Sargon of Akkad (/ˈsɑːrɡɒn/; Akkadian: 𒈗𒈗 Šarru-ukīn or Šarru-kēn), also known as Sargon

the Great,[4] was the first ruler of the Akkadian Empire, known for his conquests of the
Sumerian city-states in the 24th to 23rd centuries BC.[3]

He was the founder of the "Sargonic" or "Old Akkadian" dynasty, which ruled for about a
century after his death until the Gutian conquest of Sumer.[5] The Sumerian king list makes him
the cup-bearer to king Ur-Zababa of Kish. His empire is thought to have included most of
Mesopotamia, parts of the Levant, besides incursions into Hurrite and Elamite territory, ruling
from his (archaeologically as yet unidentified) capital, Akkad (also Agade).

Sargon appears as a legendary figure in Neo-Assyrian literature of the 8th to 7th centuries BC.
Tablets with fragments of a Sargon Birth Legend were found in the Library of
Ashurbanipal.[6][7][8]

Contents
 1 Name
 2 Chronology
 3 Historiography
o 3.1 Nippur inscription
o 3.2 Sargon Epos
o 3.3 Chronicle of Early Kings
 4 Origin legends
o 4.1 Sumerian legend
o 4.2 Birth legend
 5 Family
 6 Legacy
 7 Popular culture
 8 See also
 9 Notes
 10 References

Name
The Akkadian name is normalized as either Šarru-ukīn or Šarru-kēn. The name's cuneiform
spelling is variously LUGAL-ú-kin, šar-ru-gen6, šar-ru-ki-in, šar-ru-um-ki-in.[9] In Late
Assyrian references, the name is mostly spelled as LUGAL-GI.NA or LUGAL-GIN, i.e.
identical to the name of the Neo-Assyrian king Sargon II.[10] The spelling Sargon is derived from
the single mention of the name (in reference to Sargon II) in the Hebrew Bible, as ‫סַ ְרגֹון‬, in Isaiah
20:1.
The first element in the name is šarru, the Akkadian (East Semitic) for "king" (c.f. Hebrew sár
‫)שַׂ ר‬. The second element is derived from the verb kīnum "to confirm, establish" (related to
Hebrew kūn ‫)ּכּון‬.[11]

A possible interpretation of the reading Šarru-ukīn is "the king has established (stability)" or "he
[the god] has established the king". Such a name would however be unusual; other names in -
ukīn always include both a subject and an object, as in Šamaš-šuma-ukīn "Shamash has
established an heir".[10] There is some debate over whether the name was an adopted regnal name
or a birth name.[12][13] The reading Šarru-kēn has been interpreted adjectivally, as "the king is
established; legitimate", expanded as a phrase šarrum ki(e)num.[14]

The terms "Pre-Sargonic" and "Post-Sargonic" were used in Assyriology based on the
chronologies of Nabonidus before the historical existence of Sargon of Akkad was confirmed.
The form Šarru-ukīn was known from the Assyrian Sargon Legend discovered in 1867 in
Ashurbanipal's library at Nineveh. A contemporary reference to Sargon thought to have been
found on the cylinder seal of Ibni-sharru, a high-ranking official serving under Sargon. Joachim
Menant published a description of this seal in 1877, reading the king's name as Shegani-shar-
lukh, and did not yet identify it with "Sargon the Elder" (who was identified with the Old
Assyrian king Sargon I).[15] In 1883, the British Museum acquired the "mace-head of Shar-Gani-
sharri", a votive gift deposited at the temple of Shamash in Sippar. This "Shar-Gani" was
identified with the Sargon of Agade of Assyrian legend.[16] The identification of "Shar-Gani-
sharri" with Sargon was recognised as mistaken in the 1910s. Shar-Gani-sharri (Shar-Kali-
Sharri) is, in fact, Sargon's great-grandson, the successor of Naram-Sin.[17]

