TP#63 3/89

UNDERSTANDING HYDROPONICS

By:
Mark Anderson

Larry Bloom

Charles Queen

Mona Ruttenberg

Kristine Stroad

Samart Sukanit

Dan Thomas

Technical Reviewers:

Ralph P. Prince
Walter G. Rosen
Ronald A. Stanley

Published by:

Volunteers in Technical Assistance (VITA)

1815 N. Lynn Street

Arlington, Virginia 22209 USA

Telephone 703/276-1800

Cable VITAINC

Telex 440192 VITAUTI

Facsimile 703/243-1865

 ISBN: 0-886619-282-4

c 1989, Volunteers in Technical Assistance, Inc.

 IREFACE

This paper is one of a series published by volunteers in Techni­

cal Assistance to provide an introduction to specific state-of­
the-art technologies of interest to people in developing coun­
tries. The papers are intended to be used as guidelines to help

people choose technologies that are suitable to their situations.

They are not intended to provide construction or implementation

details. People are urged to contact VITA or a similar organiza­

tion for further information and technical assistance if they

find that a particular technology seems to meet their needs.

The papers in the series were written, reviewed, and illustrated

almost entirely by VITA Volunteer technical experts on a purely

voluntary basis. Some 500 volunteers were involved in the produc­

tion of the first 100 titles issued, contributing approximately

5,000 hours of their time. VITA staff included Suzanne Brooks and

Patrice Matthews handling typesetting and layout, and Margaret

Crouch as editor and project manager.

Co-authors Mark Anderson, Larry Bloom, Charles Queen, Mona

Ruttenberg, Samart Sukanit, and Dan Thomas originally wrote up

this project as a thesis for their curriculum in technology

education at West Virginia University in Morgantown, West Vir­

ginia, under the guidance of Dr. Edward Pytlik. Kristine Stroad

is a freelance technical writer/edit who has experience in Kenya,

in Thailand for VITA, and with the United Nations in Geneva.

VITA Volunteer reviewer Ralph Prince is an agricultural engineer

with the John F. Kennedy Space Center in Florida. Reviewers

Walter Rosen and Ronald Stanley are also VITA Volunteers. Dr.

Rosen, a botanist, is on the Board of Biology for the National

Research Council. Dr. Stanley, senior biological policy analyst

at the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, is a plant physiolo­

gist with experience in Greece, Hong Kong, China, and the Carib­
bean.

VITA is a private, nonprofit organization that supports people

working on technical problems in developing countries. VITA

offers information and assistance aimed at helping individuals

and groups to select and implement technologies appropriate to

their situations. VITA maintains an international Inquiry Ser­

vice, a specialized documentation center, and a computerized

roster of volunteer technical consultants; manages long-term

field projects; and publishes a variety of technical manuals and

papers. For more information about VITA services in general, or

the technology presented in this paper, contact VITA at 1815

North Lynn Street, Suite 200, Arlington, Virginia 22209 USA.

 UNDERSTANDING HYDROPONICS

by Mark Anderson, Larry Bloom, Charles Queen,

Mona Ruttenberg, Kristine Stroad, Samart Sukanit, and Dan Thomas

I. INTRODUCTION

Hydroponics is the growing of plants without soil. The name "hy­

droponics" implies that the plants are grown in water.
Actually

the plants are usually grown in "growing beds" that may be filled

with gravel or sand or other material, and they get the nutrients

they need from a water solution added to the beds.

Some of
the important advantages of successful hydroponics over

soil culture are:

o Yields in hydroponics can be as much as ten times greater than

in soil culture;

o Plants need less space in hydroponics because the nutrients are

concentrated;

o The nutrient solution is re-used, so the amount of water needed

is much smaller;

o The nutrients are

easier to test and adjust to growing condi­
tions; and

o Labor costs are lower.

Another feature of a well-designed hydroponics system is that it

does not pollute the environment.

Hydroponics is used mainly as a controlled system for the produc­

tion of out of season crops, for growing crops in areas where the

soil is not suitable for cultivation, or where water supply is

limited. It is also useful for studies in plant nutrition, plant

diseases, and plant breeding, where growth under exact conditions

is needed. Almost any type of plant can be grown hydroponically.

Home gardeners can set up small hydroponics systems in their

homes to grow a few crops for home use. In cold climates, large

greenhouses are used for profitable hydroponics

enterprises

providing high
quality, out of season produce. A hydroponics

enterprise in a warm climate could

also be feasible, using a

locally-built
screened structure to give a growing environment

that can be kept free from insects and other pests and reduce

heat and humiduty.

1
Hydroponics is intensive agriculture that makes sense in a world

where farmlands are disappearing and there is a need for quality,

locally-produced food.

