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Tonutraj 4 3 PDF
Tonutraj 4 3 PDF
Open Access
Charu Verma1, Surabhi Nanda2, R.K. Singh3, R.B. Singh4 and Sanjay Mishra1,2,*
1
Department of Biotechnology & Microbiology, Institute of Foreign Trade & Management, Lodhipur Rajput, Delhi
Road, Moradabad 244001, U.P., India
2
Department of Biotechnology, College of Engineering & Technology, IFTM Campus, Lodhipur Rajput, Delhi Road,
Moradabad 244001, U.P., India
3
Kumaon Engineering College, Dwarhut, Uttarakhand Technical University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand, India
4
Halberg Hospital & Research Center, Civil Lines, Moradabad 244 001, U.P., India
Abstract: Biotechnology offers a variety of potential benefits and risks. It has enhanced food production by making
plants less vulnerable to drought, frost, insects, and viruses and by enabling plants to compete more effectively against
weeds for soil nutrients. In a few cases, it has also improved the quality and nutrition of foods by altering their
composition. However, the use of biotechnology has also raised concerns about its potential risks to the environment
and people. For example, some people fear that common plant pests could develop resistance to the introduced pesticides
in GM crops that were supposed to combat them. Genetic engineering provides a means to introduce genes into plants via
mechanisms that are different in some respects from classical breeding. A number of commercialized, genetically
engineered (GE) varieties, most notably canola, cotton, maize and soybean, were created using this technology, and
at present the traits introduced are herbicide and/or pest tolerance. Gene technology enables the increase of production
in plants, as well as the rise of resistance to pests, viruses, frost, etc. Gene transfer is used to modify the physical
and chemical composition and nutritional value of food. Gene transfer in animals will play a part in boundless possibilities
of improving qualitative and quantitative traits. The yield, carcass composition and meat characteristics the use
of nutritive substances ? not sure what is being said here?, and resistance to diseases can be improved. On the other
hand, negative effects of gene technology on animals, human, and environment should be considered. The present review
article is the compilation of various studies that present both positive and negative impacts of genetically modified food on
human health.
Keywords: Bacillus thuringiensis, genetically modified food, Gene Technology, Human Health, Pharmaceutical Drugs,
transgenic plants.
animal is called a transgene. It is integrated into the genome • Herbicide tolerance: Crop plants genetically-engineered
of the recipients which are called transgenic. The transgenes to be resistant to one very powerful herbicide could help to
are genes with known traits or mutated variants of known prevent environmental damage by reducing the amount
genes. In most cases also marker genes are used because of of herbicides needed. For example, Monsanto has created
identification of transgenic organism. The integration of a strain of soybeans genetically modified to be not affected
transgene into the cell is carried out by different methods: (a) by their herbicide product Roundup. A 2010 study has
Transduction with the use of bacteriophages (b) Transgene found that long-term exposition to environmental relevant
injection using pronuclear microinjection [7]; (c) Transfer concentrations of a Roundup formulation causes metabolic
using modified viruses and plasmids (d) Electroporation disruption in Leporinus obtusidens [11]. A farmer grows
method by which higher permeability of cell membrane is these soybeans which then only require one application
achieved. of weed-killer instead of multiple applications, reducing
production cost and limiting the dangers of agricultural
For transfer of foreign gene also artificial chromosomes
waste run-off [12].
or fragments of chromosomes can be used. Transgenes can
be transferred into the egg-cell by spermatozoa containing • Disease resistance: There are many viruses, fungi and
fragments of chromosomes [6]. Developed world, having bacteria that cause plant diseases. Plant biologists are work-
material and intellectual capacities, leads the studies on ing to create plants with genetically-engineered resistance to
transgenic technology for production increase and improved these diseases [13,14].
food quality. In fact, there is not only enough but even too
• Cold tolerance: An antifreeze gene from cold water fish
much food in the developed world. However, developing
has been introduced into plants such as tobacco and potato.
countries that need this technology to exceed the food
With this antifreeze gene, these plants are able to tolerate
shortage cannot afford it [8]. Hence, gene technology is not a
cold temperatures that normally would kill unmodified
remedy to prevent the world from starvation. Transgenic seedlings [15].
