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Surveying Book - Compiled
Surveying Book - Compiled
I. INTRODUCTION
Route surveying is comprised of all survey operations required for design and
construction of engineering works such as highways, pipelines, canals, or railroads. A
route surveying system is generally associated with highway design and construction.
A route surveying system usually contains four separate but interrelated
processes:
• Reconnaissance and planning
• Works design
• Right of way acquisition
• Construction of works
Surveying has to do with the determination of the relative spatial location of points
on or near the surface of the earth. It is the art of measuring horizontal and vertical
distances between objects, of measuring angles between lines, of determining the
direction of lines, and of establishing points by predetermined angular and linear
measurements. Along with the actual survey measurements are the mathematical
calculations. Distances, angles, directions, locations, elevations, areas, and volumes are
thus determined from the data of the survey. Survey data is portrayed graphically by the
construction of maps, profiles, cross sections, and diagrams.
Types of Surveys:
Geodetic Surveying: The type of surveying that takes into account the true shape of the
earth. These surveys are of high precision and extend over large areas.
Plane Surveying: The type of surveying in which the mean surface of the earth is
considered as a plane, or in which its spheroidal shape is neglected, with regard to
horizontal distances and directions.
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Operations in Surveying:
Control Survey: Made to establish the horizontal and vertical positions of arbitrary points.
Boundary Survey: Made to determine the length and direction of land lines and to
establish the position of these lines on the ground.
Topographic Survey: Made to gather data to produce a topographic map showing the
configuration of the terrain and the location of natural and man-made objects.
Hydrographic Survey: The survey of bodies of water made for the purpose of navigation,
water supply, or sub-aqueous construction.
Mining Survey: Made to control, locate and map underground and surface works related
to mining operations.
Construction Survey: Made to lay out, locate and monitor public and private engineering
works.
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A. Reconnaissance Survey
A1. Definition
The Reconnaissance is a rapid survey, or rather a critical examination of country,
without the use of the ordinary instruments of surveying. Certain instruments, however,
are used, the Aneroid Barometer, for instance. It is very commonly the case that the
termini of the railroad are fixed, and often intermediate points also. It is desirable that no
unnecessary restrictions as to intermediate points should be imposed on the engineer to
prevent his selecting what he finds to be the best line, and for this reason it is advisable
that the reconnaissance should, where possible, precede the drawing of the charter.
A2. Objectives/Purposes
There are several purposes of reconnaissance:
a.) to find whether there is any satisfactory line between the proposed termini;
b.) to establish which of several lines is best;
c.) to determine approximately the maximum grade necessary to be used;
d.) to report upon the character or geological formation of the country, and the probable
cost of construction depending somewhat upon that;
e.) to make note of the existing resources of the country, its manufactures, mines,
agricultural or natural products, and the capabilities for improvement and development of
the country resulting from the introduction of the railroad.
should embrace all the section of intervening country, and all feasible lines should be
examined.
2.) There are two features of topography that are likely to prove of especial interest in
reconnaissance, ridge lines and valley lines.
A ridge line along the whole of its course is higher than the ground immediately
adjacent to it on each side. That is, the ground slopes downward from it to both sides. It
is also called a watershed line.
A valley line, to the contrary, is lower than the ground immediately adjacent to it
on each side. The ground slopes upward from it to both sides. Valley lines may be called
watercourse lines.
A pass is a place on a ridge line lower than any neighboring points on the same
ridge. Very important points to be determined in reconnaissance are the passes where
the ridge lines are to be crossed ; also the points where the valleys are to be crossed ;
and careful attention should be given to these points. In crossing a valley through which
a large stream flows, it may be of great importance to find a good bridge crossing. In
some cases where there are serious difficulties in crossing a ridge, a tunnel may be
necessary. Where such structures, either bridges or tunnels, are to be built, favorable
points for their construction should be selected and the rest of the line be compelled to
conform. In many parts of the United States at the present time, the necessity for
avoiding grade crossings causes the crossings of roads and streets to become governing
points of as great importance as ridges and valleys.