This paper will describe the basic features of a medium- to

large-scale hydroponics system and prefabricated greenhouse

appropriate for cold climates. Some modifications for a system

suitable for hot climates are also discussed. Home gardeners in

any climate can use the basic theories contained here, but may

want a simpler operation, possibly without a greenhouse or spe­

cial structure.

II. SYSTEM DESIGN

Site Selection

In choosing a good site for a medium- or large-scale hydroponics

system, the following should be considered:

o The site should be reasonably level;

o The site should be as free of trees and shrubs as possible;

o There should be a supply of suitable gravel, sand, lava, or

other mineral material available nearby;

o For a commercial enterprise, the site should be within reasona­

ble reach of the markets where the produce will be sold;

o Roads and communications to the site must be good, to allow for

the delivery of materials and other equipment, and for the

shipment of produce;

o Depending on the climatic conditions, the site should have a

good southern exposure to make use of solar energy; and

o Water, electricity, gas, etc., as needed for present or future

use, should be available at the site.

Greenhouse Design and Construction

A greenhouse is necessary in cold climates to provide a control­

led environment for the successful growing of high quality plants

throughout the year. In warm climates, a greenhouse is unneces o

­
sary, and a simple structure with a wood, tile, slat, bamboo, or

thatch roof to provide partial shading and a dirt floor with pits

containing suitable mineral material is recommended. A mure

advanced structure could include a concrete block foundation,

concrete floor, and screened walls. Adobe might be considered fov

the foundation.

2
 In cold climates, a greenhouse makes possible year-round cultiva­
tion. In a climate with hot days and cool nights, the greenhouse

provides a controlled environment that not only protects

plants

from cold at night, but reduces heat and humidity during the
day.

If light is likely to be limiting at any time of the

houses should be positioned to get the most sunlight.year, green­
This means

the long side of the greenhouse should lie east to west as

shown

in Figure 1.

/ I'
/ /
~AT / /

I, /

S. ,,
5$5T

Figure 1.
Position of Greenhouse (Northern Hemisphere)

In designing
the interior of a greenhouse, first consider
the

amount of growing space needed

and the size of the land
avail­
able. Then think about the
operations involved, automation,

energy considerations and costs, and future

expansion.
Include

areas for preparing the nutrient solution and for storage.

Tn a commercisl greenhouse, an office and service area

is
for administration and to prepare, grade and
pack crops needed

sending to market. An office should have space for visitors for

customers, a secretary, and a manager. An employee lunch room,and

lavatory, and a parking

area are also needed. The office
and

service area should have sound

absorbing material in
the
next to the growing area to protect the area from the sounds wall

made

by the greenhouse fans.

There are several advantages to constructing a series

of con­
nected greenhouses, with adjoining walls
and connected
roof

gutters:

3
o They require less land area than detached greenhouses;

o Fewer construction materials are needed for side walls; and

o Less energy is required to heat or cool because there are fewer

exposed wall surfaces.

In cold climates, a disadvantage is the difficulty of removing

snow
from the gutters between connected greenhouses. (Heat lines

can be placed under the gutters to melt the snow.) Office and

service areas can be located in an adjoining building on the

north side of the greenhouses, decreasing heat loss.

Prefabricated buildings may be considered, where available.

Materials and labor costs will vary locally and should be

com­
pared. Replacement parts for prefabricated units can be ordered

from the manufacturer.

Fiberglass (with Mylar), polyethylene film, and glass can be used

for greenhouse roofs. Fiberglass panels are made of

reinforced

plastic and are flexible enough to fit into curved frames. Mylar

is a type of polyethylene, and is used as the inner layer with

fiberglass. Fiberglass with Mylar lasts much longer and transmits

light be.er than a double layer of polyethylene. The highest

quality of polyethelyne film--six millimeter (0.23 inch)--lasts a

maximum of a year and a half. Fiberglass with Mylar can last 15­
20 years. Glass can also be used, and lasts much longer than even

fiberglass, but it is much more expensive than either fiberglass

or polyethylene.
Whatever the material, it is recommended that

double layers are used; the air between the layers acts as in­
sulation and reduces heat loss.

To reduce start up costs, a new hydroponics enterprise may want

to consider starting out with polyethylene and changing to fiber­

glass after one to two years.

Acrylic sheets can be used for the greenhouse side walls and some

parts of the end walls. Acrylic sheets are stiff, are highly

resistant to impact, insulate heat, and transmit light

well-­
about 73 percent.

Compressed limestone gravel, six inches (15 cm) thick for

good

drainage, is recommended for the greenhouse floor. Other types of

gravel, or sand or dirt could also be used.

Pathways in the greenhouse, made of asphalt or concrete, should

be wide enough for a cart to pass through easily--about six feet

(1.8 m) wide--if carts are ever expected to be used in the opera­

tion.

 The greenhouse foundation does not need

to be
continuous around

the base of the building. Poured concrete

footings
can be placed

one foot (30 cm) below the frost line in cold climates.