It is not entirely clear whether the Neo-Assyrian king Sargon II was directly named for Sargon of
Akkad, as there is some uncertainty whether his name should be rendered Šarru-ukīn or as
Šarru-kēn(u).[18]

Chronology

Map of the approximate extent of the Akkadian Empire during the reign of Sargon's grandson,
Naram-Sin of Akkad

Primary sources pertaining to Sargon are very sparse; the main near-contemporary reference is
that in the various versions of the Sumerian king list. Here, Sargon is mentioned as the son of a
gardener, former cup-bearer of Ur-Zababa of Kish. He usurped the kingship from Lugal-zage-si
of Uruk and took it to his own city of Akkad. Various copies of the king list give the duration of
his reign as either 54, 55 or 56 years.[19]

In absolute years, his reign would correspond to ca. 2340–2284 BC in the Middle Chronology.[3]
His successors until the Gutian conquest of Sumer are also known as the "Sargonic Dynasty" and
their rule as the "Sargonic Period" of Mesopotamian history.[20]

Foster (1982) argued that the reading of 55 years as the duration of Sargon's reign was, in fact, a
corruption of an original interpretation of 37 years. An older version of the king list gives
Sargon's reign as lasting for 40 years.[21]

Thorkild Jacobsen marked the clause about Sargon's father being a gardener as a lacuna,
indicating his uncertainty about its meaning.[22] Ur-Zababa and Lugal-zage-si are both listed as
kings, but separated by several additional named rulers of Kish, who seem to have been merely
governors or vassals under the Akkadian Empire.[23]

The claim that Sargon was the original founder of Akkad has been called into question with the
discovery of an inscription mentioning the place and dated to the first year of Enshakushanna,
who almost certainly preceded him.[24] The Weidner Chronicle (ABC 19:51) states that it was
Sargon who "built Babylon in front of Akkad."[25][26] The Chronicle of Early Kings (ABC 20:18–
19) likewise states that late in his reign, Sargon "dug up the soil of the pit of Babylon, and made
a counterpart of Babylon next to Agade."[26][27] Van de Mieroop suggested that those two
chronicles may refer to the much later Assyrian king, Sargon II of the Neo-Assyrian Empire,
rather than to Sargon of Akkad.[28]

Historiography
Prisoners escorted by a soldier, on a victory stele of Sargon of Akkad, circa 2300 BCE.[29] The
hairstyle of the prisoners (curly hair on top and short hair on the sides) is characteristic of
Sumerians, as also seen on the Standard of Ur.[30] Louvre Museum.

Sargon became the subject of legendary narratives describing his rise to power from humble
origins and his conquest of Mesopotamia in later Assyrian and Babylonian literature. Apart from
these secondary, and partly legendary, accounts, there are many inscriptions due to Sargon
himself, although the majority of these are known only from much later copies.[31] The Louvre
has fragments of two Sargonic victory steles recovered from Susa (where they were presumably
transported from Mesopotamia in the 12th century BC).[32]

Sargon appears to have promoted the use of Semitic (Akkadian) in inscriptions. He frequently
calls himself "king of Akkad" first, after the city of Akkad which he apparently founded. He
appears to have taken over the rule of Kish at some point, and later also much of Mesopotamia,
referring to himself as "Sargon, king of Akkad, overseer of Inanna, king of Kish, anointed of
Anu, king of the land [Mesopotamia], governor (ensi) of Enlil".[1][33]

While various copies of the Sumerian king list credit Sargon with a 56, 55, or 54-year reign,
dated documents have been found for only four different year-names of his actual reign. The
names of these four years describe his campaigns against Elam, Mari, Simurrum (a Hurrian
region), and Uru'a (an Elamite city-state).[34]

During Sargon's reign, East Semitic was standardized and adapted for use with the cuneiform
script previously used in the Sumerian language into what is now known as the "Akkadian
language". A style of calligraphy developed in which text on clay tablets and cylinder seals was
arranged amidst scenes of mythology and ritual.[35]