3.) The report upon reconnaissance should include information upon all these points.
It is for the determination of the third point mentioned, the rate of maximum grade, that
the barometer is used. Observing the elevations of governing points, and knowing the
distances between those points, it is possible to form a good judgment as to what rate of
maximum grade to assume.
4.) The Elevations are usually taken by the Aneroid Barometer. Tables for converting
barometer readings into elevations above sea-level are readily available and in convenient
form for field use.
Distances may be determined with sufficient accuracy in many cases from the
map, where a good one exists. Where this method is impossible or seems undesirable,
the distance may be determined in one of several different ways. When the trip is made
by wagon, it is customary to use an Odometer, an instrument which measures and
records the number of revolutions of the wheel to which it is attached, and thus the
distance traveled by the wagon. There are different forms of odometer. In its most
common form, it depends upon a hanging weight or pendulum, which is supposed to hold
its position, hanging vertical, while the wheel turns. The instrument is attached to the
wheel between the spokes and as near to the hub as practicable. At low speeds it
registers accurately ; as the speed is increased, a point is reached where the centrifugal
force neutralizes or overcomes the force of gravity upon the pendulum, and the
instrument fails to register accurately, or perhaps at high speeds to register at all. If this
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form of odometer is used, a clear understanding should be had of the conditions under
which it fails to correctly register. A theoretical discussion might closely establish the
point at which the centrifugal force will balance the force of gravity. The wheel striking
against stones in a rough road will create disturbances in the action of the pendulum, so
that the odometer will fail to register accurately at speeds less than that determined upon
the above assumption.
A cyclometer, manufactured for automobile use, is connected both with the wheel
and the axle, and so measures positively the relative motion between the wheel and axle,
and this ought to be reliable for registering accurately. Many engineers prefer to count
the revolutions of the wheel themselves, tying a rag to the wheel to make a conspicuous
mark for counting.
When the trip is made on foot, pacing will give satisfactory results. An instrument
called the Pedometer registers the results of pacing. As ordinarily constructed, the
graduations read to quarter miles, and it is possible to estimate to one tenth that
distance. Pedometers are also made which register paces. In principle, the pedometer
depends upon the fact that, with each step, a certain shock or jar is produced as the heel
strikes the ground, and each shock causes the instrument to register. Those registering
miles are adjustable to the length of pace of the wearer. If the trip is made on horseback,
it is found possible to get good results with a steady-gaited horse, by first determining his
rate of travel and figuring distance by the time consumed in traveling. Excellent results
are said to have been secured in this way.
6.) The preliminary survey is based upon the results of the reconnaissance, and the
location upon the results of the preliminary survey. The reconnaissance thus forms the
foundation upon which the location is made. Any failure to find a suitable line and the
best line constitutes a defect which no amount of faithfulness in the later work will
rectify. The most serious errors of location are liable to be due to imperfect
reconnaissance ; an inefficient engineer of reconnaissance should be avoided at all
hazards. In the case of a new railroad, it would, in general, be proper that the Chief
Engineer should in person conduct this survey. In the case of the extension of existing
lines, this might be impracticable or inadvisable, but an assistant of known responsibility,
ability, and experience should in this case be selected to attend to the work.
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B. Preliminary Surveys
B1. Definition
The Preliminary Survey is based upon the results of the reconnaissance. It is a
survey made with the ordinary instruments of surveying. Its purpose is to fix and mark
upon the ground a first trial line approximating as closely to the proper final line as the
difficulty of the country and the experience of the engineer will allow ; further than this,
to collect data such that this survey shall serve as a basis upon which the final Location
may intelligently be made. In order to approximate closely in the trial line, it is essential
that the maximum grade should be determined or estimated as correctly as possible, and
the line fixed with due regard thereto. It will be of value to devote some attention here to
an explanation about Grades and “Maximum Grades.”