Gas-fired unit heaters

are used when necessary
to blow warm
air

to fan jets (see Figure 2), which hang between them. The
distribute the warm air through a polyethylene fans

tube to the entire

growing area (see Figure 3).

Heat escapes in
small
jet streams

from holes on either side of

the tube. The heat
with the surrounding air
and sets up a circulation mixes rapidly

Thermostats
should be located
at the height pattern.

of the plants, to

measure the greenhouse average temperature.

QN4IT HE-E

Figure 2. Heater, Fan, Shutter

An insulating ceiling cover is stored on a reel

and rolled out at

night. In the morning, a wheel attached to the

reel is turned to

roll the cover back

to the storage position.
insulating value of R-4
insulates much less thanA cover with an

normal
ceiling

insulation, but saves a lot in heating costs. The

cost of such a

ceiling cover can be regained in three years in

savings on heat.

Venti.lation is needed, to:

o Reduce air temperature when it becomes too hot;

o Exchange air to
renew the supply o'r carbon
dioxide for photo­
synthesis; and

o Reduce the relative humidity in the greenhouse.

 NOF\TH
- - - - - - - - - -

GAS PIRE
UNIT -JrAT-.

X WAU4T
F. N T .. . . . .. .A N

30 'a
F'L' TIJ5E-------------------------------­

3 QL PAD L

..................................

350 -..- ---­

7 IN PATHWAY'

Figure 3. Greenhouse Layout

In hot weather, large volumes of air must be cooled and brought

into the greenhouse. The cool air must pass in a smooth stream

through the entire growing area. A cooling system using evapora­

tion is used for this purpose.

A 30-inch (76 cm) fan 'is hung between two unit heaters (where

needed). The fan blows air into the polyethylene tube, which is

attached to the fan jet. The air blown into the tube may come

from the heaters, the outside of the greenhouse, or from the

inside of the greenhouse, depending on the temperature and hu­

midity required. Continuous circulation within the greenhouse is

set up by controlling heaters, fan jet, and shutters. The shut­

ters prevent fresh outside air from passing to the fan jets when

it is not needed. The shutters may be motorized or not, according

to labor and equipment costs.

The cooling system is based on the

process of heat absorption

during the evaporation of water. Along the western wall of the

 greenhouse, water passes

through vertical pads. There
exhaust fans on the opposite wall, drawing the air
fromare two

the greenhouse to the outside (see Figure 3).

Warm outside inside

air is

drawn through the pads at the same

time. Through evaporation,

water in the pads absorbs heat from the air passing through.
air coming in to the greenhouse can be as much as 10 The

to 25 de­
grees Fahrenheit (5 to 15
degrees Centigrade) cooler
than the

outside air. This cooling

system uses cooling pads,
plumbing,

valves, strainers, and supports. Two pumps

and reversible
drive

motors are used to recycle the water in the pads.

While natural sunlight should

be used wherever possible,
plemental lighting is sometimes needed in the greenhouse. sup­
ing fixtures holding two 90-watt
fluorescent bulbs are Light­
our sample greenhouse. The bulbs are
turned on an averageused in

of 12

hours per day in their cold climate. In tropical areas

overheat­
ing due to excessive natural sunlight will often be
a more
seri­
ous problem and shading has to be provided.

The growing
beds in the sample greenhouse are constructed
fiberglass, 25
feet (7.6 m) long, three feet (91 cm) wide, of

inches
(25 cm) deep. nhe beds are placed in clusters of and 10

each. Support for the beds is provided by two-by-fours six beds

(5 cm high

by 10 cm wide pieces of wood) made into a frame. The tops

beds are four feet 1.2 m) off the ground so that the space of the

under­
neath can also be used for growing. The bottom of each bed
be sloped for good drainage. Beds may also
be made should

of
concrete, or metal, but
should be painted with a high-grade
wood,

asphalt-base paint
on the inside. Porcelain, pottery,
or glass

containers may be used in smaller systems.

Gravel, sand, cinders, shale, coral limestone treated with

phos­
phate, wood shavings, vermiculite, perlite, plastic chips,
other material can be used as
the medium in the growing or

The more inert the material the less likely it

is that beds.

problems

will develop. For example, wood shavings generally contain

cals that inhibit plant growth; these may leach into the chemi­
nutrient

solution or
be taken up by the plant roots and stunt
the crop.

Similarly, untreated limestone usually

will increase
the
the growing medium; acid-loving plants would not be able pH of

to grow

in such a medium.

