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Computing Notes-A Levels Tsambe
Computing Notes-A Levels Tsambe
MODULE
‘A’ LEVEL
ZIMSEC SYLLABUS
Compiled by Kapondeni T.
Chapter 2: Databases 17
Database Terms 17
Building Block Of Computerised Databases 17
Types Of Databases (Database Models) 18
Database Management System (DBMS) 21
Communicating With The Database 23
User Interfaces 23
DBMS Structure (Views/Schema) 25
Data Independence 27
The Database Administrator (DBA) 28
Distributed Database 29
Relational Database Vs Flat File 31
Structured Query Language 32
Database Normalisation 33
Database Relationships 37
Data Security 40
Chapter 4: Algorithms 70
Descriptions: 70
Pseudocodes: 70
Recursion 77
Programming Errors 78
Interpreting And Testing Programs 78
Data Testing 80
Program Testing 80
Networking 159
Types Of Networks 159
Network Topology (Configuration) 162
Media Access Methods 166
Polling Access Method 168
This is a process of identifying problems of an existing system by analysing it and finding the best
solution to such a problem.
System users or the manager would have realized that the Information system is no longer reflective
of or satisfying the existing business aims and objectives. This problem could be triggered by many
factors, some of which are:
i. System users: they may be dissatisfied with the current system since they are the ones who operate
it. They will the sent requests to have a new system or some modification to the existing one.
ii. Top management: they may issue directives in order to meet new organisational objectives. It can
also be due to change in management (new manager), new requirements, etc.
iii. The need for improved operating efficiency: Errors in the existing systems may be intolerable,
especially to customers.
iv. Changes in technology: new hardware and software may force organisations to change their
ways of operation.
v. Change of government policies: new government laws and policies can force organisations to
change their systems
vi. The user could have changed his/her mind
Vii. The business might have expanded or due to other reasons
The systems analyst now needs to examine whether the said problem is real by carrying out an in-
depth study, after getting permission to conduct a feasibility study.
1. Feasibility Study:
-This is a preliminary investigation conducted to determine if there is need for a new system or
modification of the existing one.
-The Analyst examines whether a new system is feasible or not.
He assesses the magnitude of this problem and decides the scope of the project.
He examines the problem of the current system and what will be required of the new system.
-It involves evaluation of systems requests from users to determine if it is feasible to construct a new
one. Feasibility can be measured by its:
Economic feasibility: determining whether the benefits of the new system will out-weigh the
estimated cost involved in developing, purchasing, installing and maintenance of the new
system. The cost benefits analysis is important. Benefits can be tangible and quantifiable, e.g.
profits in terms of monetary values, fewer processing errors, increased production, increased
response time, etc. Other benefits are intangible, e.g. improved customer goodwill, employee
morale, job satisfaction, better service to the community, etc.
Technical feasibility: determines if the organisation can obtain software, equipment,
technology and personnel to develop, install and operate the system effectively.
Schedule feasibility: a measure of how long the system will take to develop, considering the
desired time frame.
Social feasibility: Will the system be acceptable by the local people, considering their values
and norms in their society? This also looks at impacts like loss of jobs,
Legal feasibility: determines whether the new system will not violet the legal requirements of
the state, for instance, laws outlined in the Data Protection Act.
Operational feasibility: determines whether the current work practices and procedures are
adequate to support the system, e.g. effects on social lives of those affected by the system
Thus the analyst must consider the following questions when producing a feasibility study:
- Is the solution technically possible?
- Is the solution economically possible to produce?
- Is the solution economic to run?
- Will the solution be socially acceptable?
- Is skilled workforce available? If not, are training requirements feasible
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- How will the system affect employees
- Will profits increase?
- How long will it take to produce the system?
- etc
After carrying out the feasibility study, a feasibility study report must be produced and it contains the
following information:
A brief description of the business.
Advantages and problems of the existing system.
Objectives of the new system.
Evaluation of the alternative solutions.
Development timetable.
Management summary
Terms of reference. Contents page.
Proposed solution, its advantages and disadvantages
2. DATA COLLECTION
The systems analyst collects data about the system. The fact finding methods that can be used
include: interviews, record inspection, questionnaire, observations, etc.
i. Interview:
This refers to the face-to-face communication between two or more people in order to obtain
information. Interviews can also be done over the phone but the most common ones are face to face.
Interviews are done when you want to collect information from a very small population sample.
Advantages of Interviews
Effective when gathering information about a system
The researcher can ask for clarification on some points that may not be clear.
Encourages good rapport between the researcher and the respondent.
Non-verbal gestures like facial expressions can help the researcher to determine if the
respondent is telling the truth.
Information can be collected even from the illiterate since the respondent’s language could be
used.
First-hand information is collected.
The researcher can probe to get more information.
Disadvantages of Interviews
It is expensive since the researcher has to travel to the interview venue.
Difficult to remain anonymous
It is time consuming as more time is spent travelling and carrying out the interview.
Good interview techniques are required as failure may lead to disappointments.
Biased information can be given since the respondent may not tell the truth.
iii. Questionnaire:
A document with carefully crafted questions to be answered by the respondent by filling on the
spaces provided. Questionnaires are used when collecting information from a widely spaced
population sample and when collecting information from many people. A questionnaire contains
open-ended and closed questions. Open-ended questions are gap filling questions which require the
respondent to express his or her own view. Closed questions are guided questions where the
respondent just chooses Yes or No, True or False, or by just putting a tick on given options.
Questionnaires can be distributed personally or by post.
Advantages of questionnaires
Effective when collecting a lot of data
Questions are very simple to answer.
It saves time as questionnaires can be distributes and then collected later.
Respondents can fill questionnaires at their own pace.
Give guarantees confidential of information, thereby encouraging respondents to give
accurate information.
They are cheap to use as travel expense can be low
Disadvantages of questionnaires
Questions must be well thought out and precise.
Some questions are left blank.
Some questionnaires may not be returned. Biased information can be collected.
Respondents usually do not fill the correct information.
It is difficult to analyse information collect using questionnaires.
They are expensive to use if the postal system is used.
Abusive information can be filled by respondents.
iv. Observations:
It is a fact finding method that involves viewing the actual system in operation by the researcher. The
researcher can even take part in operating the system. It is used when the researcher wants to see for
himself how the system operates.
Advantages of observations
First-hand information is collected.
May identify problems that the users did not see
Accurate information can be obtained.
More reliable information is obtained.
Only areas of interest can be observed.
The researcher can take part in operating the system thereby getting insight on how the
system operates.
Disadvantages of observations
People work differently if they feel that they are being observed, therefore inaccurate
information can be collected.
The researcher may not understand some of the activities being observed.
It is time consuming to collect the required information.
The researcher may interrupt some of the activities being done.
More expensive than other methods
Dataflow Diagrams
These are diagrams that show how data moves between external sources, through processes and data
stores of a particular system. Dataflow diagrams use the following symbols:
4. Design Stage:
This stage is concerned with the development of the new computer based solution as specified by the
analysis stage. The hardware and software requirements are identified and purchased, ready for the
construction stage.
Functional diagrams are translated into hierarchical diagrams by the analyst so as to identify what
programs are needed and how they relate to one another. The analyst decides on the program
structure, program interface and the hierarchy in which programs will be arranged.
The Analyst ensures quality designs, incorporates security measures, designs easy to use input forms,
output reports interfaces.
The Database designer fulfills the file requirements. The output is a design specification.
Tools used are DFD, Data Dictionary, Data models, prototypes, system flowcharts: The personnel
involved are users, Analysts, Database Designer.
Design stage involves:
Input Design: includes designing of data entry forms, input methods (e.g. by filling forms, use of
barcodes, etc) and the user interface.
Output Design: Includes design of reports, data output formats, screen displays and other printed
documents like receipts, etc
File design: Involves designing tables/files, records and validation rules. It also involves determining
how data is to be stored and accessed, the media to be used for storage and the mode of file
organisation. Fields in each files can be designed, their length and data type, e.g.
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File Name: Student File
Storage Location: Hard Disk
Mode of Access: Direct/Random
File Structure:
PROTOTYPING
Involves building a working but limited model of a new system that will be tested, evaluated and
improved if necessary before building the actual system. It involves construction of a simple version
of a program which is used as part of the design to demonstrate how the system will work.
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It is a mock-up of parts of the system for early evaluation
Reasons for prototyping:
- Gives an idea of the system before development
- enables clear identification of requirements
- allows revision and adjustments before full system is developed
The prototype will have a working interface but may not actually process data
Special software will be used to design input screens and to run the system.
The prototype can then be discarded and the real system designed using other or the same software
(throw away prototype).
Prototyping can be used at any stage of the SDLC. The prototype can be further refined until the user
is satisfied with it and then it is implemented as it is (Evolutionary prototype).
Benefits of prototypes:
cheaper to setup than alternative methods that could be used to predict what will happen in a
system
faster to design a system model
Gives user the chance to experience the look and feel of the input process and make
suggestions where necessary.
System is more likely to have fewer or no errors
More acceptable to users of the system since they are also involved in the design
Disadvantages of prototyping
prototypes can be very expensive to design
takes too long to finish system design, especially if the prototype is thrown away
SYSTEM DOCUMENTATION
Documentation refers to the careful and disciplined recording of information on the development,
operation and maintenance of a system. Documentation is in two main types: user documentation and
technical documentation
(a) User Documentation: It is a manual that guides system users on how to load, operate, navigate
and exit a program (system). User documentation contains the following:
System/program name.
Storage location.
System password.
Instruction on how to install the program.
Instruction on how to operate the system: e.g.
o How to quit the program
o how to load/run the software
o how to save files
o how to do print outs
o how to sort data
o how to do a search
o how to add, delete or amend records
o print layouts (output)
o screen layouts (input)
o the purpose of the system/program/software package
o error handling/meaning of errors
o troubleshooting guide/help lines/FAQs
o how to log in/log out
(b) Technical Documentation: This is a manual for programmers which aid them in modifying the
system and in correcting program errors. The following are found in technical documentation:
The computer environment is prepared, the programs to be written are done and they are tested, user
documentation and training manuals are developed.
Computer environment being prepared: electrical wires, network cables are installed, furniture, air
conditioning are in place. The computers are installed and tested.
Programs are written per the program and design specifications. The programs are tested using walk
through and group reviews. The Analyst supervises the writing of training manuals and user
documentations. User documentation includes user manuals, user quick reference guides, on-screen
help etc.
It also involves the construction and assembling of the technical components that are needed for the
new system to operate. This includes preparation of the computer room environment, coding of the
computer program using a specific programming language, testing of the coded program, user
training (users are trained on how to enter data, search records, edit fields, produce reports, etc).
Testing strategies
First step involves testing of the programs and various modules individually, e.g.
- Top-Down testing: program is tested with limited functionality. Most functions are replaced
with stubs that contain code. Functions are gradually added to the program until the complete
program is tested.
- Bottom – up testing:
Each function is tested individually and then combined to test the complete program.
- Black-box testing:
Program is regarded as a black box and is tested according to its specification.
Once a program is tested, it is installed and the analyst can now test it. A very large program must be
tested using the following types of tests:
1. Unit testing: the process of testing each program unit (sub-routine/module in a suite) singly to
determine if it produces expected results.
2. Integration Testing: testing to see if modules can combine with each other and work as
expected. The whole program is tested to determine if its module integrate perfectly
3. System testing: the testing of the whole program after joining the modules to determine if it runs
perfectly.
4. User acceptance testing: determining if users of the new system are prepared to use it. Usually
the final step. It enables identification of some bugs related to usability. User gain the confidence
that the program being ushered meets their requirements
Ergonomics: the design and functionality of the computer environment and includes furniture setup,
ventilation, security, space, noise, etc. some of the ergonomic concerns include:
Incorrect positioning of the computer facing the window can lead to eyestrain from screen glare.
Incorrect sitting positioning can lead to backache. Constant typing with inadequate breaks can lead to
RSI. Printer noise can lead to stress. Badly designed software can cause stress. Trailing electricity
cables are a safety hazard.
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a. Parallel Run: This involves using of both the old and new system concurrently until the new
system proves to be efficient. It involves operating the new and old systems simultaneously until
management is confident that the new system will perform satisfactorily. Other workers will be using
the old system while others use the old system but doing the same type of job.
- Both the old and new system run concurrently until the new system proves to be efficient.
- Used for very important applications.
- Costly (expensive) but the costs are worth paying for.
- can correct the new system while the old system is running
- allows workers to get familiar with the new system
- Output from new system is compared with output from existing system.
Advantages of parallel run
Results for both systems are compared for accuracy and consistency.
If the new system develops problems, it will be easier to revert to the old one.
There is enough time given to determine if the new system produces expected results.
Employees have enough time to familiarise with the new system.
ii. Abrupt (Direct) changeover: Involves stopping using the old system on a certain day and the
new system takes over on the next morning. This is suitable for control systems like in chemical
plants and for traffic lights.
- new system takes over immediately
- stopping using the old system on a certain day and the new system takes over on the next morning.
- Suitable for control systems like in chemical plants and for traffic lights.
- Very risky because results are so important
- allows no time for training
-No duplication of work, Cheap for the organisation, faster to implement, difficult to revert back to
the old system if the new one fails. [2]
Advantages of Direct Changeover
Reduces cost as of running two systems at the same time.
Faster and more efficient to implement.
There is minimum duplication of tasks.
Enough resources can be allocated to make sure that the new system operates successfully.
iii. Phased / Partial conversion: This is whereby the old system is gradually removed while the new
system is gradually moved in at the same time. This can be done by computerising only one
department in an organisation this month, then the next department in two months’ time, and so on
until the whole system is computerised.
Advantages of phased conversion
iv. Pilot conversion: one area of organization is converted to the new system while the remainder
still uses the old system
- could be even one subject / department
- program is tested in one organisation (or department),
- allows workers to familiarise with the new system on department by department basis.
- effect of one or more problems could be minimised
- Expensive to have a pilot study
This is whereby a program is tested in one organisation (or department), and is applied to the whole
organisation if it passes the pilot stage. It serves as a model for other departments. A pilot program
can then be applied in phases, directly or using the parallel run method.
7. Maintenance/review/evaluation Stage:
This stage is concerned with making upgrades and repairs to an already existing system. Certain
sections of the system will be modified with time.
Maintenance can be
Implies that there room for improving the system even if it is running effectively. For
example, improving report generation speed to improve response time. May also incde adding
more management information into the system.
Involves correcting some errors that may emanate later, for example, wrong totals, wrong
headings on reports, etc. such errors may have been realized when the system has been later a
short period of time.
Involves making the system adapt to changing needs within the organization. For example,
changing the system from being a standalone to a multi-user system. May be caused by
purchasing of new hardware, changes in software, new government legislation and new tax
bands.
NB
Criteria used to evaluate a computer based solution includes the following:
- Were the objectives met? (Successes of the system are compared with set objectives)
- Does it carry out all the required tasks?
- Easiness to use (user friendly)
- Maintainability
- Compatibility with existing systems and hardware
- Offering better performance than the previous one
- Cost effectiveness, etc.
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The activities are all interconnected into a PERT network as given below:
Critical path:
All activities that are critical and are used to determine how long it will take to complete the project;
they must not delayed if the project is to finish in time.
GANTT CHART
Software for producing Gantt Charts should have some of the following features:
Should be able to show individual components of tasks
Should show the earliest starting time
Should indicate latest ending times
Should be able to show relationships between components
Should show the shortest time to finish
Every aspect should be diagrammatic
It should be simple to follow
Should contain review milestones
Should show percentage of chart finished
Should automatically generate reports on costs
SYSTEM SECURITY
It is important to keep data secure so that it may not be damaged or get lost. The risks and their
solutions are as follows:
Risk Solution
Hardware -Frequent back-up of data, at least one copy to be kept at different
failure locations on daily basis
-Log files to be kept for all transactions
Fire Keep backup file at fireproof safe or storage at an alternative location
Theft Physical security measures like locking rooms, use security cameras,
guards, electric fence, screen gates, etc
Disgruntled Employee checks (ID cards to check workers, careful vetting during
employees employment, instant removal of access right to sacked workers,
separation of tasks for workers, educating workers to be aware of
security breaches)
Hackers Usernames & Passwords, firewalls
Viruses Latest and updated Antiviruses (, firewalls
Floods Building rooms at higher grounds, waterproof safes for backups
If a hard disc fails, files can be recovered by using the last backup, which is copied on to another hard
disc. The log file should be used to update the master file.
During the recovering process, the master file will not be available but the system could be
maintained at a lower level of services. Any transaction could be logged and used to update the
master file when the system is up and running.
Employee resistance: When a new system is introduced, some employees may resist the change and
this could be catastrophic if not handled appropriately. Some fear losing their jobs, of being demoted
or being transferred and change of their job description. Resistance can be in the following forms:
Through strikes and demonstrations.
Giving false information during system investigation.
Entering wrong and inappropriate data so that wrong results are produces, etc.
User training:
Once a new system is put in place, existing employees are trained on how to operate the new system,
otherwise new employees are recruited. User training can be in the following forms:
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i. On the job training: Users are trained at their organisation by hired trainers. This has the
following advantages:
Learners practice with actual equipment and the environment of the job.
Learners can engage in productive practices while on training.
This is cheaper for the organisation.
Enough practice is gained on how to operate the system.
ii. Classroom training: Users are send to other colleges and institutions which offer courses on the
subject matter. This could be expensive to organisations since employees take study leave while
being paid at the same time. Employees can also be trained on aspects that they will not apply when
they finish the course. The gap between what is learnt and what is needed at the job may be too wide.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
(ii) State an application for which a command-line interface would be suitable. Justify
your choice [2]
(ii) State an application for which a form-based interface would be suitable. Justify your
choice [2]
(a) Explain why care must be taken in defining the problem to be solved [2]
(b) State the methods that the systems analyst can use to find out more information about the
problem, giving an advantage of each. [4]
(c) Explain the importance of evaluating the system against the original specifications. [2]
(a) Alpha testing, black-box testing, white-box testing, beta testing [8]
(b) Adaptive maintenance, Corrective maintenance, Perfective maintenance and preventive
maintenance [8]
4. The analyst needs to collect information about the current system. State one advantage and
one disadvantage of each of the following methods of information collection.