1.) Grades. The ideal line in railroad location is a straight and level line. This is
seldom, if ever, realized. When the two termini are at different elevations, a line straight
and of uniform grade becomes the ideal. It is commonly impossible to secure a line of
uniform grade between termini. In operating a railroad, an engine division will be about
100 miles, sometimes less, often more. In locating any 100 miles of railroad, it is almost
certain that a uniform grade cannot be maintained. More commonly there will be a
succession of hills, part of the line up grade, part down grade. Sometimes there will be a
continuous up grade, but, not at a uniform rate. With a uniform grade, a locomotive
engine will be constantly exerting its maximum pull or doing its maximum work in hauling
the longest train it is capable of hauling ; there will be no power wasted in hauling a light
train over low or level grades upon which a heavier train could be hauled. Where the
grades are not uniform, but are rising or falling, or rising irregularly, it will be found that
the topography on some particular 5 or 10 miles is of such a character that the grade
here must be steeper than is really necessary anywhere else on the line ; or there may
be two or three stretches of grade where about the same rate of grade is necessary,
steeper than elsewhere required.
The steep grade thus found necessary at some special point or points on the line
of railroad is called the “Maximum Grade” or “Ruling Grade” or “Limiting Grade,” it being
the grade that limits the weight of train that an engine can haul over the whole division.
It should then be the effort to make the rate of maximum grade as low as possible,
because the lower the rate of the maximum grade, the heavier the train a given
locomotive can haul, and because it costs not very much more to haul a heavy train than
a light one. The maximum grade determined by the reconnaissance should be used as
the basis for the preliminary survey. How will this affect the line? Whenever a hill is
encountered, if the maximum grade be steep, it may be possible to carry the line
straight, and over the hill; if the maximum grade be low, it may be necessary to
deflect the line and carry it around the hill. When the maximum grade has been once
properly determined, if any saving can be accomplished by using it rather than a grade
less steep, the maximum grade should be used. It is possible that the train loads will not
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c.) To provide a map as a basis upon which the Location can properly be made.
d.) To make a close estimate of the cost of the work.
e.) To secure, in certain cases, legal rights by filing plans.
5.) It should be understood that the preliminary survey is, in general, simply a means
to an end, and rapidity and economy are desirable. It is an instrumental survey.
Measurements of distance are taken usually with the chain, although a tape is sometimes
used. Angles are taken generally with a transit ; some advocate the use of a compass.
The line is ordinarily run as a broken line with angles, but is occasionally run with curves
connecting the straight stretches, generally for the reason that a map of such a line is
available for filing, and certain legal rights result from such a filing. With a compass, no
backsight need be taken, and, in passing small obstacles, a compass will save time on
this account. A transit line can be carried past an obstacle readily by a zigzag line.
Common practice among engineers favors the use of the transit rather than the compass.
Stakes are set, at every “Station,” 100 feet apart, and the stakes are marked on the face,
the first 0, the next I , then 2, and so to the end of the line. A stake set 1025 feet from
the beginning would be marked 10 + 25.
Levels are taken on the ground at the side of the stakes, and as much oftener as
there is any change in the inclination of the ground. All the surface heights are platted on
a profile, and the grade line adjusted.
6.) The line should be run from a governing point towards country allowing a choice
of location, which is from a pass or from an important bridge crossing, towards country
offering no great difficulties. There is an advantage in running from a summit downhill,
subject, however, to the above considerations. In running from a summit down at a
prescribed rate of grade, an experienced engineer will carry the line so that, at the end of
a day’s work, the levels will show the line to be about where it ought to be. For this
purpose, the levels must be worked up and the profile platted to date at the close of each
day. Any slight change of line found necessary can then be made early the next morning.
A method sometimes adopted in working down from a summit is for the locating engineer
to plat his grade line on the profile, daily in advance, and then during the day, plat a
point on his profile whenever he can conveniently get one from his leveler, and thus find
whether his line is too high or too low.