The size should be from 1/16 to 1/2

inch (1.58 mm to
12.7 mm)

diameter, with no sharp edges that could cut the roots

of young

plants. Gravel should be 1/4 to

1/2 inch (6.4 to
12.7 mm)

diameter. When the plants grow, their

root structure grows
down

into the medium. Once

a year the medium should be replaced,
the growing beds sterilized. This might be accomplished and

by flush­
ing
with a large amount of near-sterile water (for
example,

"clean" ground water)

or by using a chemical, such
as sodium

hypochlorite. If a chemical is used, the residues

need
to be

taken into account.

For example, sodium hypochlorite will
leave

residues of sodium chloride (ordinary salt) that might stunt

crops that are especially sensitive to salt.

Pipes used should be iron or plastic. Galvanized pipe should not

be used since zinc from the galvanizing will cause trouble with

the nutrient solution.

Nutrient Solution and Delivery

The nutrient solution is the heart of the hydroponics system.

The plants get

the basic chemicals needed for successful growth

from the solution.

Nutrient solutions can be purchased ready-mixed in some coun­

tries, or they can be mixed by hand.
Hand mixed solution is

recommended over ready-mixed, since it costs much less and

the

grower has greater control over the contents. The grower can

adjust hand mixed nutrient solutions according to plant charac­

teristics, temperature, light intensity, composition of the

water, etc.

Thousands
of different chemical combinations have been used

successfully; however, certain chemicals are essential for plant

growth. These include nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, magnesium,

sulphur, and calcium. Trace chemicals, in much lower concentra­

tions, are iron, boron, manganese, zinc, and copper. An example

of a nutrient mixture and its cost, for a commercial hydroponics

greenhouse in the United States, is

in Table 1. Costs are given

in 1987 U.S. dollar amounts.

Table 1. Nutrients Needed Per Year

Nutrient Essential Price/ Pounds Total

elements pound needed (US$)

Sodium

nitrate Nitrogen $0.30 216.5 $ 64.95

Potassium

sulphate Potassium

Sulphur $0.20
72.2 $ 14.44

Super- Phosphorus,

Phosphate Calcium $0.08 160.4 $ 12.83

Magnesium

sulphate Magnesium $0.16 64.2 $ 10.27

Iron Iron

sulphate Sulphur $0.96 16 $ 15.63

 Manganese

sulphate Manganese $0.32

5.5 $ 1.76

Boric acid Boron

$0.32
5.5 $ 1.76

Zinc

sulphate Zinc
$0.26 2.5
$ 0.65

Copper

sulphate Copper
$0.88
2.5 $ 2.20

$124.22

Native sources of nutrients, s ch as animal manures, might

be

usable, but can cause many prc. ms. Most animal manures contain

high levels of nitrogen in the form of ammonia, to which

many

plants are sensitive. Also, manures can

be a source of diseases

from organisms that infected the plants on which the animals

fed.

Perhaps most important, getting the correct balance of nutrients

may be difficult with a source in which

the concentrations
are

not clearly defined. Nonetheless, if no other sources are readily

available, or if available sources are too expensive, it would

worthwhile to test
some native sources on a small scale with be

the

intended crop.

In a relatively humid area, .12 gallons (.45 liters) of nutrient

solution should be used for every square

foot (.03 cu. m.)
of

growing area, and the solution should be changed every

four

weeks. In
areas with lower humidity more solution should be
used

and should be changed more often because of evaporation losses.

The mixing tank can be made of

fiberglass or other non-porous

material. Several
mixes may need to be made to complete
solution change. It is wise to mix up a little extra solution the

in

case
of spills or other accidents. You will need enough nutrient

solution to bring the water level to 1/2 to 1 inch (1.3 to

2.5

cm) from the top

of the growing beds. The nutrients should
be

mixed first in a small amount of water.

If there is a problem with the nutrient solution, the plants

show deficiency or toxicity symptoms. You may wish to consult will

reference book such as

The Guide to Commercial Hydroponics
(see

Bibliography) to know the symptoms related to each chemical.

The nutrient delivery, or irrigation, system keeps the growing

medium damp at all times, while allowing plenty of oxygen

to get

to the roots of the plants. The growing beds are flooded one
three times a day for half an hour. After flooding, the liquid to

is

drained back into the tank, to be reused later. Irrigation can

done manually, automatically by using
a pump and a timer, be

by a

gravity-fed system, by wick, or by drip methods.

An automated system can be constructed from one 55-gallon

liters) drum, one

1/4 horsepower centrifugal pump, one (208

timer, and 1/2

inch (1.3 cm) PVC piping for each cluster electric

of six

growing beds
(see Figures 4 and 5). This automatic system
the timing and amount of nutrient solution delivered, ensures

and reduces

labor costs.

In a gravity-fed system, the growing beds

are divided
tions, each
on a slightly higher elevation and slightlyinto sec­
than the one after it.
Two tanks of nutrient solution longer

are used.

