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I. INTRODUCTION

Route surveying is comprised of all survey operations required for design and
construction of engineering works such as highways, pipelines, canals, or railroads. A
route surveying system is generally associated with highway design and construction.
A route surveying system usually contains four separate but interrelated
processes:
• Reconnaissance and planning
• Works design
• Right of way acquisition
• Construction of works

Surveying has to do with the determination of the relative spatial location of points
on or near the surface of the earth. It is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical
distances between objects, of measuring angles between lines, of determining the
direction of lines, and of establishing points by predetermined angular and linear
measurements. Along with the actual survey measurements are the mathematical
calculations. Distances, angles, directions, locations, elevations, areas, and volumes are
thus determined from the data of the survey. Survey data is portrayed graphically by the
construction of maps, profiles, cross sections, and diagrams.

The Importance of the Surveying

Land surveying is basically an art and science of mapping and measuring land. The
entire scope of profession is wide; it actually boils down to calculate where the land
boundaries are situated. This is very important as without this service, there would not
have been railroads, skyscrapers could not have been erected and neither any individual
could have put fences around their yards for not intruding others land.

Types of Surveys:

Geodetic Surveying: The type of surveying that takes into account the true shape of the
earth. These surveys are of high precision and extend over large areas.

Plane Surveying: The type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is
considered as a plane, or in which its spheroidal shape is neglected, with regard to
horizontal distances and directions.
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Operations in Surveying:

Control Survey: Made to establish the horizontal and vertical positions of arbitrary points.

Boundary Survey: Made to determine the length and direction of land lines and to
establish the position of these lines on the ground.

Topographic Survey: Made to gather data to produce a topographic map showing the
configuration of the terrain and the location of natural and man-made objects.

Hydrographic Survey: The survey of bodies of water made for the purpose of navigation,
water supply, or sub-aqueous construction.

Mining Survey: Made to control, locate and map underground and surface works related
to mining operations.

Construction Survey: Made to lay out, locate and monitor public and private engineering
works.
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A. Reconnaissance Survey
A1. Definition
The Reconnaissance is a rapid survey, or rather a critical examination of country,
without the use of the ordinary instruments of surveying. Certain instruments, however,
are used, the Aneroid Barometer, for instance. It is very commonly the case that the
termini of the railroad are fixed, and often intermediate points also. It is desirable that no
unnecessary restrictions as to intermediate points should be imposed on the engineer to
prevent his selecting what he finds to be the best line, and for this reason it is advisable
that the reconnaissance should, where possible, precede the drawing of the charter.
A2. Objectives/Purposes
There are several purposes of reconnaissance:
a.) to find whether there is any satisfactory line between the proposed termini;
b.) to establish which of several lines is best;
c.) to determine approximately the maximum grade necessary to be used;
d.) to report upon the character or geological formation of the country, and the probable
cost of construction depending somewhat upon that;
e.) to make note of the existing resources of the country, its manufactures, mines,
agricultural or natural products, and the capabilities for improvement and development of
the country resulting from the introduction of the railroad.

 PROCEDURES IN RECONNAISSANCE SURVEYING:

1.) The first step in reconnaissance should be to procure the best available maps of
the country ; a study of these will generally furnish to the engineer a guide as to the
routes or section of country that should be examined. If maps of the United States
Geological Survey are at hand, with contour lines and other topography carefully shown,
the reconnaissance can be largely determined upon these maps. Lines clearly
impracticable will be thrown out, the maximum grade closely determined, and the field
examinations reduced to a minimum. No route should te accepted finally from any such
map, but a careful field examination should be made over the routes indicated on the
contour maps. The examination, in general, should cover the general section of country,
rather than be confined to a single line between the termini. A straight line and a straight
grade from one terminus to the other is desirable, but this is seldom possible, and is in
general far from possible.
If a single line only is examined, and this is found to be nearly straight throughout,
and with satisfactory grades, it may be thought unnecessary to carry the examination
further. It will frequently, however, be found advantageous to deviate considerably from
a straight line in order to secure satisfactory grades. In many cases it will be necessary to
wind about more or less through the country in order to secure the best line. Where a
high hill or a mountain lies directly between the points, it may be expected that a line
around the hill, and somewhat remote from a direct line, will prove more favorable than
any other. Unless a reasonably direct line is found, the examination, to be satisfactory,
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should embrace all the section of intervening country, and all feasible lines should be
examined.

2.) There are two features of topography that are likely to prove of especial interest in
reconnaissance, ridge lines and valley lines.
A ridge line along the whole of its course is higher than the ground immediately
adjacent to it on each side. That is, the ground slopes downward from it to both sides. It
is also called a watershed line.
A valley line, to the contrary, is lower than the ground immediately adjacent to it
on each side. The ground slopes upward from it to both sides. Valley lines may be called
watercourse lines.
A pass is a place on a ridge line lower than any neighboring points on the same
ridge. Very important points to be determined in reconnaissance are the passes where
the ridge lines are to be crossed ; also the points where the valleys are to be crossed ;
and careful attention should be given to these points. In crossing a valley through which
a large stream flows, it may be of great importance to find a good bridge crossing. In
some cases where there are serious difficulties in crossing a ridge, a tunnel may be
necessary. Where such structures, either bridges or tunnels, are to be built, favorable
points for their construction should be selected and the rest of the line be compelled to
conform. In many parts of the United States at the present time, the necessity for
avoiding grade crossings causes the crossings of roads and streets to become governing
points of as great importance as ridges and valleys.

3.) The report upon reconnaissance should include information upon all these points.
It is for the determination of the third point mentioned, the rate of maximum grade, that
the barometer is used. Observing the elevations of governing points, and knowing the
distances between those points, it is possible to form a good judgment as to what rate of
maximum grade to assume.

4.) The Elevations are usually taken by the Aneroid Barometer. Tables for converting
barometer readings into elevations above sea-level are readily available and in convenient
form for field use.
Distances may be determined with sufficient accuracy in many cases from the
map, where a good one exists. Where this method is impossible or seems undesirable,
the distance may be determined in one of several different ways. When the trip is made
by wagon, it is customary to use an Odometer, an instrument which measures and
records the number of revolutions of the wheel to which it is attached, and thus the
distance traveled by the wagon. There are different forms of odometer. In its most
common form, it depends upon a hanging weight or pendulum, which is supposed to hold
its position, hanging vertical, while the wheel turns. The instrument is attached to the
wheel between the spokes and as near to the hub as practicable. At low speeds it
registers accurately ; as the speed is increased, a point is reached where the centrifugal
force neutralizes or overcomes the force of gravity upon the pendulum, and the
instrument fails to register accurately, or perhaps at high speeds to register at all. If this
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form of odometer is used, a clear understanding should be had of the conditions under
which it fails to correctly register. A theoretical discussion might closely establish the
point at which the centrifugal force will balance the force of gravity. The wheel striking
against stones in a rough road will create disturbances in the action of the pendulum, so
that the odometer will fail to register accurately at speeds less than that determined upon
the above assumption.
A cyclometer, manufactured for automobile use, is connected both with the wheel
and the axle, and so measures positively the relative motion between the wheel and axle,
and this ought to be reliable for registering accurately. Many engineers prefer to count
the revolutions of the wheel themselves, tying a rag to the wheel to make a conspicuous
mark for counting.
When the trip is made on foot, pacing will give satisfactory results. An instrument
called the Pedometer registers the results of pacing. As ordinarily constructed, the
graduations read to quarter miles, and it is possible to estimate to one tenth that
distance. Pedometers are also made which register paces. In principle, the pedometer
depends upon the fact that, with each step, a certain shock or jar is produced as the heel
strikes the ground, and each shock causes the instrument to register. Those registering
miles are adjustable to the length of pace of the wearer. If the trip is made on horseback,
it is found possible to get good results with a steady-gaited horse, by first determining his
rate of travel and figuring distance by the time consumed in traveling. Excellent results
are said to have been secured in this way.

5.) It is customary for engineers not to use a compass in reconnaissance. Although

this is sometimes done in order to trace the line traversed upon the map, and with
greater accuracy. A pocket level will be found useful. The skillful use of pocket
instruments will almost certainly be found of great value to the engineer of
reconnaissance.
It may, in cases, occur that no maps of any value are in existence or procurable. It
may be necessary, in such a case, to make a rapid instrumental survey, the
measurements being taken either by pacing, chain, or stadia measurements. This is,
however, unusual.

6.) The preliminary survey is based upon the results of the reconnaissance, and the
location upon the results of the preliminary survey. The reconnaissance thus forms the
foundation upon which the location is made. Any failure to find a suitable line and the
best line constitutes a defect which no amount of faithfulness in the later work will
rectify. The most serious errors of location are liable to be due to imperfect
reconnaissance ; an inefficient engineer of reconnaissance should be avoided at all
hazards. In the case of a new railroad, it would, in general, be proper that the Chief
Engineer should in person conduct this survey. In the case of the extension of existing
lines, this might be impracticable or inadvisable, but an assistant of known responsibility,
ability, and experience should in this case be selected to attend to the work.
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B. Preliminary Surveys
B1. Definition
The Preliminary Survey is based upon the results of the reconnaissance. It is a
survey made with the ordinary instruments of surveying. Its purpose is to fix and mark
upon the ground a first trial line approximating as closely to the proper final line as the
difficulty of the country and the experience of the engineer will allow ; further than this,
to collect data such that this survey shall serve as a basis upon which the final Location
may intelligently be made. In order to approximate closely in the trial line, it is essential
that the maximum grade should be determined or estimated as correctly as possible, and
the line fixed with due regard thereto. It will be of value to devote some attention here to
an explanation about Grades and “Maximum Grades.”

B2. Procedure for Preliminary Transit Line

1.) Grades. The ideal line in railroad location is a straight and level line. This is
seldom, if ever, realized. When the two termini are at different elevations, a line straight
and of uniform grade becomes the ideal. It is commonly impossible to secure a line of
uniform grade between termini. In operating a railroad, an engine division will be about
100 miles, sometimes less, often more. In locating any 100 miles of railroad, it is almost
certain that a uniform grade cannot be maintained. More commonly there will be a
succession of hills, part of the line up grade, part down grade. Sometimes there will be a
continuous up grade, but, not at a uniform rate. With a uniform grade, a locomotive
engine will be constantly exerting its maximum pull or doing its maximum work in hauling
the longest train it is capable of hauling ; there will be no power wasted in hauling a light
train over low or level grades upon which a heavier train could be hauled. Where the
grades are not uniform, but are rising or falling, or rising irregularly, it will be found that
the topography on some particular 5 or 10 miles is of such a character that the grade
here must be steeper than is really necessary anywhere else on the line ; or there may
be two or three stretches of grade where about the same rate of grade is necessary,
steeper than elsewhere required.
The steep grade thus found necessary at some special point or points on the line
of railroad is called the “Maximum Grade” or “Ruling Grade” or “Limiting Grade,” it being
the grade that limits the weight of train that an engine can haul over the whole division.
It should then be the effort to make the rate of maximum grade as low as possible,
because the lower the rate of the maximum grade, the heavier the train a given
locomotive can haul, and because it costs not very much more to haul a heavy train than
a light one. The maximum grade determined by the reconnaissance should be used as
the basis for the preliminary survey. How will this affect the line? Whenever a hill is
encountered, if the maximum grade be steep, it may be possible to carry the line
straight, and over the hill; if the maximum grade be low, it may be necessary to
deflect the line and carry it around the hill. When the maximum grade has been once
properly determined, if any saving can be accomplished by using it rather than a grade
less steep, the maximum grade should be used. It is possible that the train loads will not
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be uniform throughout the division. It will be advantageous to spend a small sum of

