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Introductiontocookery 141119065355 Conversion Gate01
Introductiontocookery 141119065355 Conversion Gate01
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Cookery is defined as a “chemical process” the mixing of ingredients; the application and withdrawal of
heat to raw ingredients to make it more easily digestible, palatable and safe for human consumption.
Cookery is considered to be both an art and science. The art of cooking is ancient. The first cook was a
primitive man, who had put a chunk of meat close to the fire, which he had lit to warm himself. He
discovered that the meat heated in this way was not only tasty but it was also much easier to
masticate. From this moment, in unrecorded past, cooking has evolved to reach the present level of
sophistication.
Humankind in the beginning ate to survive. Now also we still eat to survive, however efforts have been
made to make the food more enjoyable like cooking meats and vegetables in different ways to make
them more easily eaten, digestible and to make them more attractive, palatable and to have wider
choice. This is the art associated with the preparation of food.
However it is not solely the artful manipulation and combination of food which results in good tasting
products. Nutritional aspects, the effects of combining various foodstuffs and the use of modern
technology can be considered the science of cooking. The “how of cooking” can be considered to be the
art and the “why of cooking” could be the science. Balancing the art and science must be the goal of
every professional chef.
METHODS OF COOKING
In order the food to be cooked, heat must be transferred from the heat source (such as a gas flame or
an electric element) to and through the food. Understanding the ways in which heat is transferred and
the speed at which it is done helps the cook to control the cooking process.
Heat is transferred in three ways- conduction, convection and radiation.
Conduction
Conduction occurs in two ways –
1. When heat moves (conducts) directly from one item to the other, which is in contact with it. For
example from the top of the range to a pot placed on it, from the pot to the milk inside etc.
2. When heat moves from one part to an adjacent part of the same item. For example from the
exterior of a roast to the interior, or from a sauté pan to its handle.
Different metals (materials) conduct heat at different rates (speeds) Heat moves rapidly through
copper and aluminum, more slowly in stainless steel, slower yet in glass and porcelain. Air is a very
poor conductor of heat.
Convection
Convection occurs when the movements of air, steam, or liquid (including hot fat) spreads heat. There
are two kinds of convection
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1. Natural
Hot liquids and gases rise, while cooler ones sink. Thus in any oven, kettle of liquid, or deep fat
fryer there is a constant, natural circulation that distributes heat.
2. Mechanical
In convection ovens and convection steamers, fans speed the circulation of heat. Thus, heat is
transferred more quickly to the food, and the foods cook faster. Stirring is a form of mechanical
convection.
Thick liquids cannot circulate as quickly as thin ones, so the rate of natural convection is slower. This
explains in part why it is so easy to scorch thick soups and sauces.
Radiation(cooking by radiant heat)
Radiation occurs when energy is transferred by waves from the source to the food. The waves
themselves are not actually heat energy, but are changed into heat energy when they strike the food
being cooked. (Light waves, radio waves, and X – rays are examples of radiation not used for cooking)
Two kinds of radiation are used in the kitchen:
1. Infra-red
Broiling is the most familiar example of infra -red cooking. In a broiler, an electric element or a
ceramic element heated by a gas flame becomes so hot that it gives off infra red radiation, which
cooks the food. There is also high-intensity infra red ovens designed to heat food rapidly.
2. Microwave
In microwave cooking, the radiation generated by the oven penetrates part way into the food,
where it agitates the molecules of water. The friction caused by this agitation creates heat, which
cooks the food,
a) Because microwave radiation affects only water molecules, a completely waterless material will
not heat up in a microwave oven. Plates become hot only when heat is conducted to them by
hot foods.
b) Because most microwaves penetrate no more than about 2 inches into foods, heat is
transferred to the centre of large pieces of food by conduction, just as in roasting.
COOKING TIMES
It takes time to heat a food to a desired temperature, the temperature at which a food is said to be
“done” (meaning that the desired changes have taken place). This time is affected by three factors.
1. Cooking temperature
This means the temperature of the air in the oven, the fat in the fryer, the surface of a griddle, or
the liquid in which a food is cooking.
2. The speed of heat transfer
Different cooking methods transfer heat at different rates, as shown by these examples:
Air is a poor conductor of heat, while steam is much more efficient. Jets of steam (212°F/100°C)
will easily burn your hand, but you safely reach into an oven at 500°F (260°C). This is why it takes
longer to bake potatoes than to steam them.
A convection oven cooks faster than a conventional oven, even if both are set at the same
temperature. The forced air movement transfers heat more rapidly.
3. Size, temperature, and individual characteristics of the food
For example, a small beef roast cooks faster than a large one.
