Introduction

The historical development of scientific and technological discoveries

In order to give a complete answer to all the questions that are before us, it is necessary to
set up a historical perspective. How historically went development of activities that we now call
science and in what way that changed relation between people and science? In what ways people
are accepting new and had they run away from unknown? In the next part of this paper, I’ll
consider the most important; one might say key events in the development of humanity before
the great industrial and technological revolutions. What are the discoveries that are enabled and
made man's life easier? How has the man overcome nature and mastered it?

Looking a few thousand years in the past, we can say that even then trade was an
important part of social life. People were paying a lot of attention to these activities and traded
on various subjects, mostly volcanic glass and stone. Later, begins trading with jewelry and basic
provisions. To facilitate the transport of goods, nearly all powerful nations of that time, such are
Egyptians, Babylonians and Phoenicians, developed specific types of ships. Phoenicians
perfected the shipbuilding, so that their ships could serve as a battle ships in some conflict
situations, which gave them a considerable advantage over other competitors. With the help of
that technology they had been able to master the trading in the Mediterranean. Trade
development, on the other side, has brought political and economic stability in this part of the
world.

However, after the fall of the Roman Empire, the situation is changing toward instability.
Organized institutions of Roman Empire had died, road infrastructure is completely ignored,
exchange of money and goods is disappeared and trading practices was destroyed under the
onslaught of Hungarian horsemen, Norman Viking and North African pirates. Mediterranean, as
the heart of the Roman economic organism, is starting to slowly fade. The fall of the Roman
Empire should be taken as one of the significant events, as a benchmark for the very relationship
between science and economy. According to some opinions, Roman Empire did not fell because
of decadence of Roman society but because the tribes on the fringes of the Empire managed to
embrace technological discoveries. I’m referring to the discovery of a horseshoe that some
northern tribes began to use from the 3rd century. Next example is use of a compass, which came
from China, where the basic version was already in use. This is evidence that the relationship
between science and economy is technological. And as has been said on lectures, for a long time,
there have not been any economic benefits from science discoveries. Great scientists who have
appeared at the end of the Middle Ages, at a given moment have not been significant, because
they could not provide direct financial benefit. (Miller, November 5th, 2014).

After the fall of the Roman Empire civilization continues to develop. We can see making of
one large center between Asia and Europe, embodied in the Byzantine Empire. Byzantine
Empire lasted over a thousand years and has built a unique culture that still lives through
architecture, history, art, theology. In a first ten centuries, we see establishing of great
universities in Europe and those universities become a center of scientific research later in
middle Ages. Following those events is slowly emerging of Association of German state, known
as the Hanseatic League, which at one period of the Middle Ages played a significant role in the
economic and financial activities. The situation in Europe, viewed from the technological sphere,
is consolidated during the Crusades.

The Roman Catholic Church managed to distinguish itself as an institution of crucial

importance in Europe. With the help of mechanisms to control the situation in the Middle East
they emerged as the strongest financial institutions. At this time we see strengthening of naval
flotilla as a separate branch of industry. Due to the vicinity of Vatican, the Italian city states are
strengthening. They were known as the Signoria and it is believed that they have been the cradle
for civil society as we know it. The world discoveries before appearance of printing machine are
certainly helped to understand the world that surrounded us, but also new discoveries were
prevented by the action of the Roman Catholic Church.

This is significance period in European history, when the Roman Catholic Church has
established the Inquisition, whose task was to find those who dealt with things and advanced
ideas that were not in accordance with Christian teaching. Of course, advanced ideas were not
necessarily against the Christian teachings. There we see the distrust that people have towards
scientific evidence.

Medieval, Science and Discoveries

As is known, after the Crusades, the church rapidly penetrated into all segments of society:
education, law, health ... opposing the Roman Catholic Church, meant to oppose God. That was
the reason for suffering of Nicolaus Copernicus, Galileo Galilee and many others. They believed
in the Christian God, but not in a unified manner. The famous Galileo Galilee has said that God
has written two books, Scripture and Nature. The discoveries of these people went ahead of their
time and shook the authority of the Roman Catholic Church because they were contrary to
Church’s understanding of reality. Even though mention scientists were persecuted and killed by
the Church, they had their admirers among people who have managed in some secret way to get
involved in science.