seeds that developed countries can provide to developing
countries to diminish the rate of malnutrition seems to be the • Drought tolerance/salinity tolerance: As the world
best idea of genetic engineering. Transgenic plants that are population grows and more land is utilized for housing
resistant to pests will cause higher resistance in pests; instead of food production, farmers will need to grow crops
consequently stronger herbicides and insecticides should be in locations previously unsuited for plant cultivation.
used in the future. Finally, it has been proposed that Creating plants that can withstand long periods of drought or
transgenic food can cause certain allergies. high salt content in soil and groundwater will help people to
grow crops in formerly inhospitable places [16,17].
GM FOODS ARE PROMOTED WHY?
• Nutrition: Malnutrition is common in third world
The term GM foods or GMOs (genetically-modified countries where impoverished peoples rely on a single crop
organisms) is most commonly used to refer to crop plants such as rice for the main staple of their diet. However, rice
created for human or animal consumption using the latest does not contain adequate amounts of all necessary nutrients
molecular biology techniques. These plants have been to prevent malnutrition. If rice could be genetically engineered
modified in the laboratory to enhance desired traits such as to contain additional vitamins and minerals, nutrient
increased resistance to herbicides or improved nutritional deficiencies could be alleviated. For example, blindness due
content. Genetic engineering can create plants with the exact to vitamin A deficiency is a common problem in third world
desired trait very rapidly and with great accuracy. For countries. Researchers at the Swiss Federal Institute of
example, plant geneticists can isolate a gene responsible for Technology Institute for Plant Sciences have created a strain
drought tolerance and insert that gene into a different plant. of "golden" rice containing an unusually high content of
The new genetically-modified plant will gain drought beta-carotene (vitamin A) [18]. Plans were underway to
tolerance as well. Not only can genes be transferred from one develop golden rice that also has increased iron content.
plant to another, but genes from non-plant organisms
also can be used. The best known example of this is the • Pharmaceuticals Medicines and vaccines often are
use of B.t. genes in corn and other crops. B.t., or Bacillus costly to produce and sometimes require special storage
thuringiensis, is a naturally occurring bacterium that conditions. Researchers are working to develop edible
produces crystal proteins that are lethal to insect larvae. B.t. vaccines in tomatoes and potatoes [19, 20]. These vaccines
Crystal protein genes have been transferred into corn, will be much easier to ship, store and administer than
enabling the corn to produce its own pesticides against traditional injectable vaccines.
insects. • Phytoremediation: Plants such as poplar trees have been
ADVANTAGES OF GM FOODS genetically engineered to clean up heavy metal pollution
from contaminated soil [21].
• Pest resistance: Farmers typically use many tons of
chemical pesticides annually. Consumers do not wish to SOME CRITICISMS AGAINST GM FOODS
eat food that has been treated with pesticides because of
GM foods fall into three categories: environmental
potential health hazards, and run-off of agricultural wastes
hazards, human health risks, and economic concerns.
from excessive use of pesticides and fertilizers can poison
the water supply and cause harm to the environment. Environmental Hazards
Growing GM foods such as B.t. corn can help to eliminate
the application of chemical pesticides and reduce the cost of • Unintended harm to other organisms: pollen from B.t.
bringing a crop to market [9, 10]. corn caused high mortality rates in monarch butterfly
Genetically Modified Food Versus Human Health The Open Nutraceuticals Journal, 2011, Volume 4 5
caterpillars. Monarch caterpillars consume milkweed Gene technology enables higher yields in plants,
plants, not corn, but the fear is that if pollen from B.t. resistance to pests and frost, as well as mechanical properties
corn is blown by the wind onto milkweed plants in of fruits, etc. We can also modify physical and chemical
neighboring fields, the caterpillars could eat the pollen composition in order to improve nutritional and physiologi-
and perish. B.t. toxins kill many species of insect larvae. cal value of foods. Transgenic plants also enable production
of more healthy food (more unsaturated fatty acids, transfer
• Reduced effectiveness of pesticides just as some
of proteins from legumes into wheat, increased content of
populations of mosquitoes developed resistance to the
essential amino acids, transfer of proteins from sunflowers
now-banned pesticide DDT; many people are concerned
into maize, etc.). Thus, dangers of heart diseases, allergies
that insects will become resistant to B.t. or other crops
are diminished and malignancy prevented [27].