A larger tank is at
the lower end of the beds, below
ground. It

is connected by a channel to a smaller tank at the

level
of the

highest beds. The smaller tank is filled by pump from

tank before an irrigation is made. the larger

The solution flows from the

smaller tank through all the

beds, and empties into
tank. The solution needs to be pumped only once, at the large

the begin­
ning.

For the nutrient solution to work best, beds should be

completely

irrigated in 30 minutes or less. The solution should be

pumped at

a rate of at least two gallons per minute.

It should
hour for the beds to drain into the drain pipes and back take one

solution tank. The drain holes

in the beds should into the

be one inch

(2.5 cm) in diameter for fast drainage.

t2r2

Figure 4. Bed Cluster Overview

10

 1' 1

ro~~? W;A VP V

IN 'TANK VIJ1

Figure 5. Bed End View

In cold weather, one

irrigation every other day, in mid-morning,

is enough. In hot weather, three irrigations a day

are recom­
mended. Young plants need three
irrigations a day regardless
of

the weather.

If three irrigations
a day are done, the first should be between

seven and nine o'clock in the morning, the second one between
ten

and twelve o'clock, and the third between two and four o'clock
in

the afternoon. An automated system would have a timer set accord­

ing to this schedulg.

As mentioned earlier, the; nutrient

solution should be changed

every four weeks. In an automated system, the solution can

be

drained from the solution tanks by removing the connector pipe

from the pump and attaching it to tubing through which the solu­
tion would be pumped out to the sewer, or into the ground, away

from sources of drinking water.

After the solution is drained, water should be put in the solu­

tion tanks and the beds flushed with water.
The water is then

pumped out to the sewer or ground. Fifty-five gallon (208 liters)

drums, stored in the storage area,

are filled with new nutrient

11

solution from the mixing tank, taken to the greenhouse area by

carts, and siphoned into the storage tanks.

Pest Control

Because the plants are grown indoors in an inert medium, pests

are not the problem they are in soil culture. Plants would be

very quickly contaminated, however, if disease were introduced

into the system. Regular replacement of the growing medium is

recommended to guard against contamination.

In order to restrict the entrance of pests from the outdoors,

sponge pads soaked with bleach should be placed at all entrances

to the greenhouse or building. This will help kill pests that arB

in the dirt carried by shoes. Cigarette smoking should not be

allowed in the greenhouse, since it could introduce tobacco

mosaic, which is harmful to tomato plants.

Observation of the plants is an important step in controlling

pests. Plants should be checked every day. At the first sign of

pests, the plants and/or the insects themselves must be removed

or destroyed. If the pests are localized on one

or a few plants,

-hose plants shculd be uprooted and removed from the growing

area. If the pests are fairllr large and/or immobile, they can be

handpicked. If a pressurized water system is available,

especially if it is chlorinated, a vigorous spray of water may be

sufficient to dislodge and disrupt small insects. If these sani­

tation measures are not effective, chemicals may need to be used.

In any case, the source of the pests must be identified. If

workers have carried them in from other greenhouses or from field

crops, steps will have to be taken to prevent the same thing from

happening again. If the source is nearby infected or infested

plants, those plants may need to be removed and/or destroyed.

Also note that some pests cannot be destroyed by burning; in

fact, viruses may be spread by burning. Therefore, if any

diseased plants are to be destroyed by burning, it should be done

a long distance from the growing area.

Two pesticides that are fairly safe for plants and humans may be

used. Whitmire's White Fly Control Spray has low toxicity to

humans and is used to control white flies in tomato plants, which

are highly susceptible to the pest. The spray should be applied

every six weeks. It is also effective against. fungus gnats,

thrips, and cucumber beetles. Rotenone, an organic contact and

stomach poison, is largely non-toxic to warm-blooded animals. It

is particularly effective against aphids, a major carrier of

tobacco mosaic, and against chewing insects. Because it has

little residual effect, it rust be applied every two weeks. Even

though these pesticides are not very toxic to humans, to prevent

dust and spray inhalation, workers should wear respirators when

applying them. As with all chemicals, precaution should be taken

to minimize contact with the skin.

12

 Equipment Costs

Costs for construction materials, equipment, and

supplies will

vary widely locally. In addition

to the construction materials

already mentioned, basic office equipment and

shop tools are

needed.

III. PRODUCE

Careful thought and analysis should be given to the selection

of

crops to be grown. Consult hooks, current seed catalogues, and

food production and marketing specialists.

Plan your crops to make the most use of space. Plant root crops

next to
leafy crops, and short, leafy vegetables in the partial

shade of larger plants.

In a hydroponics enterprise, crops grown should be competitive

for their superior quality and local

origin. Although there may

be one crop in particular that can be produced with

superior

quality, planting a variety

of crops is recommended for the

following reasons:

o to avoid overloading the market;

o to protect the business from price fluctuations; and

o to achieve temperature control.