money to keep any grade lower than the maximum, in view of the possibility that at this
particular point the train load will be heavier than elsewhere on the division. Any saving
made will in general be of one or more of three kinds:
a. Amount or “quantity” of excavation or embankment;
b. Distance;
c. Curvature.
2.) In some cases, a satisfactory grade, a low grade for a maximum, can be
maintained throughout a division of 100 miles in length, with the exception of 2 or 3
miles at one point only. So great is the value of a low maximum grade that all kinds of
expedients will be sought for, to pass the difficulty without increasing the rate of
maximum grade, which we know will apply to the whole division.
3.) Sometimes by increasing the length of line, we are able to reach a given elevation
with a lower rate of grade. Sometimes heavy and expensive cuts and fills may serve the
purpose. Sometimes all such devices fail, and there still remains necessary an increase of
grade at this one point, but at this point only. In such case it is now customary to adopt
the higher rate of grade for these 2 or 3 miles and operate them by using an extra or
additional engine. In this case, the “ruling grade” for the division of 100 miles is properly
the “maximum grade” prevailing over the division generally, the higher grade for a few
miles only being known as an “Auxiliary Grade “ or more commonly a “ Pusher Grade.”
The train which is hauled over the engine division is helped over the auxiliary or pusher
grade by the use of an additional engine called a “Pusher.” Where the use of a short “
Pusher Grade “ will allow the use of a low “ maximum grade,” there is evident economy
in its use. The critical discussion of the importance or value of saving distance, curvature,
rise and fall, and maximum grade, is not within the scope of this book, and the reader is
referred to Wellington’s “Economic Theory of Railway Location.”
4.) The Preliminary Survey follows the general line marked out by the reconnaissance,
but this rapid examination of country may not have fully determined which of two or
more lines is the best, the advantages may be so nearly balanced. In this case two or
more preliminary surveys must be made for comparison. When the reconnaissance has
fully determined the general route, certain details are still left for the preliminary survey
to determine. It may be necessary to run two lines, one on each side of a small stream,
and possibly a line crossing it several times. The reconnaissance would often fail to settle
minor points like this. It is desirable that the preliminary survey should closely
approximate to the final line; but it is not important that it should fully coincide
anywhere. An important purpose of the “preliminary” is to provide a map which shall
show enough of the topography of the country, so that the Location proper may be
projected upon this map. Working from the line of survey as a base line, measurements
should be taken sufficient to show streams and various natural objects as well as the
contours of the surface.

 The Preliminary Survey serves several purposes :

a.) To fix accurately the maximum grade for use in Location.
b.) To determine which of several lines is best.
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c.) To provide a map as a basis upon which the Location can properly be made.
d.) To make a close estimate of the cost of the work.
e.) To secure, in certain cases, legal rights by filing plans.
5.) It should be understood that the preliminary survey is, in general, simply a means
to an end, and rapidity and economy are desirable. It is an instrumental survey.
Measurements of distance are taken usually with the chain, although a tape is sometimes
used. Angles are taken generally with a transit ; some advocate the use of a compass.
The line is ordinarily run as a broken line with angles, but is occasionally run with curves
connecting the straight stretches, generally for the reason that a map of such a line is
available for filing, and certain legal rights result from such a filing. With a compass, no
backsight need be taken, and, in passing small obstacles, a compass will save time on
this account. A transit line can be carried past an obstacle readily by a zigzag line.
Common practice among engineers favors the use of the transit rather than the compass.
Stakes are set, at every “Station,” 100 feet apart, and the stakes are marked on the face,
the first 0, the next I , then 2, and so to the end of the line. A stake set 1025 feet from
the beginning would be marked 10 + 25.
Levels are taken on the ground at the side of the stakes, and as much oftener as
there is any change in the inclination of the ground. All the surface heights are platted on
a profile, and the grade line adjusted.
6.) The line should be run from a governing point towards country allowing a choice
of location, which is from a pass or from an important bridge crossing, towards country
offering no great difficulties. There is an advantage in running from a summit downhill,
subject, however, to the above considerations. In running from a summit down at a
prescribed rate of grade, an experienced engineer will carry the line so that, at the end of
a day’s work, the levels will show the line to be about where it ought to be. For this
purpose, the levels must be worked up and the profile platted to date at the close of each
day. Any slight change of line found necessary can then be made early the next morning.
A method sometimes adopted in working down from a summit is for the locating engineer
to plat his grade line on the profile, daily in advance, and then during the day, plat a
point on his profile whenever he can conveniently get one from his leveler, and thus find
whether his line is too high or too low.
7.) Occasionally the result of two or three days’ work will yield a line extremely
unsatisfactory, enough so that the work of these two or three days will be abandoned.
The party “backs up” and takes a fresh start from some convenient point. In such case
the custom is not to tear out several pages of note-book, but instead to simply draw a
line across the page and mark the page “Abandoned.” At some future time the
abandoned notes may convey useful information to the effect that this line was
attempted and found unavailable.
In general, all notes worth taking are worth saving. Sometimes after a line has
been run through a section of country, there is later found a shorter or better line.
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In the figure used for illustration, the first line, “A” Line, is represented by AEBCD,
upon which the stations are marked continuously from A to D, 350 stations. The new line,
“ B “ Line, starts from E, Sta. 102 + 60, and the stationing is held continuous from to
where it connects with the “A” Line at C. The point C is Sta. 312 + 27 of the “A” Line, and
is also Sta. 307 + 13 of the “ B” Line. It is not customary to restake the line from C to D
in accordance with “B” Line stationing. Instead of this, a note is made in the note-books
as follows :
Sta. 312 + 27 “ A “ Line = 307 + 13 “ B “ Line.
Some engineers make the note in the following form :
Sta. 307 to 313 = 86 ft.
The first form is preferable, being more direct and less liable to cause confusion.
8.) All notes should be kept clearly and nicely in a notebook never on small pieces of
paper. The date and the names of members of the party should be entered each day in
the upper left-hand corner of the page. An office copy should be made as soon as
opportunity offers, both for safety and convenience. The original notes should always be
preserved; they would be admissible as evidence in a court of law where a copy would be
rejected. When two or more separate or alternate lines are run, they may be designated
Line “ A,” Line “ B,” Line “ C,”
Or “ A “ Line, “ B “ Line, “ C “ Line.

B3. Referencing Transit Points

The cost and time required for resetting stakes, or for setting new lines of
construction control stakes can be reduced if easy to use reference markers are set
before construction is started. The prime considerations for reference points are that they
too will not be destroyed and that they can be used without special survey equipment to
accurately place the required control stakes.

Whenever feasible, reference points should be set on the right-of-way line because
they have the best likelihood of remaining undisturbed. If the road or other terrain
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features will interfere with the line of sight between reference points, additional sight only
references may be required.

 Control Stakeout Methods

Once the alignment control is set, several optional methods for setting the
intermediate station points are available. The option selected by the surveyor should be
based on personnel, available equipment, terrain and safety.

Traverse Method - The traditional system of instrument setups at control points and
sighting on line or turning appropriate angles to set station points. The main advantage
of this method is that it provides on-the-ground and visual checks of the centerline.
However, it is more time consuming and less accurate than using the supplemental
control method.

Supplemental Control Method - (Centerline Stations) The setting of intermediate

station points from strategically placed extendible control monuments. Some of the
advantages of this method are:

1. Any section of the project can be set at any time.

2. Once methods are developed, it is generally faster and can be done with as few as
two people. Three crew members are generally the most efficient, as rod people
can move ahead while the new angle is being turned and the other rod person is
painting or completing installation of the set station mark.
3. Generally provides the best setup and sighting conditions.
4. Points can be accurately re-established to their original position at any stage of the
construction.
5. Coordinate calculations for curves can be pre-figured in the office and tabulated
for simple reference in the field.

The main disadvantage is the lower level of accuracy obtained as compared to the
higher levels obtained using GPS.

Real Time GPS Method - Recent developments in GPS surveying provides the most
efficient method for setting the centerline and additional reference points. A base GPS
receiver and a (one or several) roving receiver are used for this purpose. Numerical and
graphical instructions displayed on the roving receiver direct the surveyor to the desired
point. The real time kinematics GPS method is based on the following procedure:

 The three dimensional coordinates of all the points to be staked out are stored in
the roving receiver.
 A base station is set up on a known point.
 The rover and the base station receivers are initialized to establish a relative
position between them.
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 The rover and the base receivers communicate measurements via a radio (usually
FM) frequency.
 Since the coordinates of the rover are measured and updated continuously, it is
relatively easy to compute the direction and distance to the construction stake to
be staked out. This information is then displayed and made available to the
surveyor.

The main advantages of the real time GPS method are:

1. One base receiver can serve many rovers simultaneously. This makes this method
very efficient.
2. Less control is needed for the project because line-of-sight does not have to be
maintained. The only limitation is the range of the radio communication between
the rover and the base.
3. It is very easy to reset any destroyed point.

A disadvantage of this method is the present relatively high cost of equipment.

 Vertical Control

Vertical control is an important part of all projects. A relatively dense network of

vertical control (benchmarks) must be established for most projects prior to construction
staking operations. Such vertical control is seldom accomplished in one survey, but is a
culmination of several vertical surveys beginning with the base vertical survey to establish
the vertical datum on all major control monuments. The most important aspect of the
various stages of vertical control is that the same datum be used from preliminary
surveys through design and final construction control.

Ideally, most of the project control benchmarks have been established during the
preliminary stage of the project development or the preliminary survey. This existing
network is then identified by closed loop vertical surveys throughout the preliminary and
construction period. Prior to beginning establishment of construction control benchmarks,
several steps should be taken.

1. Check monuments - If there has been a long delay between the time the base
vertical survey was conducted and the completion of the design plans, the
condition of the base monuments should be field checked. Each monument should
be checked for possible disturbance or settlement, and whether it is in satisfactory
condition. Benchmarks that are to be used in the project should also be reflagged
for easy location.
2. Plan benchmark locations - Design plans should be thoroughly reviewed and a
set of plans marked up with the approximate location of existing benchmarks and
locations where construction control benchmarks will be required. Such planning
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can save considerable field time and assure that required benchmarks will be
established at their optimum location on a timely basis. Construction plan sheets
must contain a minimum of one benchmark.
3. Plan BM establishment - The planning process should determine which bench-
lines should be established for the initial grade staking (normally earthwork on
mainlines and service roads), final grade staking, structure staking and vertical
control documentation. Each bench line should be planned to reduce the difficulty
and length of level runs required to establish the subsequent bench marks.

B4. Levels of Profile and Bench Marks

 Bench Mark Spacing

The required density of benchmarks will depend on terrain, vegetation and

type of construction. They should be of sufficient density to decrease survey time for
subsequent leveling requirements. The advantage of density must be weighed against
the greater initial cost for establishing extra benchmarks. The following are suggested
spacing for benchmarks on a typical construction project:

1. A secondary line of semi-permanent benchmarks along one right-of-way line

spaced at 300 meters (or approximately 1,000 feet) or less horizontal distance, the
primary line being the permanent base control monuments. In heavy construction
or rough terrain, a bench line may be required on both right-of-way lines.
2. Successive benchmarks should not be separated (vertically) by more than two
"turns" or 7 meters (or approximately 24 feet) in elevation. Relative elevation and
ease of access to bench marks is more important than the horizontal distance
between them.
3. Bridge sites and major drainage sites should have at least two benchmarks placed
outside the area to be disturbed.
4. 4. At interchanges, two benchmarks should be established for each quadrant in
addition to those required for the structure(s).

 Bench Mark Location

Benchmarks should be placed in locations suitable for the intended purpose and
permanence. Utility poles, ornamental trees, or fire hydrants should be avoided.