that have been genetically modified to produce their own
pesticides. GENETICALLY MODIFIED CROPS
• Gene transfer to non-target species is another concern BT COTTON
that crop plants engineered for herbicide tolerance and
weeds will cross-breed, resulting in the transfer of the Cotton is an important fibre crop of India being
herbicide resistance genes from the crops into the weeds. cultivated over an area of about 9.5 million hectares (mha)
These "superweeds" would then be herbicide tolerant as representing approximately one quarter of the global area of
well. 35 million hectares under this crop. After China, India is the
largest producer and consumer of cotton. Much of this
Human Health Risks success owes itself to the introduction of Bt cotton in 2002
• Allergenicity Many children in the US and Europe have prior to which cotton production suffered huge losses due
developed life-threatening allergies to peanuts and other to its susceptibility to insect pests. Among the insects,
foods. There is a possibility that introducing a gene into a cotton bollworms are the most serious pests of cotton in
plant may create a new allergen or cause an allergic India causing annual losses of at least US$300 million.
reaction in susceptible individuals. A proposal to Insecticides valued at US$660 million are used annually on
incorporate a gene from Brazil nuts into soybeans was all crops in India, of which about half are used on cotton
abandoned because of the fear of causing unexpected alone [28, 29]. Bt or Bacillus thuringiensis is a ubiquitous
allergic reactions [22]. soil bacterium first discovered in 1901 by Ishiwata, a
Japanese microbiologist [30]. Later it was found that some
• Unknown effects on human health: A recent article Bt strains (Cry+) were highly toxic to larvae of certain insect
published in Lancet examined the effects of GM potatoes species which are also plant pests. Bt was first sold as a
on the digestive tract in rats [23, 24]. Moreover, the gene spray formulation in 1938 in France for the management of
introduced into the potatoes was a snowdrop flower European corn borer. Subsequent research has revealed that
lectin, a substance known to be toxic to mammals. Bt carries proteinaceous crystals that cause mortality in those
Economic Concerns insects which carry receptor proteins in gut membranes that
bind to Bt proteins. Other organisms that do not contain
Bringing a GM food to market is a lengthy and costly receptors to Bt proteins are not affected by the toxin.
process. Yet consumer advocates are worried that patenting
The advent of genetic transformation technology made it
these new plant varieties will raise the price of seeds so high
possible to incorporate cry genes and thus the ability to
that small farmers and third world countries will not be able
produce Bt proteins in plant cells so that target insect larvae
to afford seeds for GM crops, Patent enforcement may also
infesting the crop plants are effectively killed. The first Bt
be difficult, as the contention of the farmers that they
involuntarily grew Monsanto-engineered strains. One way to crops viz., Bt cotton, Bt corn and Bt potato were
commercialized in USA in 1996. Bt crops are currently
combat possible patent infringement is to introduce a
cultivated in 23 countries over an area of 46 mha [31]. The
"suicide gene" into GM plants. These plants would be viable
advent of genetic transformation technology made it possible
for only one growing season and would produce sterile seeds
to incorporate cry genes and thus the ability to produce Bt
that do not germinate. Farmers would need to buy a fresh
proteins in plant cells so that target insect larvae infesting the
supply of seeds each year. However, this would be
financially disastrous for farmers [25]. crop plants are effectively killed. The first Bt crops viz., Bt
cotton, Bt corn and Bt potato were commercialized in USA
APPLICATION OF TRANSGENIC PLANTS IN in 1996. Bt crops are currently cultivated in 23 countries
HUMAN NUTRITION over an area of 46 mha [31]. It is also recognized that GM
technology may entail rare unintended risks and hazards to
Genetically modified foods are classified into three
environment, and human and animal health. These risks
categories according to their usage and legal regulations
include toxicity and allergenicity, emergence of new viruses,
[26]. development of antibiotic resistance in microorganisms,
1. Food is genetically modified (potato, tomato, soya, adverse effects on non-target organisms, erosion of crop
maize, sunflowers, rice, pumpkins, melons, rape, etc.) diversity, and development of new weeds [32]. Bt cotton is
in many ways an ideal candidate for introduction as a
2. Food contains components of genetically modified plants
transgenic commercial crop. It is basically grown as a fibre
(starch, oil, sugar, aminoacids, vitamins, etc.)