A chilled steak takes longer to broil than one at room temperature. Fish items generally cook more
quickly than meats. Because there are so many variables, it is difficult or even impossible to
determine exact cooking times in most recipes.
COOKING METHODS
DRY MOIST
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FAT as a medium
Roasting
To “roast” or to “bake” means to cook foods by surrounding them with hot, dry air, usually in an oven.
Roasting usually applies to meats and poultry. Depending upon the equipment used to roast items,
roasting can be classified in three methods, namely:
1. Spit Roasting
The food to be cooked is brought in contact with direct flame in front of a clear bright fire. The food
is basted with fat and is also turned regularly to ensure even cooking and browning. This method,
known now as spit roasting, is very little used, as only good quality meats are suitable for it. Roast
meats, however, have a very good flavour, and are still served in large hotels and in specialty
restaurants and hotels as barbecued meats.
2. Pot Roasting
This method is used to cook small joints and birds if no oven is available. A thick heavy pan is
essential for this method of roasting. Enough fat is melted to cover the bottom of the pan. When
the fat is hot the joint is browned. It is then lifted out and 2 or 3 skewers or some bones and
mirepoix vegetables are put into the pan on which the joint is placed. This is to prevent the joint
from sticking to the pan and to facilitate a smooth hot air circulation all around the joint(venting)
for even cooking. The joint should just touch the fat. The pan is then covered tightly with a well
fitting lid and cooked over a very slow fire. The joint could be basted if lean and turned occasionally
to ensure even cooking. Prepared root vegetables and potatoes can be cooked around the meat.
3. Oven Roasting
This has now taken the place of spit roasting, because of its convenience, although only first class
meat, poultry and vegetables are thus cooked. This is cooking in a closed oven with the aid of fat.
The joint is raised out of the fat by means of bones or a trivet to prevent the meat from frying and
becoming hard. Frequent basting, however, is essential. The food is put into a fairly hot oven for 5
to 10 minutes and the temperature is lowered to allow the joint to be cooked through. Cooking in a
moderate oven for a longer period produces a better-cooked product than cooking at high
temperatures for a shorter period. “Tandoor” is an open Indian clay oven, which is used to prepare
different rotis, kebabs, chicken and other tandoori items.
Frying
This is a method of cooking whereby the food to be cooked is brought into contact with hot fat. Food
cooked in this way is said to be indigestible. But if the method is correctly and carefully carried out, the
food is quite suitable for normal people.
The advantages of frying are: -
1. Fried food is very appetizing.
2. It is a quick method of cooking.
3. The keeping quality of fried food is strengthened. It is however an expensive method of cooking
meat as only the best parts are suitable (chops, liver, etc.) For other foods and for re heating of
food frying is a good means of providing variety.
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go no higher than 100C. The high temperature would toughen the proteins of meats( make it rubbery),
and the rapid bubbling breaks up delicate foods, like fish and eggs ( cooked out of shell)
Only sufficient liquid should be used to cover the food to be cooked. To retain nourishment and flavour
in food, plunge into boiling liquid. Allow to re boil and then to simmer. The liquid thus obtained (after
boiling or cooking the products) is known as “Pot Liquor” and contains some nourishment and flavour.
This should not be wasted. It could be used as a substitute for stock or can be used to prepare stock.
Generally speaking, vegetables grown above the ground are cooked in boiling salted water and
vegetables grown below the ground(mainly carbohydrates/ starchy vegetables like potatoes etc) are
started in cold salted water with the exception of new potatoes and new carrots. Dry vegetables are
started in cold water. Salt is added only after the vegetables are tender. Fish should be put into hot
liquid and allowed just to simmer. To “simmer” means to cook in a liquid that is bubbling very gently.
Temperature is about 85-96°C (185-205°F). Most foods cooked in a liquid are simmered. The higher
temperatures and intense agitation of boiling are detrimental to most foods.
Basic rules
1. The food item should be completely immersed throughout the process.
2. The flavour of meat and poultry can be enhanced by the addition of herbs and vegetables to the
cooking liquor.
Poaching
To “poach” means to cook in a liquid, usually a small amount that is hot but not actually bubbling.
Temperature is about 71-82°C (160-180°F). Poaching is used to cook delicate foods such as fish
(products having less connective tissues) and eggs out of shell. It is also used to partially cook foods
such as variety meats, in order to eliminate undesirable flavours and to firm up the product before final
cooking. When poaching eggs, a little vinegar and salt are added to the liquid to help in quicker
coagulation and thus prevent disintegration, and allows the water to boil at a lesser temperature than
100C.