Information
on crops selected for production in a commercial

hydroponics greenhouse in
the United States is included here
as

an example. Reasons are given for selecting the particular crops,

as are a crop rotation chart (Figure 6), the planting and har­
vesting schedule (Figure 7), and the layout of the crops within

the greenhouse. Tble 2 gives crop income figures.

The greenhouse consists of six connected sections, each one 30

feet (9.1 m) wide

(for a total width of 180 feet--54.9 m) by 162

feet (49.3 m) long. Each growing bed is three feet (91 cm) wide

and 25 feet (7.6 m) long. The beds are laid out

in pairs, with

aisles between each pair. (See Figure 8).

There are three-foot,

four-inch (1 m) walkways between the six foot (1.8 m)

double

beds, and the greenhouse has a center aisle six feet (1.8
m)

wide.

Three crops- -tomatoes, iettuce, and mushrooms--are planted to­

gether in one bed, between August and March. Honeydew melons,

roses, and seedlings are also grown.

As in some other places with cold climates, off season production

of tomatoes
is a good choice, since most tomatoes are shipped

from a great distance and are picked when hard and green. Hydro­

13

 AUG.
JULY

Honeydew (2) Honeydew (3)

Honeydew (2)
Honeydew (3)

Lettuce (1)
Lettuce (1)

SEPT.
JUNE

Tomatoes (1) Honeydew (3)

Honeydew (2)
Honeydew (3)

Lettuce (1) Lettuce (1)

June 15

Honeydew (1)

OCT.
MAY

Tomatoes (1) Tomatoes (2)

Tomatoes (3)
Honeydew (1)

May 15

Lettuce (2) Lettuce (2)

Honeydew (2)

NOV.
APRIL

Tomatoes (1) Tomatoes (2)

Tomatoes (3)
Honeydew (1)

Lettuce (2) Lettuce (2)

Lettuce (4)

DEC.
MAR.
Tomatoes (1) Tomatoes (2)
Tomatoes (3)
Honeydew (1)

Lettuce (3) Lettuce (3)

Lettuce (4)
Lettuce (4)

JAN.
FEB.

Tomatoes (1) Tomatoes (2)

Tomatoes (3)
Tomatoes (2)

Lettuce (3) Lettuce (3)

Lettuce (4)
Lettuce (4)

Jan. 15
TRANSITION

Tomatoes (3) 1
Lettuce (5)

Figure 6:
Crop Rotation Chart

 -Planting
Harvesting
CROPS
MONTHS

Aug. Sept. Oct. Nov. Dec. jani. Feb. Mar. Apr. May Jun. July

TOMATOES -

LETTUCE

HONEYDEW -

ROSES

SEEDLINGS

MUSHROOMS

Figure 7: Planting and Harvesting

 NORTH

._

-__BEDS

GRAVEL

6" MAIN
PATHWAT

36

E IFLOOR PLAN OF BEDS

___2 HALF SECTIONS

Figure 8: Floor Plan of Beds

 ponically-grown tomatoes are reportedly tastier and juicier

than

other tomatoes. They can be planted closer together and therefore

yield more. In this greenhouse, tomatoes are planted in two

rows,

one and a half feet

(45 cm) apart. One half of the greenhouse
is

planted in tomatoes, three times a year. That is 8,640 plants

year.
At 16 pounds (7.3 kg) per plant, the yield is per

138,240

pounds (62,800 kg) per year.

Tomato seeds are sown directly into the gravel in the beds.

temperature for germination and growth

is 70-/5 degrees The

Fahren­
heit (20-25 Celsius) during the day, and 65
(17 Celsius)
in the

evening. Tomatoes are self-germinating, although some shaking

the plants may help the process. During the winter months of

fluore­
scent lights
are used over the beds whenever the sun
is not

shining, or at night, in order

to provide the light needed
fruit production. Each tomato plant is
staked, for maximum for

pro­
duction in minimum space.

Harvesting is done over a four- to

six-week period. During
the

period of from 80 to
130 days after planting, harvesting
is done

every other week. After the harvest period, the tomato plants
are

uprooted and new seed sown in the

same place.

In the hydroponics greenhouse,

a full crop of Boston-type
let­
tuce, which is popular and
has high market value, can
be pro­
duced every two months. Lettuce is planted in the same bed
with

tomatoes, increasing the yield per bed tremendously. There

problem with the spacing
of the plants when the amount is
no

of nu­
trients is very carefully measured and fed
to the beds.
consideration is that
the lettuce receive enough light. The only

Each

plant yields approximately

.5 pound for a total yield of
48,960

pounds (22,228 kg)

a year. Lettuce makes a good companion
tomatoes and honeydew melon because it needs less light to

therefore be grown easily between and below the other and can

crops.

However, lettuce does not

withstand
heat well, and cannot
be

grown during the summer months or

in a hot climate.