(a) Questionnaires
(b) Interviews
(c) Document Collection
(d) Observation [8]
5. (a) The analyst has to decide whether to use off-the-shelf or custom – written software.
Explain what is meant by:
(i) Off-the-shelf-software
(ii) Custom written software [2]
(c) List three advantages and one advantage of using off-the-shelf software rather than custom-
written software [4]
i. User documentation
ii. Technical documentation [2]
(b) State two items of documentation which would be included in each of the following:
i. User documentation
Database terms:
Entity: physical objects like person, patient or events on which information or data is being
collected. It can also be an abstract object like a patient record.
Attribute: individual data item within an entity; e.g. date of birth, surname.
Relationship: links between two different entities or relations (tables). E.g A student stays at St.
Augustine’s High School. The entities here becomes student and St. Augustine’s High School, of
which the relationship becomes stays
Data Dictionary:
It is a table holding information about a database
A file (table) with description of the structure of data held in a database
Used by managers when they modify the database.
Not visible to (used by) general users.
It maps logical database to physical storage
Allows existence checks on data to be carried out.
Stores details of data used, including the following
Name of data item (fields or variables)
Data type
Length
Validation criteria
Amount of storage required for each item
Who owns the data
Who accesses the data
Programs which uses the data
Flat file: Data stored in a single file (table), allowing simple structuring, e.g. spread sheet database
file of student records. Data is stored in rows representing records while columns represent fields.
Thus data is stored in a two dimensional format.
- Field: A specific category of information in a table (database), for example Surname, Date of
Birth, etc
1. Relational databases:
- These are database that organises data in a table format, consisting of related data in another file,
allowing users to link the files.
- A table is collection of records stored using rows and column structure.
- Each table is called a relation. A relation is a table with columns and rows.
- It only applies to logical structure of the database, not the physical structure.
Database Keys:
A simple key contains a single attribute.
A composite key is a key that contains more than one attribute.
A candidate key is an attribute (or set of attributes) that uniquely identifies a row. A candidate
key must possess the following properties:
o Unique identification - For every row the value of the key must uniquely identify that
row.
o Non redundancy - No attribute in the key can be discarded without destroying the
property of unique identification.
Super key: An attribute or a set of attributes that uniquely identifies a tuple within a relation. A
super key is any set of attributes that uniquely identifies a row. A super key differs from a
candidate key in that it does not require the non-redundancy property.
Primary key: It is a candidate key that is used to identify a unique (one) record from a relation.
A primary key is the candidate key which is selected as the principal unique identifier. Every
relation must contain a primary key. The primary key is usually the key selected to identify a
row when the database is physically implemented. For example, a part number is selected instead
of a part description.
Foreign key: A primary key in one file that is used/found in another file. Foreign key is set of
fields or attributes in one relation that is used to “refer” to a tuple in another relation. Thus it is a
filed in one table but also used as a primary key in another table.
Secondary Key: A field used to identify more than one record at a time, e.g. a surname.
*NB: Attribute: A characteristic of a record, e.g. its surname, date of birth.
Entity: any object or event about which data can be collected, e.g. a patient, student, football
match, etc.
These databases have links that are used to express relationships between different data items.
They are based on the principle of linked lists
Data is maintained by a single input.
3. Hierarchical database:
Is a database structure in which data is held in a tree structure, indicating different levels of files
within the system.
Records are subordinates to other records in a tree structure of database.
Records at the lower level holds more details than their father records
It promotes grandfather, father, and son relationship of records as illustrated below.
Benefits
OODBMS are faster than relational DBMS because data isn’t stored in relational rows and
columns but as objects. Objects have a many to many relationship and are accessed by the use
of pointers, which will be faster.
OODBMS is that it can be reprogrammed without affecting the entire system.
Can handle complex data models and therefore is more superior than RDBMS
Disadvantages
Pointer-based techniques will tend to be slower and more difficult to formulate than
relational.
Object databases lack a formal mathematical foundation, unlike the relational model, and this
in turn leads to weaknesses in their query support.
Objectives Of DBMS
The main objectives of database management system are data availability, data integrity, data
security, and data independence.
Data Availability
Data availability refers to the fact that the data are made available to wide variety of users in a
meaningful format at reasonable cost so that the users can easily access the data.
Data Security
Data security refers to the fact that only authorized users can access the data. Data security can be
enforced by passwords. If two separate users are accessing a particular data at the same time, the
DBMS must not allow them to make conflicting changes.
NB:
As for DML, some parts are used by the DBA and others by users
Two types of DML are the imperative and declarative
Imperative DML: -also called procedural DML,
-these contain instructions that tell the computer how to do something
rather than what to do.
-Programmers write a sequence of instructions which are carried out by
the computer.
Declarative DML: -also called non-procedural DML, used by most 4GLs
- Typify what to do rather than how to do it.
- just involves typifying/declaring properties of the problem rather than
writing the instructions.
A combination of the DDL and the DML is called a Data Sub-Language (DSL) or a Query Language.
The most common DSL is the Structured Query Language (SQL)
Each database must have user interface, which may be in the following
The user has to enter 1, 2, 3 or 4 and then press enter on the keyboard.
Advantages:
It is fast in carrying out task.
The user does not need to remember the commands by heart.
It is very easy to learn and to use.
Disadvantages:
The user is restricted to those few options available and thus is not flexible to use.
Form-Based Interfaces
- A forms-based interface displays a form to each user.
- The form has spaces for input/insertion of data
- Insertion fields are provided together with validation checks on data entered.
- It mirrors a hardcopy form.
- Data is entered in strict order.
- The form has explanatory notes /comments on the screen
- It also uses drop-down lists tick boxes, etc
- Each record in the database may have its own form displayed on the screen.
- Users can fill out all of the form entries to insert new data, or they fill out only certain entries,
in which case the DBMS will retrieve matching data for the remaining entries.
- Forms are usually designed and programmed for naive (inexperienced) users as interfaces to
canned (pre-recorded) transactions.
- Many DBMSs have forms specification languages, special languages that help programmers
specify such forms.
- Some systems have utilities that define a form by letting the end user interactively construct a
sample form on the screen.
- Ensures that no data is missed/left un-entered.
- It is very easy to insert validation checks/routines. (read Heathcote for more on Form-Based
interfaces and other forms of user interfaces)
Application: Ordering goods online, applying for membership online, applying for an e-mail address
online, completing postal order forms, etc. It ensures that only the relevant information is
captured/entered.
Advantages
- It saves disk storage space since there are no icons and less graphics involved.
- It is very fast in executing the commands given once the user mastered the commands.
- It saves time if the user knows the commands by heart.
Disadvantages
- It takes too long for the user to master all the commands by heart.
- It is less user friendly.
- More suited to experienced users like programmers.
- Commands for different software packages are rarely the same and this will lead to mix-up of
commands by the user.
Advantages of GUI
- It is faster to give commands by just clicking.
- It is easier for a novice (beginner) to use the system right away. It is user friendly (this is an
interface that is easy to learn, understand and to use).
- There is no need for users to remember commands of the language.
- It avoids typing errors since no typing is involved.
- It is easier and faster for user to switch between programs and files.
- A novice can use the system right away.
Disadvantages of GUI
- The icons occupy a lot of disk storage space that might be used for storage of data.
- Occupy more main memory than command driven interfaces.
- Run slowly in complex graphics and when many windows are open.
- Irritate to use for simple tasks due to a greater number of operations needed
A relation that does not necessarily actually exist in the database but is produced upon
request, at time of request.
Schema: Refers to the overall design of the database. It can be a collection of named objects.
Schemas provide a logical classification of objects in the database. A schema can contain tables,
views, functions, packages, and other objects.
Sub-schema: describe different views of database.
It consists of three levels/abstractions: External, conceptual and internal levels
Data Independence
Data independence means that programs are isolated from changes in the way the data are structured
and stored. Data independence is the immunity of application programs to changes in storage
structures and access techniques. For example if we add a new attribute, change index structure then
in traditional file processing system, the applications are affected. But in a DBMS environment these
changes are reflected in the catalogue, as a result the applications are not affected. Data independence
renders application programs immune to changes in the logical and physical organization of data in
the system.
Logical organization refers to changes in the Schema. Example adding a column or tuples does not
stop queries from working.
Physical organization refers to changes in indices, file organizations, etc
DDBMS - characteristics
• Collection of logically-related shared data.
• Data split into fragments.
• Fragments may be replicated.
• Fragments/replicas allocated to sites.
• Sites linked by a communications network.
• Data at each site is under control of a DBMS.
• DBMSs handle local applications autonomously.
• Each DBMS participates in at least one global application.
Advantages of DDBMSs
• Reflects Organizational Structure
• Improved Sharing and Local Autonomy
• Improved Availability: A failure does not make the entire system inoperable
• Improved Reliability: Data may be replicated
• Improved Performance: Data are local to the site of “greatest demand”
• Modular Growth: easy to add new module
Disadvantages of DDBMSs
• More complex
• Cost: Especially in system management
• Security: network must be made secure
• Integrity Control More Difficult
• Database Design More Complex: due to fragmentation, allocation of fragments to a specific site.
Disadvantages of databases
If the computer breaks down, you may not be able to access the data.
It is costly to initially setup the database.
Computer data can be easily copied illegally and therefore should be password protected.
Individuals are concerned (worried) with their data held in Computers. This is because of:
Some people do not want others to see their details (personal data)
Individuals may be targeted because of their property or wealth
May lead to comparison with other people’s details, which may negate relationships with
friends and colleagues
May lead to blackmail if the data stored is wrong
Some of the data may be wrong
Some of the data may be used for other purposes against the owner
May lead to identity theft
SQL commands consist of English-like statements which are used to query, insert, update, and delete
data. English-like statements mean that SQL commands resemble English language sentences in their
construction and use and therefore are easy to learn and understand. SQL is referred to as
nonprocedural database language. Here nonprocedural means that, when we want to retrieve data
from the database it is enough to tell SQL what data to be retrieved, rather than how to retrieve it.
The user specifies a certain condition. The program will go through all the records in the database file
and select those records that satisfy the condition. The result of the query will then be stored in form
of a table.
In Microsoft Access, users just type the data to be searched like in the table below:
If one wants to search students who paid $24 and the number of Subjects as 5, he enters the following
in the design view of the table query;
The above can be written in SQL as given below in order to produce the same result:
NB: SQL is not only used for searching records from databases. It has commands to delete, insert,
print, update, modify, sort data stored in databases.
The three main divisions in SQL are DDL, DML, and DCL. The data definition language (DDL)
commands of SQL are used to define a database which includes creation of tables, indexes, and
views. The data manipulation commands (DML) are used to load, update, and query the database
through the use of the SELECT command. DML commands are usually written in uppercase. Data
control language (DCL) is used to establish user access to the database. (Read Heathcote for more
SQL, page 308)
DATABASE NORMALISATION
Database normalisation is the process of organising fields and tables of a relational database to
minimize redundancy and dependency. Normalization usually involves dividing large tables into
smaller (and less redundant) tables and defining relationships between them. The objective is to
isolate data so that additions, deletions, and modifications of a field can be made in just one table and
then propagated through the rest of the database via the defined relationships.
Normalization is the analysis of functional dependencies between attributes and deciding which
attributes should be grouped together in a relation. Data in a table is normalised to a specific form to
Normalization stages
The record now has a compound key of using the Num and ProdID which is illustrated as:
DELNOTE(Num, CustName, City, Country, ProdID, Description)
Underlined fields are the keyfield which is a combination of two attributes. In this situation, we have
identified a key which uniquely identifies a record.
However, in the table DELNOTE, Country depends on City not directly on the primary key Num.
We need to make sure that all non-key fields in all tables are fully dependent on the primary key and
not on other non-key fields. We now need to normalize this into 3NF.
Num → City → Country (A transitive relationship: thus num transitively determines the
country)
This transitive relationship must be removed in order to have 3NF. Thus we can have the
following:
DELNOTE(Num, CustName, City)
CITY_COUNTRY(City, Country)
PRODUCT(ProdID, Description)
DEL_PROD(Num, ProdID)
DATABASE RELATIONSHIPS
Attributes
This is a property or characteristic of an entity. Attributes are properties of entities. In other words,
entities are described in a database by a set of attributes.
The following are example of attributes:
– Brand, cost, and weight are the attributes of CELLPHONE.
– Student number, name, and grade are the attributes of STUDENT
Entity
An entity is something of interest to an organisation about which data is to be held. It could be a
person, place, object, event or concept about which data is to be maintained.
Entity Type
An entity type or entity set is a collection of similar entities. Some examples of entity types are:
– All students at NUST, say STUDENT.
– All courses at NUST, say COURSE.
– All departments at NUST, say DEPARTMENT.
An entity may belong to more than one entity type. For example, a staff working in a particular
department can pursue higher education as part-time. Hence the same person is a LECTURER at one
instance and STUDENT at another instance.
Relationship
This is a link or association between entities. Relationship type is a meaningful association between
entity types.
The examples of relationship types are:
– Teaches is the relationship type between LECTURER and STUDENT.
– Buying is the relationship between VENDOR and CUSTOMER.
– Treatment is the relationship between DOCTOR and PATIENT
Types of Relationship
• One-to-one
Eg Products in a supermarket each have a unique barcode number.
A department in school is led up by a HOD, and this person only leads one department
• One-to-many
Eg A video club member may hire out a number of videos.
The head of department may be in charge of many staff, but these staff members only have
one head of department.
• Many to One
Many videos can be hired by one member.
• Many-to-many
Teachers and pupils in a school. Each teacher teaches many pupils and each pupil has many
teachers.
A teacher may order many books, but each book could be ordered by many teachers.
Entity-Relationship Diagram
An entity-relationship diagram is a diagrammatic way of representing the relationships between the
entities in a database.
drives
Employee Company car (One-to-one)
holds
Ward Patient (One-to-many)
features
Album Singers (Many-to-many)
Example
• A hospital is organised into a number of wards.
• Each ward has a ward number and a name recorded, along with a number of beds in that
ward.
• Each ward is staffed by nurses.
• Nurses have their staff number and name recorded, and are assigned to a single ward.
• Each patient in the hospital has a patient identification number, and their name, address
and date of birth are recorded.
• Each patient is under the care of a single consultant and is assigned to a single ward.
• Each consultant is responsible for a number of patients. Consultants have their staff
number, name and specialism recorded.
Many – to-Many relationships are not encouraged in E-R diagrams since they violate the 3NF of
databases. To remove M-N relationships, a link entity is used to link entities with a M-N relationship
as illustrated below:
Data security
Refers to methods of keeping data safe from various hazards and from unauthorized access and this
includes:
- Natural hazards like fire, floods, etc
- Deliberate destruction/corruption by former employees or by terrorists.
- Illegal access to data by hackers, who may steel, amend or destroy the data
- Accidental loss of data due to hardware failure, software failure, etc.
(Refer to Heathcote pages 105 - 109 for more on measures of ensuring data security. Pupils must
be able to describe the following in detail:
Keeping data secure from fraudulent or malicious damage;
Password protection
User IDs and passwords
Encryption
Access rights and user permissions
Different user views
Biometric measures
Periodic backups
Antiviruses and protection measures
REVIEW QUESTIONS:
1. A garden design company keeps records of its customers. Each customer has had a design
produced for them which will be one of a library of design types stored by the company. Each design
type uses plants. Each customer is sent an account based on the number of plants in the design.
(a) Draw an E-R (entity-relationship) diagram in third normal form, based on this information. [10]
(b) Each delivery of plants to the garden design company is identified by a batch number. Explain
how customers who received eucalyptus trees from batch 12 can be contacted. [4]
3. (a) In relation to databases, describe what is meant by each of the following terms.
(i) Primary key. [1]
(ii) Secondary key. [1]
(iii) Foreign key. [1]
(b) Using, as an example, the database of student records in a school,
(i) Explain why different users should be given different access rights; [4]
(ii) Describe how these access rights can be implemented. [4]
6. (a) The structure of a database management system (DBMS) consists of three levels;
• External level,
• Conceptual level,
• Internal level.
State the meaning of each of these levels. [3]
7. (a) Describe the function and purpose of the following parts of a database management system
(DBMS):
8. Each LEAGUE has a number of TEAMs but each TEAM is only in one LEAGUE. Each TEAM
plays at a number of GROUNDs during the season and each GROUND will host a number of
TEAMs during the season.
(i) State the relationship between LEAGUE and TEAM.
Draw the entity-relationship (E-R) diagram to show this relationship. [2]
(ii) State the relationship between TEAM and GROUND.
Draw the E-R diagram to show this relationship. [2]
(ii) Explain how the relationship between TEAM and GROUND can be designed in third
normal form. [4]
b. Assembly Language:
- These are programming languages that use mnemonic codes in coding programs.
- Mnemonic codes are abbreviations used to represent instructions when coding assembly language
programs, for example, LDA for Load, ADD for Addition, etc.
- One assembly language statement is equivalent to one machine code instruction and therefore
programming lengthy and time consuming.
- However, assembly language programs are efficient.
- Programs also run faster as they are closer to machine language and therefore are used in
designing programs that needs efficient timing, e.g. games like chess, operating systems, etc.
- Assembly language is used when there is need to access registers and memory addresses directly.
- Assembly language instructions also occupy very little disc storage space.
- Programs written in High Level Language are first converted to machine code before running.
High level languages have the following features:
- Problem oriented (Machine independent): they are designed to solve an application problem and
therefore runs on any machine
- They are portable: they can be transferred from one machine to another and run without problem.
- Instructions are written in English statements which are easier to understand.
Disadvantages of HLL
- Takes long to run since they need to be first converted to machine code.
- They occupy a lot of disk storage space as compared to low level languages.
What Is an Object?
Objects
- are real world items that have state (attributes) and behaviour (operations) and belong to certain
class, e.g. desk, car, television set, bicycle, etc.
- In general, an object is an instance of a class and is an actual real-world entity.
Behaviour (operations):
- Refers to methods that can be used on each object state, e.g. changing gear of a car, applying
brakes, etc.