Among the educated men had been developed different scientific method in regard to
official, and consequently, they developed a different view of reality. Galileo tried to resolve the
problem that divided science and religion and said: '' The Bible can never lie or be wrong; its
laws are absolute and immutable truth. I should just like to add that although the Bible cannot be
wrong, some of its interpreters sometimes can be wrong. One of these mistakes can be very
serious and quite common, when they based meaning in the literal sense of the word '' (Galilee).

Claims based on these words of famous scientist over time influenced even common people.
They began slowly to perceive the side that had previously been unknown, because it was
forbidden by the Church. '' Turning to the other side '' was contributed also by easygoing life of
the clergy, which originated from a lot of power that the Church had. From this critical mass is
formed Reformation. But important for comprehension and understanding of the relationship of
man and science during the middle Ages were the discovery of the printing machine and exploits
to discover new countries and territories far away from Europe.
 In the middle of the fifteenth century, Johann Gutenberg finally perfected his printing
machine. Before that, he used the press with movable buttons. The discovery of the printing
machine has significantly broadened perspective for the development of civilization and perhaps
it was one of the most important steps in the process of globalization. Many teachings, thoughts
and ideas could now be recorded, reproduced and easily distributed. On the other side, Bible, as
the central document of the middle Ages around which revolves social sphere, could be
duplicated also. Famous is Gutenberg Bible, which was printed in his press. Of course, we must
say that in this period almost all literature was religious in character.

Other significant events that changed the course of history and definitely marked the
processes of globalization and ended the middle Ages are major expeditions to unknown areas.
Those events have not only accelerated the exchange of culture, but also the exchange of
discoveries among distant parts of the globe. These expeditions were brought entirely new
discoveries in the field of cartography, shipbuilding and navigation. Ideas and discoveries are
now increasingly based on rational, as opposed to transcendent. All this led to major industrial
revolutions which gave great impulse to the development of the entire civilization.

Before we turn to the great technological and industrial revolution and the relation of man to
new discoveries and scientists, it should be said from where come the roots of fear and distrust of
the new discoveries during the middle Ages. One of the best works that deal with the topic of
fear, especially in Western Europe, is the book written by Jean Delumeau ‘‘The fear in the
West''. He says that fear is the experience in every one of us, so why we are dealing with
something that is obvious and empirically? We know what fear is, and how to deal with him.

The second argument is close to this, and is demonstrated by Raymond Aron. Fear is a non-
political; it is sub political emotion that belongs to the field of psychology and culture and it is
not a product of the operation of institutions, laws and powers. Therefore, it is impossible to
restrict it politically, control it and suppress it. If there is a fear, he belongs to the people of low
origin, as we read in the Roman poet Virgil (Aeneid, IV, 13). "Fear is a sign of low origin". Fear
is a flaw, courage is a virtue. Fear belongs to the poor, courage is a noble virtue. This is a
common place in the history of political theory all the way to Tocqueville.

So, in Plato’s “Republic’’ Socrates defines courage as a preservation of opinions

implemented by laws and education on how to be feared. With this traditional understanding of
fear corresponds traditional understanding of death that is expressed in the movement
contemptus mundi or contempt of the world. This movement originated in the mid-twelfth
century in monastic circles in the West and expressed a sort of aversion to the world, justifying
its position with transience of the world. In Europe of that time we see prevailing of a large
uncertainties caused by raging wars and diseases that took thousands of lives. In addition, low
level of education of the common people did not help and people were still suspicious of
research, scientific evidence and scientist in general.

But if it is a view that has prevailed in the middle Ages, how is it possible that it is still
present today? Is it really possible that mankind has progressed so little? Or is it a man just a
modest creature, one blow away from death? Before we turn to the relation between man and
modern research and comparison to the modern scientific method, we must certainly say
something about technological development in a time of great industrial revolution.

The age of the industrial revolution

With the beginning of the great revolutions, the French Revolution and the American
Revolution, begins a new understanding of science, technology and new discoveries. We can say
that from the time of the industrial revolution science is seen as a social entrepreneurship and we
must begin to take care of her more than before (Miller, October 22 nd 2014).

