to be vascular and do not have ducts. Ducts are instead found
in exocrine glands, which produce hormonal signals outside of the body. The hormones
of endocrine glands are stored in vacuoles or granules, ready to be released.
Endocrine glands are found throughout the body and have a variety of different roles.
The key endocrine glands and organs are listed below:
Hypothalamus
Pineal gland
Pituitary gland
Thyroid gland
Parathyroid gland
Ovaries
Testes
Pancreas
Adrenal glands
Gastrointestinal tract
02:01
Hypothalamus
Borders
The hypothalamus is an almond-sized structure in the limbic system of the brain, and
the endocrine system’s control center. Its borders are the following:
Superiorly: the hypothalamic sulcus and the base of the third ventricle
Structure
Function
The hypothalamus controls the endocrine system via several pathways. These include
direct projections to the posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis), and indirect control
over the anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) via projections to the median eminence
and via the autonomic nervous system. The hypothalamus carries out its control by
producing releasing or inhibiting hormones, known as neurohormones. Releasing
hormones stimulate the production of hormones in the pituitary gland, whilst
inhibiting hormones inhibit it.
Oxytocin: This is involved in the release of breast milk, orgasm, and smooth muscle
contraction. It also regulates body temperature by helping to redistribute heat, and
sleep cycles as increasing levels of oxytocin are thought to help induce sleep.
Pituitary Gland
Location
The pituitary gland (hypophysis cerebri) is a pea-sized, ovoid shaped structure attached
via the infundibulum to the tuber cinereum of hypothalamus. It is located within the
pituitary fossa (sella turcica) of the sphenoid bone. The diaphragma sellae of the dura
mater only partially encloses the gland within the fossa because it contains an
aperture for the infundibulum. A venous sinus separates the gland from floor of the
fossa.
Pituitary gland (Glandula pituitaria)
Structure
The main neurosecretory pathway through the neurohypophysis originates from the
supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei of the hypothalamus and terminates near the
sinusoids of the posterior lobe. As a result, hormones are released directly in the
circulation. Another group of neurons that end in the median eminence and
infundibular stem release the inhibitory and releasing hormones within the
hypophyseal portal system, ultimately controlling the secretory activity of the
adenohypophysis.
Function
The pituitary gland stores some of the hormones that the hypothalamus produces,
before releasing them into the blood. Out of the two lobes, the anterior lobe is larger,
making up 75% of the gland. It also has a larger role in the release of hormones,
although the posterior lobe still does some work.
The anterior lobe secretes a total of 7 different hormones into the bloodstream, which
are as follows:
Human-growth hormone (hGH): hGH stimulates tissue growth and protein synthesis
for tissue repair.
Melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH): MSH can cause darkening of the skin. It may
also be involved in brain activity but its exact role in this is still unknown. The pars
intermedia manufactures MSH during fetal development.
Meanwhile, the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland is only involved in the release of
two hormones; oxytocin and antidiuretic hormone (ADH). Oxytocin is involved in
childbirth, milk production, and orgasm. ADH is important in reducing water loss by
decreasing urination and sweating, therefore increasing blood pressure.
Pineal Gland
Location
Along with the hypothalamus and pituitary gland, the pineal gland (epiphysis cerebri) is
found in the brain. It is a small organ located in a depression between the superior
colliculi, inferiorly to the splenium of the corpus callosum. The gland is enclosed within
the lower layer of tela choroidea of the third ventricle.
Structure
Function
The pineal gland has a more specific function, being involved only in the secretion of
the hormone melatonin. It is released from bulbous expansions of the cell bodies of
pinealocytes. This hormone is involved in both sexual development and the sleep-
wake cycle. In terms of reproductive development, melatonin blocks the secretion of
gonadotropins (FSH and LH) from the pituitary glands.
Melatonin also regulates the sleep-wake cycle by reacting to the amount of light
hitting the retina. The retina relays this information to the hypothalamus, which in turn
sends information to the pineal gland. The pineal gland secretes melatonin depending
on the amount of light hitting the retina. The less light there is, the more melatonin is
produced, inducing sleep.
02:01
Thyroid Gland
Location
The thyroid and parathyroid glands are endocrine glands at the base of the neck. The
thyroid gland is the largest gland of the endocrine system. It is located in the anterior
portion of the neck at the level of the C5-T1 vertebrae, deep to the sternothyroid and
sternohyoid muscles.
Structure
Function
The thyroid gland is important in regulating metabolism. It produces 2 important
metabolic hormones, thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyronine (T3). T4 contains 4 iodine
atoms, whilst T3 contains 3 iodine atoms. T3 and T4 both affect the body’s metabolism
by influencing protein production of every cell in the body. This protein production in
turn affects tissue growth, temperature, energy use, and heart rate. The thyroid gland
also produces calcitonin, which is an antagonist to parathyroid hormone.
Parathyroid Glands
Arteries supplying the parathyroid glands branch from the inferior thyroid arteries.
Venous drainage is via parathyroid veins which subsequently drain into the thyroid
venous plexus. Innervation is from the parasympathetic fibers from the vagus nerves,
similar to the thyroid gland.
Function
The parathyroid glands maintain calcium levels in the blood by producing parathyroid
hormone. Together with calcitonin, these two hormones maintain the level of calcium
ions in the blood, which is important in bone health, as well as muscle and nervous
system function.
Enteric Endocrine System
The gastrointestinal tract itself can produce hormones and is known as the enteric
endocrine system. Hormone secreting cells are dispersed throughout the lining of the
stomach and small intestine. These cells do not produce hormones continuously,
instead they do so in response to the environment inside the stomach and intestine,
reacting to the amount of food moving through.
Pancreas
This gland has four parts: a head, neck, body, and tail.