crop, while cotton seed oil used for consumption is free of
3. Food contains genetically modified organisms (yoghurt proteins, including Bt protein. The safety of Bt toxins in
contains transgenic microorganisms). terms of toxicity and allergenicity towards mammals and
6 The Open Nutraceuticals Journal, 2011, Volume 4 Verma et al.
other non-target organisms is well documented [33, 34]. they can donate this rice to farmers in developing countries
Lack of receptors that bind to Bt toxins and their instant [43, 44].
degradation in human digestive system makes them
innocuous to human beings. Community exposure to Bt POTATOES
spray formulations over a period of last six decades has not Many poor countries can’t afford vaccines or can’t get
resulted in any adverse effects. Lack of homology to any them to remote villages. Clinics often can’t refrigerate the
allergenic protein/ epitope sequences makes Bt toxins non- vaccines or sterilize needles. These problems make safe-
allergenic. The safety of Bt crop-derived foods has also been guarding millions of children extremely difficult. In addition,
well established [35, 36]. In recent years, the effects of Bt most vaccines are made from the infectious organism that
crop cultivation on non-target organisms including insect causes the disease. Every once in a while such vaccine can
predators, parasitoids and pathogens have been investigated cause harmful side effects, even the disease they are
quite extensively [25, 37-42]. supposed to prevent. In 1991 the World Health Organization
GOLDEN RICE challenged scientists to create a simpler, safer, cheaper way
to vaccinate children. Some scientists began to brainstorm
The bright orange color of carrots comes from beta- about plants. Since plants naturally make a number of
carotene, which forms vitamin A in our bodies. Yet 250 different compounds, they could be reprogrammed to make
million people suffer from vitamin A deficiency. Each year a edible vaccines [43].
half million children become blind from lack of vitamin A
Researchers tried making a cholera vaccine using plants.
and over half of these die within months. Ideally, everyone
Cholera is a bacterial disease that causes deadly diarrhea. It
would have a varied diet with lots of produce that supplied
spreads rapidly where people don’t have clean water and it
ample vitamin A and other nutrients. Better nutrition could
kills two to three million children each year. Researchers
prevent up to two million deaths in children under the age of
pinpointed part of the cholera bacterium that the human
four each year. But that requires more prosperity for much of
immune system can recognize, so it could be used as a
the world – something that’s a long way off. Nearly half the
vaccine. Scientists found the genes that make that bacterial
world’s population survives on a daily bowl of white rice,
part. After some trial and error, they put those genes into
which contains no vitamin A. Making rice more nutritious,
potatoes to turn potatoes into a handy vaccine. Potatoes grow
could improve people’s lives tremendously [43].
in many areas of great health need, and they can withstand
A team of researchers decided to try creating rice that long shipping and storage. But there is a snag. People don’t
contains beta-carotene (the compound we convert to vitamin eat raw potatoes. So scientists cooked them and found that
A). They were inspired by the bright yellow daffodil. How some of the vaccine still survives. When people ate these
did it produce beta-carotene? They found that several cooked potatoes, their bodies made some of the antibodies
daffodil enzymes manufacture beta-carotene from other that can protect them from cholera [44]. Imagine getting
molecules. Rice has those other molecules, but it doesn’t your vaccines and boosters from potatoes or some other food
produce the enzymes to rearrange them into beta-carotene in instead of painful shots! But that’s still a ways off. With the
its kernel. Could they give rice the genes for those enzymes cholera vaccine, researchers need to adjust the dose in each
and get them to work together? Previous researchers had bite and find ways to package them. Of course, people will
inserted several genes that worked individually to make get their vaccine bits from nurses and clinics, not from the
separate products. No one had successfully inserted a group supermarket. Ideally, edible vaccines wouldn’t spoil, which
of genes that had to work in sync to make one product. They would cut the cost and difficulty of delivering them in the
tried putting the genes in a gene gun and shooting them into developing world. They’d be more pleasant, too.