One of the most important discoveries of the time is the steam engine that has found wide
application in many industries. It was easier to exploit the mines by using power stronger than
human. What is interesting to add is that this science is not simply turn up, but it stemmed from
the people who wanted to ease their own jobs. Almost none of the famous inventor of that time
was a scientist: nor Kay, nor Wyatt, nor Hargreaves. Their scientific capabilities almost did not
exist (Bridgstock et al, 127).

The Industrial Revolution began rapidly to change society. The textile industry in some
countries of Western Europe reached unimagined heights which are automatically applied to all
spheres of social organization, particularly in economic terms. People were no more medieval
slaves but modern citizens and workers. We have examples of how the use of scientific and
technological discoveries impacted and improved economic life. At the end of the eighteenth
century, sodium carbonate was used in purification of cotton which is processed and was later
used in the textile industry. Since the sodium carbonate was obtained by processing seaweed, due
to excessive use, large amounts have been spent. So the French government hired science to
solve this problem. After the Napoleon wars, England has started to use this possibility to its
benefit (Miller, 31 st October 2014)

But progress, prosperity and economic growth caused by the industrial revolution had its
dark side. Overall, it brought economic benefits, but workers rights have not been respected.
They almost did not have working hours; they worked every day, even children, in utterly
unacceptable conditions. What was the situation in the industrial society in beginnings, tells us in
a remarkable way, the novel '' Germinal '' by Emile Zola.

There were no agreements upon social programs, medical care, minimum wage and
workers were losing their jobs after even minor injuries. So, even they were no longer slaves,
their status has not improved rapidly over the night. Still the main financial instruments were in
the hands of the big bourgeoisie. And in that moment, there was skepticism toward the scientific
revolution and scientific discovery. Workers feared that machines take away their jobs because
they were not given time to understand the benefits of the inventions. They started to work for
pay and not for food and shelter but because of their obligations they could not be educated, so
the level of education and the possibility of understanding the industrial and scientific trends
remained quite low.

A group of people who first realized the negative effects of the industrial revolution and
objected to it is called Luddites, named after their leader Ned Ludd. In fact, it was one of the first
secret workers' movements. They have been following their own internal organization, acted
'under the cover of night' 'and often inflicted inconvenience with factory owners and the
government. The main activity of movement was their destruction of machines, looms especially
during the blooming of the textile industry, but later they started demolishing factory. How big
was the treat of movement? So big, that at one point, parliament passed the law, this provided the
death penalty for anyone who intentionally destroys the machines of their employers. This
movement is survived the industrial revolution and it is interesting to look how poet and neo-
Luddite Wendell Berry expresses on industrial progress: "I do not see that computers are
bringing us one step closer to anything that does matter to me: peace, economic justice,
ecological health, political honesty, family and community stability, good work. . . I am a
Luddite. "

The possibility that ordinary workers and citizens understand the importance of science
and industry, the importance of scientific discoveries and economic development, gave Robert
Owen. He opened a factory dealing with textiles in New Larnak, Scotland and the program that
concerned workers employed in the factory were completely unknown. The workers here are
treated in a completely different way, they were paid regularly, children of workers have gone to
school, and there were hospitals, even hospitals for children up to 6 years, which by that time did
not exist. Certainly his move or gesture did not last long, but it showed the direction in which to
go and what capitalism should take into consideration. Since the beginning of the Industrial
Revolution till the mid-nineteenth century, battle between workers rights and technology, battle
between workers and “science in practice” has cost the lives of many workers.

Science, Superstition, and Conspiracy

After the medieval fear and a sense of powerlessness come age of predominant
exploitation of workers, i.e. workers were serving machines, not vice versa. Then come the
modern era. The modern era made few new problems and has brought new questions but in the
same time, new answers are possible. She answered some questions with clear evidences but still
people do not believe in them, such as a situation with a number of issues related to climate
change, evolution and other daily activities. Along comes a series of secret and half-secret
societies and associations who publicly present themselves as fighters for the rights of people.
They create an illusion that what we see is not true, that actually the real truth is hidden from our
eyes, that everything is controlled by some secret centers of power.