7.) Occasionally the result of two or three days’ work will yield a line extremely
unsatisfactory, enough so that the work of these two or three days will be abandoned.
The party “backs up” and takes a fresh start from some convenient point. In such case
the custom is not to tear out several pages of note-book, but instead to simply draw a
line across the page and mark the page “Abandoned.” At some future time the
abandoned notes may convey useful information to the effect that this line was
attempted and found unavailable.
In general, all notes worth taking are worth saving. Sometimes after a line has
been run through a section of country, there is later found a shorter or better line.
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In the figure used for illustration, the first line, “A” Line, is represented by AEBCD,
upon which the stations are marked continuously from A to D, 350 stations. The new line,
“ B “ Line, starts from E, Sta. 102 + 60, and the stationing is held continuous from to
where it connects with the “A” Line at C. The point C is Sta. 312 + 27 of the “A” Line, and
is also Sta. 307 + 13 of the “ B” Line. It is not customary to restake the line from C to D
in accordance with “B” Line stationing. Instead of this, a note is made in the note-books
as follows :
Sta. 312 + 27 “ A “ Line = 307 + 13 “ B “ Line.
Some engineers make the note in the following form :
Sta. 307 to 313 = 86 ft.
The first form is preferable, being more direct and less liable to cause confusion.
8.) All notes should be kept clearly and nicely in a notebook never on small pieces of
paper. The date and the names of members of the party should be entered each day in
the upper left-hand corner of the page. An office copy should be made as soon as
opportunity offers, both for safety and convenience. The original notes should always be
preserved; they would be admissible as evidence in a court of law where a copy would be
rejected. When two or more separate or alternate lines are run, they may be designated
Line “ A,” Line “ B,” Line “ C,”
Or “ A “ Line, “ B “ Line, “ C “ Line.
The cost and time required for resetting stakes, or for setting new lines of
construction control stakes can be reduced if easy to use reference markers are set
before construction is started. The prime considerations for reference points are that they
too will not be destroyed and that they can be used without special survey equipment to
accurately place the required control stakes.
Whenever feasible, reference points should be set on the right-of-way line because
they have the best likelihood of remaining undisturbed. If the road or other terrain
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features will interfere with the line of sight between reference points, additional sight only
references may be required.
Once the alignment control is set, several optional methods for setting the
intermediate station points are available. The option selected by the surveyor should be
based on personnel, available equipment, terrain and safety.
Traverse Method - The traditional system of instrument setups at control points and
sighting on line or turning appropriate angles to set station points. The main advantage
of this method is that it provides on-the-ground and visual checks of the centerline.
However, it is more time consuming and less accurate than using the supplemental
control method.
The main disadvantage is the lower level of accuracy obtained as compared to the
higher levels obtained using GPS.
Real Time GPS Method - Recent developments in GPS surveying provides the most
efficient method for setting the centerline and additional reference points. A base GPS
receiver and a (one or several) roving receiver are used for this purpose. Numerical and
graphical instructions displayed on the roving receiver direct the surveyor to the desired
point. The real time kinematics GPS method is based on the following procedure:
The three dimensional coordinates of all the points to be staked out are stored in
the roving receiver.
A base station is set up on a known point.
The rover and the base station receivers are initialized to establish a relative
position between them.
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The rover and the base receivers communicate measurements via a radio (usually
FM) frequency.
Since the coordinates of the rover are measured and updated continuously, it is
relatively easy to compute the direction and distance to the construction stake to
be staked out. This information is then displayed and made available to the
surveyor.
1. One base receiver can serve many rovers simultaneously. This makes this method
very efficient.
2. Less control is needed for the project because line-of-sight does not have to be
maintained. The only limitation is the range of the radio communication between
the rover and the base.
3. It is very easy to reset any destroyed point.
Vertical Control
Ideally, most of the project control benchmarks have been established during the
preliminary stage of the project development or the preliminary survey. This existing
network is then identified by closed loop vertical surveys throughout the preliminary and
construction period. Prior to beginning establishment of construction control benchmarks,
several steps should be taken.