Nippur inscription

Among the most important sources for Sargon's reign is a tablet of the Old Babylonian period
recovered at Nippur in the University of Pennsylvania expedition in the 1890s. The tablet is a
copy of the inscriptions on the pedestal of a Statue erected by Sargon in the temple of Enlil. Its
text was edited by Arno Poebel (1909) and Leon Legrain (1926).[36]

In the inscription, Sargon styles himself "Sargon, king of Akkad, overseer (mashkim) of Inanna,
king of Kish, anointed (guda) of Anu, king of the land [Mesopotamia], governor (ensi) of Enlil".
It celebrates the conquest of Uruk and the defeat of Lugalzagesi, whom Sargon brought "in a
collar to the gate of Enlil."[37]

Sargon then conquered Ur and E-Ninmar and "laid waste" the territory from Lagash to the sea,
and from there went on to conquer and destroy Umma, and he collected tribute from Mari and
Elam. He triumphed over 34 cities in total. Ships from Meluhha, Magan and Dilmun, rode at
anchor in his capital of Akkad. Submitting himself to the (Levantine god) Dagan, Sargon
conquered territories of Upper Mesopotamia and the Levant, including Mari, Yarmuti (Jarmuth?)
and Ibla "up to the Cedar Forest (the Amanus) and up to the Silver Mountain (Aladagh?)", ruling
from the "upper sea" (Mediterranean) to the "lower sea" (Persian Gulf).[38] He entertained a court
or standing army of 5,400 men who "ate bread daily before him".[37]

Sargon Epos

Fragment of the victory stele of Sargon, showing Sargon with a royal hair bun, holding a mace
and wearing a flounced royal coat on his left shoulder with a large belt (left), followed by an
attendant holding a royal umbrella (center) and a procession of dignitaries holding weapons.[39]
The name of Sargon in cuneiform appears faintly in front of his face.[40] Clothing is comparable
to those seen on the cylinder seal of Kalki, in which appears the likely brother of Sargon.[40]
Circa 2300 BCE. Louvre Museum.

Cylinder seal of the scribe Kalki, showing Prince Ubil-Eshtar, probable brother of Sargon, with
dignitaries (an archer in front, two dignitaries, and the scribe holding a tablet following the
Prince).[40]

A group of four Babylonian texts, summarized as "Sargon Epos" or Res Gestae Sargonis, shows
Sargon as a military commander asking the advice of many subordinates before going on
campaigns. The narrative of Sargon, the Conquering Hero, is set at Sargon's court, in a situation
of crisis. Sargon addresses his warriors, praising the virtue of heroism, and a lecture by a courtier
on the glory achieved by a champion of the army, a narrative relating a campaign of Sargon's
into the far land of Uta-raspashtim, including an account of a "darkening of the Sun" and the
conquest of the land of Simurrum, and a concluding oration by Sargon listing his conquests.[41]

The narrative of King of Battle relates Sargon's campaign against the Anatolian city of
Purushanda in order to protect his merchants. Versions of this narrative in both Hittite and
Akkadian have been found. The Hittite version is extant in six fragments, the Akkadian version
is known from several manuscripts found at Amarna, Assur, and Nineveh.[42] The narrative is
anachronistic, portraying Sargon in a 19th-century milieu.[43] The same text mentions that Sargon
crossed the Sea of the West (Mediterranean Sea) and ended up in Kuppara, which some authors
have interpreted as the Akkadian word for Keftiu, an ancient locale usually associated with Crete
or Cyprus.[44]

Famine and war threatened Sargon's empire during the latter years of his reign. The Chronicle of
Early Kings reports that revolts broke out throughout the area under the last years of his
overlordship:

Afterward in his [Sargon's] old age all the lands revolted against him, and they besieged him in
Akkad; and Sargon went onward to battle and defeated them; he accomplished their overthrow,
and their widespreading host he destroyed. Afterward he attacked the land of Subartu in his
might, and they submitted to his arms, and Sargon settled that revolt, and defeated them; he
accomplished their overthrow, and their widespreading host he destroyed, and he brought their
possessions into Akkad. The soil from the trenches of Babylon he removed, and the boundaries
of Akkad he made like those of Babylon. But because of the evil which he had committed, the
great lord Marduk was angry, and he destroyed his people by famine. From the rising of the sun
unto the setting of the sun they opposed him and gave him no rest.[45]

A. Leo Oppenheim translates the last sentence as "From the East to the West he [i.e. Marduk]
alienated (them) from him and inflicted upon (him as punishment) that he could not rest (in his
grave)."[46]

Chronicle of Early Kings

Prisoner in a cage, probably king Lugalzagesi of Uruk, being hit on the head with a mace by
Sargon of Akkad.[47] Akkadian Empire victory stele circa 2300 BCE. Louvre Museum.

Shortly after securing Sumer, Sargon embarked on a series of campaigns to subjugate the entire
Fertile Crescent. According to the Chronicle of Early Kings, a later Babylonian historiographical
text:

[Sargon] had neither rival nor equal. His splendor, over the lands it diffused. He crossed the sea
in the east. In the eleventh year he conquered the western land to its farthest point. He brought it
under one authority. He set up his statues there and ferried the west's booty across on barges. He
stationed his court officials at intervals of five double hours and ruled in unity the tribes of the
lands. He marched to Kazallu and turned Kazallu into a ruin heap, so that there was not even a
perch for a bird left.[26]

In the east, Sargon defeated an invasion by the four leaders of Elam, led by the king of Awan.
Their cities were sacked; the governors, viceroys, and kings of Susa, Barhashe, and neighboring
districts became vassals of Akkad.[citation needed]

Origin legends
Sumerian legend
The Sumerian-language Sargon legend contains a legendary account of Sargon's rise to power. It
is an older version of the previously-known Assyrian legend, discovered in 1974 in Nippur and
first edited in 1983.[48]

The extant versions are incomplete, but the surviving fragments name Sargon's father as
La'ibum. After a lacuna, the text skips to Ur-Zababa, king of Kish, who awakens after a dream,
the contents of which are not revealed on the surviving portion of the tablet. For unknown
reasons, Ur-Zababa appoints Sargon as his cup-bearer. Soon after this, Ur-Zababa invites Sargon
to his chambers to discuss a dream of Sargon's, involving the favor of the goddess Inanna and the
drowning of Ur-Zababa by the goddess. Deeply frightened, Ur-Zababa orders Sargon murdered
by the hands of Beliš-tikal, the chief smith, but Inanna prevents it, demanding that Sargon stop at
the gates because of his being "polluted with blood." When Sargon returns to Ur-Zababa, the
king becomes frightened again and decides to send Sargon to king Lugal-zage-si of Uruk with a
message on a clay tablet asking him to slay Sargon.[49] The legend breaks off at this point;
presumably, the missing sections described how Sargon becomes king.[50]

The part of the interpretation of the king's dream has parallels to the biblical story of Joseph, the
part about the letter with the carrier's death sentence has similarities to the Greek story of
Bellerophon and the biblical story of Uriah.[51]

Birth legend

Illustration of the Assyrian Sargon legend (1913): The young Sargon, working as a gardener, is
visited by Ishtar "surrounded by a cloud of doves".

A Neo-Assyrian text from the 7th century BC purporting to be Sargon's autobiography asserts
that the great king was the illegitimate son of a priestess. Only the beginning of the text (the first
two columns) is known, from the fragments of three manuscripts. The first fragments were
discovered as early as 1850.[52]

Sargon's birth and his early childhood are described thus:

"My mother was a high priestess, my father I knew not. The brothers of my father loved
the hills. My city is Azupiranu, which is situated on the banks of the Euphrates. My high
priestess mother conceived me, in secret she bore me. She set me in a basket of rushes,
with bitumen she sealed my lid. She cast me into the river which rose over me. The river
bore me up and carried me to Akki, the drawer of water. Akki, the drawer of water, took
me as his son and reared me. Akki, the drawer of water, appointed me as his gardener.
While I was a gardener, Ishtar granted me her love, and for four and ... years I exercised
kingship."