On the other hand, we cannot overlook the fact that there is indeed a power centers who are
trying to turn the wheel of history to its interests. Another proof of why some of the people do
not believe in the well-known scientific evidence, but in conspiracy theories or theory's distorted
reality, applies to scientists. Many times scientists are the one, who for the sake of ideas,
enthusiasm or pure material benefits, used people who blindly believed them. A final proof in
support of this statement is confession of the founder of Facebook, who admitted that he was
trying to control the emotions of users by posts. So, we are talking about scientific responsibility
and about morality in science.

We have to mention some of the darkest people in history who have used science to destroy,
not to create. For them, science was destructive force rather than driving. Let us remember Nazi
Germany and projects Dr. Josef Mengele, whose projects cost millions of people their lives. Or
The Manhattan Project, when scientist created the atomic bomb that destroyed millions of lives
and in the long term created the opportunity for destruction of the entire planet (Bridgstock et al,
42), and to this should be added the secret CIA experiments dealing with a effects of synthetic
and hallucinogenic drugs on the human psyche (Ibid 44). We can see that the '' science '' abused
the people's trust during these events. It leads us to conclude that what is scientific not
necessarily has to be true or correct. This is a special debate within the scientific field. To this
should be added the experiments conducted on the animals and experiments conducted with the
consent but really were life-threatening. This is clearly the question of morals, boundaries and
responsibilities about which we still need to debate.

A person who believes that the death of Princess Diana is faked, at the same time is
accepting the theory that she was killed in a conspiracy hatched by the agents of the government
and the royal family. If a person's belief is that Osama bin Laden was already dead when US
special forces have discovered the location where he was, that same person will easily accept the
theory that Osama is still alive and well. So, people who are convinced of the veracity of the
specific conspiracy theories tend to simultaneously accept contradictory version of the same
events or phenomena.

How is such a thing possible? Let's start with definitions. The conspiracy theory is narrative
- a template of a group of dishonest, at the same time powerful people or organization, who work
in secrecy to achieve a certain, usually hideous goal, as a rule, to the general detriment. Clearly,
if you are inclined to believe that some terrible conspiracy could be practically implemented in
perfect secrecy, then it is possible for you to accept other similar scenarios. One of key
characteristics of conspiracy theories is: sharp opposition to the official and conventional
narrative. In this sense, the core of conspiracy theories is not conviction in the proposed course
of events, but disbelief in generally accepted, official version of the course of events.

Conclusion

In the end, we can try to answer the possible predictions. Viewed from a historical
perspective, we can conclude that our future is tied to science. And as the group of authors says,
science will bring us the future (Bridgstock et al, 233).

Speaking from the perspective of an ordinary man, he will always be suspicious. He is,
by his nature, suspicious and in doubt, but throughout history it proved to be good because when
there is doubt, it lead to great discoveries such are discoveries that we talked about. When the
man began to doubt that the Earth is flat, he revealed that it is not, when it ceased to be afraid of
thunder, he discovered electricity. But doubt has to have limit and not to lead in obsessions and
bringing into question all scientific discoveries.

In fact, science must help. Research must be transparent, must be taken regarding good
motives, scientists should keep in mind that they created civilization as we know it. For scientist,
the economic motive should be in last place. The political influence in science should be limited,
because trough out human history, this influence was responsible for suffering of millions of
people. If everyone follows these recommendations, scientist and ordinary people without
scientific knowledge, it could bring science discoveries toward those same ordinary people a
little closer. Unfortunately, if you look at the way that the world is headed probably we are still
going to wait for that to happen.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Bridgstock, Martin… (et al), Technology and Society, Cambridge University Press, 15 – 83; 111
– 132; 232 – 257, 2003.

Delumeo, Jean, Sin and Fear: The Emergence of a Western Guilt Culture: 13th – 18th Century, St.
Martin’s Press, 1991.

Miller, Jonathan, Moral Responsibility and the Scientist, September 17th, 2014

Miller, Jonathan, How do we Assign Moral Responsibility?, September 19th, 2014

Miller, Jonathan, Climate Change Debate, October 8th, 2014

Miller, Jonathan, The Industrial Revolution, October 22nd, 2014

Miller, Jonathan, England vs France – Cotton Industry, October 31st, 2014

Miller, Jonathan,