- Each class has its source code that is associated with it and defines the fields and methods.
- Dogs have behaviour (barking, fetching, wagging tail).
Class:
- A set of objects which share a common data structure and a common behaviour.
- In coding a program, a class is taken as an abstract data type that describes the fields and methods
of the class.
- Each class has different access levels, which can be private, protected or public.
- Example of class declarations in Java are as follows:
class Bicycle {
int speed = 0;
int gear = 1;
void changeGear(int newValue) { gear = newValue; }
void speedUp(int increment) { speed = speed + increment; }
void applyBrakes(int decrement) { speed = speed - decrement; }
void printStates() {System.out.println(speed:"+speed+" gear:"+gear); }
}
Encapsulation
- This is a technique of combining operations (methods) and data (fields) into one unit as in classes.
- Encapsulation can be in two forms:
(a) Data encapsulation: Hiding states internally and requiring all interaction to be performed
through an object's methods. It involves restricting access to the states (fields).
(b) Procedural encapsulation: users do not need to know how the behaviour happens, that is
hiding operations from the user.
Inheritance
- In Object-oriented programming, inheritance is whereby classes can re-use (assume) commonly
used state and behaviour from their parent (base) class.
- Inheritance is the ability of a class to use the variables and methods of a class from which the
new class is derived (parent class)
- Inheritance allows a new class to be derived from an existing class.
- Inheritance therefore is a relationship among classes, where a sub-class (derived class) shares all
the fields and methods of the base (parent) class, plus its own methods and states.
- Consider the inheritance diagram below:
- Base Class: This is the parent class or the first class to be created from which other class can
inherit states and methods.
- Derived class: These are new classes that are created from the base class, and therefore have
methods and states of the base class plus their own methods and states.
- The syntax for creating a subclass is use the extends keyword, followed by the name of the class
to inherit from:
class MountainBike extends Bicycle
{
// new fields and methods defining a mountain bike
// would go here
}
Polymorphism
- In general, polymorphism is the ability to have the same operation performing differently in
different circumstances.
Compiled By Kapondeni T. Page 48 of 179
‘A’ Level Computing Notes
- Polymorphism allows an operation to perform differently depending on the parameters that are
passed.
- This is the ability of classes to use the same name in the class hierarchy for a method but each
class implementing the method differently.
- In polymorphism, derived classes are able to re-define some of the base (super class) methods.
Containment/aggregation/composition
- These are links/associations between objects that allow them to communicate.
- For instance: a form on a screen is an object. On the object form, there are other objects, e.g.
delete button, display button, exit button, etc.
- These buttons (which are objects) communicate with the form (another object).
- Thus the linkage between the form and the buttons is called the containment.
Event handlers: small program codes which are invoked (called) in response to external events.
Dispatcher: small program codes that call event handlers so that events can be processed.
Advantages of OOP
Grouping code into individual software objects provides a number of benefits, including:
- Modularity: The source code for an object can be written and maintained independently of the
source code for other objects. Once created, an object can be easily passed around inside the
system.
- Information-hiding: By interacting only with an object's methods, the details of its internal
implementation remain hidden from the outside world.
- Code re-use: If an object already exists, you can use that object in your program.
- Easy debugging: If a particular object turns out to be problematic, you can simply remove it from
your application.
- Reliability: if codes are designed by specialists, they are more likely to free from errors due to
intensive testing.
- Time saving: re-use of existing methods and states means less time needed to code programs.
- Smaller program codes: since the states and methods of classes are re-used, the code of the
program is smaller, taking less disk storage space.
- Storage structures of an object may be altered without affecting the programs that make use of it.
Object Code
- Refers to a machine code version of a source code.
- All programs written in source code must be converted to object code for the computer to
understand them.
TRANSLATORS
- These are programs used to convert High level Language programs as written by the programmer
(source code) into machine code that the computer can execute.
- Translators are in three types, which are assemblers, interpreters and compilers, which are
further explained below:
1. Assemblers:
- These are programs used to translate assembly language instructions (program) into machine
language instructions before execution.
- Since each computer has its own assembly language, it also has its own assembler.
- Assembler programs are written either using assembly language, or using high level languages
like C.
- Assemblers are simpler to program as compared to compilers.
- Assemblers are in two types: One-Pass Assemblers and Two-Pass Assemblers
One-Pass Assemblers
- These go through the source code once and assume that all the symbols will be defined before
any instruction that reference them. This is equivalent to declaring variables at the top of the
source code regardless of where they are used in a high level language program.
- It has an advantage of speed since only one phase in gone through
Two-Pass Assemblers.
- Creates a table with all the symbols and their values in the first pass and then use the table in
the second pass to generate code.
- Has an advantage that symbols can be defined at any stage in the source code.
- Two-pass assemblers make programs easier to read and to maintain.
Uses of Assemblers
- The uses of assemblers include:
They generate machine code that is equivalent to assembly language.
They are used to check the validity of instructions, that is, checking for syntax errors in an
instruction.
They also assign memory locations to variables.
2. Interpreters
- These are programs that translate and run one (command) instruction of a program at a time
before going to the next instruction until the end of the program, e.g. the BASIC interpreter.
- Interpreter must be present to run the program. It is used during program writing (coding) because
it easily aids in debugging.
- An interpreter translates one instruction at a time and then executes it.
- The translated program retains the source code.
Functions of Interpreters
- They translate each instruction in turn into machine language and run it.
- Allocates storage space to variables.
- They check syntax error in a program statement.
- Gives error messages to the user
- Finds wrong and reserved words of the program
- Determines wrong use of variables
Advantages of interpreters
- It is easy to find and correct syntax errors in interpreted programs.
- There is no need for lengthy recompilation each time an error is discovered.
- It is very fast to run programs for the first time.
- Allows development of small program segments that can be tested on their own without
writing the whole program.
- It is easier to partially test and debug programs, especially during the programming stage.
- It is very fast to run small programs.
- individual segments can be run, allowing errors to be isolated
- running will be necessary after very minor changes
- continual compilation of whole code is wasteful/time consuming
Disadvantages of interpreters
- They are very slow in running very large programs.
- They do not produce an object code of a source code and hence difficult to use since
conversion takes place every time the program is run.
3. Compilers
- These are programs that convert a high level language program into its machine code equivalent at
one go (at once) and then run it, e.g. the COBOL compiler.
- Compiler must be present for compiling the program only and NOT during the running process.
- Creates an object code version of the source code
- Once compiled, the program no longer needs conversion since the machine code version is the one
that will be run, until some changes are made to the program code.
- Compilers run faster when called and therefore may be held as library routines.
- Once compiled, the program can then be run even on a computer without the compiler since the
program will already be in machine code.
- The compilation processes involves many complex stages which will be looked later in this
course.
Functions of Compilers
- They check syntax errors in program statements.
- They allocate storage space to variables.
- Translate the whole program into machine code at one go.
- Run object code of the program.
- Produces a program listing which indicates position of errors in a program.
- Gives error messages to the user
- Finds wrong and reserved words of the program
- Determines wrong use of variables
Disadvantages of Compilers
- Slower than interpreters for running programs for the first time.
- They can cause the computer to crash.
- Difficult to find errors in compiled program.
- There is need for lengthy recompilation each time an error is discovered.
5. Variables
- A variable is a name given to a memory location that stores a certain value, which may
change (the value) during program execution.
- Variables can be field identifiers, e.g. surname is a valid variable name.
a. Global variables
- These are variables that are accessed and can be used by any procedure or function within the
same program.
- They are public variables
- The value of the variable exists throughout the program.
- Global variables are declared outside the procedure.
- In VB 6.0, global variables are declared as follows:
Public Sname As String
The word Public implies that it is a global variable.
b. Local variables
- These are variables that are defined within a procedure and that are accessible just within the
procedure they are declared.
- They are defined within the procedure.
- They are private variables
- The value of the variable only exists within the procedure it is defined.
- They are therefore local to that procedure in which they are declared and therefore cannot be
used (not accessible) by other procedures.
- The above diagram shows that every variable name starts with a Letter, followed by any of the
following (Letter, digit or _ ) at any position, or a mixture of both in any order, as long as the
first character is a letter.
- Using the diagram above, a variable like 3_Name, is invalid since it starts with a number.
- variable names must follow the rules of the language
- the translator tries the rules against the variable names used and reports any errors
- The contents of variables must be of a specific type otherwise an error created by the attempted
use of anything else.
6. Reserved words
- Reserved (key) words are identifiers with a pre-defined meaning in a specific programming
language, for example Dim, if, End, integer, As, etc. in Visual basic.
- Reserved words must not be used as variables.
- Each programming language has its own reserved words, which may differ from other
languages.
- translator program maintains a dictionary of reserved words
- if the reserved word used is not in this dictionary then an error has been made and message
may be given which suggests one close to spelling provided
7.
Expressions
- An expression is a construct made up of variables and operators that makes up a complete unit
of execution.
Example:
NumberA = a+b-c*d
- The above is a statement. However, a+b-c*d is an expression found in a statement.
- Expressions can be arithmetic (as given above), Boolean or string expressions. For example,
(a>b) and (a>=c)
- Operator precedence is very important in evaluating expressions and therefore it is important to
enclose expressions is brackets where possible. Operator precedence is as follows, starting from
the highest to the lowest:
( ), Not, ^, {*,/,}\,Mod, {+, -,}{=,<,>,<=, >= },…
NB: Operators is set braces indicates that they are in the same level.
- Arithmetic expressions are evaluated first, followed by comparisons and lastly logical
expressions.
8. Statements
- A statement is a single instruction in a program which can be converted into machine code and
executed.
9. Block structure
- A block is a group of zero or more statements between balanced braces and can be used
anywhere a single statement is allowed. For instance
if (condition) Then ( begin block 1)
………………. (end block 1)
else (begin block 2)
……………….
End If (end block 2)
10. Functions
- A function is a self-contained module that returns a value to the part of the program which
calls it every time it is called/executed.
- A function can be just an expression that returns a value when it is called.
- A function performs a single and special task, e.g. generate a student number.
- Because they return a value, functions are data types, e.g. integer, real, etc.
- Functions can be in-built functions or user-defined functions.
- In-built functions are pre-defined procedures of a programming language that returns a value,
e.g. Val (returns a numeric value of a string), MsgBox (creates a textbox on the screen), Abs
(returns an absolute value of a number), etc.
- Visual Basic has in-built date functions, string functions, conversion functions, etc.
- A user-defined function is a procedure (module) that returns a value whenever it is called. The
structure of a user defined function is as follows:
Public Function count_rec(ByVal rs As Recordset) As Boolean
If rs.RecordCount <= 0 Then
MsgBox "There is no record in the table.", vbExclamation
count_rec = True
Else
count_rec = False
End If
End Function
- Note that a Function starts with the word Function and ends with the statement End Function.
This function returns a Boolean value(either true or false). The function name as just after the
word Function, i.e count-rec in the case above.
- When processing of the called procedure is finished, processing goes to the next stated after
the calling statement.
- Parameters can be passed by value or by reference
- If the programmers does not specify ByVal or ByRef function, Visual Basic assumes that it if
ByRef by default.
12. Semantics
The meaning attached to statements and the way they are used in a certain language.
13. Syntax
- These are grammatical rules and regulations governing sentence construction and layout of
different programming languages.
- For example, Pascal uses a semi-colon(;) at the end of each instruction, it also uses the reserved
(key) word writeln to display items on the screen, etc.
- Each programming language has its own syntax.
- A program with syntax errors does not run.
14. Literals
- A literal is a variable which is given a fixed value within the code of the program.
- A literal is the source code representation of a fixed value.
- Literals are represented directly in your code without requiring computation, as shown:
DATA TYPES
- Data types describe the nature of data handled by programs.
- These are important as they enhance program readability and maintenance.
- Data types can be simple (integers, string, etc.) or complex (arrays, lists, records, etc.).
- Data types are declared at the beginning or at some point inside the program code.
- Data types for variables must be properly declared.
Variable length:
Does not specify the number of characters, each data items occupies the number of spaces it
requires.
This is declared as follows
Dim Sname as string
2. Boolean
- Represents instructions that evaluate to either True or False only. The default value is
False and occupy 2 bytes of storage.
- Mostly used together with If….. Then……. Else Construct.
3. Character
- A data type that holds just one alphabetic or special character like %, $, a, etc.
- can be written as char in most programming languages.
User-defined data.
These are defined by the user depending on the method of solution, e.g classes when the used define
own classes.
Enumerated data:
These are data types with a list of items that are pre-defined, e.g days of the week, months of the
year, etc.
Word: a computer word is group of bits that can be handled or transferred by the processor as a
single unit (word length).
Disadvantages of Modularisation
- Documentation will be long and thorough, therefore may take time to produce
- Can lead to problems of variable names as the modules are developed separately.
- However, it may be difficult to link the modules together.
*NB: Library programs: this refers to a collection of standard pre-written programs and subroutines
that are stored and available for immediate use by other modules in the system.
Library programs are programs that are required by other modules during execution, e.g. the
Dynamic Link Libraries (DLL) in the Windows environment.
Libraries contain common tasks like saving, deleting, etc.
Library programs are referenced by most modules in the systems and they provide data to other
modules.
*NB: Stepwise refinement: a technique used in developing the internal working of a module.
To stop this we use the fact that, eventually, <integer> is a single digit and write
<integer> ::= <digit>|<digit><integer>
We now have the full definition of an unsigned integer which, in BNF, is
<unsigned integer> ::= <digit>|<digit><unsigned integer>
<digit> ::= 0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9
Variables in BNF
Valid variables start with a letter (Upper or lowercase) and followed by any character (which must be
a letter, digit or underscore) upt to any length. This can be defined in BNF as:
<variable> ::= <letter>|<variable><character>
<character> ::= <letter>|<digit>|<under-score>
<letter> ::= <uppercase>|<lowercase>
<uppercase> ::= A|B|C|D|E|F|G|H|I|J|K|ZL|M|N|O|P|Q|R|S|T|U|V|W|X|Y|Z
<lowercase> ::= a|b|c|d|e|f|g|h|i|j|k|zl|m|n|o|p|q|r|s|t|u|v|w|x|y|z
<digit> ::= 0|1|2|3|4|5|6|7|8|9
<under-score> ::= _
Source Code
Lexical Analyser
Syntax Analyser
Semantic Analyser
Code Generator
Code Optimiser
Object Code
Analysis Phases
Consists of the lexical analyzer, syntax analyzer and the intermediate code generator.
Lexical Analysis
This is where scanning of the source program is done. Each sequence of characters that have
an atomic meaning are recognized and represented by a token.
A token represents a class of valid letters, for example a program is going to analyse numbers,
variables and functions.
Syntax Analysis
This is the stage where tokens are grouped into large structures, for example, assignment
statements.
Synthesis Phase
This phase consists of the Code Optimiser and Code Generator.
Code Generation
The target code is generated from the intermediate code to perform static scheduling and
register allocation.
Code Optimiser
There is reduction of the number of instructions in order to allow the program to run faster.
Linkers
A linker is a program that compiles all loaded modules and then create linkages between them. Other
functions of linkers are:
- Linker joins the modules compiled correctly
- Calculates addresses of the separate modules
- Allows library routines to be linked to several programs
- Ensures jump instruction from module to module properly addressed
- Produces an executable file
- matches up address references between modules
Editors
These are programs that are used to key–in and amend source code. It is also used to display and edit
text before compilation.
REVIEW QUESTIONS
1. Explain the terms
(i) data encapsulation
(ii) inheritance
(iii) Polymorphism
when applied to programming in an object oriented programming language. (4)
2. Distinguish between procedural languages and declarative languages. (4)
3. Explain the passing of parameters by reference and by value. (4)
4. (a) Explain the difference between the translation techniques of interpretation and compilation [2]
(b) Give two advantages of each of the two translation techniques. [4]
5. An amount of money can be defined as
• A $ sign followed by either
• A positive integer or
• A positive integer, a point, and a two digit number or
• A point and a two digit number
A positive integer has been defined as <INTEGER>
A digit is defined as <DIGIT>::= 0/1/2/3/4/5/6/7/8/9.
a) Define, using Backus Naur form, the variable <AMOUNT OF MONEY>
b) Using the previously defined values of INTEGER and DIGIT, draw a syntax diagram to define
AMOUNT OF MONEY.
6. State the three stages of compilation and briefly describe the purpose of each. [6]
7. Explain in detail, the stage of lexical analysis. [6]
8. Explain the role of
(i) linkers,
(ii) loaders
in the running of programs [4]
9. Two of the stages which a high level language program undergoes during compilation are lexical
analysis and syntax analysis.
19. In a particular object oriented programming language, the following classes are defined
CHAPTER 4: ALGORITHMS
- A set of instructions describing the steps followed in performing a specific task, for example,
calculating change.
- They are a sequence of instructions for solving a problem.
- Algorithms can be illustrated using the following:
Descriptions, Flowcharts, Pseudocodes, Structure diagrams
a. Descriptions:
- These are general statements that are followed in order to complete a specific task.
- They are not governed by any programming language. An example is as follows:
Enter temperature in oC
Store the value in box C
Calculate the equivalent temperature in oF
Store the value in box F
Print the value of box C and F
End the program.
b. Pseudocodes:
- These are English-like statements, closer to programming language that indicates steps followed
in performing a specific task.
- They are means of expressing algorithms without worrying about the syntax of the programming
language.
- There are no strict rules on how pseudocode statements should be written.
- Indentations are very important in writing pseudocodes since they clearly indicate the extent of
loops and conditional statements.
- They are however independent of any programming language.
- An example is as follows:
Enter centigrade temperature, C
If C = 0, then stop.
Set F to 32 + (9C/5)
Print C and F
End
A B C
The above 3 Pseudocodes produces the same result.
Cascaded/Nested If Statements
This is whereby if statements are found inside other if statements (nested Ifs) as shown below:
Start
Enter “First Number”, A
Enter “Second Number”, B
Enter “Third Number”, C
If A>B Then
If B>C Then
Print “A is the biggest Number”
End If
End If
End.