Permanent benchmarks - Benchmarks that are to remain as reliable elevation

references over a period of years, or even for extended construction duration, such as
major structures, should generally meet the following criteria:

1. Place in stable, undisturbed original ground.

2. Establish on abutments or wing walls of older existing structures that have
become stabilized.
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3. Locate near "join" lines of cross streets, intersection of sidewalks and existing
facilities outside of the construction area.
4. Select locations with locally level terrain. A benchmark on top of a high slope is
not as desirable as one lower on the slope, provided all other criteria can be
met. Quite often, the positions of horizontal (traverse) points are not
compatible with project use of benchmarks, but are compatible with other
considerations. In such instances, benchmarks in more usable locations should
be established from the traverse control.
5. Utilize baseline monuments when practical.
6. Benchmarks destroyed during construction activities must be replaced to
ensure a minimum of one benchmark per thousand feet.

Temporary Benchmarks - Less permanent benchmarks may be required for a

limited use period for a specific survey operation, i.e., slope staking. Such stakes are
called temporary benchmarks and they are not perpetuated after construction.
Temporary benchmarks are usually marked with wooden stakes.

 Marking Bench Marks

The density of benchmarks in the project area can be a source of confusion and
possible error through misidentification. It is important that each be uniquely identifiable
by name, number, or location and marked with the appropriate identification code.
During periods of use, a flagged or painted lath can aid the rod person in the speedy
location of the benchmark. Care should be used not to deface private property or
structures that will remain after construction.

 Leveling Accuracies

The elevation of all permanent benchmarks should be determined to third order

accuracy in accordance with methods outlined in section 3.7 of this manual.Temporary
benchmark accuracy should be consistent with the type of construction for which they
will be used.

B5. Organization and Duties of Surveying Parties

 Transit Party
1. Locating Engineer
2. Transitman
3. Head Chainman
4. Stakeman
5. Rear Chainman
6. Back Flag
7. Axemen (one or more)
 Level Party
8. Leveler
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9. Rodman (sometimes two)

 Topographical Party
10. Topographer
11. Assistant
Other Members;
12. Cook
13. Teamster

 DUTIES OF SURVEYING PARTIES:

 Traverse Party
The traverse party establishes the traverse line along the proposed route by
setting and referencing control points, measuring distances, numbering stations, and
establishing points of intersection. The party also makes the necessary ties to an existing
control, if available or required. When no control is available, the party may assign a
starting value for control purposes which can later be tied to a control point established
by geodetic surveyors.
 Level Party
The level party establishes benchmarks and determines the elevation of selected
points along the route to provide control for future surveys, such as the preparation of a
topographic map or profile and cross-section leveling. The level party takes rod readings
and records elevations to the nearest 0.01 foot or 0.001 meter. It sets the benchmarks in
a place well out of the area of construction and marks them in such a way that they will
remain in place throughout the whole project. If there is no established vertical control
point available, establish an arbitrary elevation that may be tied to a vertical control
point later. An assigned value for an arbitrary elevation must be large enough to avoid
negative elevations at any point on the project.
 Topographic Party
The topographic party secures enough relief and planimetric detail within the
prescribed area to locate any obstacles and allow preparation of rough profiles and cross
sections. Computations made from the data determine the final location. The instruments
and personnel combinations used vary with survey purpose, terrain, and available time. A
transit-stadia party, plane table party, or combination of both may be used.
 Transit-Stadia Party. The transit stadia party is effective in open country
where comparatively long, clear sights can be obtained without excessive brush cutting.
 Plane Table Party. The plane table party is used where terrain is irregular. For
short route surveys, the procedure is much the same as in the transit-stadia method,
except that the fieldwork and the drawing of the map are carried on simultaneously.

 DUTIES OF MEMBERS IN PARTIES:

1.) The Locating Engineer is the chief of party, and is responsible for the business
management of the camp and party, as well as for the conduct of the survey. He
determines where the line shall run, keeping ahead of the transit, and establishing points
as foresights or turning-points for the transitman. In open country, the extra axeman can
 15

assist by holding the flag at turning-points, and thus allowing the locating engineer to
push on and pick out other points in advance. The locating engineer keeps a special note-
book or memorandum book ; in it he notes on the ground the quality of material, rock,
earth, or whatever it may be ; takes notes to determine the lengths and positions of
bridges, culverts, and other structures ; shows the localities of timber, building stones,
borrow pits, and other materials valuable for the execution of the work ; in fact, makes
notes of all matters not properly attended to by the transit, leveling, or topography party.
The rapid and faithful prosecution of the work depends upon the locating engineer, and
the party ought to derive inspiration from the energy and vigor of their chief, who should
be the leader in the work. In open and easy country, the locating engineer may instill life
into the party by himself taking the place of the head chainman occasionally. In country
of some difficulty, his time will be far better employed in prospecting for the best line.

2.) The Transitman does the transit work, ranges in the line from the instrument,
measures the angles, and keeps the notes of the transit survey. The following is a good
form for the left-hand page of the note-book :

The transitman is next in authority to the locating engineer, and directs the work
when the latter is not immediately present. The transitman, while moving from point to
point, setting up, and ranging line, limits the speed of the entire party, and should waste
no time.

3.) The Head Chainman carries a “flag” and the forward end of the tape, which should
be held level and firm with one hand, while the flag is moved into line with the other. He
 16

should always put himself nearly in line before receiving a signal from the transitman ;
plumbing may be done with the flag. When the point is found, the stakeman will set the
stake. When a suitable place for a turning-point is reached, a signal should be given the
transitman to that effect. A nail should be set in top of a “plug” at all turning-points. A
proper understanding should be had with the transitman as to signals.

Signals from the Transitman,

 A horizontal movement of the hand indicates that the rod should be moved as
directed.
 A swinging movement of the hand, “Plumb the rod as indicated.”
 A movement of both hands, or waving the handkerchief freely above the head,
means “All right.”
 At long distances, a handkerchief can be seen to advantage ;
when snow is on the ground, something black is better.

Signals from the Head Chainman.

 Setting the bottom of flag on the ground and waving the top,
means “ Give the line.”
 Raising the flag above the head and holding it horizontal with both hands :
“ Give line for a turning-point.”
 The “all right” signal is the same as from the transitman. In all measurements less
than 100 feet (or a full tape), the head chainman holds the end of the tape,
leaving the reading of the measurement to the rear chainman.
 The head chainman regulates the speed of the party during the time that the
instrument is in place, and should keep alive all the time. The rear chainman will
keep up as a matter of necessity.

4.) The Stakeman carries, marks, and drives the stakes at the points indicated by the
head chainman. The stakes should be driven with the flat side towards the instrument,
and marked on the front with the number of the station. Intermediate stakes should be
marked with the number of the last station + the additional distance in feet and tenths,
as 10 + 67.4. The stationing is not interrupted and taken up anew at each turning point,
but is continuous from beginning to end of the survey. At each turning-point a plug
should be driven nearly flush with the ground, and a witness stake driven, in an inclined
position, at a distance of about 15 inches from the plug, and at the side towards which
the advance line deflects, and marked W and under it the station of the plug.

5.) The Rear Chainman holds the rear end of the tape over the stake last set, but does
not hold against the stake to loosen it. He calls “ Chain “ each time when the new stake
is reached, being careful not to overstep the distance. He should stand beside the line
(not on it) when measuring, and take pains not to obstruct the view of the transitman.
He checks, and is responsible for the correct numbering of stakes, and for all distances
 17

less than 100 feet, as the head chainman always holds the end of the tape. The stations
where the line crosses fences, roads, and streams should be set down in a small note-
book, and reported to the transitman at the earliest convenient opportunity. The rear
chainman is responsible for the tape.

6.) The Back Flag holds the flag as a backsight at the point last occupied by the transit.
The only signals necessary for him to understand from the transitman are “plumb the
flag” and “ all right.” The flag should always be in position, and the transitman should not
be delayed an instant. The back flag should be ready to come up the instant he receives
the “all right” signal from the transitman. The duties are simple, but frequently are not
well performed.

7.) The Axeman cuts and clears through forest or brush. A good axeman should be able
to keep the line well, so as to cut nothing unnecessary. In open country, he prepares the
stakes ready for the stakeman or assists the locating engineer as fore flag.

8.) The Leveler handles the level and generally keeps the notes, which may have the
following form for the left-hand page. The right-hand page is for remarks and
descriptions of turning-points and bench-marks. It is desirable that turning points, where
possible, to be described, and all bench marks are to be used as turning points. Readings
on turningpoints should be recorded to hundredths or to thousandths of a foot,
dependent upon the judgment of the Chief Engineer. Surface readingsshould be made to
the nearest tenth, and evaluations set down to nearest tenth only. A self-readingrod has
advantages over a target rod for short sights. A target rod is possibly better for long
sights and for turning-points. The "Philadelphia Rod" is both a target rod and a self-
reading rod, and is thus well adapted for railroad use. Bench-marks should be taken at
distances of from 1000 to 1500 feet,depending upon the country. The leveler should test
his level frequentlyto see that it is in adjustment. The leveler and rodman should
together bring the notes to date every evening and plan the
profile to correspond.
 18

The profile of Preliminary Line should show:

a. surface line(in black)
b. grade line (in red)
c. grade elevations at each change in grade(in red)
d. rate of grade, per 100 (in red); rise +, fall –
e. station and deflection at each angle in the line (in black)
f. notes of roads, ditches, streams, bridges, etc(in black)

9.) The Rodman carries the rod and holds it vertically upon the ground at each station
and at such intermediate points as mark any important change of slope of the ground.
Levels should also be taken of high-water marks wherever traces of these are visible. The
rodman carries a small notebook in which he enters the rod readings at all turning-points.
In country which is open, but not level, the transit party is liable to outrun the level party.
In such cases greater speed will be secured by the use of two rodmen.

10.) The Topographer is, or should be, one of the most valuable members of the party.
In times past it has not always been found necessary to have a topographer, or if
employed, his duty has been to sketch in the general features necessary to make an
attractive map, and represent hills and buildings sufficiently well with reference to the
line to show, in a general way, the reason for the location adopted. Sometimes the chief
of the party has for this purpose taken the topography. At present the best practice
favors the taking of accurate data by the topography party.
The topographer (with one or two assistants) should take the station and bearing
(or angle) of every fence or street line crossed by the survey (unless taken by the transit
party) ; also take measurements and bearings for platting all fences and buildings near
enough to influence the position of the Location; also sketch, as well as may be, fences,
buildings, and other topographical features of interest which are too remote to require
exact location; and finally establish the position of contour lines, streams, and ponds,
within limits such that the Location may be properly determined in the contoured map.
The work of locating contours is usually accomplished by the use of hand level and tape
(distances carefully paced may, in many cases, be sufficiently accurate).’ The level party
has determined the elevations of the ground at each “station “ set by the transit party.
These elevations are given the topographers to serve as bench marks for use in locating
contours. It is customary to fix on the ground the points where the contours cross the
center line, where they cross lines at right angles to the center line at each station, and
occasionally additional points ; then to sketch the contours by eye between these points.
Cross section sheets in blocks or in book form are used for this purpose. The usual
contour interval is 5 feet. A point on a contour is found as follows. The topographer
stands at the’ station stake ; a measurement is taken, by tape or rod, of the distance
from the topographer’s feet to his eye ;this added to the surface height at center stake
(as obtained from the level party) gives the “height of eye” above datum. The difference
between this “height of eye” and the elevation of the contour gives the proper rod
reading for fixing a point on the contour, and the rod is carried vertically along the
 19

ground until this reading is obtained. The point thus found is then located. The
topographer uses this point, already fixed, as a turning point, finds anew his “height of
eye,” and proceeds to find a point on the next contour. It is more convenient at times
to carry on the process in reverse order ; that is, to hold the rod on the ground at the
station, and let the topographer place himself where his feet are on the contour. The
“height of eye” must be the distance from topographer’s feet to eye added to the
elevation of contour. The rod reading at the station will be the difference between this “
height of eye “ and the elevation of the ground at the station.
The hand level is somewhat lacking in precision, but by makinga fresh start at
each station as a bench mark, cumulative errors are avoided, and fair results secured by
careful work. Instead of a hand levelr some topographers use a clinometers,
and take and record side slopes as a basis for contour lines. Topography can be taken
rapidly and well by stadia survey or by plane table. This is seldom done, as many
engineers are not sufficiently familiar with their use. Much more accurate
results may be reached by plane table, and a party of three, well skilled in plane table
work, will accomplish more than a party of three with hand level.