rice cells. That didn’t work, so they put two genes in one In industrialized countries, most people don’t suffer from
Agrobacterium and another gene in another Agrobacterium. too little food. They suffer from too much. Obesity is a
Both bacteria “infected” the rice cells, inserted the new major health problem even for children. We all know that we
genes, and soon the lab grew rice plants carrying all three should avoid greasy French fries and sugary sodas, but it’s
genes. It was easy to see that the genes worked because hard! If we can’t take the junk food away from people,
of the kernels’ golden glow. A bowl of this “golden rice” maybe we can take the “junk” out of food – but keep the
provides enough vitamin A to keep a person healthy. taste in. Again, scientists are looking at the potato. When it’s
Meanwhile, researchers are working on a related nutritional fried, oil replaces the water in the potato. But the starchier
problem. White rice also contains very little useable iron, the potato, the less oil it soaks up. Restaurants pay a
and without iron, children don’t grow or learn well. Iron premium price for high starch potatoes because they make
deficiency causes 40 million mothers to have premature and crisper, less greasy fries. Scientists are trying to develop
low weight babies. Many of these mothers and babies die of potatoes with even more starch so they will soak up even
anemia. The solution also involves several genes from less oil. Another way to make a healthier fry is to make
several sources: a fungus, another kind of rice, and a green healthier oil. Scientists have already modified plants like
bean. These genes produce proteins in the rice kernel that soybean and canola to produce a less saturated, healthier fat.
help the human body absorb and store iron. Again, they are Future plants may make even healthier oils that actually strip
using Agrobacterium to get the genes into rice. Someday, away fatty deposits from your arteries. What about that soda
researchers may crossbreed the rice plant that makes beta- with your fries? Scientists are working on that, too. They are
carotene with one that makes iron to produce a hybrid that modifying the sugar beet to produce an enzyme that changes
makes both essential nutrients. The research team worked ten sugar (sucrose) to fructan. Fructan tastes like sugar, but we
years on golden rice. They are working out legal issues so don’t digest fructan so it adds no calories. They have also
Genetically Modified Food Versus Human Health The Open Nutraceuticals Journal, 2011, Volume 4 7
cloned the gene for a protein in an African plant that tastes a transgenes and in most cases without any harm to transgenic
thousand times sweeter than sugar! We could get the same animals. Proteins that are used in pharmaceutical industry
sweetness with a thousand times less sweetener [43, 44]. were obtained from milk of transgenic animals, like human
antitrypsin in sheep, plasminogene activator in goat and
BT BRINJAL human protein C in pig.
The Genetic Engineering Approval Committee’s Transgenic milk can be used as: (a) Food for wide use;(b)
approval of Bt brinjal, the first genetically modified crop for raw materials for milk products; (c) food for infants;(d)
human consumption in India, has sparked off protests across source of biologically active substances for pharmaceutical
the country. On October 15, 2009, the Genetic Engineering industry [50, 51].
Approval Committee (GEAC) of the ministry of environ-
ment, the regulatory body for approving genetically modified Even non-protein compounds of human milk, like
crops (GM crops) in India, approved Bt brinjal, the first GM oligosaccharides, are highly appreciated in milk of
crop for human consumption in India, for commercial use transgenic animals. Mammary gland produces milk proteins
[45, 46]. The approval came following the review of reports and lactose under the influence of hormones during late
submitted by the Maharashstra Hybrid Seeds Company pregnancy and lactation period. Caseins and lactoglobulines
Limited (Mahyco), the Indian subsidiary of the US-based are synthesized only during lactation period. Genes from
company Monsanto, that uses biotechnology to produce high mentioned compounds are used for transgenic milk produc-
yielding, pest resistant crops. Bt Brinjal is a genetically tion that is used for cheese production and for substitute to
modified plant in which a gene from the soil bacterium human milk for infant nutrition [50] reported on wide use of
bacillus thuringensis is inserted into the genome of the brinjal, bovine growth hormone (somatotropin) in cattle to increase
which can then produce a protein, Cry1Ac. This protein production of milk and meat [53]. The bovine growth
behaves as a toxin against the shoot and fruit borer (SFB), a hormone gene had implied as the prediction of the
pest that commonly affects brinjal. The gene modification possibilities of production of ideal pork with ultra low fat
also includes the addition of two antibiotic resistance marker content and favorable fatty acids composition with trans-
genes. genic pigs took place.