To “blanch” means to cook an item partially and very briefly, usually in water, but sometimes by other
methods (as when French fries are blanched in deep fat) Blanching can be done in three ways, Hot oil
blanching as in potatoes, hot water blanching, and cold (ice cold)water blanching as in for green leafy
vegetables used for salads to make them remain crisp till service.
There are two ways of blanching using hot water:
1. Place the item in cold water, bring to a boil, and simmer briefly. Cool the item by plunging it in cold
water to dissolve out blood, salt, or impurities from certain meats and bones etc.
2. Place the item in rapidly boiling water and returns the water to the boil. Remove the item and cool
in cold water purpose to set the colour and destroy harmful enzymes in vegetables, or to loosen the
skins of tomatoes, peaches, and similar items for easier peeling.
Stewing
This is a very gentle method of cooking in a closed pan using only a small quantity of liquid (just
enough to cover the products) The food should never be more than half covered with the liquid and the
food above this level is thus really cooked by steam, if stewing is done in a casserole or other suitable
containers/ vessels. As the liquid is not allowed to boil during cooking the process is a slow one. It is a
time consuming method of cooking, but the advantage is that the coarser, older and cheaper types of
poultry and meats are used, as they are unsuitable for grilling and roasting. Cheaper cuts of meat and
certain fish dishes (bouillabaisse, matelotte) are prepared by this method, as it renders it tender and
palatable.
“Stewing” is gentle simmering in a small quantity of water or stock just enough to cover completely the
cut food items, and simmering until they become very tender, and both liquid and food are served
together. Stewing is done in covered saucepans or casseroles on top of the cooker, or in the oven-but
always at a low temperature.
Advantages of stewing
Cheap cuts of meat, old fowls and tough or under ripe fruits may be prepared by this method, as the
slow, moist method of cooking softens fibers, rendering the food tender. Meat and vegetables may be
cooked and served together making an appetizing dish, while saving fuel and labour. Stewed food may
be cooked in the oven after other food is cooked or it may be cooked on the side of the fire or on a
very small gas or oil flame thus again saving fuel. All nourishment and flavour are retained hence the
food is very appetizing.
General rules
Have a pan ready with a well–fitting lid. Prepare the food and cut into pieces convenient for serving.
Use tepid liquid and only sufficient to half cover the food. Bring just to boiling point and then simmer
very gently until the food is perfectly tender. The liquid should not reach too high a temperature, as
the slow process of cooking by gentle heat, converts the connective tissues into gelatin so that the
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meat fibers fall apart easily and become more digestible. The proteins are coagulated without being
over hardened and the soluble nutrients and flavour pass into the liquid, which is served. Never boil a
stew for a stew boiled is a stew spoilt.
Braising
To “braise” means to cook covered in a small amount of liquid, usually after preliminary browning. In
almost all cases, the liquid is served with the product as a sauce. This is a combination of “roasting”
and “stewing” in a pan with a tight fitting lid. For correct use this method requires a special pan but a
casserole dish or a stew pan makes a good substitute. The meat should be sealed by browning on all
sides and then placed on a lightly fried bed of vegetables (mirepoix). Ideally a sauce may be added
even though a stock or gravy is usually used which should come to two-third of the meat.
The flavouring and seasoning are then added. The lid is put and it is allowed to cook gently on the
stove or preferably in the oven. When nearly done the lid is removed and the joint is basted frequently
to glaze it. This latter process is always done in the oven. Oven braising has three major advantages-
uniform cooking, less attention required, and range space is free for other purposes.
Braising also refers to cooking some vegetables, such as lettuce or cabbage, at low temperature in a
small amount of liquid, without first browning in fat, or with only a light preliminary sautéing.
Items of meat, poultry and game suitable for braising are those of a tough nature, rather than those of
a tender nature.
Braised vegetables are better if served with a good sauce made separately. The braising liquor is
strong and similar in taste to the vegetables.
Steaming
To steam means to cook foods by exposing them directly to steam. Steaming is cooking by moist heat,
i.e. steam-direct or indirect. Indirect steaming is done when the food is placed in a closed pan, which is
surrounded by plenty of steam from fast boiling water or in a steamer. The food item could be
protected with grease–proof (GP) paper, or cloth or aluminium foil to prevent water getting into the
product. Direct steaming is by placing the article in a perforated container or on a covered plate over a
sauce pan of water.
Steaming also refers to cooking an item tightly wrapped or in a covered pan, so that it cooks in the
steam formed by its own moisture. This method is used in cooking items en papillote, wrapped in
parchment paper (or foil). Jacket potatoes baked wrapped in a foil are actually steamed.
Steam at normal pressure is 100°C (212°F), the same as boiling water. However, it carries much more
heat than boiling water and cooks very rapidly.