1. Check monuments - If there has been a long delay between the time the base
vertical survey was conducted and the completion of the design plans, the
condition of the base monuments should be field checked. Each monument should
be checked for possible disturbance or settlement, and whether it is in satisfactory
condition. Benchmarks that are to be used in the project should also be reflagged
for easy location.
2. Plan benchmark locations - Design plans should be thoroughly reviewed and a
set of plans marked up with the approximate location of existing benchmarks and
locations where construction control benchmarks will be required. Such planning
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can save considerable field time and assure that required benchmarks will be
established at their optimum location on a timely basis. Construction plan sheets
must contain a minimum of one benchmark.
3. Plan BM establishment - The planning process should determine which bench-
lines should be established for the initial grade staking (normally earthwork on
mainlines and service roads), final grade staking, structure staking and vertical
control documentation. Each bench line should be planned to reduce the difficulty
and length of level runs required to establish the subsequent bench marks.
Benchmarks should be placed in locations suitable for the intended purpose and
permanence. Utility poles, ornamental trees, or fire hydrants should be avoided.
3. Locate near "join" lines of cross streets, intersection of sidewalks and existing
facilities outside of the construction area.
4. Select locations with locally level terrain. A benchmark on top of a high slope is
not as desirable as one lower on the slope, provided all other criteria can be
met. Quite often, the positions of horizontal (traverse) points are not
compatible with project use of benchmarks, but are compatible with other
considerations. In such instances, benchmarks in more usable locations should
be established from the traverse control.
5. Utilize baseline monuments when practical.
6. Benchmarks destroyed during construction activities must be replaced to
ensure a minimum of one benchmark per thousand feet.
The density of benchmarks in the project area can be a source of confusion and
possible error through misidentification. It is important that each be uniquely identifiable
by name, number, or location and marked with the appropriate identification code.
During periods of use, a flagged or painted lath can aid the rod person in the speedy
location of the benchmark. Care should be used not to deface private property or
structures that will remain after construction.
Leveling Accuracies
1.) The Locating Engineer is the chief of party, and is responsible for the business
management of the camp and party, as well as for the conduct of the survey. He
determines where the line shall run, keeping ahead of the transit, and establishing points
as foresights or turning-points for the transitman. In open country, the extra axeman can
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assist by holding the flag at turning-points, and thus allowing the locating engineer to
push on and pick out other points in advance. The locating engineer keeps a special note-
book or memorandum book ; in it he notes on the ground the quality of material, rock,
earth, or whatever it may be ; takes notes to determine the lengths and positions of
bridges, culverts, and other structures ; shows the localities of timber, building stones,
borrow pits, and other materials valuable for the execution of the work ; in fact, makes
notes of all matters not properly attended to by the transit, leveling, or topography party.
The rapid and faithful prosecution of the work depends upon the locating engineer, and
the party ought to derive inspiration from the energy and vigor of their chief, who should
be the leader in the work. In open and easy country, the locating engineer may instill life
into the party by himself taking the place of the head chainman occasionally. In country
of some difficulty, his time will be far better employed in prospecting for the best line.
2.) The Transitman does the transit work, ranges in the line from the instrument,
measures the angles, and keeps the notes of the transit survey. The following is a good
form for the left-hand page of the note-book :
The transitman is next in authority to the locating engineer, and directs the work
when the latter is not immediately present. The transitman, while moving from point to
point, setting up, and ranging line, limits the speed of the entire party, and should waste
no time.
3.) The Head Chainman carries a “flag” and the forward end of the tape, which should
be held level and firm with one hand, while the flag is moved into line with the other. He
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should always put himself nearly in line before receiving a signal from the transitman ;
plumbing may be done with the flag. When the point is found, the stakeman will set the
stake. When a suitable place for a turning-point is reached, a signal should be given the
transitman to that effect. A nail should be set in top of a “plug” at all turning-points. A
proper understanding should be had with the transitman as to signals.