GENETICALLYY MODIFIED ANIMALS AND HEALTH RISK OF GENETICALLY MODIFIED
HUMAN NUTRITION ORGANISMS
Important advancement in production and processing of "Several animal studies indicate serious health risks
transgenic plants has encouraged studies in animals [47]. associated with GM food," including infertility, immune
Like in plants, microinjection and similar techniques are problems, accelerated aging, insulin regulation, and changes
used to inject foreign gene (DNA) into the nucleus of in major organs and the gastrointestinal system.
fertilized egg-cell in animals. When egg is developed to GMOS ARE INHERENTLY UNSAFE
blastula it is transferred to the uterus of an animal where
transgenic organism develops. Genetic linkage maps for There are several reasons why GM plants present unique
cattle, pigs and sheep elucidating chromosomal regions for dangers. The first is that the process of genetic engineering
economically important traits will considerably contribute to itself creates unpredicted alterations, irrespective of which
better quality and amounts of meat [48]. Gene technology is gene is transferred. This creates mutations in and around the
prosperous in farm animal production and in improvement of insertion site and elsewhere [54]. The biotech industry
quality and quantity traits [26, 49, 50]. Gene technology confidently asserted that gene transfer from GM foods was
stimulates the yields, higher nutrient consumption, and not possible; the only human feeding study on GM foods
animal welfare. These traits can be improved directly by later proved that it does take place. The genetic material in
gene transfer or using growth hormones, vaccines, anti- soybeans that make them herbicide tolerant transferred into
bodies, immunity stimulants and anti-allergy DNA produced the DNA of human gut bacteria and continued to function
by genetic engineering. Gene transfer is expected to improve [55]. That means that long after we stop eating a GM crop,
those production traits in animals that are poorly inherited its foreign GM proteins may be produced inside our
(low heritability rate, h2), for example number of weaned intestines.
piglets per sow [51] reported that transgenic plants that
GM DIET SHOWS TOXIC REACTIONS IN THE
produced vaccines, which animals consumed with forage, DIGESTIVE TRACT
were produced. The gene for resistance enables breeding of
animals resistant to diseases. Vaccine for immune castration The very first crop submitted to the FDA’s (Food & Drug
of animals, which is painless in male animals and diminishes Administration) voluntary consultation process, the
aggressiveness while female animals are free of negative FlavrSavr tomato, showed evidence of toxins. Out of 20
effects of oestrus, positively affects the economically impor- female rats fed the GM tomato, 7 developed stomach lesions
tant trait carcass composition [52]. The possibilities of bio- [56]. The type of stomach lesions linked to tomatoes could
technological interventions are numerous but the application lead to life-endangering hemorrhage, particularly in the
depends on economic, social and cultural conditions. elderly who use aspirin to prevent blood clots [57]. Dr.
Transgenic technique can improve the carcass traits and meat Pusztai believes that the digestive tract, which is the first and
quality. The percentage of meat in carcass increases; taste largest point of contact with foods, can reveal various
and water binding improve, diminish the percentage of fat reactions to toxins and should be the first target of GM food
and improve the fatty acid composition of meat (more non- risk assessment. Mice fed potatoes engineered to produce the
saturated fatty acids [53]. Milk has been modified with Bt-toxin developed abnormal and damaged cells, as well as