A pressure steamer is a steam cooker that holds in steam under pressure. The temperature of steam
then goes higher than 212F as the following charts shows:-
Pressure Temperature
5 psi 106°C (227°F)
10 psi 116°C (240°F)
15 psi 121°C (250°F)
N.B.: “psi” stands for pounds per square inch.
Because of these temperatures, pressure steaming is an extremely rapid method of cooking and must
be very carefully controlled and timed.
Advantages of steaming
1. Food cooked by this method is easily digested.(good method of cooking for invalids)
2. All nourishment and flavour are kept in the food.
3. Food cannot be easily overcooked.
4. Pudding basins and other containers need not be filled to the top, thus allowing room for food to
raise making food light.
General rules for steaming
1. Prepare the vessel and have the water boiling fast.
2. If a basin is to be used as a container inside the steamer, see that it is greased and that it is
covered with a well –fitting lid or with greaseproof paper. This is to prevent condensed moisture
from falling on the food.
3. Keep a kettle of boiling water handy so that the water in the steamer can be replaced as it boils
away.
4. Never allow the water in the steamer to go off the boil, except when preparing dishes with eggs,
such as custard, for this water must be kept at simmering point, or else the custard will curdle.
5. Dish food quickly and serve hot. An appropriate sauce must be served with steamed foods, as they
are generally bland.
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Pressure Cooking
As the pressure increases, the boiling point of water increases. This is the theory used in pressure-
cooking. In a pressure cooker the water is allowed to boil only at 127°C instead of the normal 100°C.
Hence the cooking time for the food items are considerably reduced by pressure cooking.
Microwave
Although a form of energy, it is not heat. The principle of microwave involves a type of electronic
heating and is concerned with the production of high frequency waves from an oscillator tube called a
“magnetron”. The electromagnetic waves have energy and this energy is transported to the desired
load for heating. The energy created penetrates articles of food to a depth of 3 inches and causes the
molecules of water to agitate and create friction, supplying the heat which cooks or re heats the food.
Microwaves do not heat the oven cavity. Microwaves are reflected by metal items and therefore are
unsuitable for use with this equipment.
The advantage lies in the speed of operation. It is excellent as a re-heater.
Electricity can be converted into microwaves using a special valve/device called a magnetron. The
microwaves pass through air or glass, china, plastics and paper without heating them, but when they
strike solid and liquid foods, they are absorbed. Their energy is transferred to the food molecules that
vibrate rapidly. The resultant heat cooks the food. Microwaves are absorbed by most types of food in
varying degrees depending on the cellular structure of the food.
Factors affecting Microwave cooking.
1. Density: The denser the food, the more difficult it is to cook.
2. Quantity: The heating is proportional to the quantity of food placed in the oven. For instance if one
portion takes 30 seconds to heat, two portions will take 45 seconds, whereas three portions will
take 60 seconds. For each additional portion, half the time taken by the first portion is added.
3. Shape. The thicker the product, the longer it will take to cook. Shape as far as possible should
have uniform thickness e.g. truss chicken
4. Containers. They should be of glass, china, plastic or paper to allow transmission of microwaves.
Solar Cooking
It is similar to what we use in the kitchen to cook food. Solar cooker works only on solar energy. It
emits no smoke; no soot spoils the cooking utensils. It keeps the surroundings clean. Above all, it
conserves the precious energy resources of the country and saves us the money.
Principles of solar cooker
Solar cookers can be broadly divided into two categories:
1. Cookers utilizing solar heat with little or no concentration of rays
It may be termed as a “hot box”. This consists of a well- insulated box the inside of which is
painted dull black and is covered by one or more transparent covers. The purpose of the
transparent covers is to trap the heat inside the solar cooker. These cookers allow the radiation
from the sun to come inside but do not allow the heat from the black absorbing plate to go out of
the box. It is because of this that the temperatures of the blackened plate inside the box increases
and can heat up the space inside to temperature up to 140C which is adequate for cooking.
2. Cookers which deflect solar energy from a large surface to a smaller area to produce high
temperatures
This type of solar cooker uses a lens or a reflector suitably designed to concentrate the solar
radiation over a small area. This cooker is able to provide high temperature on its absorbing
surface when suitably designed.
The cooking time is about 2 to two and a half hours for cooking depending upon the kind of food and
the season.
Disadvantages
1. It needs the sun and will not give results on a cloudy day.
2. Only simmering method is adopted.
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Usually hotels normally use solar energy for heating water for supplying hot water in the kitchens for
cooking purposes and in toilets, bathrooms and public areas etc, and not for actual cooking of dishes.