4.) The Stakeman carries, marks, and drives the stakes at the points indicated by the
head chainman. The stakes should be driven with the flat side towards the instrument,
and marked on the front with the number of the station. Intermediate stakes should be
marked with the number of the last station + the additional distance in feet and tenths,
as 10 + 67.4. The stationing is not interrupted and taken up anew at each turning point,
but is continuous from beginning to end of the survey. At each turning-point a plug
should be driven nearly flush with the ground, and a witness stake driven, in an inclined
position, at a distance of about 15 inches from the plug, and at the side towards which
the advance line deflects, and marked W and under it the station of the plug.
5.) The Rear Chainman holds the rear end of the tape over the stake last set, but does
not hold against the stake to loosen it. He calls “ Chain “ each time when the new stake
is reached, being careful not to overstep the distance. He should stand beside the line
(not on it) when measuring, and take pains not to obstruct the view of the transitman.
He checks, and is responsible for the correct numbering of stakes, and for all distances
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less than 100 feet, as the head chainman always holds the end of the tape. The stations
where the line crosses fences, roads, and streams should be set down in a small note-
book, and reported to the transitman at the earliest convenient opportunity. The rear
chainman is responsible for the tape.
6.) The Back Flag holds the flag as a backsight at the point last occupied by the transit.
The only signals necessary for him to understand from the transitman are “plumb the
flag” and “ all right.” The flag should always be in position, and the transitman should not
be delayed an instant. The back flag should be ready to come up the instant he receives
the “all right” signal from the transitman. The duties are simple, but frequently are not
well performed.
7.) The Axeman cuts and clears through forest or brush. A good axeman should be able
to keep the line well, so as to cut nothing unnecessary. In open country, he prepares the
stakes ready for the stakeman or assists the locating engineer as fore flag.
8.) The Leveler handles the level and generally keeps the notes, which may have the
following form for the left-hand page. The right-hand page is for remarks and
descriptions of turning-points and bench-marks. It is desirable that turning points, where
possible, to be described, and all bench marks are to be used as turning points. Readings
on turningpoints should be recorded to hundredths or to thousandths of a foot,
dependent upon the judgment of the Chief Engineer. Surface readingsshould be made to
the nearest tenth, and evaluations set down to nearest tenth only. A self-readingrod has
advantages over a target rod for short sights. A target rod is possibly better for long
sights and for turning-points. The "Philadelphia Rod" is both a target rod and a self-
reading rod, and is thus well adapted for railroad use. Bench-marks should be taken at
distances of from 1000 to 1500 feet,depending upon the country. The leveler should test
his level frequentlyto see that it is in adjustment. The leveler and rodman should
together bring the notes to date every evening and plan the
profile to correspond.
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9.) The Rodman carries the rod and holds it vertically upon the ground at each station
and at such intermediate points as mark any important change of slope of the ground.
Levels should also be taken of high-water marks wherever traces of these are visible. The
rodman carries a small notebook in which he enters the rod readings at all turning-points.
In country which is open, but not level, the transit party is liable to outrun the level party.
In such cases greater speed will be secured by the use of two rodmen.
10.) The Topographer is, or should be, one of the most valuable members of the party.
In times past it has not always been found necessary to have a topographer, or if
employed, his duty has been to sketch in the general features necessary to make an
attractive map, and represent hills and buildings sufficiently well with reference to the
line to show, in a general way, the reason for the location adopted. Sometimes the chief
of the party has for this purpose taken the topography. At present the best practice
favors the taking of accurate data by the topography party.
The topographer (with one or two assistants) should take the station and bearing
(or angle) of every fence or street line crossed by the survey (unless taken by the transit
party) ; also take measurements and bearings for platting all fences and buildings near
enough to influence the position of the Location; also sketch, as well as may be, fences,
buildings, and other topographical features of interest which are too remote to require
exact location; and finally establish the position of contour lines, streams, and ponds,
within limits such that the Location may be properly determined in the contoured map.