CASE Statement: This is an alternative to the IF...THEN...ELSE statement and is shorter. For
example:
Enter first Number, A
Enter second number, B
Enter operand (+, -, * /)
CASE operand of:
“+”: C = A + B
“-”: C = A-B
“*”: C = A*B
“/”: C = A/B
ENDCASE
Print C
END
a. For...Next Loop: A looping structure that repeatedly executes the loop body for a specified
number of times. The syntax of the For...Next loop is as follows:
A group of statements between the looping structures is called the loop body and is the one that is
repeatedly executed.
The For...Next loop is appropriate when the number of repetitions is known well in advance, e.g.
five times. An example of a program that uses the For...Next loop is as follows:
Sum, Average = 0
FOR I = 1 to 5 DO
Enter Number
Sum = Sum + number
NEXT I
Average = Sum/5
Display Sum, Average
End
b. Repeat...Until Structure: This is a looping structure that repeatedly executes the loop body when
the condition set is FALSE until it becomes TRUE. The number of repetitions may not be known in
advance and the loop body is executed at least once. The syntax is as follows:
Repeat
Statement 1
Statement 2 loop body
................
Until {Condition}
For example
Sum, Average, Count = 0
Repeat
Enter Number (999 to end)
Sum = Sum + Number
Count = count + 1
Until Number = 999
Average = Sum / count
Print Sum, count, Average
End
In the above program:
- Count records the number of times the loop body executes.
- 999 is used to stop further data entry through the keyboard and thereby ending the loop. Such
a value that stops further data entry through the keyboard thereby terminating a loop is called
a Rogue value or sentinel.
WHILE {condition}
Statement 1
Statement 2 loop body
................
ENDWHILE
Flowchart
Start
Enter number, A
Enter number, B
Sum = A + B
Display Sum
Stop
3. Using Iteration
(a) Repeat ... Until Structure
Flowchart Pseudocode equivalent
Sum, Average, Count = 0
Repeat
Enter Number
Sum = Sum + Number
Count = count + 1
Until Count > 10
Average = Sum / count
Display Sum, count, Average
End
Flowchart (a) above indicates modules named Accept Numbers, Add numbers Multiply Numbers and
Display Results. Flowcharts for individual modules can then be designed as given in diagram (b)
above, only the first module is indicated. Can you do the rest?
d. Structure Diagrams/Structure Charts: These are diagrams that show relationships between
different modules, thereby giving the structure of a program. They also illustrate the top-down
approach to programming. It is useful as a documentation of a complex program once it is completed.
It resembles a family tree as given below.
Start
Sum, Product = 0
Enter First Number, A
Enter Second Number, B
Sum = A + B
Product = A * B
Display Sum, Product
End
- The structure diagram above indicates five sub-programs of the program Process Numbers,
namely Initialise, Accept Numbers, Process Numbers, Display Results and Exit.
- The module Process Numbers has its own sub-programs, which are Add Numbers and
Multiply Numbers.
- Modules are appropriate for very large programs.
- If the module is repeatedly executed (loop), then an asterisk (*) must be placed at the top right
corner of the module (inside).
- All the boxes at the same level indicate selection.
- Boxes below others indicate sequence.
- The program can be written as a continuous single program as indicated on the right side of
the diagram.
If a recursive method is called with a base case, the method returns a result. If a method is
called with a more complex problem, the method divides the problem into two or more
conceptual pieces: a piece that the method knows how to do and a slightly smaller version of
the original problem. Because this new problem looks like the original problem, the method
launches a recursive call to work on the smaller problem.
For recursion to terminate, each time the recursion method calls itself with a slightly simpler
version of the original problem, the sequence of smaller and smaller problems must converge
on the base case. When the method recognizes the base case, the result is returned to the
previous method call and a sequence of returns ensures all the way up the line until the
original call of the method eventually returns the final result.
Both iteration and recursion are based on a control structure: Iteration uses a repetition
structure; recursion uses a selection structure.
Both iteration and recursion involve repetition: Iteration explicitly uses a repetition structure;
recursion achieves repetition through repeated method calls.
Iteration and recursion each involve a termination test: Iteration terminates when the loop-
continuation condition fails; recursion terminates when a base case is recognized.
Iteration and recursion can occur infinitely: An infinite loop occurs with iteration if the loop-
continuation test never becomes false; infinite recursion occurs if the recursion step does not
reduce the problem in a manner that converges on the base case.
Recursion repeatedly invokes the mechanism, and consequently the overhead, of method
calls. This can be expensive in both processor time and memory space.
- It is also an error generated by entering the wrong data type during program execution, for
example, entering a text value where a numeric value is needed.
2. Debugging tools.
These are part of the software which help the user to identify where the errors are. The techniques
available include:
a) Cross-referencing.
This software checks the program that has been written and finds places where particular variables
have been used. This lets the programmer check to make sure that the same variable has not been
used twice for different things.
b) Traces.
A trace is where the program is run and the values of all the relevant variables are printed out, as are
the individual instructions, as each instruction is executed. In this way, the values can be checked to
see where they suddenly change or take on an unexpected value.
Test strategies are important to establish before the start of testing to ensure that all the elements of a
solution are tested, and that unnecessary duplication of tests is avoided.
Using VB 6.0, if you reach a point in your code that calls another procedure (a function, subroutine,
or the script associated with an object or applet), you can enter (step into) the procedure or run (step
over) it and stop at the next line. At any point, you can jump to the end (step out) of the current
procedure and carry on with the rest of the application.
Break points can be set within program code so that the program stops temporarily to check that it is
operating correctly to that point.
Step Into: Traces through each line of code and steps into procedures. This allows you to view the
effect of each statement on variables.
Step Over: Executes each procedure as if it were a single statement. Use this instead of Step Into to
step across procedure calls rather than into the called procedure.
DATA TESTING
After a program has been coded, it must be tested with different data types to determine if intended
results are produced. The types of test data that can be used include:
i. Extreme Data: Refers to the minimum and the maximum values in a given range. For example, a
computer program requires the user to enter any number from (between) 1 to 20. 1 and 20 are
extreme data and the computer must accept these. Thus extreme data is accepted by the computer.
ii. Standard (normal) Data: This refers to data that lies within (in-between) a given range. In our
example above, the numbers from 2 to 19 are standard data and are accepted by the computer.
iii. Abnormal Data: This refers to data outside a given range. As to our example above, the number
0, -1, -50 and all number from 21 and above are abnormal data.
iv. Valid data: refers to data of the correct data type. Invalid data is data of the wrong data type.
Thus if the user enter the value “Terrence” instead of a number, this is referred to as a wrong
(invalid) data type. Only numbers are needed, not text.
PROGRAM TESTING
Can be done using the following testing methods:
Unit testing, Integration Testing, User acceptance testing, black box testing, white box testing,
bottom-up testing, top-down testing, etc.
Data type
A data type is a method of interpreting and representing data held in a computer.
Real
A real is a number that contains a decimal point. Real numbers can also be referred to as single or
double, depending upon the number of bytes in which they are stored.
Boolean
A Boolean is a data-type that can store one of only two values –True or False.
In the computer, Boolean data is stored in one byte – True being stored as 11111111 and False
as 00000000.
A simple example of its use would be in the control program for an automatic washing
machine.
One of the important pieces of information for the processor would be to know whether the
door was shut.
A Boolean variable could be set to 0 if it was open and to 1 if it was shut.
A simple check of that value would tell the processor whether it was safe to fill the machine
with water
String
A string (or text) is a series of alphanumeric characters usually enclosed in quotation marks.
Any type of alphabetic or numeric data can be stored as a string, e.g: “Mutare”, “07/02/1978”,
“123” and “36.85” are all strings.
Each character within a string will be stored in one byte using its ASCII code.
However modern systems might store each character in two bytes using its Unicode.
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‘A’ Level Computing Notes
The maximum length of a string is limited only by the available memory.
Character
A character is any single digit, letter or symbol that can be represented in a computer, for example, 2,
t, G, %, &, M, space, etc. Each character is represented using binary digits, which the computer can
understand; therefore take up a single unit of storage on the computer. Some programming languages
refer to this as a Char. Can be used to represent coded data e.g. M for Male, F for Female.
Date
Used to represented dates, e.g date of birth, etc. can be long or short dates, e.g dd/mm/yy, dd/mm/yyyy
or dd-MonthName-yyyy. Dates usually take 8 bytes of storage.
Visual Basic uses User Defined Data types (UDTs) as a way of implementing data structures. In
C/C++, they are called Structures (structs) and in Pascal and COBOL they are called records.
UDTs can be declared only at the module-level (form) (you may not declare a UDT in an individual
Sub or Function).
UDTs may have Public (project-level) or Private (module-level) scope. If the keyword Public or
Private is omitted, the default is Public.
UDTs with Public scope may only be defined in standard modules, not forms.
For example, to define a UDT for an employee record, you might code the following:
To use a UDT, you must define a variable "As" the name following the keyword "Typ e" (in this case,
"EmployeeRecord"). For example:
1. Bit
Bit is short for BInary digiT. It is a single digit in base 2, that is, either 1 or 0. A bit is the smallest
unit of data that the computer can process. Therefore a binary number is composed of these two
values only, that is 1 and 0. Bit represents two states, “ON” or “OFF”, true or false, or yes or no
2. Byte
A byte is a group of 8 bits representing a character. A character is any digit, letter or symbol that
can be represented in a computer, for example, 2, t, G, %, &, M, space, etc. Each character is
represented using binary digits, which the computer can understand, therefore take up a single
unit of storage on the computer. With 8 bits in a byte, you can represent 256 values ranging from
0 to 255:
0 = 00000000
1 = 00000001
2 = 00000010
...
254 = 11111110
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255 = 11111111
NB: However, the byte size may differ with the architecture of the computer. Other computers use an
8-bit byte, other 32-bit byte, others 64-bit byte. Thus in general, a byte can be a unit representation of
character, which could be 8, 16, 32 or in 64 bits. However, for this course, we will assume a bit as a
group of 8-bits representing a character.
3. Word
A word is a fixed-size group of bits that can be handled as a unit by the processor.
Word size refers to the number of bits that the CPU can simultaneously process, which could be
8 bits, 16 bits, 32 bits or 64 bits. The bits are processed as a unit during input and output. A 64
bit processor can process data faster than a 32 bit processor, thus word size affects processor
speed.
DATA REPRESENTATION
The form of data representation is in its character set. All the characters that a system can
recognise, which often equates to characters on the keyboard, is called its character set.
Character set (or data representation) can be as follows:
Each character is represented using a unique set of bits which are equivalent to 1 or 2 bytes.
Character set of a computer is represented as binary codes, ASCII, UNICODE and EBCDic
using 7/8 bits.
1. American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII)
It is a set of codes that a computer understands and is represented in a single byte of 7 or 8 bits per
character, which allows communication between systems. ASCII uses 7 bits which gives 128
combinations. However the extended ASCII now uses 8 bits so there are 256 different codes that can
be used and hence 256 different characters. However, this is not quite true, as some of the bits can be
used for parity checks.
The American Standard Code for Information Interchange (ASCII) is widely used in computers of all
types.
ASCII codes are of two types –ASCII-7 and ASCII-8.
• ASCII-7 is a 7-bit standard ASCII code. In ASCII-7, the first 3 bits are the zone bits and the next 4
bits are for the digits. ASCII-7 allows 27 = 128 combinations. 128 unique symbols are represented
using ASCII-7. ASCII-7 has been modified by IBM to ASCII-8.
• ASCII-8 is an extended version of ASCII-7. ASCII-8 is an 8-bit code having 4 bits for zone and 4
bits for the digit. ASCII-8 allows 28 = 256 combinations. ASCII-8 represents 256 unique symbols.
ASCII is used widely to represent data in computers.
• The ASCII-8 code represents 256 symbols.
Codes 0 to 31 represent control characters (non-printable), because they are used for actions
like, Carriage return (CR), Bell (BEL) etc.
Codes 48 to 57 stand for numeric 0-9.
Codes 65 to 90 stand for uppercase letters A-Z.
Codes 97 to 122 stand for lowercase letters a-z.
Codes 128-255 are the extended ASCII codes.
In the ASCII character set, each binary value between 0 and 127 is given a specific character. Most
computers extend the ASCII character set to use the full range of 256 characters available in a byte.
The upper 128 characters handle special things like accented characters from common foreign
languages.
You can see the 127 standard ASCII codes below. Computers store text documents, both on disk and
in memory, using these codes. For example, if you use Notepad in Windows OS to create a text file
containing the words, "Four score and seven years ago," Notepad would use 1 byte of memory per
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‘A’ Level Computing Notes
character (including 1 byte for each space character between the words -- ASCII character 32). When
Notepad stores the sentence in a file on disk, the file will also contain 1 byte per character and per
space.
Try this: Open up a new file in Notepad and insert the sentence, "Four score and seven years ago" in
it. Save the file to disk under the name getty.txt. Then use the explorer and look at the size of the file.
You will find that the file has a size of 30 bytes on disk: 1 byte for each character. If you add another
word to the end of the sentence and re-save it, the file size will jump to the appropriate number of
bytes. Each character consumes a byte.
If you were to look at the file as a computer looks at it, you would find that each byte contains not a
letter but a number -- the number is the ASCII code corresponding to the character (see below). So on
disk, the numbers for the file look like this:
F o u r a n d s e v e n
70 111 117 114 32 97 110 100 32 115 101 118 101 110
By looking in the ASCII table, you can see a one-to-one correspondence between each character and
the ASCII code used. Note the use of 32 for a space -- 32 is the ASCII code for a space. We could
expand these decimal numbers out to binary numbers (so 32 = 00100000) if we wanted to be
technically correct -- that is how the computer really deals with things.
The first 32 values (0 through 31) are codes for things like carriage return and line feed. The space
character is the 33rd value, followed by punctuation, digits, uppercase characters and lowercase
characters.
ASCII codes can just be used for representing characters and not for arithmetic calculations.
ASCII codes also occupy a lot of disc storage space.
2. Binary System
Data is represented in 0s and 1s, thus in base 2. It is obtained by dividing the denary number by 2,
taking the remainders only. The number of bits in the answer does not matter unless specified.
3. BCD
Each decimal digit is represented by its own 4-bit binary code as follows:
0 0000
1 0001
2 0010
3 0011
4 0100
5 0101
6 0110
7 0111
8 1000
9 1001
BCD is used to represent some numbers that are not proper numbers (numbers that don’t behave
like numbers). A barcode looks like a number, but if the barcodes are added together the result is not
a barcode for any product. The arithmetic does not give a sensible answer. Values like this that look
like numbers but do not behave like them are often stored in binary coded decimal (BCD). Each digit
is simply changed into a four bit binary number which are then placed after one another in order.
- This has the advantage that it is easy to convert a number from BCD to decimal form and vice
versa.
- There is no rounding off numbers when computing fractional numbers, thus no errors due to
rounding off.
- Used in businesses where significant digit needs to be retained.
However:
4. EBCDIC
The Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code (EBCDIC) uses 8 bits (4 bits for zone, 4 bits
for digit) to represent a symbol in the data.
• EBCDIC allows 28 = 256 combinations of bits.
• 256 unique symbols are represented using EBCDIC code. It represents decimal numbers (0-
9), lower case letters (a-z), uppercase letters (A-Z), Special characters, and Control characters
(printable and non-printable e.g. for cursor movement, printer vertical spacing etc.).
• EBCDIC codes are used, mainly, in the mainframe computers.
5. UNICODE
Unicode is a universal character encoding standard for the representation of text which includes
letters, numbers and symbols in multi-lingual environments. This is an international 16-bit data
coding method which represents 65536 different characters. It is enough to represent characters in
any language, even Chinese and hieroglyphics.
A problem arises when the computer retrieves a piece of data from its memory. Imagine that
the data is 01000001. Is this the number 65, or is it A?
They are both stored in the same way, so how can it tell the difference?
The answer is that characters and numbers are stored in different memory locations so it knows
which one it is by knowing whereabouts it was stored.
In an n-bit unsigned binary number, the magnitude of the number n is stored in n bits. An 8-bit
unsigned number can represent data in the range 0 to 255 (28= 256).
1’s Complement
One’s complement of a binary number is obtained by simply converting 1s to 0s and 0s to 1s. For
example, given the following four-bit binary number 10102, its 1’s complement becomes 01012. The
alternating of bits only applies to negative numbers, positive numbers do not change. For example
+6 = 000001102
-6 = 111110012
-6 is the complement (negative) of +6. Just convert 1s to 0s and 0s to 1s and thus -6 in 1’s
complement.
Given the 1's complement we can find the magnitude of the number by taking it's 1's complement.
The range of numbers that can be represented in 1’s complement is found by the formula:
-(2n-1-1) to +(2n-1-1)
If the binary number has 8-bits (n=8). Thus the range of numbers will be from (-127) 100000002 to
011111112 (127)
Therefore the largest number that can be represented in 8-bit 1's complement is = 127. The smallest is
-127.
However 1’s complement has a problem that it has two different representations (values) for zero,
which are 000000002 and 111111112 both represent zero.
When adding binary numbers using 1’s complement, the carry bit is added back to the sum in the
rightmost position. There is no overflow as long as the magnitude of the result is not greater than 2n-
1
-1. We do not throw away the carry bit.
2’S COMPLEMENT
Two’s complement of number is obtained by:
a) Positive numbers remain the same
b) Negative numbers: - Change the number to its 1’s complement.
- Add 1 to the result and the number will be in 2’s complement.
OR
- Rewrite the bits starting from the right hand side, all 0s take as they
are at their respective position and the first 1 value encountered. The
rest alternate a 1 to 0 and a 0 to a 1 and your number will be in 2’s
complement.
For example, in 2’s complement,
+6 = 000001102
-6 = 111110102
We can also find the magnitude the 2's complement number. The largest number that can be
represented in 8-bit 2s complement is 011111112 = 127. The smallest is 100000002 = -128. The
formula used for range is -(2n-1) to +(2n-1-1)
This suggests that one way to detect overflow is to look at the sign bits of the two most significant
bits and compare it to the sum. Refer to diagrams below:
11111011
Step-1 00000100
Complement the number.