Similarities between the Sargon Birth Legend and other infant birth exposures in ancient
literature, including Moses, Karna, and Oedipus, were noted by psychoanalyst Otto Rank in
1909.[53] The legend was also studied in detail by Brian Lewis, and compared with many
different examples of the infant birth exposure motif found in European and Asian folktales. He
discusses a possible archetype form, giving particular attention to the Sargon legend and the
account of the birth of Moses.[6] Joseph Campbell has also made such comparisons.[54]

Sargon is also one of the many suggestions for the identity or inspiration for the biblical Nimrod.
Ewing William (1910) suggested Sargon based on his unification of the Babylonians and the
Neo-Assyrian birth legend.[55] Yigal Levin (2002) suggested that Nimrod was a recollection of
Sargon and his grandson Naram-Sin, with the name "Nimrod" derived from the latter.[56]

Family

Family tree of Sargon of Akkad

The name of Sargon's main wife, Queen Tashlultum,[57] and those of a number of his children are
known to us. His daughter Enheduanna was a priestess who composed ritual hymns.[58] Many of
her works, including her Exaltation of Inanna, were in use for centuries thereafter.[59] Sargon was
succeeded by his son Rimush; after Rimush's death another son, Manishtushu, became king.
Manishtushu would be succeeded by his own son, Naram-Sin. Two other sons, Shu-Enlil
(Ibarum) and Ilaba'is-takal (Abaish-Takal), are known.[60]

Legacy
Enheduanna, daughter of Sargon.

Sargon was regarded as a model by Mesopotamian kings for some two millennia after his death.
The Assyrian and Babylonian kings who based their empires in Mesopotamia saw themselves as
the heirs of Sargon's empire. Sargon may indeed have introduced the notion of "empire" as
understood in the later Assyrian period; the Neo-Assyrian Sargon Text, written in the first
person, has Sargon challenging later rulers to "govern the black-headed people" (i.e. the
indigenous population of Mesopotamia) as he did.[61] Sargon I was a king of the Old Assyrian
period presumably named after Sargon of Akkad. An important source for "Sargonic heroes" in
oral tradition in the later Bronze Age is a Middle Hittite (15th century BC) record of a Hurro-
Hittite song, which calls upon Sargon and his immediate successors as "deified kings"
(dšarrena).[62]

Sargon II (r. 722–705 BC) was a Neo-Assyrian king named after Sargon of Akkad. It is this king
whose name was rendered Sargon (‫ )סַ ְרגֹון‬in the Hebrew Bible (Isaiah 20:1).

Neo-Babylonian king Nabonidus (r. 556–539 BC) showed great interest in the history of the
Sargonid dynasty and even conducted excavations of Sargon's palaces and those of his
successors.[63]

Sargon of Akkad is sometimes identified as the first person in recorded history to rule over an
empire (in the sense of the central government of a multi-ethnic territory), although earlier
Sumerian rulers Lugal-anne-mundu and Lugal-zage-si might have a similar claim.

His rule also heralds the history of Semitic empires in the Ancient Near East, which, following
the Neo-Sumerian interruption (21st/20th centuries BC), lasted for close to fifteen centuries,
including the history of Assyria and Babylonia up to the Achaemenid conquest in 539 BC.[64]

Popular culture
Although historically inaccurate and supernatural in nature, The Scorpion King: Rise of a
Warrior (2008) features Sargon of Akkad as a murderous army commander who uses black
magic. He was the film's main villain and was portrayed by American actor and mixed martial
artist Randy Couture.[65] This is one of the few films, if not the only film, to depict Sargon.