 Some engineers advocate making a general topographical survey of the

route by stadia, instead of the survey above described. In this case no
staking out by “ stations “ would be done. All points occupied by the transit
should be marked by plugs properly referenced, which can be used to aid in
marking the Location on the ground after it is determined on the contour
map. This method has been used a number of times, and is claimed to give
economical and satisfactory results ; it is probable that it will have
constantly increasing use in the future, and may prove the best method in a
large share of cases.

C. Location Surveys
C1. Definition
The Location Survey is the final fitting of the line to the ground. In Location,
curves are used to connect the straight lines or “tangents,” and the alignment is laid out
complete, ready for construction. The party is much the same as in the preliminary, and
the duties substantially the same. More work devolves upon the transitman on account of
the curves, and it is good practice to add a “note-keeper” to the party; he takes some of
the transitman’s work, and greater speed for the entire party is secured. More skill is
useful in the head chainingman in putting himself in position on curves. He can readily
range himself on tangent.
The profile is the same, except that it shows, for alignment notes, the P. C. and
P.T. of curves, and also the degree and central angle, and whether to the right or left. It
is well to connect frequently location stakes with preliminary stakes, when convenient, as
a check on the work. In making the location survey, two distinct methods are in use
among engineers:
 20

 First Method of Location. Use preliminary survey and preliminary profile

as guides in reading the country, and locate the line upon the ground.
Experience will enable an engineer to get very satisfactory results in this
way, in nearly all cases. The best engineers, in locating in this way, as a
rule lay the tangents first, and connect the curves afterwards.
 Second Method. Use preliminary line, preliminary profile, and especially
the contour lines on the preliminary map ; make a paper location, and run
this in on the ground. Some go so far as to give their locating engineer a
complete set of notes to run by. This is going too far. It is sufficient to fix,
on the map, the location of tangents, and specify the degree of curve. The
second method is much more desirable, but the first method has still some
use. It is well accepted, among engineers, that no reversed curve should be
used ; 200 feet of tangent, at least, should intervene. Neither should any
curve be very short, say less than 300 feet in length.
A most difficult matter is the laying of a long tangent, so that it shall be straight.
Lack of perfect adjustment and construction of instrument will cause a “swing” in the
tangent.The best way is to run for a distant foresight. Another way is to have the transit
as well adjusted as possible, and even then change ends every time in reversing, so that
errors shall not accumulate. It will be noticed that the preliminary is run in without curves
because more economical in time ; sometimes curves are run however, either because
the line can be run closer to its proper position, or sometimes in order to allow of filing
plans with the United States or separate States.
In Location, a single tangent often takes the place of a broken line in the
preliminary, and it becomes important to determine the direction of the tangent with
reference to some part of the broken line. This is readily done by finding the
Coordinates of any given point with reference to that part of the broken line assumed
temporarily as a meridian. The course of each line is calculated, and the coordinates of
anypoint thus found. It simplifies the calculation to use some part of the preliminary as
an assumed meridian, rather than to use the actual bearings of the lines. The coordinates
of two points on the proposed tangent allow the direction of the tangent to be
determined with reference to any part of the preliminary. When the angles are small, an
approximation sufficiently close will be secured, by assuming in all cases that the cosine
of the angle is 1.000000 and that the sines are directly proportional to the angles
themselves. In addition to this, take the distances at the nearest even foot, and the
calculation becomes much simplified.
The located line, or “Location,” as it is often called, is staked out ordinarily by
center stakes which mark a succession of straight lines, connected by curves to which the
straight lines are tangent. The straight lines are by general usage called “Tangents.”

C2. Field Notes

The quality and character of the surveyor’s field notes are as important as the use
of instruments. The comprehensiveness, neatness, and reliability of the surveyor’s field
notes measure ability. Numerical data, sketches, and explanatory notes must be so
 21

clear that they can be interpreted in only one way, the correct way. Office entries, such
as computed or corrected values, should be clearly distinguishable from original material.
This is often done by making office entries in red ink. Some good rules to follow in
taking field notes are:
 Use a sharp, hard pencil (4H preferred).
 Do not crowd the data entered.
 Use additional pages.
 Keep sketches plain and uncluttered.
 Record numerical values so they always indicate the degree of precision to which a
measurement is taken. For example, rod readings taken to the nearest 0.01 foot
should be recorded as 5.30 feet, not as 5.3 feet.
 Use explanatory notes to supplement numerical data and sketches. These notes
sketches and are usually placed on the right-hand page on the same line as the
numerical data they explain. Follow the basic note-keeping rules covered
in TM 5-232.
 22

C3. Topography and Right-of-way Data

Topography for the preliminary survey is defined as all man-made or physical
objects in or adjacent to the highway corridor that would normally be shown on plans.
The survey should include such items as existing fencing, roads, buildings, power lines,
land features, waterways, railroads, pipes, utilities, etc. If the plan sheets are to be made
from aerial photography, much of the information listed below can be identified and
located by annotation of enlarged aerial photos. When the plans are to be developed
solely from field notes and electronic data collection, the following is a list of minimum
requirements for location and identification of topographic features.
Wherever new right-of-way may be acquired, it is necessary to tie property
corners to either the centerline or control points. Sufficient land ties must be made to
accurately define the centerline with respect to property ownership or other boundaries,
such as corporate limits, subdivisions, or county lines.
The following describes the procedure of determining ground elevations using the
engineer's level with a horizontal circle and stadia rod. A transit may be substituted for
the level if care is exercised in leveling the telescope. It is assumed that a bench mark
with known elevation has been established.

a. Establish your position from a point of known location on the map. In Figure 17,
point B is “tied” to a point of known location on the map, such as corner
 23

monument C of the area. This is done by sighting the instrument at C and noting
down the azimuth and distance of line BC. The distance of B from C is determined
by the stadia-method discussed under area survey.

Figure 17. Establishing Position from a Point of Known Location on the Map

b. Take a rod reading on the nearest bench mark (BM), as shown in Figure 18,
previously installed for such purpose. This reading is called the backsight (BS), the
rod being on a point of known elevation. The height of the instrument (HI) is then
found by adding the elevation of the bench mark (Elev.) and backsight (BS), thus:

H.I. = Elev. + B.S.

 24

Figure 18. Transit-stadia Method of Topographic Survey

c. The telescope is sighted to point D, or any other points desired, and take the rod
reading. The reading is called the foresight (F.S.), the rod being on a point of
known elevation. Ground elevation of point D is then determined by subtracting
the foresight (F.S.), from the height of the instrument (H.I.), thus:

Elevation = H.I. - F.S.

d. Similar procedure is used in determining the ground elevation of several points

which are within sight from the instrument at point B. The azimuth and distance of
all the points sighted from point B are read and recorded in the sample field notes
such as shown in Figure 19.

Sta. Sta.
Occ. Obs. B.S. H.I. F.S. Elev. Azim. Dist. REMARKS
 25

Figure 19. Sample Field Notes on Transit-stadia Method of Topographic Survey

 Topographic survey by soundings

The following describes the procedure of conducting topographic survey by soundings

using the tape, compass and stadia or sounding rod. Two bancas should be used.

a. The tide curve of the day the survey is conducted is drawn in advance. This
provides the information on the heights of tide at different times of the day.
b. The instrument man at point A (see Fig. 20) locates his position on the map by
sighting on known points and taking down the bearings and distances of his “tie
lines”.
c. The stadia rod is held at some point M (under water) and the instrument man at A
sights on M. Distance of M from A is measured. Man at M takes the rod reading of
the water surface and notes the time.

The elevation of the ground surface at M is equal to the height of the tide at the time
of rod reading minus the rod reading at M. Point M is located on the map by plotting its
bearing and distance referred to from Point A.

Figure 20. Topographic (Hydrographic) Survey by Compass, Tape and Sounding Rod

The rod man at M then moves to another point and the instrument man at A again
takes the rod reading and time. This process is repeated until such time the rod man has
covered the area that the instrument man can see.
 26

Instrument man at A moves to another point, B. Back bearing (BA) and the
distance from A to B are taken. This locates point B on the map. Elevation of other
ground points not yet covered at A are taken using the same procedure. A sample of a
field survey notes is presented as Figure 21.

Distance
Occ. Obs. Bearing (m) hr. mi. of Tide Elev. REMARKS
A M N 80 ° E 21 10.00 1.06 m
N N 40 ° E 29 10.15 1.04 m
O S 70 ° E 61 10.35 0.98 m
B S 60 ° E 42 10.46 0.94 m
B P N 45 ° W 20 10.50 0.90 m
Q N 45 ° E 26 10.55 0.85 m

Figure 21. Sample Field Notes on Topographic Survey by Soundings

C4. Cross Sections

The cross section used in earthwork computations is a vertical section. It is
perpendicular to the centerline at full and plus stations and represents the boundaries of
a proposed or existing cut or fill.

Example of alluvial terraces in a geologic cross section

across the Neosho River Valley
Taken from O’Connor, 1953
C5. Grade Lines
The ideal line in railroad location is a straight and level line. This is seldom, if ever,
realized. When the two termini are at different elevations, a line straight and of uniform
grade becomes the ideal. It is commonly impossible to secure a line of uniform grade
between termini. In operating a railroad, an engine division will be about 100 miles,
 27

sometimes less, often more. In locating any 100 miles of railroad, it is almost certain that
a uniform grade cannot be maintained. More commonly there will be a succession of hills,
part of the line up grade, part down grade. Sometimes there will be a
continuous up grade, but, not at a uniform rate. With a uniform grade, a locomotive
engine will be constantly exerting its maximum pull or doing its maximum work in hauling
the longest train it is capable of hauling; there will be no power wasted in hauling a light
train over low or level grades upon which a heavier train could be hauled. Where the
grades are not uniform, but are rising or falling, or rising irregularly, it will be found that
the topography on some particular 5 or 10 miles is of such a character that the grade
here must be steeper than is really necessary anywhere else on the line ; or there may
be two or three stretches of grade where about the same rate of grade is necessary,
steeper than elsewhere required.
The steep grade thus found necessary at some special point or points on the line
of railroad is called the “Maximum Grade” or “Ruling Grade” or “Limiting Grade,” it being
the grade that limits the weight of train that an engine can haul over the whole division.
It should then be the effort to make the rate of maximum grade as low as possible,
because the lower the rate of the maximum grade, the heavier the train a given
locomotive can haul, and because it costs not very much more to haul a heavy train than
a light one. The maximum grade determined by the reconnaissance should be used as
the basis for the preliminary survey. How will this affect the line? Whenever a hill is
encountered, if the maximum grade be steep, it may be possible to carry the line
straight, and over the hill; if the maximum grade be low, it may be necessary to
deflect the line and carry it around the hill. When the maximum grade has been once
properly determined, if any saving can be accomplished by using it rather than a grade
less steep, the maximum grade should be used. It is possible that the train loads will not
be uniform throughout the division. It will be advantageous to spend a small sum of
money to keep any grade lower than the maximum, in view of the possibility that at this
particular point the train load will be heavier than elsewhere on the division. Any saving
made will in general be of one or more of three kinds:
a. Amount or “quantity” of excavation or embankment;
b. Distance;
c. Curvature.

C6. Construction Stake

A construction stake is typically small, with a pointed end to make it easy to drive
into the earth. It may be color-coded or have a space for people to write information on
the stake. Surveyors use stakes when assessing sites to mark out boundaries, record
data, and convey information to other people. On a job site, for example, survey stakes
indicate where it is necessary to backfill with soil to raise the elevation, or to cut soil
away to lower it. Stakes can also provide information about slope and grading for people
getting a job site ready for construction.
In constructing stakes,slope for each stake is observed.
 28

D. Plans and Profiles

D1. Explanations
A fundamental and challenging activity in the management and execution of
construction projects. It involves the choice of technology, the definition of work tasks,
the estimation of the required resources and durations for individual tasks, and the
identification of any interactions among the different work tasks.