Step-2 -00000101
Add one add prefix a minus sign.
Step-3 -5
Convert binary to decimal.
When the addition of two values results in a carry, the carry bit is ignored and is thrown away. There
is no overflow as long as the magnitude is not greater than 2n-1-1 nor less than –(2n-1).
The two's-complement system has the advantage that the fundamental arithmetic operations of
addition, subtraction, and multiplication are identical to those for unsigned binary numbers (as long
as the inputs are represented in the same number of bits and any overflow beyond those bits is
discarded from the result). This property makes the system both simpler to implement and capable of
easily handling higher precision arithmetic. Also, zero has only a single representation, other than in
ones'-complement where it has two values.
Binary arithmetic
The arithmetic operations - addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, performed on the
binary numbers is called binary arithmetic. The basic arithmetic operations performed on the binary
numbers are
Binary conversion
Binary Addition, and
Binary Subtraction,
Binary Conversion
This involves converting a number in binary from to either denary (base 10), octal (base 8) or
hexadecimal( base 16)
(a) Conversion from decimal (denary) to Binary
Divide the denary number by 2, listing the remainders until the answer is 0 remainder 1.
Take the remainders only from the last one until the first.
For example:
Add all the equivalent to values in the table, whose binary digit correspond to 1 and add them.
The result is the denary equivalent.
That is 16 + 4 = 20. This is a short form of (16 x 1) + (4 x1) = 20
= 1168
= (64 x 1) + (8 x 1) + (1 x 6) = 78
(e) Decimal to hexadecimal
Hexadecimal means base 16.
A hexadecimal number contains numbers from 0 to 15.
However, 10 to 15 are represented by uppercase alphabetic characters from A to F
respectively.
The table below illustrates this:
Decimal Number 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
Hexadecimal 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 A B C D E F
Equivalent
Binary Addition
The table below illustrates procedure for binary addition, just like the addition of normal figures.
Binary subtraction
Subtraction of binary numbers follow the principles laid down on the following table:
In the octal number system there are only eight different symbols.
Step-1
Divide the binary number into groups of three digits starting 111 101
at the LSB.
Step-2
Write down the hexadecimal equivalent for each group of 7 5
digits.
111 1012 = 758
e.g
Express the denary number 78 as:
(i) a binary number stored in an 8 bit byte,
-Divide 78 by 2 and then take the remainders, to get 1001110. This answer has 7 bits but you
are required to give your answer in 8-bit. Add a 0 to the leftmost side of the block to produce
010011102 which is the correct answer.
(ii) a hexadecimal number,
Divide 78 by 16 and take the remainders. This gives 4 remainder 14, and 0 remainder 4. Take
the remainders only, 14 = E in base 16 and 4 remains the same. This gives the answer 4E16.
(iii) a number stored in binary coded decimal (BCD).
Split 78 into 2 separate digits 7 and 8. Convert each to binary separately. 7 give 111 and 8
gives us 1000. Express each binary form in 4 bits. 8 is already represented in 4 bits. Therefore
add an extra bit to the left of 7 to get 0111. So the answer is 01111000
Explain how the binary value of 78 can be used to write down the equivalent octal value with a
minimum amount of calculation [3]
- The binary value of 78 is 01001110.
- Put this binary number in groups of 3 starting from the right, and this gives us 001 001 110.
- Each group of 3 bit can be converted separately to denary or octal form
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‘A’ Level Computing Notes
Convert -63 and -94 into 2’s complement, 8 bit, binary numbers.
- Convert the first number into its binary form by dividing it by 2 and take the remainders.
- If answer does not have 8 bits, add 0s to the left until the bits add up to 8.
- Convert it to one’s complement by converting 1s to 0s and vice versa.
- Add 1 to the result and the number will be in 2’s complement.
- Perform the above stages for the second number.
The results will be as follows:
- 63 in to binary form give 111111, which has 6 bits instead of 8. A leading 0 is added to the
left to make them 8, thus giving us: 00111111. Change 0s to 1s and 1s to 0s, which gives
us 11000000. Add 1 to the number and will give us 11000001. Which is now in 2’s
complement of 64 which is -63.
The result above indicates overflow as the result of adding two negative numbers cannot give a
positive answer. There was overflow from positive bits into negative bits. The processor will produce
an error because carry in to MSB is different from carry out.
The decimal point in an integer is implied and does not change its position. The register used to store
an integer value will be as follows:
There is no memory space for the decimal point. However computers represent a finite number of
digits. This limitation allows us to evaluate the maximum and minimum possible numbers that can be
represented. These include:
This is 1.0000000 = -1
The decimal point is fixed at one position and therefore does not move. In binary we can have
functional column headings.
For negative numbers we use two's complement representation on the entire bit pattern.
Example
Represent -5.2510 in 8-bit binary with the binary point after the fourth digit.
Step-1
Calculate the positive equivalent 5 . 2 5
number in binary.
0 1 0 1 . 0 1 0 0
Step-2
Change 0s to 1s and 1s to 0s 1 0 1 0 . 1 0 1 1
(Complement).
Step-3
1 0 1 0 . 1 1 0 0
Add 1 to the result.
The floating point number representation uses two registers. The first register stores the number
without the binary point. The second register stores a number that indicates the position of the binary
point in the first register.
Similarly, in decimal, 0.0000246 can be written 0.246 x 10-4. Now the mantissa is 0.246 and the
exponent is –4.
The floating point representation of a number has two parts: mantissa and exponent. The mantissa is
a signed fixed point number. The exponent shows the position of the binary point in the mantissa.
For example, the binary number +11001.11 with an 8-bit mantissa and 6-bit exponent is represented
as follows -
• Mantissa is 01100111. The left most 0 indicates that the number is positive.
• Exponent is 000101. This is the binary equivalent of decimal number +5.
• The floating point number is Mantissa x 2exponent , i.e. + (.1100111) x 2+5.
Example: consider the binary number 10111. This could be represented by 0.10111 x 25 or 0.10111 x
2101. Here 0.10111 is the mantissa and 101 is the exponent.
Thus, in binary, 0.00010101 can be written as 0.10101 x 2-11 and 0.10101 is the mantissa and –11 is
the exponent.
It is now clear that we need to be able to store two numbers, the mantissa and the exponent. This
form of representation is called floating point form. Numbers that involve a fractional part, like
2.46710 and 101.01012 are called real numbers.
Give the denary number which would have 01000000 00000000 as its binary, floating point
representation in this computer
The answer is 0.5 or ½ because it will be 0.1 x 20
It is not possible to represent zero as a normalised floating point number because a normalised value
must have the first two bits of the mantissa different. Therefore one must be a 1- which must
represent either -1 or + ½, but not zero.
Normalisation
This is done to simplify operations and expressing numbers in standard form.
Normalisation Principles:
Let us look at the following diagram
- For a positive number, there must be NO leading 0s to the left of the MSB, excluding the sign bit.
With positive numbers, the binary point in the mantissa was always placed immediately
before the first non-zero digit because it allows us to use the maximum number of digits.
Suppose we use 8 bits to hold the mantissa and 8 bits to hold the exponent. The binary number
10.11011 becomes 0.1011011 x 210 and can be held as
The first digit of the mantissa is zero and the second is one. The mantissa is said to be normalised if
the first two digits are different. Thus, for a positive number, the first digit is always zero and the
second is always one. The exponent is always an integer and is held in two's complement form.
Now consider the binary number 0.00000101011 which is 0.101011 x 2-101. Thus the mantissa is
0.101011 and the exponent is –101. Again, using 8 bits for the mantissa and 8 bits for the exponent,
we have
Care needs to be taken when normalising negative numbers. The easiest way to normalise negative
numbers is to first normalise the positive version of the number. Consider the binary number –1011.
The positive version is 1011 = 0.1011 x 2100 and can be represented by
As another example, change the decimal fraction –11/32 into a normalised floating point binary
number.
Leave the negative sign first and solve it for just 11/32, 11/32 = 1/4 + 1/16 + 1/32 = 0.01 + 0.0001 +
0.00001 = 0.01011; converted to binary equivalent.
Now we have 8 bits mantissa and 8 bits exponent, 00101100 00000000,
It is not normalized so normalize it by removing a 0 from location worth 1/2 in mantissa and
subtracting that 1 location from exponent 0 reveals -1. That is, 01011000 11111111; this is Floating
Point equivalent of 11/32.
For -11/32 keep the exponent same and in mantissa start from right side. Keep all digits same until first
1 and toggle rest.
Benefits of Normalisation
- Ensures that a single representation of a number is maintained (standardisation).
- Ensures maximum possible accuracy with a given number of bit is maintained.
- Can be used to detect error conditions such as underflow and overflow
- Tires to maximise the range of numbers that can be represented in a fixed point representation
(Range and accuracy is limited in fixed point representation)
● The size of the exponent determines the range of numbers that can be represented
The range of numbers is expanded by increasing the number of bits that are used to represent
the exponent. This will however decrease precision.
Reducing the number of bits in the exponent will reduce the range because power of two
which the mantissa is multiplying by is decreased.
At the same time decreasing the exponent’s bits will increase accuracy because more digits
are represented after the binary point.
● The size of the significant determines the precision of the numbers that can be represented
Precision can be increased by increasing the number of bits that are used to represent the
significant
This will decrease the range.
● The only way to increase both range and precision is to use more bits
that is, the use of single-precision numbers, double-precision numbers, etc
If we use more bits for the mantissa we will have to use fewer bits for the exponent. Let us start off
by using 8 bits for the mantissa and 8 bits for the exponent for explanations below:
The largest positive value we can have for the mantissa is 0.1111111 and
The largest positive number we can have for the exponent is 01111111.
This means that we have 0.1111111 x 21111111 = 0.1111111 x 2127.
This means that the largest positive number is almost 1 x 2127.
Also:
The smallest positive mantissa is 0.1000000 and
the smallest exponent is 10000000.
This represents 0.1000000 x 210000000 = 0.1000000 x 2-128 which is very close to zero; in fact
it is 2-129.
Zero cannot be represented in normalised form. This is because 0.0000000 is not normalised because
the first two digits are the same. A normalised value must have the first two bits of the mantissa
different. Therefore one of them must be a 1 which must represent either -1 or + ½, but not zero.
Usually, the computer uses the smallest positive number to represent zero.
Also, size of number mean the furthest to the left on a number line so -1 is a bigger number than -2.
Whereas, if we talk about largest magnitude negative number then the -2 is greater magnitude than -1
because the integer value is greater (not considering the sign).
Range: Allowable values for a register representation of data, starting from the lowest (minimum)
allowable to the highest (maximum) allowable values. It can also be defined as the difference
between the lowest and the highest acceptable values.
Floating and fixed point numbers will be accurate to the smallest number they can represent.
Precision: precision is the degree to which further measurements or calculations show the same or
similar result. More bits for precision is a measure of reliability (repeatedly give the same value).
More bits for mantissa means the number will be more precise, i.e by having more significant figures
Round-Off Errors
Rounding: Expressing a number to the nearest whole/decimal/binary number. For example 3.9569
rounded to 3 decimal places is 3.957. If rounded to the nearest whole number, it becomes 4.
Often we cannot represent a denary fraction exactly even if we allow many bits in memory.
Therefore the number stored is "rounded off" to the closest possible binary equivalent.
In rounding, the least significant bit may be increased depending on digits removed. The result
should represent the value that is nearest to the original value, e.g
100.1 = 100 (2 s. f)
10101 = 1100 (2 .f)
Truncation Errors
Truncation is shortening by cutting off some characters/ending text abruptly at a certain point; e.g.
3.9569 truncated to 3 decimal places is 3.956. If truncated to the nearest whole number, it becomes 3.
Truncation error is difference between a truncated value and the actual value. A truncated quantity is
represented by a numeral with a fixed number of allowed digits, with any excess digits "chopped off"
Often, in either floating or fixed point systems, results are calculated with too many places of
accuracy to be represented. We get this type of error when trailing bits are truncated to fit the result
in the memory location available.
100.1 = 100 (2 s. f)
10101 = 10000 (2 .f)
11011 = 11000 (2 s.f)
11.101 = 11 (2 s.f)
Overflow
Underflow
An underflow is produced when a result that is smaller in magnitude than the smallest number
that can be represented.
It occurs when a small number is divided by a large number or
When small numbers are multiplied together.
There exists the largest and smallest positive value. Around 0, there exists a range of values
that cannot be represented (stored) and this is underflow.
NB: Overflow and underflow occur when a result of calculations falls outside the range of
values permitted by the representation of the number.
Practice Questions
1. (a) Describe how characters are stored in a computer. (3)
b) Explain what is meant by an integer data type. (2)
c) State what is meant by Boolean data. (1)
4. (a) Add together the binary equivalents of 34 and 83, using single byte arithmetic, showing you
working. (3)
(b). Describe a floating point representation for real numbers using two bytes. (4)
5. a) Explain how the fraction part of a real number can be normalised. (2)
b) State the benefit obtained by storing real numbers using normalised form. (1)
6. a) A floating point number is represented in a certain computer system in a single 8 bit byte. 5 bits
are used for the mantissa and 3 bits for the exponent. Both are stored in two’s complement form and
the mantissa is normalised.
(i) State the smallest positive value,
(ii) state the most negative value
that can be stored. Give each answer as an 8 bit binary value and as a decimal equivalent. (4)
b) Explain the relationship between accuracy and range when storing floating point representations of
real numbers. (4)
7. (a) Express the denary number -95 as a two’s complement integer in an eight-bit byte. [2]
(b) Add together the following binary numbers. Show your working.
0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 and 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 [2]
8. Part of the information stored in the data dictionary describes the type of data which is being
stored.
9. Floating-point numbers in a particular computer system are stored using 12 bits. The first 6 bits are
used for the storage of the mantissa and the second set of 6 bits is used to store the exponent.
(a) One way to represent 6.5 as a floating-point number in this representation is 001101000100
Explain why this representation is equivalent to 6.5 [4]
(b) (i) Using the representation above to help you, write the number 6.5 as a floating-point number in
normalised form. [2]
(ii) Explain the effects of changing the representation so that 8 bits are used for the mantissa and 4
bits for the exponent. [2]
(c) The numbers 011011001101 and 101100001110 are stored with 6 bits for the mantissa and 6 for
the exponent.
Add the exponents of the two floating-point numbers together. [2]
12. (a) Show how the denary number –90 can be represented, using 8 bits, in:
(i) sign and magnitude,
(ii) two’s complement. [2]
(b) The denary number 10¾ is to be represented as a floating point binary number using 12 bits.
The first 8 bits are to be used for the mantissa and the remaining four bits are to be used for the
exponent.
(i) Explain what is meant by the mantissa of a floating point number. [2]
(ii) Explain what is meant by the exponent of a floating point number. [2]
(iii) Show why 001010110101 is a floating point representation of 10¾.[3]
(iv) Normalise the floating point value given in (iii). [2]
13. (a) (i) Express the number 93 as an 8 bit binary number. [2]
(iii) Express the number 93 as a number in hexadecimal. [2]
14. A computer stores fractional numbers in floating point binary representation. Five bits are used
for the mantissa and three bits for the exponent. All values are stored in two’s complement form.
(a) By using a diagram of this representation, state the value of each of the bits. [4]
(b) By using 2 ½ as an example, explain how real numbers can be shown in normalised form in this
representation. [3]
(c) State the floating point binary value of - ¾ in this representation. [2]
15. A computer stores numbers in floating point form, using 8 bits for the mantissa and 8 bits for the
exponent. Both the mantissa and the exponent are stored in two’s complement form.
(a) Explain the effect on the
• range
• accuracy
of the numbers that can be stored if the number of bits in the exponent is reduced. [4]
(b) Give the denary number which would have 01000000 00000000 as its binary, floating point
representation in this computer. [2]
(c) Explain why it is not possible to represent zero as a normalised floating point number. [2]
The processor
• Can be referred to generally as Central Processing Unit (CPU) which is responsible for
fetching, decoding and executing of all computer instructions.
• It is commonly called the brain of the computer
• Computers cannot work without the processor
Co-Processor
This is an additional processor used for a specific task and improves processing speed by executing
jobs concurrently, e. g. maths co-processor
Maths Core-Processor: an additional processor which works alongside the main processor, capable of
processing large representations using large size registers, particularly used for floating point
calculations
Processor Performance
The traditional processor’s performance is affected by these four main components:
(a) Clock Speed
- The processor contains a timing device known as the clock. It determines the timing of all
operations.
- This sends out signals at a given interval, and all processes within the computer will start with one
of these pulses.
- A process may take any amount of time to complete, but it will only start on a pulse.
- It therefore makes sense that a processor with a faster clock speed will perform faster, since more
pulses will be sent out in the same time frame.
- A faster clock increases the speed of the processor and/or memory but not the peripherals
- The clock speed is generally quoted in factors of Hertz, with modern processors typically
Gigahertz.
(d) Architecture
- The architecture of a processor will affect its performance,
- A better designed processor will perform better than a different processor.
2. Control unit
It manages the execution of instructions by running the clock.
It coordinates and controls all operations of computer system.
It also called the supervisor of the computer. It performs the following:
- Fetches the next instruction to be executed
- Decodes instructions
- Manages execution of instructions
- Executes decoded instructions
- Uses control signals to manage rest of processor.
- It carries out the Fetch-Execute Cycle as illustrated below:
(c) Registers:
- This is a high-speed storage area in the CPU used to temporarily hold small units of program
instructions and data immediately before, during and after execution by the CPU.
- It is a small amount of storage available on the CPU whose contents can be accessed more
quickly than storage available elsewhere
- Registers are special memory cells that operate at very high speed. They provide the fastest
way for a CPU to access data.