The lettuce is harvested every 60 days. Harvesting is easy--the

entire plant is pulled up. Although many pieces must be

within a very short
time
(two to three days), there is picked

little

danger of damage or loss. The beds

are immediately replanted.

Forty-five beds of lettuce

are sown per week, so that
a fresh

harvest of lettuce is ready for market every week.

Table 2. Crop Production and Yearly Income

Crop Per plant Per bed yr. Beds Total

Value

(US$)

Tomatoes 16 lbs.
32 plants 270 138,240 lbs. 45,619

17

 Lettuce 1/2 lb. 136 plants 720 48,960 lbs. 25,949

Seedlings (1) 300 trays

18 5,400 trays 9,450

Honeydew 10 pcs. 18 plants

270 48,600 pCs. 41,310

Mushrooms 3.5 lbs/ 138 sq.ft./ 432

208,656 lbs. 198,223

sq.ft. bed

Roses 2 pcs. 75 plants 36 5,400 pCs. 4,320

The production of honeydew melons in the greenhouse is profitable

due to the controlled conditions. It can be planted three

times a

year, instead of only one time outside. Honeydew was

because of its higher market value than either of the otherchosen

more

common melon varieties--cantaloupe and watermelon. As with

the

tomatoes, three successive plantings of

one-half the greenhouse

are made. The melons produce fruit approximately 90 days

after

planting the seed. Harvesting takes place over a two week period.

Each plant produces an average of 10 melons. At 18 plants

per

bed, there is a yield of 48,600 melons a year.

Melon seed is planted in March, directly into the growing

and the plants grow up trellises. Melons like temperatures beds,

of 75

degrees Fahrenheit (25 Centigrade), so the temperature is

raised

in the greenhouse by a few degrees during that month. Melons

are

harvested over a two-week period. They have

a predicted
date of 90 days, but they are not as
highly perishable asharvest

toma­
toes. The melons are sent to
market in two shipments, one
per

week.

The mushroom crop is

one of the most profitable crops produced
in

the sample greenhouse. The ushrooms are not grown hydroponically,

but rather in two layers underneath the growing beds,

making

maximum use of space. They need little or no

light. The
space

underneath every bed

in the greenhouse is divided into

two

shelves with a heavy wire mesh. Two crops are produced a year.

Two special machines--a choke feeder and a

compost turnepi--are

used to prepare the growing medium for the mushrooms.

The

machines are not very complicated and could probably be

manu­
factured locally in many areas. The compost used must not contain

any heavy metals since it is used for

food production, so
city

wastes cannot be used.

The compost is placed into the choke feeder, which in turn

pushes

it into the compost turner. The compost turner must be kept

and the turning activated every four to
five days for two moist

weeks.

After that, the trays can be filled. For one week they are

to "sweat out."
During this time the temperature of the left

compost

rises and the mushroom spawn can be planted.

18

Once the spawn has been planted, it is best to maintain a temper­

ature of approximately 70 degrees Fahrenheit (20 C) for three

weeks. After that, the trays should be covered with one inch (2.5

cm) of topsoil, the temperature in the greenhouse lowered a

few

degrees, and the trays watered well. Mushrooms are harvested on a

daily basis, beginning approximately one month later. From the

time the trays are filled, there is a two month growing period.

Harvesting lasts approximately 45 days. Mushrooms are planted in

August and December.

The compost and soil material left over from the mushroom produc­
tion is used for the production of seedlings. One whole section

of the greenhouse is devoted to seedlings, which are sold in the

spring on a retail basis. They are

a profitable product since

seeds are inexpensive, and the compost material is recycled.

Seedlings are grown with roses

in two 18-bed clusters. The seed­
lings occupy the area for a three-month period. During the other

nine months the area

is used for research and development of new

crops. The seedlings receive the same nutrient feeding as the

rest of the greenhouse, although they sit on top of the gravel in

hie beds.

The greenhouse produces seedlings of the most

common plants that

local gardeners tend to buy as plants rather than grow from seed

themselves. The main crop comes

from the tomato seed saved from

the production of tomatoes. Six growing beds are used for the

tomato seedlings, two for sweet peppers, one

for hot peppers, two

for broccoli, two cauliflower, two cabbage, one for melons, one

marigold, and one

for various types of squash and flowers.

Long-stem roses are grown in nine beds holding 75

bushes each.

Seven beds are for red roses, one is for yellow, and one pink.

This works out to 80 percent red, 10 percent yellow, and 10

percent pink. Each bush produces two roses four times a year, for

a total yield of 5,400 roses.

Half the roses are

planted in October, and the three-month pro­
duction schedule produces roses at the
holidays of Christmas

(December), Easter (March or April), July 4th, and again in

October. The second planting is made in November, producing

flowers for Valentine's Day (February 14), Mother's Day (May),

and the end of August. The blooming can be accurately controlled

by pruning and pinching at the right times. The rose bushes need

to be replaced every five years. They need eight hours of light a

day to produce flowers, so in the winter, fluorescent lights are

used throughout the day.