D2. Horizontal and Vertical Alignment

For low volume roads with design speeds of 24 kph (15 mph) or less, a horizontal
alignment that approximates the geometric requirements of circular curves and tangents
may be used. Alignment should be checked so that other design elements, such as curve
widening and stopping sight distance can be considered. A minimum centerline radius of
curvature for roads should be 15 meters (50 ft) except for some recreation and
administrative roads. Superelevation should not be used for design speeds less than 32
kph (20 mph). If snow and ice are factors, the superelevation rate should not exceed 6
percent and should be further reduced on grades to accommodate slow truck traffic.
Transition segments into and out of superelevated sections should be provided to avoid
abrupt changes in the roadway template.
Vertical alignment, or grade; is of critical concern because of its potential for
environmental damage and becomes increasingly important for grades exceeding 10
percent. Erosion potential increases as a function of the square of the slope and the cube
of water velocity. The Most desirable combination of grade and other design elements
should be determined early in the road location phase with additional caution exercised
when grades exceed 8 percent. Vertical alignment normally governs the speed of light
vehicles for grades exceeding 15 percent favorable and 11 percent adverse and of loaded
trucks for grades exceeding 8 percent favorable and 3 percent adverse. The ability of a
vehicle to traverse a particular grade is dependent on vehicle weight and horsepower and
on the traction coefficient of the driving surface. Travel time and cost are affected by
horizontal alignment, such as curve radius and road width. Figure 9 shows the
relationship between average truck speed and curve radius for several road widths. For
example, there is a 15 percent difference in average truck speed on a 30.5 m (100 ft)
radius curve for a 3.7 m wide road when compared to a 4.3 m wide road. Horizontal
alignment has been classified on the basis of curve radius and number of curves. The U.
S. Forest Service, for example, uses the following classification system:
[Average radius (m)] / [# of curves / km]
Poor = < 4 Good = 10 - 20
Fair = 4 - 10 Excellent = > 20

D3. Typical Sections

Typical cross sections for a roadbed are illustrated infigure 4-1. The determination
of cross-section areas is simplified when the sections are plotted on cross-section paper.
This is usually done to the same vertical and horizontal scale, standard practice being 1
inch equals 10 feet. However, if the vertical cut or fill is small in comparison with the
width, the surveyor may use an exaggerated vertical scale to gain additional precision in
 29

plotting such sections. The surveyor must take care, however, when computing areas of
this type of plotted section that the proper area is obtained. For example, a 1 inch equals
10 foot scale, both vertical and horizontal, yields 100 square feet, but 1 inch equals 10
foot horizontal and 1 inch equals 2 foot vertical yields only 20 square feet. An
exaggerated vertical scale is used in figure 4-2 to illustrate a five-level section.
The side slopes of a cross section are expressed by a ratio of horizontal distance to
vertical distance. A 1 ½:1 side slope indicates a slope extending 1 ½ feet horizontally per
foot of vertical rise or fall. Slopes may be inclined more or less sharply than this, such as
3:1,2:1, or 1:1. The surveyor usually determines the slope by the design specifications
based on the stability of the soil in cut or fill. However, the need for economy in
construction operations must often be considered. For example, cut slopes may be
flattened more than is required by soil characteristics solely to produce enough material
for a nearby fill. This practice is more economical than operating a borrow pit to obtain
this material.
 30

D4. Data on Plan

Following images are only example of data on plan.
 31

D5. Data on Profile

Following images are only example of data on profile.
 32

II. Circular Curves

Classification:
The curves most generally in use are circular curves, although parabolic and other
curves are sometimes used. Circular curves may be classed as Simple, Compound,
Reversed, or Spiral.

A. SIMPLE CURVE
The simple curve is an arc of a circle. It is the most commonly used. The radius of
the circle determines the “sharpness” or “flatness” of the curve. The larger the radius, the
“flatter” the curve.

B. Parts and Functions of Curves

PC = Point of curvature. It is the beginning of curve.

PT = Point of tangency. It is the end of curve.
PI = Point of intersection of the tangents. Also called vertex
T = Length of tangent from PC to PI and from PI to PT. It is known as subtangent.
R = Radius of simple curve, or simply radius.
L = Length of chord from PC to PT. Point Q as shown below is the midpoint of L.
Lc = Length of curve from PC to PT. Point M in the the figure is the midpoint of Lc.
E = External distance, the nearest distance from PI to the curve.
m = Middle ordinate, the distance from midpoint of curve to midpoint of chord.
I = Deflection angle (also called angle of intersection and central angle). It is the angle of
intersection of the tangents. The angle subtended by PC and PT at O is also equal to I,
where O is the center of the circular curve from the above figure.
x = offset distance from tangent to the curve. Note: x is perpendicular to T.
θ = offset angle subtended at PC between PI and any point in the curve
D = Degree of curve. It is the central angle subtended by a length of curve equal to one
station. In English system, one station is equal to 100 ft and in SI, one station is equal to
20 m.
Sub chord = chord distance between two adjacent full stations.
Sharpness of circular curve
The smaller is the degree of curve, the flatter is the curve and vice versa. The sharpness
of simple curve is also determined by radius R. Large radius are flat whereas small radius
are sharp.
 33

Length of tangent, T
Length of tangent (also referred to as subtangent) is the distance from PC to PI. It is the
same distance from PI to PT. From the right triangle PI-PT-O,
tanI/2=TR
T=RtanI/2

External distance, E
External distance is the distance from PI to the midpoint of the curve. From the same
right triangle PI-PT-O,
cosI2=RR+E
R+E=RcosI2
E=RsecI2−R

Middle ordinate, m
Middle ordinate is the distance from the midpoint of the curve to the midpoint of the
chord. From right triangle O-Q-PT,
cosI2=R−mR
RcosI2=R−m
m=R−RcosI2

Length of long chord, L

Length of long chord or simply length of chord is the distance from PC to PT. Again, from
right triangle O-Q-PT,
sinI2=L/2R
 34

RsinI2=L/2
L=2RsinI2

Length of curve, Lc
Length of curve from PC to PT is the road distance between ends of the simple curve. By
ratio and proportion,
Lc/I=2πR/360∘
Lc=πRI/180∘
An alternate formula for the length of curve is by ratio and proportion with its
degree of curve.
Lc/I=1station/D
Lc=1station×I/D
SI units: 1 station = 20 m
Lc=20I/D

English system: 1 station = 100 ft

Lc=100I/D

If given the stationing of PC and PT

Lc=Stationing of PT− Stationing of PC

Degree of curve, D
The degree of curve is the central angle subtended by an arc (arc basis) or chord (chord
basis) of one station. It will define the sharpness of the curve. In English system, 1
station is equal to 100 ft. In SI, 1 station is equal to 20 m. It is important to note that
100 ft is equal to 30.48 m not 20 m.
 35

C. Deflection Angles

The Deflection angles are the angles between a tangent and the ends of the chord
from the PC. The surveyor uses them to locate the direction in which the chords are to be
laid out. The total of the deflection angle is always the one half of the I angle. This total
serves as a check on the computed deflection angles.

D. The Unit Curve- Degree of curve

The degree of curve defines the “sharpness” or “flatness” of the curve . There
are two definitions commonly in use for degree of curve, the arc definition and the
chord definition.
Metric System English System
 36

By ratio and proportion: By ratio and proportion:

(2πR) = (360°) (2πR) = (360°)

20 D 100 D

D = 1145.916 D= 5729.58

R R

Arc definition. The arc definition states that the degree of curve (D) is the angle
formed by two radii drawn from the center of the circle (point O, figure 3-3) to the
ends of an arc 100 feet or 30.48 meters long. In this definition, the degree of
curve and radius are inversely proportional using the following
formula:

As the degree of curve increases, the radius decreases. It should be noted that for
a given Intersecting angle or central angle, when using the arc definition, all the
elements of the curve are inversely proportioned to the degree of curve. This definition is
primarily
used by civilian engineers in highway construction.
English system.
Substituting D = length of arc = 100 feet, we obtain— 10 and
Therefore, R = 36,000 divided by 6.283185308
R = 5,729.58 ft
Metric system.
In the metric system, using a
30.48-meter length of arc and substituting D = 1°, we obtain—
Therefore, R = 10,972.8 divided by 6.283185308
R = 1,746.38 m
Chord definition. The chord definition states that the degree of curve is the angle
formed by two radii drawn from the center of the circle (point O, figure 3-3) to the ends
of a chord 100 feet or 30.48 meters long. The radius is computed by the following
formula:
 37

E. Field Procedure in locating P.C. and P.T.

With the instrument at the PI, the instrument man sights on the preceding PI and
keeps the head tapeman on the line while the tangent distance is measured. A stake is
set on line and marked to show PC and its station value. The instrument man now points
the instrument on the forward PI, and the tangent distance is measured to set and mark
a stake for the PT.

F. Passing a curve through a fixed point

Because of topographic features or other obstacles, the surveyor may find it

necessary to determine the radius of a curve which will pass through or avoid a fixed
point and connect two given tangents. This may be accomplished as follows:

1. Given the PI and the I angle from the preliminary traverse, place the instrument on
the PI and measure angle d, so that angle d is the angle between the fixed point and the
tangent line that lies on the same side of the curve as the fixed point.

2. Measure line y,the distance from the PI to the fixed point.

3. Compute angles c,b, and a in triangle COP

c= 90 - (d + I/2)

To find angle b, first solve for angle e

Sin e = Sin c

Cos I/2
Angle b = 180°- angle e
a = 180° - (b + c)

4. Compute the radius of the desired curve using the formula.

5. Compute the degree of curve, using the following formulas:

(arc method) D = 5,729.58 ft/R

D = 1,746.385 meters/R

(chord method) Sin D = 2 (50 feet/R)

Sin D = 2 (15.24 meters/R)

 38

6. Compute the remaining elements of the curve and the deflection angles, and stake the
curve.

PROBLEMS:
Problem1.) The angle of intersection of a circular curve is 45° 30' and its radius is
198.17 m. PC is at Sta. 0 + 700. Compute the right angle offset from Sta. 0 + 736.58 on
the curve to tangent through PC.

A) 2.98 m

B) 3.37 m

C) 3.09 m

D) 3.87 m

Solution:
 39

Length of curve from PC to A:

s=736.58−700

s=36.58 m

Angle subtended by arc s from the center of the curve:

sθ=2πR360∘

36.58θ=2π(198.17)360∘

θ=10.58∘

Length of offset x:
cosθ=R−xR

x=R−Rcosθ=198.17−198.17cos10.58∘

x=3.37 m [ B ] answer

Problem2.) Problem The angle of intersection of a circular curve is 36° 30'. Compute
the radius if the external distance is 12.02 m.

A) 203.74 m

B) 253.72 m

C) 226.94 m

D) 214.67 m

Solution:
 40

Cos1/2I=R/R+E

cos18∘15′=R/R+12.02

Rcos18∘15′+12.02cos18∘15′=R

R−Rcos18∘15′=12.02cos18∘15′

R (1−cos18∘15′)=12.02cos18∘15′

R=12.02cos18∘15′/1−cos18∘15′

R=226.94 m [ C ] answer

Problem3.) Given the following elements of a circular curve: middle ordinate = 2 m;

length of long chord = 70 m. Find its degree of curve, use arc basis.