The work of locating contours is usually accomplished by the use of hand level and tape
(distances carefully paced may, in many cases, be sufficiently accurate).’ The level party
has determined the elevations of the ground at each “station “ set by the transit party.
These elevations are given the topographers to serve as bench marks for use in locating
contours. It is customary to fix on the ground the points where the contours cross the
center line, where they cross lines at right angles to the center line at each station, and
occasionally additional points ; then to sketch the contours by eye between these points.
Cross section sheets in blocks or in book form are used for this purpose. The usual
contour interval is 5 feet. A point on a contour is found as follows. The topographer
stands at the’ station stake ; a measurement is taken, by tape or rod, of the distance
from the topographer’s feet to his eye ;this added to the surface height at center stake
(as obtained from the level party) gives the “height of eye” above datum. The difference
between this “height of eye” and the elevation of the contour gives the proper rod
reading for fixing a point on the contour, and the rod is carried vertically along the
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ground until this reading is obtained. The point thus found is then located. The
topographer uses this point, already fixed, as a turning point, finds anew his “height of
eye,” and proceeds to find a point on the next contour. It is more convenient at times
to carry on the process in reverse order ; that is, to hold the rod on the ground at the
station, and let the topographer place himself where his feet are on the contour. The
“height of eye” must be the distance from topographer’s feet to eye added to the
elevation of contour. The rod reading at the station will be the difference between this “
height of eye “ and the elevation of the ground at the station.
The hand level is somewhat lacking in precision, but by makinga fresh start at
each station as a bench mark, cumulative errors are avoided, and fair results secured by
careful work. Instead of a hand levelr some topographers use a clinometers,
and take and record side slopes as a basis for contour lines. Topography can be taken
rapidly and well by stadia survey or by plane table. This is seldom done, as many
engineers are not sufficiently familiar with their use. Much more accurate
results may be reached by plane table, and a party of three, well skilled in plane table
work, will accomplish more than a party of three with hand level.
C. Location Surveys
C1. Definition
The Location Survey is the final fitting of the line to the ground. In Location,
curves are used to connect the straight lines or “tangents,” and the alignment is laid out
complete, ready for construction. The party is much the same as in the preliminary, and
the duties substantially the same. More work devolves upon the transitman on account of
the curves, and it is good practice to add a “note-keeper” to the party; he takes some of
the transitman’s work, and greater speed for the entire party is secured. More skill is
useful in the head chainingman in putting himself in position on curves. He can readily
range himself on tangent.
The profile is the same, except that it shows, for alignment notes, the P. C. and
P.T. of curves, and also the degree and central angle, and whether to the right or left. It
is well to connect frequently location stakes with preliminary stakes, when convenient, as
a check on the work. In making the location survey, two distinct methods are in use
among engineers:
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clear that they can be interpreted in only one way, the correct way. Office entries, such
as computed or corrected values, should be clearly distinguishable from original material.
This is often done by making office entries in red ink. Some good rules to follow in
taking field notes are:
Use a sharp, hard pencil (4H preferred).
Do not crowd the data entered.
Use additional pages.
Keep sketches plain and uncluttered.
Record numerical values so they always indicate the degree of precision to which a
measurement is taken. For example, rod readings taken to the nearest 0.01 foot
should be recorded as 5.30 feet, not as 5.3 feet.
Use explanatory notes to supplement numerical data and sketches. These notes
sketches and are usually placed on the right-hand page on the same line as the
numerical data they explain. Follow the basic note-keeping rules covered
in TM 5-232.
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a. Establish your position from a point of known location on the map. In Figure 17,
point B is “tied” to a point of known location on the map, such as corner
23
monument C of the area. This is done by sighting the instrument at C and noting
down the azimuth and distance of line BC. The distance of B from C is determined
by the stadia-method discussed under area survey.