- The CPU contains a number of registers and each has a predefined functions
- Most modern computer architectures operate by moving data from main memory into registers,
operate on them, then move the result back into main memory
- Register size determines how much information it can store
- The size of register is in bytes: i.e., can be one, two, four or eight byte register
- The processor contains a number of special purpose registers (which have dedicated uses) and
general purpose registers (which may be used for arithmetic function and are a sort of “working
area”)
- The main types registers (special purpose registers) found in the Von Neumann Machine are as
given below:
program counter
memory address register
memory data register/memory buffer register
current instruction register
index register
Memory Data Register (MDR) also called Memory buffer register (MBR)
• This is used to store data which has been read from or is ready to write to memory. All transfers
from memory to CPU go through this buffer
• It acts like a buffer and holds anything that is copied from the memory ready for the processor
to use it
• It contains data written into memory or receives data read from memory
Flags Register: Used to record the effect of the last ALU operation
Fetch
The PC stores the address of the next instruction which needs to be carried out
As instructions are held sequentially in the memory, the value in the PC is incremented so that
it always points to the next instruction.
When the next instruction is needed, its address is copied from the PC and placed in the MAR
The data which is stored at the address in the MAR is then copied to the MDR
Once it is ready to be executed, the executable part if the instruction is copied into the CIR
Execute
The contents of both the memory address register and the memory data register are sent
together to the central processor. The central processor contains all the parts that do the
calculations, the main part being the CU (control unit) and the ALU (arithmetic logic unit),
there are more parts to the central processor which have specific purposes as well.
The ALU will keep referring back to where the data and instructions are stored, while it is
executing them, the MDR acts like a buffer, storing the data until it is needed
The CU will then follow the instructions, which will tell it where to fetch the data from, it will
read the data and send the necessary signals to other parts of the computer.
Load the address that is in the program counter (PC) into the memory address register
(MAR).
Increment the PC by 1.
Load the instruction that is in the memory address given by the MAR into the MDR
Load the instruction that is now in the MDR into the current instruction register (CIR).
Decode the instruction that is in the CIR.
If the instruction is a jump instruction then
Load the address part of the instruction into the PC
Reset by going to step 1.
Execute the instruction.
Reset by going to step 1.
The first step simply places the address of the next instruction into the memory Address Register so
that the control unit can fetch the instruction from the correct part of the memory. The program
The memory data register is used whenever anything is to go from the central processing unit to main
memory, or vice versa. Thus the next instruction is copied from memory into the MDR and is then
copied into the current instruction register.
Now that the instruction has been fetched the control unit can decode it and decide what has to be
done. This is the execute part of the cycle. If it is an arithmetic instruction, this can be executed and
the cycle restarted as the PC contains the address of the next instruction in order. However, if the
instruction involves jumping to an instruction that is not the next one in order, the PC has to be
loaded with the address of the instruction that is to be executed next. This address is in the address
part of the current instruction, hence the address part is loaded into the PC before the cycle is reset
and starts all over again.
Memory Unit
Is the computer memory that temporarily stores the operating system, application programs and data
currently use.
It used to store the following:
Program instructions in current use;
Data in current use;
Parts of Operating System that are currently in use.
Some architectures have a Memory Unit (Main memory) which has two types: RAM and ROM.
Buses
A bus is a pathway through which data and signals are transferred from one device to another.
They are a set of parallel wires connecting two or more components of the computer.
Buses can be internal or external.
Buses can be generally referred to as system bus and this connect the CPU, memory and I/O
devices.
Each bus is a shared transmission medium, so that only one device can transmit along a bus at
any one time.
Multiple devices can be connected to the same bus
Diagram
- Address bus:
Used for transferring memory addresses from the processor when it is accessing main
memory
They are used to access memory during the read or write process
The width of the address bus determines the maximum possible memory capacity of the
computer.
This a uni-directional bus (one way). The address is send from CPU to memory and I/O
ports only.
- Control bus:
The purpose of the control bus is to transmit command, timing and specific status
information between system components. Timing signals indicate the validity of data and
address information. Command signals specify operations to be performed. Specific
status signals indicate the state of a data transfer request, or the status of request by a
components to gain control of the system bus
This is a bi-directional bus used for carrying control signals (Signals can be transferred in
both directions).
They carry signals to enable outputs of addressed port and memory devices
Control signals regulate activities on the bus.
Control buses transmit command, timing and status information between computer
components.
Typical control signals are:
Memory Read
Memory Write
I/O Read
I/O Write
Interrupt Request
Interrupt Grant
Reset
Ready hold
etc
Timing signals: indicate validity of data and information.
Command signals: Specify operations to be performed
Status signals: Indicate state of data transfer request or status of a request.
Interrupt Service Routine (Handler): a small subprogram that is calld when an interrupt occurs and
it handles the interrupt.
Interrupt priorities
Interrupts have different priorities
This is important if two interrupts are received simultaneously the processor for it to decide which
one is more important to execute first.
There are four levels of priority, which are (highest priority order):
- Hardware Failure: can be caused by power failure or memory parity error.
- Program Interrupts: Arithmetic overflow, division by zero, etc
- Timer Interrupts: generated by the internal clock
- I/O Interrupts:
Interrupt Handling
At the end of each Fetch-Execute cycle, the contents of the interrupt registers are checked.
Should there be an interrupt; the following steps will typically be taken:
a) The current fetch-decode-execute cycle is completed
b) The operating system halts current task
c) The contents of the PC and other registers will be stored safely in a stack.
d) The highest priority interrupt is identified. Interrupts with a lower priority are disabled.
e) The source of the interrupt is identified.
f) The start address of the interrupt handler is loaded into the PC.
g) The interrupt handler is executed.
h) Interrupts are enabled again, and the cycle will restart with any further interrupts.
i) The PC and other registers are “popped” from the stack and restored.
j) The user’s program resumes with the next step in its cycle.
- When dealing with an interrupt, the computer has to know which interrupt handler to call for
which interrupt.
- One method of doing this is known as the vectored interrupt mechanism.
- In this approach a complete list of interrupts and the memory address of their handler is stored in a
table called the interrupt vector table.
- The interrupt supplies an offset number, which identifies the interrupt uniquely.
- This offset is added to a base term, and the resultant number is the memory address of a pointer to
the memory location of the handler routine.
- This is explained in the example below:
Types of interrupts
Input / output interrupt: they are generated by the I/O devices when transfer is complete or when
there is an error in transmission, e.g. disk full, printer out of paper, etc.
Interrupts generated by running process: process may need more storage or to communicate with
the operator
Timer interrupts: generated by the processor clock, e.g. control being transferred to another user in
a time sharing system, or the processor want to perform a routine task which is done at that exact
time daily.
Program check interrupts: caused by errors in a program, e.g division by zero
Machine check interrupts: Caused by malfunctioning hardware.
Clock (happens normally in time sharing systems where the clock transfers control from one
computer to another.)
Sources of interrupts
- power failure/system failure
- peripheral e.g. printer (buffer empty)/hardware
- clock interrupt
- user interrupt e.g. new user log on request
- software
Vectored Interrupts
A specific number assigned to each interrupt is called an interrupt vector. Each interrupt is numbered.
Each interrupt vector is the one used to call the interrupt handler
Address of interrupt service routines are stored in an array (known as interrupt dispatch table) and the
interrupt vector is used as a subscript to this array.
Use of buffers and interrupts in the transfer of data between primary memory and hard disk.
Buffer is temporary storage area for data
Data transferred from primary memory to buffer (or vice versa)
When buffer full, processor can carry on with other tasks
Buffer is emptied to the hard disk
When buffer empty, interrupt sent to processor requesting more data to be sent to buffer.
Works according to priorities
Cache Memory
- A cache is a small and very high speed memory used to speed up the transfer of data and
instructions, doubling the speed of the computer in some cases.
- It can located inside or close to the CPU Chip
- it is placed between the CPU and the main memory.
- It stores frequently or most recently used instructions and data
- It is faster than RAM
- The data and instructions that are most recently or most frequently used by CPU are
stored in cache memory.
- it is used to increase the speed of processing by making current programs and data
available to the CPU at a rapid rate
- CPU processes data faster than main memory access time, thus processing speed is
limited primarily by the speed of main memory.
- It compensates the speed difference between the main memory access time and processor
logic.
Compiled By Kapondeni T. Page 118 of 179
‘A’ Level Computing Notes
- It is used to increase the speed of processing by making current programs and data
available to the CPU at a rapid rate.
-
- The cache thus used for storing segments of programs currently being executed in the
CPU and temporary data frequently needed in the present calculations
-
- The amount of cache memory is generally between 1kb and 512kb
Diagram A Diagram B
• In the first clock cycle the processor gets the instruction from memory and decodes it. In the
next clock cycle the required data is taken from memory. For each instruction this cycle
repeats and hence needs two cycles to complete an instruction
• Pipelining the instructions is not possible with this architecture.
• A stored-program digital computer is one that keeps its programmed instructions, as well as
its data, in read-write, random access memory (RAM), that is the Von Neumann computer.
This makes the machines much more flexible.
• By treating those instructions in the same way as data, a stored-program machine can easily
change the program, and can do so under program control.
• Once in the computer’s memory a program will be executed one instruction at a time by
repeatedly going through
• In the vast majority of modern computers, the same memory is used for both data and
program instructions.
Advantages
- Almost all data can be processed by the von Neumann computer
- Cheaper than alternative types of processing
- Its design is very simple
Disadvantages
- Slower than other architectures
- Limited by bus transfer rate
- Does not maximise CPU utilisation
- Poorly written programs can have their data mixed up as both data and instructions share
the same memory
Harvard Architecture.
Diagram A Diagram B
Using a simple, unified memory system together with a Harvard architecture is highly inefficient.
Unless it is possible to feed data into both busses at the same time, it might be better to use a von
Neumann architecture processor.
Disadvantages
System clock
• It is an electronic component that generates clock pulses to step the control unit through its
operation.
• This sends out a sequence of timing pulses or signals, which are used to step the control unit
through its operations.
• It generates electric signals at a fast speed
• It controls all functions of computer using clock ticks
• These ticks of system clock are known as clock cycle and speed of CPU
• The speed at which the CPU executes instructions is called clock speed or clock rate.
• It generates a continuous sequence of clock pulse to step the control unit through its
operations
Serial Processing
Each instruction is executed in turn until the end of the program.
Advantages
- Nearly all programs can run on serial processing and therefore no additional complex
code can be written.
- All data types are suitable for serial processing
- Program can use the previous result in the next operation
- Data set are independent of each other
- Cheaper to handle than parallel
Disadvantages
- Slows data processing especially in the Von Neumann architecture (bottleneck)
- Too much thrashing especially with poorly designed programs
Parallel Processing
- Parallel processing is the ability of a computer system to divide a job into many tasks which
are executed simultaneously, using more than one processor, thus allowing multiple
processing.
- Multiple CPUs can be used to carry out different parts of the fetch-execute cycle.
- The computer is able to perform concurrent data processing to achieve faster execution time.
2. Pipeline Processing
It is a technique which allows the overlapping of the fetch-decode-execute cycle for different
instructions.
A parallel processing architecture in which several processors are used, each one doing a
different part of the fetch, decode, execute cycle, so the fetch-decode-execute cycle is
staggered.
The processor is split up into three parts (fetch, decode, execute), each of which handles one
of the three stages.
Each part is called a line, where each single line is a pipeline.
This can be best illustrated with the diagram below.
In pipelining, three instructions are dealt with at the same time. This reduces the execution time
considerably.
However, this would only be true for a very linear program.
Once jump instructions are introduced the problem arises that the wrong instructions are in the
pipeline waiting to be executed, so every time the sequence of instructions changes, the pipeline has
to be cleared and the process started again.
A non-pipeline architecture is inefficient because some CPU components (modules) are idle while
another module is active during the instruction cycle. Pipelining does not completely cancel out idle
time in a CPU but making those modules work in parallel improves program execution significantly.
Processors with pipelining are organized inside into stages which can semi-independently work on
separate jobs. Each stage is organized and linked into a 'chain' so each stage's output is fed to another
stage until the job is done. This organization of the processor allows overall processing time to be
significantly reduced
ADDRESSING MODES
Each instruction specifies an operation on certain data.
The different ways in which a computer calculate addresses holding the source and/or destination of
the data being processed in a particular instruction is called addressing mode.
Op-code (operator):
- is the part that represent the operations that the computer can understand and carry out. It is
the mnemonic part of the instruction/that indicates what it is to do/code for the operation.
They are easier to remember. They can be represented by mnemonics which are the pseudo
names given to the different operations that make it easier. E.g. ADD.
Operand:
- it is the address field in an instruction that holds data to be used by the operation given in the
opcode, e.g. in ADD 12, “12” is the operand
The data is what the operation is being applied to, there are a number of different ways in which this
data can be represented, and this is known as addressing.
Symbolic addressing: the use of characters to represent the address of a store location
The most common addressing modes are: direct, indirect, indexed, relative and immediate
addressing.
1. Immediate Addressing
This is where the value to be used is stored in the instruction.
This is when the value in the instruction is not an address at all but the actual data (constant to
be used in the program).
The data to be operated on is held as part of the instruction format.
The data to be used is stored immediately after the op code for the instruction. Thus the
operand field actually contains the data
e.g: LDA #&80 : Means that Load the hexadecimal value of 80 into the accumulator register.
MOVE #8, R1: Moves the value 8 into register R1
Immediate addressing uses the # symbol.
This is very simple, although not often used because the program parameters cannot be
changed.
This means that the data being operated on can’t be adjusted and only uses constants.
Can be used to initialize constants.
2. Direct Addressing
The address in the instruction is the address to be used to get to the operand.
The operand gives the address of the data to be used in the program.
It requires one memory reference to read the operand from the given location
The address given in the instruction is the one that contains the data to be used in the
operation without any modification.
It is also called memory addressing
e.g In the instruction ADD 23,
- we first go to memory address 23 which stores the instruction to be executed.
It provides only a limited address space
It is very simple, although does not make best use of memory
It is slow as too much memory is used
3. Indirect Addressing
- In this mode of addressing, the address given in the instruction holds the address of where the
data is stored.
- This is whereby the real address is stored in the memory so the value in the address part of the
instruction is pointing to the address of the data.
- The address of data in memory is held in another memory location and the operand of the
instruction holds the address of this memory location.
- It is MOSTLY used when access areas of memory that are not accessible using the space
available for the address in the instruction code
- using our example, ADD 23
- we go to memory address 23
- there we are given another memory address, e.g 32, where the actual instruction will be stored
- This method is useful because the amount of space in a location is much bigger than the space
in the address part of the instruction.
- It gives flexibility as the original program does not need to be altered if the position of the
routines (sub-programs) change.
- Therefore we can store larger addresses and use more memory.
- It is used where memory larger than can be accessed by address in instruction
- It is also used when one wants to allow full size of register to be used for address
- used if memory locations are 32 bits are used and thus allowing more memory to be accessed
- there is a problem that some areas of memory cannot be addressed because size of memory
address is larger than space available in instruction
- Indirect addressing solves this problem as the Memory address will fit in a memory location
Relative Addressing
- The same as Indexed Addressng except that the PC replces the Index Register.
- E.g Load Ri, X (PC)
- This loads register Ri with the contents of the memory location whose address is the sum of
the contents of the PC and the value X.
Indexed Addressing
- The address part of the instruction is added to a value held in the index register.
- It is where the actual address is found by adding a displacement to the base address.
Questions
1. The Program Counter (Sequence Control Register) is a special register in the processor of a
computer.
a) Describe the function of the program counter. (2)
b) Describe two ways in which the program counter can change during the normal execution of a
program, explaining, in each case, how this change is initiated. (4)
c) Describe the initial state of the program counter before the running of the program. (2)
2. Explain what is meant by the term Von Neumann Architecture. (2)
3. Describe the fetch/decode part of the fetch/decode/execute/reset cycle, explaining the purpose of
any special registers that you have mentioned. (7)
4. a) Describe how pipelining normally speeds up the processing done by a computer. (2)
b) State one type of instruction that would cause the pipeline system to be reset, explaining why such
a reset is necessary. (3)
5). Give 3 differences between the Von Neumann and the Harvard Computer architectures.
A data structure is a collection of different data items that are stored together as a single unit and the
operations allowable on them. Such data structures includes arrays, trees, linked lists, stacks and
queues. Data structures can be static or dynamic.
Array
An array is a static data structure, which stores and implements a set of items of the same data type
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‘A’ Level Computing Notes
using the same identifier name, in contiguous memory location. Every array element is accessed or
referenced using an index (subscript), therefore uses index register addressing. It can either store
integers, or names, but not both in one unit.
The last option modifies the starting value and the ending value of the indices, but the number of
elements still remains the same.
By default, this implies that the array stores at most 5 elements. On running, the computer creates 5
contiguous memory locations under the name “Names”. Thus Names will contain 5 partitions. Each
memory partition will be accessed using an index, which is the address of the memory space in the
array.
In Visual Basic, the number of elements stored in an array is N + 1, N being the number
(subscript) used when declaring the array.
Array index starts at Zero up to N, N being the number in the declaration of the array.
The index is also called Subscript, and therefore arrays are subscripted data types.
It is not possible to exceed the upper limit or go below the lower limit on the array index values. You
will receive a “Subscript out of range” error message if you try to do so.
In the above declaration, the array index starts from 0 to 4 and are integer values. The memory
locations will be as follows:
The five individual locations are Names (0), Names (1), Names (2), Names (3) and Names (4).
Each data item is called an element of the array. To reference a particular element one must use the
appropriate index.
NB: However, most programming languages differ with Microsoft Visual basic in handling
arrays, especially on the amount of memory allocated. For example, using Java, the following
declaration:
Int [4 ]Names;
This array declaration creates exactly 4 memory spaces for the array Names. The indices of the
array range from 0 to 3 which are
Names[0], Names[1], Names[2] and Names[3]
Names(3) = “Kapondeni”
Arrays simplify the processing of similar data. An algorithm for getting four names from the user and
storing them in the array Names is shown below:
One-dimensional arrays
A one-dimensional array is a data structure in which the array is declared using a single index and can
be visually represented as a list.
The following diagram shows the visual representation of the array Names(4):
0 Theresa
1 Lameck
2 Johanne
3 Laurence
4 Fadzai
Two-dimensional arrays
A two-dimensional array is a data structure in which the array is declared using two indices and can be
visually represented as a table.