A) 4.5°

B) 5.3°

C) 2.9°

D) 3.7°

Solution:

Apply Pythagorean theorem to find the radius:

(R−2)^2+35^2=R^2

(R^2−4R+4)+1225=R^2
 41

4R=1229

R=307.25 m

Degree of curve (arc basis):

20/D=2πR/360∘

20/D=2π(307.25)/360∘

D=3.7∘ [ D ] answer
 42

M. COMPOUND CURVE
A compound curve consists of two (or more) circular curves between two main
tangents joined at point of compound curve (PCC). Curve at PC is designated as 1
(R1, L1, T1, etc) and curve at PT is designated as 2 (R2, L2, T2, etc).

A compound curve consists of two (or more) circular curves between two main
tangents joined at point of compound curve (PCC). Curve at PC is designated as 1
(R1, L1, T1, etc) and curve at PT is designated as 2 (R2, L2, T2, etc).

Elements of compound curve

PC = point of curvature
PT = point of tangency
PI = point of intersection
PCC = point of compound curve
T1 = length of tangent of the first curve
T2 = length of tangent of the second curve
V1 = vertex of the first curve
V2 = vertex of the second curve
I1 = central angle of the first curve
I2 = central angle of the second curve
I = angle of intersection = I1 + I2
Lc1 = length of first curve
Lc2 = length of second curve
L1 = length of first chord
L2 = length of second chord
 43

L = length of long chord from PC to PT

T1 + T2 = length of common tangent measured from V1 to V2
θ = 180° - I
x and y can be found from triangle V1-V2-PI.
L can be found from triangle PC-PCC-PT
Finding the stationing of PT
Given the stationing of PC
Sta PT=Sta PC+Lc1+Lc2Given the stationing of PI
Sta PT=Sta PI−x−T1+Lc1+Lc2

PROBLEMS:
Problem1.)
 44

Problem2.)

Problem3.)
45
 46

O. Reversed Curve
Reversed curve, though pleasing to the eye, would bring discomfort to motorist
running at design speed. The instant change in direction at the PRC brought some safety
problems. Despite this fact, reversed curves are being used with great success on park
roads, formal paths, waterway channels, and the like.

Elements of Reversed Curve

PC = point of curvature
PT = point of tangency
PRC = point of reversed curvature
T1 = length of tangent of the first curve
T2 = length of tangent of the second curve
V1 = vertex of the first curve
V2 = vertex of the second curve
I1 = central angle of the first curve
I2 = central angle of the second curve
Lc1 = length of first curve
Lc2 = length of second curve
L1 = length of first chord
L2 = length of second chord
T1 + T2 = length of common tangent measured from V1 to V2

Finding the stationing of PT

Given the stationing of PC
Sta PT=Sta PC+Lc1+Lc2
Given the stationing of V1
Sta PT=Sta V1−T1+Lc1+Lc2
 47

P. Reversed Curve for Parallel Tangents

The following figure is an example reversed curves of unequal radii connecting
parallel tangents.

Q. Reversed Curve between Nonparallel Tangents

The following figure is an example reversed curves of unequal radii connecting
non-parallel tangents.

R. Reversed Curve with Converging Tangents

The connection of two diverging tangents by a reverse curve. Due to possible
obstruction or topographic consideration, one simple curve could not be used between
the tangents. The PT has been moved back beyond the PI. However, the I angle still
exists as in a simple curve. The controlling dimensions in this curve are the distance Ts to
 48

locate the PT and the values ofR1 and R2 which are computed from the specified degree
of curve for each arc.

PROBLEMS:
Problem1.) Two parallel railway tracks, centre lines being 60 m apart, are to be
connected by a reverse curve, each section having the same radius. If the maximum
distance between the tangent points is 220 m calculate the maximum allowable radius of
the reverse curve that can be used.
 49

Problem2.) The first branch of a reverse curve has a radius of 200 m. If the distance
between the tangent points is 110 m, what is the radius of the second branch so that the
curve can connect two parallel straights, 18 m apart ? Also calculate the length of the two
branches of the curve.
 50

Problem3.) It is proposed to introduce a reverse curve between two straights AB and

CD intersecting at a point I with ∠ CBI = 30° and ∠ BCI = 120°. The reverse curve
consists of two circular arcs AX and XD, X lying on the common tangent BC. If BC =
791.71, the radius RAX = 750 m, and chainage of B is 1250 m, calculate:
(i) the radius RXD,
 51

(ii) the lengths of the reverse curve, and

(iii) The chainage of D.
 52

III. Parabolic Curves

Instead of circular arcs to join two tangents, parabolic arcs have been proposed
and used, in order to do away with the sudden changes in direction which occur where a
circular curve leaves or joins a tangent. Parabolic curves have, however, failed to meet
with favor for railroad curves for several reasons.
1. Parabolic curves are less readily laid out by instrument than are circular curves.
2. It is not easy to compute at any given point the radius of curvature for a parabolic
curve ; it may be necessary to do this either for curving rails or for determining the
proper elevation for the outer rail.
3. The use of the " Spiral ," or other " Easement," or " Transition" curves secures the
desired result in a more satisfactory way.
There -are however many cases (in Landscape Gardening or elsewhere) where a
parabolic curve may be useful either because it is more graceful or because, without
instrument, it is more easily laid out, or for some other reason. It is seldom that parabolic
curves would be laid out by instrument.

A. Horizontal Parabolic Curve

The following paragraphs shows:
A.1 Adaptability
A.2 Useful Properties
A horizontal parabolic curve may be simple, compound, reverse, or spiral.
Compound and reverse curves are treated as a combination of two or more simple
curves, whereas the spiral curve is based on a varying radius.
 Simple
The simple curve is an arc of a circle. It is the most commonly used. The radius of
the circle determines the “sharpness” or “flatness” of the curve. The larger the radius, the
“flatter” the curve.
 53

 Compound
Surveyors often have to use a compound curve because of the terrain. This curve
normally consists of two simple curves curving in the same direction and joined together.

 Reverse
A reverse curve consists of two simple curves joined together but curving in
opposite directions. For safety reasons, the surveyor should not use this curve unless
absolutely necessary.
 54

 Spiral
The spiral is a curve with varying radius used on railroads and somemodern
highways. It provides a transition from the tangent to a simple curve or between simple
curves in a compound curve.

B. Vertical Curves
When two grade lines intersect, there is a vertical change of direction. To insure
safe and comfortable travel, the surveyor rounds off the intersection by inserting a
vertical parabolic curve. The parabolic curve provides a gradual direction change from
one grade to the next. A vertical curve connecting a descending grade with an ascending
grade, or with one descending less sharply, is called a sag or invert curve. An ascending
grade followed by a descending grade, or one ascending less sharply, is joined by a
summit or overt curve.
The following paragraphs and figure shows:
B1. Symmetrical from the P.I. to middle to Curve
B2. Offset from the P.I. to middle of curve
B3. Elevations along the Vertical Curve
 55

B4. Factors governing the length of Vertical Curves

B5. Unsymmetrical Curves
B6. Turning point on a vertical curve(highest / lowest point on a vertical curve
B6a. Passing a curve through a fixed elevation

Types of Vertical Curves

Components and Equations of Vertical Curves

 56

Terminology for Vertical Parabolic Curves

BVC = beginning of vertical curve
EVC = end of vertical curve
PVI = point of intersection
r = rate of change
g1 = slope of back tangent (in %)
g2 = slope of forward tangent (in %)
L = length of curve, in stations
l= length of sub-curve, in stations, to point on curve from BVC
 57

The Tangent Grade Elevation is calculated by using:

Tangent Elevation = (G1 * D) + PC Elevation

The Vertical Offset is calculated by:

2
v = gD

Where,

(G2-G1)
g= /2L

G1=Grade of the back tangent

G2=Grade of the ahead tangent
L=Length of the vertical curve
D=Distance from the PC to the station
Example of Crest Vertical Curve computation:
 58

g = -0.020-0.025/(2x400) = -0.00005625

COMPUTATIONS
In order to achieve a smooth change of direction when laying out vertical curves,
the grade must be brought up through a series of elevations. The surveyor normally
determines elevation for vertical curves for the beginning (point of vertical curvature or
PVC), the end (point of vertical tangency or PVT), and all full stations. At times, the
surveyor may desire additional points, but this will depend on construction requirements.
 59

 Length of Curve
The elevations are vertical offsets to the tangent (straightline design grade) elevations.
Grades G1 and G2 are given as percentages of rise for 100 feet of horizontal distance.
The surveyor identifies grades as plus or minus, depending on whether they are
ascending or descending in the direction of the survey. The length of the vertical curve
(L) is the horizontal distance (in 100-foot stations) from PVC to PVT. Usually, the curve
extends ½ L stations on each side of the point of vertical intersection (PVI) and is
most conveniently divided into full station increments. The surveyor can derive the curve
data as follows (with BV and CV being the grade lines to be connected). Determine
values of G1 and G2, the original grades. To arrive at the minimum curve length (L) in
stations, divide the algebraic difference of G1 and G2 (AG) by the rate of change (r),
which is normally included in the design criteria. When the rate of change (r) is not given,
use the following formulas to compute L:
 60

If L does not come out to a whole number of stations from this formula, it is
usually extended to the nearest whole number. Note that this reduces the rate of change.
Thus, L = 4.8 stations would be extended to 5 stations, and the value of r computed
from r = /\G/L. These formulas are for road design only. The surveyor must use different
formulas for railroad and airfield design.
 Station Interval
Once the length of curve is determined, the surveyor selects an appropriate station
interval (SI). The first factor to be considered is the terrain. The rougher the terrain, the
smaller the station interval. The second consideration is to select an interval which
will place a station at the center of the curve with the same number of stations on both
sides of the curve. For example, a 300-foot curve could not be staked at 100-foot
intervals but could be staked at 10-, 25-, 30-, 50-, or 75-foot intervals. The surveyor
often uses the same intervals as those recommended for horizontal curves, that is 10, 25,
50, and 100 feet.
Since the PVI is the only fixed station, the next step is to compute the station
value of the PVC, PVT, and all stations on the curve.
PVC = PVI - L/2
PVT = PVI + L/2
Other stations are determined by starting at the PVI, adding the SI, and continuing
until the PVT is reached.
 Tangent Elevations
Compute tangent elevations PVC, PVT, and all stations along the curve. Since the PVI
is the fixed point on the tangents, the surveyor computes the station elevations as
follows:
Elev PVC = Elev PVI + (-1 x L/2 x G1)
Elev PVT = Elev PVI + (L/2 x G2)
The surveyor may find the elevation of the stations along the back tangent as
follows:
Elev of sta = Elev of PVC + (distance from the
PVC x G1).
The elevation of the stations along the forward tangent is found as follows:
Elev of sta = Elev of PVI + (distance from the
PVI x G2)
 Vertical Maximum
The parabola bisects a line joining the PVI and the midpoint of the chord drawn
between the PVC and PVT.
DE and is referred to as the vertical maximum(Vm). The value of Vm is computed as
follows:
(L= length in 100-foot stations. In a 600-foot curve, L = 6.)
Vm = L/8 (G2 - G1) or
 61

 Vertical Offset. The value of the vertical offset is the distance between the
tangent line and the road grade. This value varies as the square of the distance
from the PVC or PVT and is computed using the formula:
Vertical Offset = (Distance)2 x Vm
A parabolic curve presents a mirror image. This means that the second half of the
curve is identical to the first half, and the offsets are the same for both sides of
the curve.
 Station Elevation. Next, the surveyor computes the elevation of the road grade
ateach of the stations along the curve. The elevation of the curve at any station is
equal to the tangent elevation at that station plus or minus the vertical offset for
that station, The sign of the offset depends upon the sign of Vm (plus for a sag
curve and minus for a summit curve).
 First and Second Differences. As a final step, the surveyor determines the
values of the first and second differences. The first differences are the differences
in elevation between successive stations along the curve, namely, the elevation of
the second station minus the elevation of the first station, then elevation of the
third station minus the elevation of the second, and so on. The second differences
are the differences between the differences in elevation (the first differences), and
they are computed in the same sequence as the first differences.
 High and Low Points.The surveyor uses the high or low point of a vertical curve
to determine the direction and amount of runoff, in the case of summit curves,
and to locate the low point for drainage. When the tangent grades are equal, the
high or low point will be at the center of the curve. When the tangent grades are
both plus, the low point is at the PVC and the high point at the PVT. When both
tangent grades are minus, the high point is at the PVC and the low point at the
PVT. When unequal plus and minus tangent grades are encountered, the high or
low point will fall on the side of curve that has the flatter gradient.
 Horizontal Distance. The determines the distance (x, expressed in stations)
between the PVC or PVT and the high or low point by the following formula:

G is the flatter of the two gradients and L is the number of curve stations.
 Vertical Distance. The surveyor computes the difference in elevation (y)
between the PVC or PVT and the high or low point by the
Formula:
 62

PROBLEMS:

Problem1.)
 63

Problem2.)
 64

Problem3.) The chainage of the intersection point of two straights is 1060 m, and the
angle of intersection is 120°. If radius of a circular curve to be set out is 570 m, and peg
interval is 30 m, determine the tangent length, the length of the curve, the chainage at
the beginning and end of the curve, the length of the long chord, the lengths of the sub-
chords, and the total number of chords. Refer in Fig. 7.10
Solution:
65
 66

IV. Transition Spirals/Clothoid

A. Introduction Application

In engineering construction, the surveyor often inserts a transition curve, also

known as a spiral curve, between a circular curve and the tangent to that curve. The
spiral is a curve of varying radius used to gradually increase the curvature of a road or
railroad. Spiral curves are used primarily to reduce skidding and steering difficulties by
gradual transition between straight-line and turning motion, and/or to provide a method
for adequately super elevating curves.