In addition to
roses, the greenhouse is experimenting with other

flowers. Carnations root easily, produce heavily, and the flowers

last a lcng time. They grow three feet high, and like a lot of

light. The lily can be a hardy perennial if it is grown from

19

bulbs or tubers. It also likes a lot of sunlight. It requires at

least two years to produce flowers. Snapdragons are also being

tested, and orchids are a long-term project, taking from three to

seven years to bloom. Orchid production is expected to be very

profitable, for both plants and blossoms. The terrestrial variety

loves an airy growing medium, and does well in inert growing

materials.

Local research and development efforts are needed to determine

the types of crops and products that can be successfully grown

and marketed, and the composition and sources for the nutrient

solutions to support them.

IV. MARKETING

Marketing is obviously a very important question for a hydropon­

ics enterprise. There must be local demand for a product, or good

transportation service to get the produce to distant customers.

Marketing of perishable produce must be done with a minimum of

delay.

Production of off-season crops is likely to find ready local

markets, when field-grown produce transported from distant places

is expensive.

Hydroponic vegetables are labelled when they are packed for

retail sales to identify them as hydroponically-grown, vine­

ripened produce. This has been a major marketing factor in sell­
ing the produce, where hydroponically-grown produce has become

known and is popular with buyers for its excellent flavor, good

color, and perfect shape.

The local market potential should be thoroughly examined before

undertaking a business venture. Do most of the local businesses

buy their produce from wholesalers? Is there an interest in high

quality, off-season produce, or special items? Are there hotels

or specialty restaurants that might be interested in contracting

for specific crops? Businesses may be interested in bypassing the

wholesalers for a higher quality product. The hydroponics green­

house may consider selling produce to wholesalers at the green­
house, avoiding transportation costs. The enterprise may start

out in the wholesale market and move into the retail market as

the business grows.

There may be seasonal markets which can be served by the hydropo­

nics greenhouse enterprise, such as flowers for holidays or

seedlings in the Spring. In this case advertising on local radio

and in area newspapers should be considered.

Advertising at the greenhouse should include an informational

brochure to show the advantages and superior products of hydropo­

20

 nics. The brochure can also be placed at information centers and

major tourist areas within 100 miles

(60 km) of the greenhouse.

Advertisements on local radio or in

local newspapers help to

inform the public

about the operation of a hydroponics green­
house. Printed advertisements have the added advantage of showing

the public the name and logo of the company.

If possible, the packaging for the produce should bear the

com­
pany's logo. Depending on what crops are selected,
it may be

possible to use one

size of box for all the produce that has to

be shipped.

V. ORGANIZATION

A medium- to large-scale hydroponics enterprise

needs staff in

each of the areas described belowg. A smaller operation would need

to consider these work areas and assign one

or more persons as

appropriate.

o M
anager--responsible for purt
asing, public relations, sales,

and personnel;

o Supervisor--with training in horticulture, responsible for

disease and parasite control,

crop selection and scheduling,

maintaining the nutrient supply and the

-rowing environment,

and for research and development;

0 Maintenance--responsible for maintenance and repair of the

nutrient system, growing beds, and environmental systems;

0 Secretary--responsible for maintaining records, personnel

files, correspondence, and acting as receptionist;

o
Laborer--maintaining the plants and
growing beds, harvesting,

packing, and storing the crops.

o
Bookkeeping or accounting services may also be needed.

VI. SUPPLIERS AND MANUFACTURERS

Johnny's Selected Seeds

299 Foss Hill Road

Albion, Maine 04910

Stokes Seeds -- tomatoes

Box 548

Buffalo, New York 14240

Willhite Seed Company -- cantaloupe and melon seeds

P.O. Box 23

Poolville, Texas 76076

21

Hydroponic and Greenhouse Supplies, Division of E.R.I., Inc.

6433 Sepulveda Blvd.

Van Nuys, California 94101

Hydroponic Industries, Inc.

5650 S. Syracuse Circle

Englewood, Colorado 80110

22

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Dale, E. Management: Theory and Practice. New York:

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DeKorne, J. Survival Greenhouse. PeacePress, 1975

Dickerman, Alexandra and John Discovering Hydroponic Gardening.

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Douglas, J.S. Advanced Guide to Hydroponics. New York: Drake

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1966.

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Small Plastic Greenhouses. Berkeley: University of

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Rodale, R., ed. Organic Gardening Encyclopedia. Emmaus, PA.:

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23

Stokes Seed Company Catalogue, Buffalo, New York, 1981.

Turner, W.I.
and Henry, V.M. Growing Plants in Nutrient Solu­
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24