Indices 0 1 2 3
0 Makombe Tinashe M 4A
1 Vheremu Alex M 4B
2 Mununi Mary F 3C
3 Chirongera Salpicio M 2C
4 Mutero Violet F 4C
The diagram above shows the visual representation of a 2 dimensional array Names(4,3)- 5 rows and 4
columns:
Each individual element can be referenced by its row and column indices. For example:
Names(0,0) is the data item “Makombe”
Names(2,1) is the item “Mary”
Names(1,2) is the item “M”
Initialisation is important to ensure that the array does not contain results from a previous use,
elsewhere in the program.
The above algorithm will shift elements of the array up (or left), removing the first element and then
completely removing the last element in the array.
The algorithm first searches the element to delete, and then remove it from the array.
NB:
If the item is string, it replaces with empty spaces. However, if it is numeric, it replaces with a
0.
Deleting form an array is often difficult as elements need to be shifted positions after deletion.
It is an effective method for deleting elements.
This allows the user to create the array when he/she actually needs it, using a ReDim statement:
Dynamic arrays can be re-created at will, each time with a different number of items. When you re-
create a dynamic array, its contents are reset to 0 (or to an empty string) and you lose the data it
contains. If you want to resize an array without losing its contents, use the ReDim Preserve
command:
Binary Trees
A binary tree is a data structure, consisting of a root node and zero, one or two sub-tree which are
organised in a hierarchical way. Each node is a parent of at most two nodes.
-
The data items are held in nodes.
The possible routes are called paths/branches. They are lines connecting the nodes.
Each node has two possible paths.
The nodes are arranged in layers.
For example, given the following numbers: 20, 30, 5, 2, 7, 6, 17, 58, 41
Placing them in the binary tree is as follows:
- The first element becomes the root node, i.e. 20
- For other numbers, the bigger number goes to the right and the smaller one to the right of a
node. Every time start from the root node, until you get to an empty space to place the new
node.
- For example, 30, is bigger than 20, therefore is placed to the right hand side of 20. There is
nothing on this side and therefore a new node is created and 30 placed inside.
- Next is 5, which is smaller than 20 (root node) and therefore goes to the left. There is an
empty space therefore a new node is created and 5 is placed inside.
- Then 2 is smaller than 20 (root node) and therefore goes to the left. On the left there is 5. 2 is
smaller than 5, therefore we go to the left and place 2 there.
- Next is 7, which is smaller than 20, we go to the left where there is 5. Seven (7) is bigger than
5, therefore we place it to the right of 5.
- ……….finish on your own!!!!!!!!!!!
A. Pre-Order traversal
The order of traversal is:
- Visit the Node
- Traverse the Left sub-tree
- Traverse the Right sub-tree.
This is generally given as NLR
For the diagram above, the pre-order traversal will be as follows:
20, 5, 2, 7, 6, 17, 30, 58, 41.
B. In-Order Traversal
The order of traversal is:
- Traverse the Left sub-tree
- Visit the Node
- Traverse the Right sub-tree.
This is generally given as LNR
For the diagram above, the pre-order traversal will be as follows:
2, 5, 6, 7, 17, 20, 30, 41, 58.
NB: In-order traversal prints items in ascending order or in alphabetical order if they are
alphabetic items.
In-order traversal algorithm:
1. For the current node, check if there is left-sb-tree. If it exists, go to the root node of this sub-
tree and then go to 2. If it doesn’t exist, go to 3.
2. Repeat 1
3. Print the current node
4. For the current node. Check whether it has a right sub-tree. If it has, go to 5. Else go to 6
5. Repeat 1
6. End
C. Post-Order Traversal
The order of traversal is:
- Traverse the Left sub-tree
- Traverse the Right sub-tree.
- Visit the Node
OR:
The entire sub-tree without its root is read to a list
The sub-tree is deleted
The values in the list are read back into the tree (element which was originally on the left will
replace the deleted element (becomes root of that branch))
Binary tree maintain the order of elements. However, if one element is deleted, the order is affected.
In some cases, each node (data) may be assigned pointers (right and left pointer). This is as illustrated
below:
Infix Expressions
Normal mathematical expressions are written as follows:
A+B
This method is called Infix Notation, because the operator is found between the operands to be acted
upon. Infix notation involves the use of brackets and observes operator precedence, e.g.
BODMAS/BOMDAS.
For example, the expression below is an Infix:
(A+B)*C+(D-A)
If there are no brackets, the expression will give a different answer. It is not easy for the computer to
evaluate infix expressions.
Prefix Expressions
The Polish Notation is also called the prefix. In Prefix (Polish) notation, the operator precedes the
operands. For example, the infix expression
A + B is given as: +AB
This has an advantage that it removes ambiguity and avoids use of brackets
Postfix Expressions
Reverse Polish Notation (Postfix) is a way of writing mathematical expressions without using
parenthesis and brackets, and in which the operands precede the operator. Reverse Polish Notation is
also called Postfix. For example, the Infix expression A + B is written as follows in Postfix:
AB+
Likewise, the infix expression (A+B)*C+(D-A) is written as:
AB+C*DA-+
The first procedure is to put elements into a binary tree, with each operator or operand being a node
on its own.
To do this, we look at operator precedence. The operator with the lowest / weakest precedence
becomes the root node. When the weakest operator is identified, it is placed as the root node.
Expressions on the left hand side of this weakest operator makes up the left sub tree, while those on
the right hand side makes the right sub-tree. This procedure is applied as we move down the tree.
NB: If the original expression to be converted contains, brackets or parenthesis, ignore them, that is,
don’t put them in the tree, but use them in getting the weakest operator. Items in brackets have a
higher priority and therefore are inserted in the tree latter than those NOT in brackets.
Using the above tree, the reverse polish notation will be as follows;
ab+cde-*-
The above can be shown diagrammatically. Can please draw this on your own?
Questions
1. (a) State the difference between dynamic and static data structures giving an example of each. (3)
b) Show how a binary tree can be used to store the data items Feddi, Eda, Joh, Sean, Dav, Gali in
alphabetic order. (4)
c) Explain why problems may arise if Joh is deleted from the tree and how such problems may be
overcome.
2. An array is to be used to store information. State three parameters that need to be given about the
array before it can be used, explaining the reason why each is necessary.
3. (a) Explain the difference between static and dynamic data structures. [2]
(b) Give an example of a
(i) static,
(ii) dynamic
data structure, giving an advantage of each. [4]
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‘A’ Level Computing Notes
(c) The details of a car part are stored in a binary tree according to this algorithm
READ VALUE NEW_PART
START AT ROOT NODE
WHILE NODE NOT EMPTY, DO
IF NEW_PART < VALUE AT NODE
THEN FOLLOW LEFT SUBTREE
ELSE FOLLOW RIGHT SUBTREE
ENDIF
ENDWHILE
INSERT NEW_PART AT NODE
END
(i) Show the binary tree after the following values have been input
Radio Visor Brakes Tyres Alternator Windscreen [3]
(ii) Explain how Clutch is added to the tree in (i). [5]
(iii) Describe an algorithm that can be applied to the binary tree of car parts, so that the tree is read in
alphabetic order.
4.
The following binary tree diagram contains a number of integers. In each case the right pointer
indicates the condition “higher number” and the left pointer indicates the condition “lower or equal
number”.
(ii) Write down the order in which the nodes would be accessed to find the integer 2528. [1]
(iii) Copy the tree and show where a new node containing the integer 3106 would be added. [1]
(iv) The integer 2550 is not in the diagram. Explain what would happen if a search was made for this
code.
- A logic gate is a device that produce signals of 1 or 0 when the input logic requirements are met
and are used in manipulating binary information.
- A logic gate is a device (or electrical circuit) that performs one or more logical operations on one
or more input signals.
- Its output represent Boolean (T or F) or binary values (1 or 0) as voltages.
- Logic gates are the building blocks of digital technology.
- They can be used in applications like:
Building computer chips
The number of rows in a truth table shows the number of combinations of the inputs of a
particular circuit. The number of rows for each gate is found using the following formulae: rows
= 2n , n being the number of inputs in the gate or circuit. For example, a gate or circuit has the
following rows corresponding to the number of input (excluding column headings):
- 1 input = 21 = 2 rows
- 2 inputs = 22 = 4 rows
- 3 inputs = 23 = 8 rows
- …..
The name inside the gate gives us the type of the gate
(a) OR gate
This represents two inputs entering the gate and one output from the gate. The inputs can be
represented by any alphabetic characters, e.g. A and B, while the output can be X, given as
follows:
- X= A OR B
- The output (X) is true if the INPUT A OR INPUT B are true.
- Thus if any one of the inputs is 1, the output is automatically 1
- Output only becomes 0 if all inputs are 0
The output (X) is only true if the INPUT A AND INPUT B are both true. If any one of the inputs is
0, then the output becomes 0 also.
Thus X = A AND B.
The NOT gate has only one input and one output. The input is negated. Thus if input is 1, output is 0,
and vice versa.
The output (X) is true when the INPUT A is NOT TRUE.
The output (X) is False when the INPUT A is TRUE.
BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS
Boolean Expressions are equivalent expressions of the logic state of gates. For example, the Boolean
expression for:
a NOT gate with input A and output C: C = NOT A
NAND and NOR gates are known as universal gates because they are inexpensive to manufacture
and any Boolean function (AND, OR, NOT) can be constructed using only NAND or only NOR
gates. Even NAND and NOR gates can be used as each other’s alternatives in a circuit.
2. Multiplication Sign
- This represents an AND gate
- E.g C = AB,
- C = AxB,
- C = A.B
- C= (AB)(AC)
- C = (A.B).(A.C)
- All these are various versions of the AND gate.
Answer
Step 1: Deduce and Write the logic statement
- The first statement can be re-written as: (L = 1 AND V = NOT 1) since Length > 100 metres
corresponds to a binary value of 1 and Velocity <=10 m/s corresponds to a binary value of 0 (i.e.
NOT 1).
- The second statement can be written as (T = NOT 1 AND V = 1)
- Both these statements are joined together by OR which gives us the logic statement: if (L = 1
AND V = NOT 1) OR (T = NOT 1 AND V = 1) then S = 1
- The above statement can be written as: S = 1 if (L = 1 AND V = NOT 1) OR (T = NOT 1 AND V
= 1)
NB: the Student should first of all write the following logic statement before coming up with a
truth table or logic circuit as this has some marks awarded to it., i.e.
S = 1 if (L = 1 AND V = NOT 1) OR (T = NOT 1 AND V = 1)
Questions
1. A computer will only operate if three switches P, S and T are correctly set. An output signal (X =
1) will occur if R and S are both ON or if R is OFF and S and T are ON. Design a logic network and
draw the truth table for this network.
2. A traffic signal system will only operate if it receives an output signal (D = 1).
This can only occur if:
Either (a) signal A is red (i.e. A = 0)
Or (b) signal A is green (i.e. A = 1) and signals B and C are both red (i.e. B and C are
both 0)
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‘A’ Level Computing Notes
Design a logic network and draw a truth table for the above system.
3. A chemical plant gives out a warning signal (W = 1) when the process goes
wrong. A logic network is used to provide input and to decide whether or not
W=1
Draw a logic network and truth table to show all the possible situations when
the warning signal could be received
4. A power station has a safety system based on three inputs to a logic network.
A warning signal (S = 1) is produced when certain conditions occur based on
these 3 inputs:
Draw a logic network and truth table to show all the possible situations when
the warning signal could be received.
6. Device a suitable Boolean expression and truth table for the circuit below:
8. a. Simplify the following logic equations by using the rules of Boolean algebra.
a. A • C + A • B • C
b. (A + B) • (B + Ā)
c. A • (Ā + C) + C
b. For each of the previous questions, create a circuit for the Boolean expression before
simplification.
Data Transmission/communication:
It is the process of transferring data through networked computers. It involves the transmission or
passing of data and information from one computer (or device) to another.
For transmission to occur, there must be the following:
- Message: Refers to information or data that needs to be send
- Sender:
- Transmission medium:
- Receiver:
- Protocol (Language used by communicating devices)
Transmission Media
Transmission media refers to the path through which data is transferred from one point to another.
Transmission media can be either guided or unguided.
1. Unshielded Twisted Pair: These are cables with two copper wires of about 1 millimetre thick.
The wires are twisted to avoid crosstalk. Twisted pair is very cheap to buy and offer good
performance over short distances.
Disadvantages of twisted pair: Twisted pair is very cheap to buy. Has big attenuation. Has low
bandwidth
3. Fibre optic: A media that uses light to transmit data. Used in Wan and Man networks. Its benefits
are:-
It has less attenuation and therefore fewer repeaters are needed,
has very high bandwidth and cannot corrode (not affected by corrosion),
it is thin and therefore has less weight.
It allows very fast data transfer,
has no electromagnetic interference,
is physically secure.
Fibre optics is in two forms, multimode and monomode. Multimode fibre optic cable carries 2 or
more signals at a time, each at a slightly different reflection angle. This is used over short distances.
Monomode (Single mode) cable carried one signal at a time and is appropriate for long distance
communication.
However, fibre optics is very expensive to buy and is uni-directional (travels in one direction only).
Cable cannot bend around tight corners. It is also difficult to interface with computers.
Unguided Transmission
Wireless Transmission media
1. Bluetooth (Refer to presentations)
2. Radio (refer to presentations)
3. WIFI (Wireless Fidelity)
It is a Wireless LAN(A local area network) that uses high frequency radio signals to transmit
and receive data over distances of a few hundred feet; using Ethernet protocol. it is a set of
standards that set forth the specifications for transmitting data over a wireless network. There
must be a wireless router which enables wireless devices to connect to the network and to the
internet.
- Range: Wi-Fi provides local network access for around a few hundred metres
- Speed: maximum of 54 Mbps,
- Provides local area network
- Limited to one subscriber
- Can be used where cables cannot run
- Wireless network adaptors are inbuilt withion most devices like laptops, therefore cheaper
and easier to get.
- Tend to be slower if more devices are added to the network
-
4. WIMAX (World Wide Inter-operability for Marking Access)
- a single WiMAX antenna is expected to have a range of up to 30 Kilometres
- Speed: with speeds of 70 Mbps or more. As such, WiMAX can bring the underlying
Internet connection needed to service local Wi-Fi networks
- Can accommodate many subscribers
-
- This is a method of networking computers and computer devices without the use of cabling, e.g.
using bluetooth, radio, satellite and infra-red.
- The devices that are used in wireless technology include:
3G (Wireless Application Protocol (WAP)) mobile phones / cellphone / remote
keypad/remote control/remote keyboard.
Infra-red mouse.
Multimedia mobile handsets and
Notebooks.
GPRS (general packet radio service) modems.
GPS - A navigational system involving satellites and computers that can determine the latitude and
longitude of a receiver on earth by computing the time difference for signals from different satellites
to reach the receiver
Asynchronous Transmission:
- This is whereby data is send character by character over a transmission channel.
- This is much slower as compared to synchronous transmission.
- A start bit and two stop bits marks the beginning and ending of a character respectively.
- The start and the stop bit are always different.
- The start bit alerts the receiving end and synchronises its clock, ready to receive the character.
The baud rate of the two devices is set to be similar so as to correctly receive the data.
- A parity bit is included to check against incorrect transmission.
- Each character is send as soon as it becomes available rather than waiting for the clock pulse
Broadband transmission
- This is a multi-channel system where several channels are combined into one carrier signal,
where the bandwidth is shared by different channels.
- Broadband carries multiple signals on a fixed carrier wave.
- Bandwidth is shared by different channels.
- It offers faster transmission rates
- Enables transmission of voice, video, computer data, etc, simultaneously.
- Broadband is expensive to install and maintain
-
Transmission Modes
Transmission modes include Simplex, Duplex (Full duplex) and Half Duplex
Simplex Mode: This is a mode of data transmission in which data travels only in one direction. Thus
one computer acts as the sender and the other as a receiver at any given time. A good example is
teletext service. See diagram below:
Half Duplex: This is a transmission mode in which data travels in both directions but not
simultaneously. The receiver waits until the sender has finished sending data in order for him to
respond. Examples include police radios, uses ‘Over’ to allows time for other to transmit
Transmission impairments
This refers to change in signal form as it propagates through the transmission channel. Transmission
impairments include:
Attenuation: The loss of signal power as it moves through the transmission channel.
Noise: Occurs when an unwanted signal from other sources than the transmitter enters the
transmission channel.
Distortion – means that the signals are deformed a more or less different signal as it propagates
through the medium
Multiplexing
Bandwidth
Refers to the carrying capacity of a transmission channel. It is generally the volume of data that a
communication channel can carry at a given time. It is the difference between the lowest and the
highest (range) amount of data that a channel can transmit. It determines the amount of data a
channel can transmit at a given period of time. Fibre optic cables have high bandwidth and therefore
transmits data faster than coaxial cables, which have low bandwidth.
Baud rate: the amount of bits that can be send of a channel per second. It is a key measure of data
transfer rate. One baud = one bit per second
Packet switching:
- Data is first split into smaller chunks called packets (or datagrams) which may take different
routes and then reassembles to the original order at their destination.
- Packets are routed to the next (intermediate) node along an appropriate route, which can store
and transmit the packet until the destination.
- Each packet takes its own convenient path and then re-assembled at the receiving end.
- Packets do not necessarily arrive at the same time or in correct order.
- At the destination, packets are re-grouped to the original message.
- Packets can be of fixed size
- Each packet has the following data: source address, destination address, error control signal,
packet size, packet sequence number, etc.
NB: A virtual circuit must be established between the sender and the receiving end. Virtual circuit –
A temporary 'dedicated' pathway between two communicating points on a Packet Switched System
before sending of packets. Bandwidth is allocated for a specific transmission pathway.
Message Switching
This is whereby the whole message may be routed by any convenient route.
No physical/dedicated path is established in advance between sender and receiver
Data is stored at a hop (which may be router) then forwarded one hop later.
Each block is received in its entity form, inspected for errors
Data is not transmitted in real time.
Blocking cannot occur
Delays are very common
Sender and receiver need not be compatible since sending will be done by routers, which can
change data format, bit rate and then revert it back to original format on receiving or submit it
in different form.