The spiral curve is designed to provide for a gradual super elevation of the outer
pavement edge of the road to counteract the centrifugal force of vehicles as they pass.
The best spiral Curve is one in which the super elevation increases uniformly with the
length of the spiral from the TS or the point where the spiral curve leaves the tangent.
The curvature of a spiral must increase uniformly from its beginning to its end. At he
beginning, where it leaves the tangent, its curvature is zero; at the end, where it joins
the circular curve, it has the same degree of curvature as the circular curve it intercepts.

B. Notation and Formulas

 Spiral Elements
TS = the point of change from tangent to spiral
 67

SC = the point of change from spiral to circular curve

CS = the point of change from circular curve to spiral
ST = the point of change from spiral to tangent
SS = the point of change from one spiral to another
 The symbols PC and PT, TS and ST, and SC and CS become transposed when the
direction of stationing is changed.
a = the angle between the tangent at the TS and the chord from the TS to any point on
the spiral
A = the angle between the tangent at the TS and the chord from the TS to the SC
b = the angle at any point on the spiral between the tangent at that point and the chord
from the TS
B = the angle at the SC between the chord from the TS and the tangent at the SC
c = the chord from any point on the spiral to the TS
C = the chord from the TS to the SC
d = the degree of curve at any point on the spiral
D = the degree of curve of the circular arc
f = the angle between any chord of the spiral (calculated when necessary) and the
tangent through the TS
I = the angle of the deflection between initial and final tangents; the total central angle
of the circular curve and spirals
k = the increase in degree of curve per station on the spiral
L = the length of the spiral in feet from the TS to any given point on the spiral
Ls = the length of the spiral in feet from the TS to the SC, measured in 10 equal chords
o = the ordinate of the offsetted PC; the distance between the tangent and a parallel
tangent to the offsetted curve
r = the radius of the osculating circle at any given point of the spiral
R = the radius of the central circular curve
s = the length of the spiral in stations from the TS to any given point
S = the length of the spiral in stations from the TS to the SC
u = the distance on the tangent from the TS to the intersection with a tangent through
any given point on the spiral
U = the distance on the tangent from the TS to the intersection with a tangent through
the SC; the longer spiral tangent
v = the distance on the tangent through any given point from that point to the
intersection with the tangent through the TS
V = the distance on the tangent through the SC from the SC to the intersection with the
tangent through the TS; the shorter spiral tangent
x = the tangent distance from the TS to any point on the spiral
X = the tangent distance from the TS to the SC
y = the tangent offset of any point on the spiral
Y = the tangent offset of the SC
Z = the tangent distance from the TS to the offsetted PC (Z = X/2, approximately)
 68

 Spiral Formulas
The following formulas are for the exact determination of the functions of the 10-
chord spiral when the central angle does not exceed 45 degrees. These are suitable for
the compilation of tables and for accurate fieldwork.

Spiral Lengths.
Different factors must be taken into account when calculating spiral lengths for
highway and railroad layout.
 69

Railroads.
Spirals applied to railroad layout must be long enough to permit an increase in
superelevation not exceeding 1 ¼ inches per second for the maximum speed of train
operation. The minimum length is determined from the equation Ls = 1.17 EV. E is the
full theoretical superelevation of the curve in inches, V is the speed in miles per hour, and
Ls is the spiral length in feet. This length of spiral provides the best riding conditions by
maintaining the desired relationship between the amount of superelevation and the
degree of curvature. The degree of curvature increases uniformly throughout the length
of the spiral. The same equation is used to compute the length of a spiral between the
arcs of a compound curve. In such a case, E is the difference between the
superelevations of the two circular arcs.
SPIRAL CALCULATIONS
Spiral elements are readily computed from the formulas given. To use these
formulas, certain data must be known. These data are normally obtained from location
plans or by field measurements.The following computations are for a spiral when D, V, PI
station, and I are known.

D = 4°
I = 24°10’

C. Development of Spiral Theory

Theory of A.R.E.A.
10-Chord Spiral
The spiral of the American Railway Engineering Association, known as the A.R.E.A.
spiral, retains nearly all the characteristics of the cubic spiral. In the cubic spiral, the
lengths have been considered as measured along the spiral curve itself, but
measurements in the field must be taken by chords. Recognizing this fact, in the A.R.E.A.
spiral the length of spiral is measured by 10 equal chords, so that the theoretical curve is
brought into harmony with field practice. This 10-chord spiral closely approximates the
cubic spiral. Basically, the two curves coincide up to the point where /\=15degrees.

D. Functions of the Spiral and Circle

Spirals applied to highway layout must be long enough to permit the effects of
centrifugal force to be adequately compensated for by proper super elevation. The
minimum transition spiral length for any degree of curvature and design speed is
obtained from the the relationship Ls = 1.6V3/R, in which Ls is the minimum spiral length
in feet, V is the design speed in miles per hour, and R is the radius of curvature of the
simple curve. This equation is not mathematically exact but an approximation based on
years of observation and road tests. When spirals are inserted between the arcs of a
 70

compound curve, use Ls = 1.6V3/Ra. Ra represents the radius of a curve of a degree

equal to the difference in degrees of curvature of the circular arcs.
Spirals applied to railroad layout must be long enough to permit an increase in
super elevation not exceeding 1 ¼ inches per second for the maximum speed of train
operation. The minimum length is determined from the equation Ls = 1.17 EV. E is the
full theoretical super elevation of the curve in inches, V is the speed in miles per hour,
and Ls is the spiral length in feet.
This length of spiral provides the best riding conditions by maintaining the desired
relationship between the amounts of super elevation and the degree of curvature. The
degree of curvature increases uniformly throughout the length of the spiral. The same
equation is used to compute the length of a spiral between the arcs of a compound
curve. In such a case, E is the difference between the super elevations of the two circular
arcs.
 71

E. Deflection Angles

One of the principal characteristics of the spiral is that the deflection angles vary
as the square of the distance along the curve.

PROBLEMS:

Problem1.)
72
73
74
 75

Problem2.)
76
77
78
 79

Problem3.)
 80

VI. Curve – Super elevation

A. Definition
Super elevation is the tilting of the roadway to help offset centripetal forces developed
as the vehicle goes around the curve. Along with friction they are what keeps a vehicle
from going off road.

The following paragraphs shows:

B. Banking of Highway Spirals

C. Length of Highway Spirals

 Maximum Values of Superelevation

Main Roads general maximum superelevation is limited to 6%. Shaded areas within the
Main Roads 'Horizontal Curve Tables' are for superelevation on turning roads and loop
ramps. The absolute maximum superelevation for turning roads and loop ramps is 10%.
Maximum values of superelevation are listed in Table 7.7.
Heavily laden or slow moving vehicles limit the maximum acceptable value of
superelevation. The Designer should take into account the types of vehicles using the
road and limit the acceptable maximum superelevation to ensure their safety.
For the stability of turning vehicles at intersections, changes of grade greater than 4%
through the turning movement or superelevation exceeding 4% at the intersection is not
acceptable. - Refer to Section 7.7.12 Superelevation at Intersections.
Maximum
Road Type Speed Range (km/h)
Superelevation (emax)

High Speed 90km/h or greater 6%

Intermediate Speed 70km/h to 89 km/h 7%

Low Speed 69 km/h or less 10%

 Minimum Values of Superelevation
The minimum value of superelevation should not be less than the slope of the normal
crossfall adopted for the adjacent tangent alignment. This is normally 3% for sealed
surfaces.
For asphalt or concrete freeway type surfaces, 2.5% crossfall can be used for the
crowned cross section and minimum superelevation.
 Length of Superelevation Development
Main Roads uses the same terminology used by Austroads with the exception of the
following: -
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Superelevation Transition Length = is the superelevation development length including

the rounding vertical curves.
Rounding Vertical Curve = Ease.
For appearance purposes Main Roads has adopted the rounding curves lengths as shown
in Table 7.7.5.
Number of Lanes
Length of Rounding (m)
in One Direction
1 (3.5 m) 20
2 (7.0 m) 30
3 (10.5 m) 40
Table 7.7.5 - Superelevation Development Length Rounding Curve Lengths
Note that these rounding curve lengths are not applicable in situations where stopping
sight distance to a zero object height is required (i.e. at intersections) and therefore they
shall be amended accordingly.

Step 1
Calculate the Length of Superelevation Development Using Rate of Rotation
Calculate the length of superelevation development using the following formulae;

Le = (e1 - e2) V/0.126 for vehicle operating speed < 80 km/h

Le = (e1 - e2) V/0.09 for vehicle operating speed > 80 km/h
Where, Le = superelevation development length (m)
e1, e2 = crossfall or superelevation at ends of development length (m/m)
V = vehicle operating speed (km/h)

Step 2
Calculate the Length of Superelevation Development Using Relative Grade
Select a value of Gr from Table 7.8 Austroads GRD Part 3: Geometric Design

Where, Le = superelevation development length (m)

Wr = width from axis of rotation to outside edge of seal (m)
e1, e2 = crossfall or superelevation at ends of transition length (m/m)
Gr = relative grade (%)
The greater value of the lengths calculated in Steps 1 and Step 2 is then adopted for Le.
Step 3
Calculate the Superelevation Runoff length and Tangent Runout Length
The superelevation runoff length is calculated using the formula:-
Ls = Le - Le [e1/(e1 - e2)]
L t = Le - L s
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Where, Ls = superelevation runoff length (m)

Le = superelevation development length (m)
e1 = normal crossfall at start of development length (%)
e2 = full superelevation at end of development length (%)
Lt = tangent runout (m)
AASHTO - A Policy on the Geometric Design of Highways and Streets (2004) pages 175
to 192 investigates the lengths of plan transition curves. It states that a value of 0.2m is
consistent with the minimum lateral shift that occurs as a result of the natural steering
behaviour of most drivers and likewise a value of 1.0m is generally the maximum lateral
shift that occurs. (Refer page 188).
AASHTO also recommends on page 190 - "For the most part the calculated values for
length of spiral and length of runoff do not differ materially" .... and that .... "The length
of runoff is applicable to all superelevated curves, and it is recommended that this value
should be used for minimum lengths of spiral. In this manner, the length of spiral should
be set equal to the length of superelevation runoff."
Accordingly, Main Roads has adopted superelevation runoff length to be equal to the plan
transition length and any shift less than 0.2m can be contained within the width of the
normal lane.