The tail is situated anterior to the left kidney and it is an intraperitoneal structure. It
is closely related to the hilum of the spleen and the left colic flexure.
Running from the tail to the head, through the parenchyma, is the main pancreatic
duct. It joins the common bile duct, just outside the duodenum, forming the short
hepatopancreatic ampulla (ampulla of Vater). This structure opens into the descending
part of the duodenum. The hepatopancreatic sphincter (sphincter of Oddi) prevents
the reflux of duodenal content into the ampulla. The main pancreatic duct also
contains a sphincter that controls the flow inside it.
The blood supply is via pancreatic arteries, which branch off several vessels located
nearby. Venous drainage is via pancreatic veins and most of these empty in the splenic
vein. Innervation of the pancreas is from the vagus and abdominopelvic splanchnic
nerves.
Function
Gastrin: This is stimulated by the presence of peptides and amino acids in the gastric
lumen, and is important in the secretion of gastric acid.
Secretin: This is produced in response to acidic pH levels, and causes the production
of water and bicarbonate from the pancreas and bile duct to help increase pH again.
Gastric inhibitory polypeptide: This prevents gastric movement and secretions, and
causes the release of insulin in response to an increase in glucose and fat in the
small intestine.
02:01
Adrenal Glands
Location
The glands are divided into two parts; the adrenal cortex and the adrenal medulla. The
adrenal cortex is the outer part of an adrenal gland, and produces hormones vital to
life such as glucocorticoids - the horomes hydrocortisone (cortisol), and
corticosterone. Hydrocortisone regulates energy production, blood pressure, and heart
function. Corticosterone plays a role in immune responses and reduction in
inflammation. The adrenal cortex also produces aldosterone, which controls blood
pressure.
The adrenal medulla is the inner portion of the gland. It is actually a mass of nervous
tissue containing many capillaries and sinusoids. The medulla produces hormones such
as adrenaline. The adrenal medulla helps the body deal with stress by producing two
hormones, epinephrine and norepinephrine. Epinephrine is more commonly known as
adrenaline and is involved in the body’s fight or flight response, increasing heart rate
and blood glucose levels, and causing an increase in blood flow to the brain and
muscles. Norepinephrine works with adrenaline, by constricting blood vessels and
increasing blood pressure during the stress response.
Reproductive
Testes
The testes have a tough fibrous outer surface called the tunica albuginea. On the
internal, posterior aspect of the fibrous there is a ridge called the mediastinum of the
testis. Fibrous septa extend from this ridge between lobules formed by seminiferous
tubules. Spermatozoa are produced inside these tubes. Straight tubules join the
seminiferous tubules to the rete testis, which are canals situated in the mediastinum
of the testes.
These glands receive their blood supply from the testicular arteries, originating from
the abdominal aorta. The venous drainage is via the pampiniform venous plexus, which
surrounds the testicular artery. The plexi of each testis join to form the left and right
testicular veins. They drain into the left renal vein and inferior vena cava, respectively.
Innervation of the testes is via the testicular plexus, which originates from the renal
and aortic plexi.
Ovaries
Blood supply to the ovaries is via the ovarian arteries arising from the abdominal aorta.
Venous drainage is via the pampiniform venous plexus inside the broad ligament. The
veins from the plexus join to form the ovarian veins, which accompany the ovarian
arteries. The right ovarian vein drains in the inferior vena cava, while the left one drains
in the left renal vein. Innervation is from the ovarian plexus.
Functions
Sex hormones are produced in these organs as a result of LH and FSH production by
the pituitary gland. The hormones they produce are important in sexual development,
reproduction, and regulation of the menstrual cycle.
The two key hormones produced by the ovaries are estrogen and progesterone. Their
production is triggered by the release of hormones by the hypothalamus. There are
three types of estrogen: estradiol, estrone, and estriol. These combine to ensure
healthy sexual development and fertility. Estradiol is important in breast development,
fat distribution, and development of the reproductive organs. Progesterone is most
important during pregnancy and ovulation, where it ensures that the lining of the
uterus is suitable for foetus growth.
02:01
Highlights
The endocrine system is a collection of glands that secrete a variety of
hormones, which travel to specific target organs via the
bloodstream. Endocrine glands tend to be vascular and do not have
ducts. The hormones of endocrine glands are stored in vacuoles or granules,
ready to be released.
The pituitary gland is located within the pituitary fossa, partially covered by
the diaphragma sellae. It is divided into an anterior lobe (adenohypophysis)
and a posterior lobe (neurohypophysis). The secretion of the hypophysis is
controlled directly by the hypothalamus via tracts to the neurohypophysis
and indirectly, via the hypophyseal portal system, to the adenohypophysis.
The pineal gland is located at the level of the superior colliculi. It consists of
pinealocytes that produce melatonin, an important hormone in the sleep-
wake cycle.
The thyroid gland is the largest endocrine gland and it is located in the neck
at the level of C5-T1 vertebrae. It consists of two lobes joined together by an
isthmus. It produces the hormones thyroxine, triiodothyronine and calcitonin.
The parathyroid glands are located on the posterior surface of the thyroid
gland. There are two superior and two inferior ones. These glands produce
the parathyroid hormone.
The adrenal glands are located on top of the kidneys, from which they are
separated by a septum. The glands consist of an outer part (adrenal cortex)
and inner part (adrenal medulla). The adrenal cortex produces glucocorticoids,
while the adrenal medulla produces adrenaline and epinephrine.
The testes and ovaries are considered as the endocrine organs of the
reproductive systems. The testes produce spermatozoa and mainly the
hormone testosterone. They are suspended in the scrotum by the spermatic
cord. The ovaries are the site for oocyte development and the production of
estrogen and progesterone hormones. The ovaries are located in the ovarian
fossa.
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Show references
Endocrine system