Storing data solves congested networks since data can be stored in queue and forwarded later
when channel becomes free
Priorities can be used to manage networks
Very slow if the number of nodes is many since each node stores before forwarding the data
In message switching, whole message is routed in its entirety, one hop at a time.
Now implemented over packet or circuit switched data networks.
Each message is treated as a separate entity.
Each message contains addressing information, which is used by switch for transfer to the next
destination.
Also called a store and forward network
Used in e-mails and in telex forwarding
Advantages
• more devices can share network bandwidth
• reduced traffic congestion
• one message can be sent to many destinations through broadcast addresses
Disadvantages
• often costly – must have large storage devices to hold potentially long messages
• not compatible with most real time applications
Transmission protocols
A protocol is a set of rules that govern how data is transferred in a network. It defines the rules on
how network devices communicate, e.g the TCP/IP. This includes:
A network communication protocol: a standard method for transmitting data from one computer to
another across a network. Some of the protocols are:
i. HTTP (HyperText Transfer Protocol)
This is a protocol that defines the process of identifying, requesting and transferring
multimedia web pages over the internet. It is used for transferring data across the internet,
usually between servers and computers on the internet. It is based on the client –server
relationship. It uses TCP/IP to transmit data and messages
ii. FTP (File Transfer Protocol)
it is a protocol used to transfer data from one computer to another. It is often used to
download software from the internet, and it uses the TCP/IP protocol in doing this. However,
FTP has no security to data as the data is not encrypted prior to its transmission.
iii. TELNET
This is a network protocol that allows a computer user to gain access to another computer and
use its software and data, usually on a LAN and on the Internet. It allows users to access data
stored on servers from their terminals. Telnet allows computers to connect to each other and
allows sharing of data and files. Telnet has security problems especially on the internet.
iv. VoIP (Voice Over Internet Protocol)
It is a method of using the internet to make ordinary voice telephone calls. Thus it is a way of
having phone conversations using the internet as a way of communication. By VoIP,
international and long distance calls are of the same price as local calls and sometimes are for
free. However, the system does not offer emergency calls. An example of VoIP is Skype.
At each level, additional information is added to allow service to be provided. This layered model is
also called protocol stack
NETWORKING
Types of networks
i. LAN (Local Area Network
A LAN is a privately owned connection of computers on a very small geographical area for
sharing of data and files by users of the network, for example, within an single room. Usually
connected using cables of radio connections.
Bridge: - this is a device that connects networks using the same communication protocols. It
is used to connect different parts of a LAN, thus is used to connect different LAN segments
together. However, it cannot handle multiple paths for data. In general a bridge is used for:
Routers:- this is a network device that connect different types of networks together, for
example, connects a school LAN to the internet (which is a WAN). It can route packets of the
same protocol (e.g. TCP/IP) over networks with dissimilar architectures (e.g. Ethernet to
token ring). It receives transmitted messages and forwards them to their correct destinations
over the most efficient available route. A router is used to form complex networks with
multiple paths between network segments (subnets), each subnet and each node on each
subnet is assigned a network address.
A router is very intelligent. It uses network addresses and IP addresses of other routers to
create routes between two networks. They keep tables of addresses that will be used in
routing information. Routers are thus used for:
Determining the path of data packets using destination addresses of the packets.
Used for packet switching
Gateway: - a device used to connect different kinds of networks. Thy act as link to different
WANs. A gateway is a device that connects networks with different architectures and
different protocols. When packets arrive at a gateway, the software strips all networking
information from the packet, leaving only the raw data. The gateway translates the data into
the new format and sends it on using the networking protocols of the destination system. Thus
it becomes a protocol converter.
Modem (MOdulator DEModulator):- This is a device that converts digital signal received
from a computer into an analogue signal that can be sent along ordinary telephone lines, and
back to digital at the receiving end. Mostly used to connect to the internet using the ordinary
telephone line. The speed of modems is measured in bits per second e.g. 56K bps. The
following parameters must be specified when a modem is installed:
the telephone number of the ISP
baud rate of modem
number of data bits per block
number of stop bits
whether odd or even parity is used
Cable modems - employ broadband transmission across regular cable television wires
Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) line – it is a digital telephone service that
provides fast, accurate data transmission over existing copper telephone wiring, for internet
connection. It is a set of communication standards for simultaneous digital transmission of
voice, video, data, and other network services over the traditional circuits of the public
switched telephone network. ISDN is a line that allows the transmission of digital signals
without them being changed into analogue which leads to improved quality for the user. It
requires a network adapter and a network termination device (no modem required)
Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line (ASDL) - offers Internet connection up to 30 times faster
than dial-up modems still using traditional copper wires but allocating more bandwidth to the
data flow from the ISP to the PC than is allocated from the PC to the ISP
Dial-up networking: user pays for the amount of time spent using the telephone link. It is less
expensive. more appropriate for low-volume applications requiring only occasional
transmission
Dedicated/leased line: the line is continually available for transmission and the user pays a
flat rate for total access to the line. It transmits data at higher speeds. It is more appropriate
for high volume transmission
Value-added network (VAN):- This is a private, multipath, data-only, third-party managed
network. It is used by multiple organisations. It may use ISDN lines, satellite links etc. it is set
up by a firm in charge of managing the network. Its subscribers pay a subscription fee and for
data transmission time. The cost of using the network shared among many users. subscribers
do not have to invest in network equipment or perform their own error checking, routing and
protocol conversion
Electronic data interchange (EDI):-e.g. transmitting A level results to schools using BT's
CampusConnect . virtually instantaneous electronic transmission of business data from one
firm's computerised information to that of another firm. It increases accuracy and eliminates
delays.
Internetwork:- This is created when two or more independent networks are connected but
continue to function separately e.g. Internet. In larger networks it is common to supply
multiple paths through the network to provide fault tolerance
This refers to the shape/configuration of the network. This may refer to logical or physical
configuration. The shape of the cabling layout used to link devices is called the physical topology of
the network. This refers to the layout of cabling, the locations of nodes, and the interconnections
between the nodes and the cabling. The physical topology of a network is determined by the
capabilities of the network access devices and media, the level of control or fault tolerance desired,
and the cost associated with cabling or telecommunications circuits.
The logical topology is the way that the signals act on the network media, or the way that the data
passes through the network from one device to the next without regard to the physical
interconnection of the devices. Logical topology is not necessarily the same as its physical topology.
For example, the original twisted pair Ethernet using repeater hubs was a logical bus topology with a
physical star topology layout. Token Ring is a logical ring topology, but is wired a physical star from
the Media Access Unit.
Common network topologies are Ring, bus, star, mesh and hybrid network topologies.
Token passing
a small packet called a token is passed around the ring to each computer in turn
2. Star Network:
Computers form a star shape with host computer at the centre.
The Server (host computer) manages all other computers/terminals on the network.
If the terminals are not intelligent, they have to rely on the host computer for everything.
This network is as shown below:
3. Mesh Network
- A network in which each computer serves as a relay point for directly sending information to any
other computer on the network.
- No central device oversees a mesh network, and no set route is used to pass data back and forth
between computers.
- Thus, if any one computer is damaged or temporarily unavailable, information is dynamically
rerouted to other computers—a process known as self-healing
all components are connected via a backbone (a single cable segment connecting all the
computers in a line)
entire network will be brought down by a single cable break
terminator at the end of the line absorbs all signals that reach it to clear the network for new
communication
data is sent in packets across the network and received by all connected computers; only the
computer with the packet destination address accepts the data
only one computer can send information at a time
Ethernet uses a collision system - carrier sense multiple access with collision detection
(CSMA-CD) - if transmitted messages collide, both stations abort and wait a random time
period before trying again.
network performance degrades under heavy load
Definition of Terms
(a) Bus/Backbone: the dedicated and main cable that connects all workstations and other computer
devices like printers.
(b) Nodes: these are connection points for workstations and the bus.
(c) Terminator: devices that prevent data in the bus from bouncing back, causing noise and prevents
data from getting lost.
5. Hybrid
This topology is a combination of two or more different network topologies into one. When different
topologies are connected to one another, they do not display characteristics of any one specific
topology.
NB: Point – to-Point Connection: Point-to-point topology is the simplest connection, consisting of
two connected computers.
CSMA/CD control software is relatively simple and produces little overhead. CSMA/CD network
works best on a bus topology with burst transmission
Disadvantages
• CSMA/CD protocols are probabilistic and depends on the network (cable) loading.
• Considered unsuitable for channels controlling automated equipment that must have certain
control over channel access. (This could be OK for different channel access).
• We can set priorities to give faster access to some devices (This is, probably, not an issue in
some applications)
Advantages
• Even though there is more overhead using tokens than using CSMA/CD, performance
differences are not noticeable with light traffic and are considerably better with heavy loads
because CSMA/CD will spend a lot of time resolving collisions.
• A deterministic access method such as Token Ring guarantees that every node will get access
to the network within a given length of time. In probabilistic access method (such as
CSMA/CD) nodes have to check for network activity when they want to access the network.
Disadvantages
d) Contention
• With contention systems, network devices may transmit whenever they want.
• No referee mandates when a device may or may not use the channel.
• This scheme is simple to design
• The scheme provides equal access rights to all stations.
• Stations simply transmit whenever they are ready, without considering what other stations
are doing.
• Unfortunately, the "transmit whenever ready" strategy has one important shortcoming.
• Stations can transmit at the same time.
• When this happens, the resulting co-mingling of signals usually damages both to the point
that a frame's information is lost.
• This unhappy event is called a "collision."
Advantages
• Polling centralizes channel access control.
• Maximum and minimum access times and data rates on the channel are predictable and
fixed.
• Priorities can be assigned to ensure faster access from some secondaries.
• Polling is deterministic and is considered suitable for channels controlling some kinds of
automated equipment.
Disadvantages
• Polling systems often use a lot of bandwidth sending notices and acknowledgments or
listening for messages.
• Line turnaround time on a half- duplex line further increases time overhead.
• This overhead reduces both the channel's data rate under low loads and its throughput.
NB:- * Indicates the end of field marker, and the ≈ indicates the end of record marker, and these
allow data to be processed.
Variable length records have the following advantages:
They are more economical in terms of usage of disk storage space as they do not allow spaces
to lie idle.
Less space is wasted on the storage medium.
It allows as many fields as possible to be held on a particular record, e.g subjects taken in an
exam by a particular student.
More records can be packed on one physical block, thereby reducing time spend in reading
the file.
Data entered will not be cut but appears as entered no matter how long it is.
No truncation of data occurs
However, variable length records have the following disadvantages:
End of field and end of record markers occupy disk storage space that might be used to store
data.
These records are difficult to update as the transaction and master files might have different
lengths.
The processing required to separate out the fields is complex.
It is difficult to estimate file sizes accurately when a new system is being designed.
Records cannot be updated insitu.
FILE ORGANISATION
Refers to the way in which records in a file are stored, retrieved and updated. This affects the number
of records stored, access speed and updating speed. The most common methods of file organisation
are: Serial File Organisation, Sequential File organisation, indexed – sequential file organisation
and random (direct) file organisation.
1. Serial File Organisation: This is whereby records are stored one after another as they occur,
without any definite order as on magnetic tapes. Data is not stored in any particular sequence. Data is
read from the first record until the needed data is found. New records are added to the end of the
file. Serial file organisation is not appropriate for master files since records are not sorted and
therefore are difficult to access and to update. Suitable for temporary/ transaction files since records
are not sorted.
To delete records:
More complex
Read record to be deleted from the file, search it from 1st record until found=true
re-write the whole file to a new disk, omitting the unwanted record.
2. Sequential File Organisation: This is whereby records are stored one after another and are sorted
into a key sequence, that is, in ascending or descending order of a given key filed as on magnetic
tapes. Records are held one after another in key sequence. Sequential files organisation is appropriate
for files with a high hit rate like payroll processing.
They are suitable for master files since they are ordered. However, it takes too long to access required
data since the records are accessed by reading from the first record until the required data is found.
Adding of new records is difficult as this is done by re-entering the data and the new record is
inserted at its right position. It is time consuming to update such records. Suitable for master files
since records are sorted. This is used where all records need processing. They are faster and more
efficient than serial files.
To access/view a record, each record on the file must be read, starting from the beginning of the file,
until the required record is found.
To add a new record, copy existing records up to where the new record is to be inserted, insert
record, then copy rest of file. The algorithm can be as follows:
open old master file for reading
open new master file for writing
start from beginning of old master file
Repeat
Read next record (call it current record)
If current record key>new record key THEN
Write new record to the new file
End If
Until new record is inserted or EOF (old)
If record not yet inserted THEN
Write new record to the new file
Enf If
To delete a record, the whole file is to be copied over to a new sequential file, omitting the file to be
deleted.
Processing of records is faster than that of serial files
Hit rate – proportion or percentage of records being accessed on any one run. In payroll systems, the
hit rate is mostly 100% since every employee will be paid. Hit rate is calculated by dividing the
number of records accessed by total number of records in the file and then multiplying by 100. For
example, if 270 records are accessed out of 300 records, the hit rate is 270/300 x 100 = 90%
3. Indexed-Sequential Files: This is whereby records are ordered in sequence based on the value of
the index or disk address as supported by hard disks. It supports batch processing. It is also used for
creating master file since the records are ordered. It is also suitable for real time processing
applications like stock control as it is fast in accessing records and in updating them. It provides
direct access to data as on hard disks, diskettes and compact disks. It ensures that data is accessed in
some order. It ensures that no data is missed during accessing. Can provide direct access if requests
are send online.
Indexed sequential files consists of 3 basic parts:
the index
The home area
Overflow area
The index:
Compiled By Kapondeni T. Page 171 of 179
‘A’ Level Computing Notes
Contains record keys and disk addresses. The record key can be one or more fields that uniquely
identify a record. Each record key is associated with a disk address (which can be surface, track and
sector number) to identify the specific sector of the home area. Thus the index points to the home
area.
Overflow area
The home area may become too small and may not accommodate all records. The home area may
become full. In this case, the remaining part of the home area just store pointers to indicate position
of overflow area of any additional records as the home area gets full
NB: However, it may take longer to process the records. This is because records would have been
placed in the overflow area. After reading the index, it takes a single disc access to read a record in
the home area. Each time the home area is accessed, it takes at least two disc accesses; one to read
the home area and one to read the overflow. This problem can be solved by re-organising the file
using the housekeeping program, which copies the file to a new file, placing all the overflow records
into the home area and re-writing the indices.
4. Random (Direct/Hash/Relative) File Organisation: This is whereby records are not in any order
but stored and accessed according to their disk address or relative position, calculated from the
primary key of the record, as supported by hard disks and compact disks. Records are stored and
retrieved according to their disk address / relative position within file. The hashing algorithm/formula
translates the primary key into an address, using the modulo method.
To add a new record, use the hashing algorithm to work out the appropriate memory location. If the
location is empty, the records is inserted/written, otherwise the next block is examined until an empty
space is found.
To search/access a record, its address is calculated from the record key using the hashing algorithm,
the record at that address is then read, if it not the required record, the next record is read and
examined until either the record is found or empty space is encountered. Suitable for online systems
where fast response is required.
To delete a record, set flag to zero but leave the value there, therefore space can be reused but is not
actually empty. The record is not physically deleted but just marked as deleted.
It is appropriate where extremely fast access to data is required as in airline reservation. Updating of
records is in situ, very simple and very fast. Hard disk, compact disks and diskettes promotes
random file organisation.
When records are deleted, they are just marked as deleted but are not removed from the file. These
deleted files take up space and may slow down processing. This can be solved by saving the records
on a different file, removing the deleted records.
Overflow
If there is no space on the block, collision is said to have occurred and the record must be stored
elsewhere.
A re-hashing algorithm is carried out on the block that is full in order to give another block that is not
full. If the given block is full again, the hashing algorithm is applied again until an empty block is
found. The overflow area can be used just as in the indexed sequential files.
NB:- If no further information is given, assume that overflow records are stored in the next block
Hashing algorithm - used to translate record key into an address. However, synonyms may occur,
i.e. two record keys generate the same address (use overflow area and flag)
FILE PROCESSING
Refers to any form of activity that can be done using files. This includes: file referencing, sorting,
maintenance and updating.
1. File Referencing/Interrogation: This involves searching of record and displaying it on the screen
in order to gain certain information, leaving it unchanged. The record can also be printed.
2. Sorting: Refers to a process of arranging (organising) records in a specific ordered sequence, like
in ascending or descending order of the key field.
3. Merging Files: This is the process of combining two or more files/records of the same structure
into one. Below is an example of how records can be merged:
Record A (sorted) Record B (unsorted)
12 34 71 78 101 103 67 3 90 12
Record C (Merged and sorted for records A and Record B)
3 12 34 67 71 78 90 101 103
4. File maintenance: This is the process of reorganising the structure of records and changing
(adding or removing or editing) fields. May also involve updating more permanent fields on each
record, adding / deleting records. This can be due to changes due to addition or deletion of records.
5. File Updating: Updating is the process of making necessary changes to files and records, entering
recent information. Only master files are updated and they must be up-to-date. For updating to
occur, any one of the following must have occurred:
A new record has been entered. Deletion of an unwanted record. An amendment (change) to the
existing data has been made, e.g. change in date of birth only.
a. Updating by copying
This happens in sequential file updating. The transaction file must be sorted in the same order with
the master file records. This is done through the following steps:
- A record is read from master file into memory.
- A record is then read from transaction file into memory.
- Record keys from each file are compared.
- If record keys are the same, the master file is updated by moving fields form transaction file
to the new master file.
In sequential file updating, it is recommended to keep at least three master file versions that will be
used for data recovery in case of a system failure or accidental loss of data. The first master file is
called the Grandfather file, the second master file is called the father file and the third master file is
the son file. This relationship is called the grandfather-father-son version of files. The process of
keeping three versions of master files (grandfather-father-son) as a result of sequential file updating
is called File Generations. Thus the first master file (grandfather file) is called the first generation
file, the second master file (father file) is called the second generation file and the third master file
(son file) is the third generation file. The following diagram illustrates the sequential file updating
process:
It applies for random files since record is accessed by means of an address therefore can be written
back to same address after updating process.