Step 4
Calculate the Shift for the Superelevation Runoff Length/Plan Transition Length
(i) The superelevation runoff length is assumed to be equal to the plan transition
length.
Ls = Lp = plan transition length.
(ii) Calculate the shift using the formula: -
P=L2/24R
Where, P = shift (m)
L = plan transition length/superelevation runoff length (m)
R = radius of central curve (m)
If the shift is less than 0.2m then no plan transition is required.If the shift is equal
to or greater than 0.2m then a plan transition is to be applied equal in length to the
superelevation runoff length. Refer to Figure 5 Main Roads Horizontal Curve Tables. For
values of curves not requiring plan transitions refer to Table 7.2 below. Main Roads
method of rounding the superelevation development and runoff lengths is to round to
the nearest 1 meter. The uniform application of the super development tends to locate
the level cross section at the tangent point when plan transitions are used. The
superelevation runoff length should be coincident with the plan transition.
When the plan transition is omitted, the superelevation development length is
positioned with the larger portion of the superelevation runoff length on the approach
tangent.
Operating Speed (km/h) Maximum Radius (m)
60 or under Not required
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70 250
80 340
90 490
100 640
110 700
Table 7.2 - Maximum Radius Requiring a Plan Transition
 Superelevation on Bridges
Bridge Designers prefer that bridges are located on straight alignments and
grades. If this is not possible, the next best situation is a bridge on constant curvature
and crossfall to avoid the need for superelevation transitions on bridges.
 Superelevation at Intersections
Where a side road junction is on the outside of a curve, a compromise may be
necessary between adequate superelevation on the through road and safe conditions for
vehicles turning against the adverse crossfall. The situation worsens if the curve is
located on a steep grade. If the intersection cannot be relocated, the superelevation may
need to be modified to ensure safe turning conditions.
Generally, if the through road has a longitudinal grade over 3%, the
superelevation/crossfall on the through road should not exceed 4% and should preferably
be limited to 3%. The same problem does not exist where the junction is on the inside of
the curve as the superelevation then favours the turning movements. However, junctions
on the inside of curves are not desirable due to sight distance constraints. The maximum
effective adverse crossfall for turning movements at intersections is 5%. At intersections
with higher speed turning movements (i.e. traffic signal controlled intersections) the safe
effective adverse crossfall may need to be less than the maximum. Other combinations
may be used to provide correct road drainage and appearance. Normal sight distance
requirements still apply.
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Crest Vertical Curve on Flat Grades

Coordination of Vertical Curves with Superelevation Rounding Curves
Reference should also be made to Chapter 6 Coordination of Horizontal and Vertical
Alignment.
The general method of applying superelevation to horizontal curves is shown in Figure
8.6.9.

Figure 8.6.9 General Method of Application of Superelevation with Plan Transition –Profile
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For appearance purposes Main Roads has adopted the rounding curves lengths as shown
in Table 7.7.5
General rules for coordination of vertical curves with superelevation transition
rounding curves:
The main profile vertical curve should not overlap the rounding vertical curve.A
main profile vertical curve may be compounded with a rounding vertical curve turning the
same direction.Compound reverse vertical curves shall not be used.On a superelevation
transition the whole pavement shall have a longitudinal fall in only one direction.

Problem:
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VIII. Sight Distance on Highways

A. Introduction/Purposes

Sight Distance is the distance a driver can see from his or her vehicle. This becomes
important when determining design speed, as it would be unsafe to allow a driver to
drive faster and not be able to stop in time for a potential, unforeseen hazard. Sight
distance is applied to two main categories:

 Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)

 Passing Sight Distance (PSD)

B. Stopping Sight Distance

The SSD(Stopping Sight Distance) is the sight distance required by a driver to stop
a vehicle when faced with an unexpected
obstruction on the carriageway. It comprises two elements:
(a) The perception-reaction distance, which is the distance travelled from the time the
driver sees the obstruction to the time it is realized that the vehicle must stop; and
(b) The braking distance, which is the distance travelled before the vehicle halts short of
the obstruction.
The above are a function of driver age and fatigue, road conditions, etc. and thus
the design parameters are based on average driver behaviour in wet conditions. Table
8.3 provides values for desirable and absolute minimum SSD. It has been shown that
95% of drivers’ eye height is 1.05 m or above; the upper limit of 2 m represents large
vehicles.
The height of the obstruction is between 0.26 m and 2.0 m. Forward visibility
should be provided in both horizontal and vertical planes between points in the centre of
the lane nearest the inside of the curve.
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 Full overtaking sight distance (FOSD)

On single carriageways, overtaking in the lane of the opposing traffic occurs. To do
so in safety
requires an adequate sight distance which will permit the driver to complete the normal
overtaking
procedure.
The FOSD consists of four elements:
(a) The perception/reaction distance travelled by the vehicle whilst the decision to
overtake or not
is made.
(b) The overtaking distance travelled by the vehicle to complete the overtaking
maneuver.
(c) The closing distance travelled by the oncoming vehicle whilst overtaking is occurring.
(d) The safety distance required for clearance between the overtaking and oncoming
vehicles at the instant the overtaking vehicle has returned to its own lane.It has been
shown that 85% of overtaking takes place in 10 seconds and gives appropriate
FOSD values relative to design speed.
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It should be obvious from the concept of FOSD that it is used in the design of
single carriageways only, where safety when overtaking is the prime consideration.
For instance, consider the design of a crest curve on a dual carriageway with a design
speed of 100 km/h.
C1 Desirable minimum K-value = 100
C2 One step below desirable minimum K-value = 55
C4 FOSD K-value = 400
As overtaking is not a safety hazard on a dual carriageway, FOSD is not necessary and
one would use:
L = 100 A (desirable minimum) or L = 55 A (one step below desirable minimum)
Had the above road been a single carriageway then FOSD would be required and:
L = 400 A
If this resulted in too long a curve, with excessive earthworks, then it might be decided to
prohibit overtaking entirely, in which case:
L = 55 A would be used.
Diagram of stopping sight distance
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C. Passing sight distance – is the distance required to overtake a vehicle on same lane
considering the distance on the other lane for the safe passage.

These formulas use units that are in metric.

Headlight Sight Distance

This design method for sag curves provides a minimum curve length. The curve must
be long enough so that in dark driving conditions, the headlights of a standard vehicle
illuminate the road a safe distance beyond the stopping distance for the designed speed of
travel.
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D. Sight distance along horizontal curves

Once you have a radius that seems to connect the two previously disjointed
sections of roadway safely and comfortably, you need to make sure that you have
provided an adequate stopping sight distance throughout your horizontal curve.
Sight distance can be the controlling aspect of horizontal curve design where obstructions
are present near the inside of the curve. To determine the actual sight distance that you
have provided, you need to consider that the driver can only see the portion of the
roadway ahead that is not hidden by the obstruction. In addition, at the instant the driver
is in a position to see a hazard in the roadway ahead, there should be a length of
roadway between the vehicle and the hazard that is greater than or equal to the stopping
sight distance.
Because the sight obstructions for each curve will be different, no general method
for calculating the sight distance has been developed. If you do have a specific
obstruction in mind, however, there is an equation that might be helpful. This equation
involves the stopping sight distance, the degree of the curve, and the location of the
obstruction.
M = (5730/D)*(1 - cos(SD/200))
Where:
M = Distance from the center of the inside lane to the obstruction (ft.)
D = Degree of the curve. Where R = 5730/D
S = Stopping sight distance (ft)
R = Radius of the curve (ft)
Once your rough design has been adjusted to accommodate the sight distance
restrictions, and you are satisfied with the aesthetic and financial consequences of your
superelevation scheme, you can begin to polish your design into its final form.
Unlike straight, level roads that would have a clear line of sight for a great distance,
horizontal curves pose a unique challenge. Natural terrain within the inside of the curve,
such as trees, cliffs, or buildings, can potentially block a driver's view of the upcoming
road if placed too close to the road. As a result, the acceptable design speed is often
reduced to account for sight distance restrictions.
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Two scenarios exist when computing the acceptable sight distance for a given
curve. The first is where the sight distance is determined to be less than the curve
length. The second is where the sight distance exceeds the curve length. Each scenario
has a respective formula that produces sight distance based on geometric properties.
Determining which scenario is the correct one often requires testing both to find out
which is true.

Given a certain sight distance and a known curve length and inner lane
centerline radius , the distance a sight obstraction can be from the interior edge of the
road, can be computed in the following formulas.

E. Sight distance on vertical curves

F. Sight distance at underpass structures

Crest Vertical Curves

Crest vertical curves are curves that connect inclined sections of roadway, forming
a crest, and they are relatively easy to design. As you know from the module entitled
‘Vertical Curves,’ we only need to find an appropriate length for the curve that will
accommodate the correct sight distance. The stopping sight distance is usually the
controlling sight distance, but the decision sight distance or even the passing sight
distance could be used if desired. The passing sight distance is rarely ever used as the
design sight distance, because it demands long, gentle curvatures that are expensive
and difficult to construct.
The sight distance and the length of the curve can be related to each other in one
of two ways. The first possibility is that the sight distance is less than the length of
the curve. Alternatively, the length of the curve could be less than the sight
distance. See figure 1.0.

In any case, there are equations that relate these two parameters to the change in
grade for both possible conditions. The designer must double-check that the equation
that is used agrees with its own assumptions. For example, if the equation that is
based on sight distances that are less than the curve length produces a curve length
that is less than the sight distance, you know that the result is invalid. The equations
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that are normally used to calculate the lengths of crest vertical curves are given
below.
If S > L then

If S < L then

Where:
L = Length of the crest vertical curve (ft)
S = Sight distance (ft)
A = The change in grades ( |G2-G1| as a percent)
h1 = Height of the driver's eyes above the ground (ft)
h2 = Height of the object above the roadway (ft)
The heights in the calculations above should be those that correspond to the sight
distance of interest. For the stopping sight distance, h1 = 3.5 ft and h2 = 0.5 ft. For
the passing sight distance, h1 = 3.5 ft and h2 = 4.25 ft.
While the sight distance has been portrayed as the only parameter that affects the
design of vertical curves, this isn't entirely true. Vertical curves should also be
comfortable for the driver, aesthetically pleasing, safe, and capable of facilitating
proper drainage. In the special case of crest vertical curves, it just so happens that a
curve designed with adequate sight distances in mind is usually aesthetically pleasing
and comfortable for the driver. In addition, drainage is rarely a special concern for
crest vertical curves.
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PROBLEMS:

Problem 1) Find the Stopping Sight Distance of the following roadway:

 Design speed = 40 mph

 Driver reaction time = 2 seconds
 Grade = 0%
 Deceleration rate = 11.2 ft/s^2
Solution:

Problem 2) A driver with a 2.5-second reaction time is travelling at 65 miles per hour up
a 2% grade. Assuming AASHTO standard values for all other information, what distance
will be required for the driver to come to a complete stop if an obstruction enters his or
her field of vision?
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Problem 3.)
A very long horizontal curve on a one-directional racetrack has 1750-meter
centerline radius, two 4-meter lanes, and a 200 km/hr design speed. Determine the
closest distance from the inside edge of the track that spectators can park without
impeding the necessary sight distance of the drivers. Assume that the sight distance is
less than the length of the curve, a coefficient of friction of 0.3, and a perception-reaction
time of 2.5 seconds.

Solution:

With a centerline radius of 1750 meters, the centerline of the interior lane is 1748
meters from the vertex (1750 - (4/2)). Using the stopping sight distance formula, SSD is
computed to be 664 meters. With this, the distance from the track that spectators can be
parked can easily be found.

This gives the distance (31.43 m) to the center of the inside lane. Subtracting half
the lane width (2m in this case) would give the distance to the edge of the track, 29.43
m.