8 The Open Nutraceuticals Journal, 2011, Volume 4 Verma et al.
proliferative cell growth in the lower part of their small forestry. The plant produced version is designed to be more
intestine (ileum) [58]. Rats fed potatoes engineered to toxic than natural varieties [67]. Just like the GM soy
produce a different type of insecticide (GNA lectin from the protein, the Bt protein in GM corn varieties has a section of
snowdrop plant) also showed proliferative cell growth in its amino acid sequence identical to a known allergen (egg
both stomach and intestinal walls. yolk), the protein is too resistant to break down during
digestion and heat. If Bt—toxin causes allergies, then gene
GM DIETS CAUSE LIVER DAMAGE transfer carries serious ramifications. If Bt genes relocate to
Rats fed the GNA lectin potatoes had smaller and human gut bacteria, our intestinal flora may be converted
partially atrophied livers [59] Rats fed Monsanto’s Mon 863 into living pesticide factories, possibly producing Bt-toxin
corn, engineered to produce Bt-toxin, had liver lesions and inside of us year after year.
other indications of toxicity [60]. Rabbits fed GM soy
SAFETY ASPECTS OF GMO FOOD
showed altered enzyme production in their livers as well as
higher metabolic activity [61]. Rats fed Roundup Ready It has been well discussed whether the consumption of
soybeans also showed structural changes in their liver [44]. DNA in approved novel foods and novel foods ingredients
can be regarded as safe as consumption of DNA in existing
GM FEED ANIMALS HAD HIGHER DEATH RATES form [68]. All DNA, including DNA from GMOs are
AND ORGAN DAMAGE
composed of the same 4 nucleotides. Genetic modification
The cells in the pancreas of mice fed Roundup Ready soy results in the re-assortment of sequences of nucleotides
had profound changes and produced significantly less leaving their chemical structures unchanged. Therefore,
digestive enzymes [62]; in rats fed a GM potato, the DNA from GMOs is chemically equivalent to any other
pancreas was enlarged [60]. In various analysis of kidneys, DNA. The only uniqueness is restricted to differences in the
GM fed animals showed lesions, toxicity, altered enzymes DNA sequence, which occurs also in natural variations. The
production or inflammation [61-63]. Enzyme production in present use of recombinant techniques in the food chain does
the hearts of mice was altered by GM soy, [61] and GM not introduce changes in the chemical characteristics of the
potatoes caused slower growth in the brain of rats [60]. DNA. There is no difference in the susceptibility of
recombinant DNA and other DNA to degradation by
REPRODUCTIVE FAILURE AND INFANT chemical or enzymatic hydrolysis. There are no indications
MOTALITY that ingested DNA has allergenic or other immunogenic
The testicles of both mice and rats fed roundup ready properties that would be of relevance for consumption of
soybeans showed dramatic changes. In rats, the organs were food derived from GMOs. Uptake integration and expression
dark blue instead of pink. In mice, young sperm cells were of any residual extracellular DNA fragments from foods by
altered [64]. Embryos of GM soy-fed mice also showed microorganisms of the gastrointestinal trait can not be
temporary changes in their DNA function, compared to those excluded. Each of these circumstances is a rare event and
whose parents were fed non-GM soy [65]. would have happen sequentially. In vivo uptake of DNA
fragments by mammalian cells after oral administration has
GM CROPS TRIGGER IMMUNE REACTIONS AND been observed. There are effective mechanisms to avoid
MAY CAUSE ALLERGIES genomic insertion of foreign DNA. There is no evidence that
Allergic reactions occur when the immune system DNA from dietary sources has ever been incorporated into
interprets something as foreign, different and offensive and the mammalian genome [69] studied the animal nutrition
reacts accordingly. All GM foods, by definition have with GMOs. Their conclusions are similar as they from [68].
something foreign and different. And several studies show They didn’t find differences in physiological and
that they provoke reactions. GM potatoes caused the immune nutritive values in food of animal’s products when the
system of rats to responded more slowly [60]. And GM peas animals are feed with GM plants. Adverse health effects
provoked an inflammatory response in mice, suggesting that need to be screened for, because health effects are dependent
it might cause deadly allergic reactions in people [66]. In upon the modifications made [68]. Most feeding trials have
addition to the herbicide tolerant protein, GM soybeans observed no toxic effects and saw that GM foods were
contain a unique, unexpected protein, which likely came equivalent in nutrition to unmodified foods, although a few
about from the changes incurred during the genetic reports attribute physiological changes to GM food.
