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1 Logic
1 Logic
What is logic: The science of correct reasoning. Logic is fundamental both to critical
thinking and problem solving.
Deductive versus Inductive reasoning: The type of logic, which is known as deductive
reasoning is the application of a general statement to a specific instance.
Example of deductive reasoning: To solve any quadratic equation like x 2 2x 1 0 ,
b b 2 4ac
one can use the general formula x for the equation ax 2 bx c 0.
2a
On the other hand, in inductive reasoning conclusions may be probable but not
guaranteed.
Example of inductive reasoning: The probable answer of next term of the sequence 1, 8,
15, 22, 29 could be 36. But it is not guaranteed. One may answer that the next number in
the sequence is 5, if he/she thinks the numbers are coming from Mondays in August
2005. Then next Monday is on September 5. We can only use inductive reasoning and
give one or more possible answers.
Saying that an argument is valid does not mean that the conclusion is true: We
verify the situation by an example. Consider two premises 1. All doctors are men, 2. My
mother is a doctor. Then the valid argument “My mother is a man” is not a true
conclusion.
Saying that an argument is invalid does not mean that the conclusion is false. We
verify the situation also by an example. Consider two premises 1. All professional
wrestlers are actors, 2. The Rock is an actor. Then the invalid argument “the Rock is a
professional wrestler”, may not be false. We will verify valid and invalid arguments and
conclusions with Venn diagram.
Dr. Firoz 1
Mat 142 Chapter 1 Logic Last updated on February 1, 2010
Venn diagram and invalid arguments: To show that an argument is invalid you must
construct a Venn diagram in which the premises are met yet the conclusion does not
necessarily follow.
Example 1. Construct a Venn diagram to determine the validity of the given argument.
No snake is warm-blooded
All mammals are warm-blooded
Therefore, snakes are not mammals
Solution: Suppose x represents snakes.
The position of x in the diagram is unique and shows that the Snakes mammals
argument is valid. x Worm-blooded
Example 2. Construct a Venn diagram to determine the validity of the given argument.
All professional wrestlers are actors
The Rock is an actor
Therefore, the Rock is a professional wrestler
Solution: Suppose x represents Rock. Then the different position of x in the diagram
shows that the argument is invalid.
Here the argument is invalid. But the conclusion could be true. This example
demonstrates that an invalid argument can have a true conclusion even though The Rock
is a professional wrestler, the argument used obtain the conclusion is invalid.
Exercise 3. a) Construct a Venn diagram and verify that the following argument is
invalid.
1. (Major premise) Some plants are poisonous
2. (Minor premise) Broccoli is a plant
Therefore (conclusion) Broccoli is poisonous.
Dr. Firoz 2
Mat 142 Chapter 1 Logic Last updated on February 1, 2010
Symbols for logic: By tradition symbolic logic uses lowercase letters as labels for
statements. The most frequently used letters are p, q, r, s, and t.
Negations: The negation of a statement is the denial of the statement and is represented
by the symbol ~. For example, given the statement p: it is snowing, the negation is ~p: it
is not snowing.
Negations of statements containing qualifiers. The words some, all, no (or none) are
referred to as qualifiers. The negation of “all p are q would be some p are not q” and the
negation of “some p are q would be no p are q”.
One may remember the following diagram.
Dr. Firoz 3
Mat 142 Chapter 1 Logic Last updated on February 1, 2010
Only if: Only if is the conclusion of the conditional. The symbol p q can be read as “ p
only if q”.
Converse: The converse of the conditional “if p then q” is “if q then p”. Symbolically
converse of p q is q p.
Inverse: The inverse of the conditional “if p then q” is “if not p then not q”. Symbolically
inverse of p q is ~p ~q.
Contrapositive: The contrapositive of the conditional “if p then q” is “if not q then not
p”. Symbolically inverse of p q is ~q ~p.
Truth Value and Truth Table: The truth value of a statement (or proposition) is either
true (T) ore false (F). The truth table of a statement is the classification of the statement
as true or false and is denoted by T or F. A convenient way of determining whether a
compound statement is true or false is to construct a truth table.
Dr. Firoz 4
Mat 142 Chapter 1 Logic Last updated on February 1, 2010
We consider the following example where truth table is a useful tool to find the solution.
Example 6. Under what specific condition(s) is the following compound statement true?
“I have a high school diploma, or I have a full time job and no high school diploma.”
The symbolic form of the compound sentence “I have a high school diploma, or I have a
full time job and no high school diploma” is p q p
We will make a truth table to find when it is true:
p q p q p p q p
T T T F F
T F T F F
F T T T T
F F F T F
Conclusion: The statement “I have a high school diploma, or I have a full time job and no
high school diploma” is true when statement “I have a high school diploma” is false and
the statement “I have a full time job” is true.
T TTT
T F TTF
T TFT
T F F TFF
T FTT
F T F FTF
T FFT
F
F FFF
Step 2. Last column in tree diagram contains the entries for column p, q, and r of the truth
table. We need 8 rows and 6 columns in the truth table.
Dr. Firoz 5
Mat 142 Chapter 1 Logic Last updated on February 1, 2010
p q r ~r p q (p q) ~ r
T T T F T F
T T F T T T
T F T F F T
T F F T F T
F T T F F T
F T F T F T
F F T F F T
F F F T F T
Step 3. Find negation for r
Step 4. Remember that p q is true (T) if both p and q true (T)
Step 5. Remember that (p q) ~ r is false (F) if (p q) is true (T) but ~ r is false
(F).
Question 1. Construct a dictionary and a truth table to determine if the following
statements are logically equivalent
i) It is Friday and I receive a paycheck
ii) It is not Friday and I do not receive a paycheck
Question 2. Write in sentence form what is the converse, inverse and contrapositive of
the statement “If I receive a paycheck, then it is Friday.”
Question 3. What is a Tautology? If a statement is a tautology, what can you say about
the statement?
Question 4. Define the necessary symbols and rewrite the following arguments in
symbolic form:
1. If the defendant is innocent, the defendant does not go to jail
2. The defendant does not go to jail
Therefore the defendant is innocent
Question 7. Use De Morgan‟s law to find the negation of each of the following:
a) It is Friday and I receive a paycheck
b) You are correct or I am crazy
c) The streets are wet or it is not raining
d) I have a college degree and I am not employed
e) It is snowing and classes are cancelled
f) Maria is a doctor a Republican
Dr. Firoz 6
Mat 142 Chapter 1 Logic Last updated on February 1, 2010
7. Fill in the blank with what is most likely to be the next two numbers, explain your
reasoning\
Dr. Firoz 7
Mat 142 Chapter 1 Logic Last updated on February 1, 2010
10. Using symbolic representation choose the best way to express each compound
statement in symbolic form:
(a) If the person plays the guitar or rides a motorcycle, then the person wears a
leather jacket.
(b) A person wears the leather jacket and does not play the guitar or ride a
motorcycle.
GOOD LUCK
Dr. Firoz 8
Mat 142 Chapter 1 Logic Last updated on February 1, 2010
Dr. Firoz 9