engineering process. Scientists found that this new protein However, some scientists [69] and advocacy groups such as
was able to bind with IgE antibodies, suggesting that it may Greenpeace and World Wildlife Fund consider that the
provoke dangerous allergic reactions. Organic farmers and available data do not prove that GM food does not pose risks
others have sprayed crops with solutions containing natural to health, and call for additional and more rigorous testing
Bt bacteria as a method of insect control. The toxin creates before marketing genetically engineered food [69]. A 2008
holes in their stomach and kills them. Genetic engineers take review published by the Royal Society of Medicine noted
the gene that produces the toxin in bacteria and insert it into that GM foods have been eaten by millions of people
the DNA of crops so that the plant does the work, not the worldwide for over 15 years, with no reports of ill effects
farmer. The fact that we consume that toxic pesticide in [70]. However, a 2009 review in Nutrition Reviews found
every bite of Bt corn hardly appetizing. Studies verify, that although most studies concluded that GM foods do not
however that natural Bt-toxin is not fully destroyed during differ in nutrition or cause any detectable toxic effects in
digestion and does react with mammals. The Bt—toxin animals, some studies did report adverse changes at a
produced in GM crops is vastly different from the bacterial cellular level caused by some GM foods, concluding that
(Bt-toxins) used in organic and traditional farming and "More scientific effort and investigation is needed to ensure
Genetically Modified Food Versus Human Health The Open Nutraceuticals Journal, 2011, Volume 4 9
that consumption of GM foods is not likely to provoke any modification is not a good in itself but it is a tool where
form of health problem" [71]. A study published in 2009 public & private science can balance each other. Genetically
found clear negative impact on liver and kidney function in modified foods have various advantages like high yield,
rats consuming GM maize varieties for 90 days [72]. salinity tolerant, insect resistance etc.GM foods have a lot of
However, if the product has no natural equivalent, or shows health effects on living beings. GM foods have both positive
significant differences from the unmodified food, then and negative effects. These may be either direct effects, on
further safety testing is carried out [43]. Worldwide, reports organisms that feed on or interact with the crops, or wider
of allergies to all kinds of foods, particularly nuts, fish and effects on food chains produced by increases or decreases in
shellfish, seem to be increasing, but it is not known if this the numbers of other organisms. As an example of benefits,
reflects a genuine change in the risk of allergy, or an insect-resistant Bt-expressing crops will reduce the number
increased awareness of food allergies by the public [73]. A of pest insects feeding on these plants, but as there are fewer
2005 review in the journal Allergy of the results from pests, farmers do not have to apply as much insecticide,
allergen testing of current GM foods stated that "no biotech which in turn tends to increase the number of non-pest
proteins in foods have been documented to cause allergic insects in these fields. Other possible effects might come
reactions" [74]. from the spread of genes from modified plants to unmodified
relatives, which might produce species of weeds resistant to
LEGISLATION AND LABELLING OF TRANSGENIC herbicides. Conclusively, the present article is the compila-
FOOD tion of various selective studies presenting both positive and
Foods from GMO have already appeared at European negative impacts of GM foods on human health.
market. Hence some methods of identification of these foods
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
have been developed [43,73,74]. Beer, soya oil, tomatoes
and it products, potato, maize, and some spices are on the The authors are grateful to Prof. R. M. Dubey (Managing
market. Gene transfer has started many contradictory and Director) and Prof. A. Srivastav (Director), CET, IFTM
emotional discussions especially on the German spoken Campus, Moradabad, U.P, India) for providing the necessary
market. Some sound requirements on adequate labeling of facilities and encouragement. The author, CV, is a Ph.D.
the genetically transformed food in EU have been passed scholar and registered at Uttarakhand Technical University,
so that consumers can choose according to their believes Dehradoon, Uttarakhand, India.
(religious, ethic, medical). Therefore EU introduced new
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Received: September 16, 2010 Revised: November 26, 2010 Accepted: November 27, 2010