Figure 17. Establishing Position from a Point of Known Location on the Map
b. Take a rod reading on the nearest bench mark (BM), as shown in Figure 18,
previously installed for such purpose. This reading is called the backsight (BS), the
rod being on a point of known elevation. The height of the instrument (HI) is then
found by adding the elevation of the bench mark (Elev.) and backsight (BS), thus:
c. The telescope is sighted to point D, or any other points desired, and take the rod
reading. The reading is called the foresight (F.S.), the rod being on a point of
known elevation. Ground elevation of point D is then determined by subtracting
the foresight (F.S.), from the height of the instrument (H.I.), thus:
Sta. Sta.
Occ. Obs. B.S. H.I. F.S. Elev. Azim. Dist. REMARKS
25
a. The tide curve of the day the survey is conducted is drawn in advance. This
provides the information on the heights of tide at different times of the day.
b. The instrument man at point A (see Fig. 20) locates his position on the map by
sighting on known points and taking down the bearings and distances of his “tie
lines”.
c. The stadia rod is held at some point M (under water) and the instrument man at A
sights on M. Distance of M from A is measured. Man at M takes the rod reading of
the water surface and notes the time.
The elevation of the ground surface at M is equal to the height of the tide at the time
of rod reading minus the rod reading at M. Point M is located on the map by plotting its
bearing and distance referred to from Point A.
Figure 20. Topographic (Hydrographic) Survey by Compass, Tape and Sounding Rod
The rod man at M then moves to another point and the instrument man at A again
takes the rod reading and time. This process is repeated until such time the rod man has
covered the area that the instrument man can see.
26
Instrument man at A moves to another point, B. Back bearing (BA) and the
distance from A to B are taken. This locates point B on the map. Elevation of other
ground points not yet covered at A are taken using the same procedure. A sample of a
field survey notes is presented as Figure 21.
Distance
Occ. Obs. Bearing (m) hr. mi. of Tide Elev. REMARKS
A M N 80 ° E 21 10.00 1.06 m
N N 40 ° E 29 10.15 1.04 m
O S 70 ° E 61 10.35 0.98 m
B S 60 ° E 42 10.46 0.94 m
B P N 45 ° W 20 10.50 0.90 m
Q N 45 ° E 26 10.55 0.85 m
sometimes less, often more. In locating any 100 miles of railroad, it is almost certain that
a uniform grade cannot be maintained. More commonly there will be a succession of hills,
part of the line up grade, part down grade. Sometimes there will be a
continuous up grade, but, not at a uniform rate. With a uniform grade, a locomotive
engine will be constantly exerting its maximum pull or doing its maximum work in hauling
the longest train it is capable of hauling; there will be no power wasted in hauling a light
train over low or level grades upon which a heavier train could be hauled. Where the
grades are not uniform, but are rising or falling, or rising irregularly, it will be found that
the topography on some particular 5 or 10 miles is of such a character that the grade
here must be steeper than is really necessary anywhere else on the line ; or there may
be two or three stretches of grade where about the same rate of grade is necessary,
steeper than elsewhere required.
The steep grade thus found necessary at some special point or points on the line
of railroad is called the “Maximum Grade” or “Ruling Grade” or “Limiting Grade,” it being
the grade that limits the weight of train that an engine can haul over the whole division.
It should then be the effort to make the rate of maximum grade as low as possible,
because the lower the rate of the maximum grade, the heavier the train a given
locomotive can haul, and because it costs not very much more to haul a heavy train than
a light one. The maximum grade determined by the reconnaissance should be used as
the basis for the preliminary survey. How will this affect the line? Whenever a hill is
encountered, if the maximum grade be steep, it may be possible to carry the line
straight, and over the hill; if the maximum grade be low, it may be necessary to
deflect the line and carry it around the hill. When the maximum grade has been once
properly determined, if any saving can be accomplished by using it rather than a grade
less steep, the maximum grade should be used. It is possible that the train loads will not
be uniform throughout the division. It will be advantageous to spend a small sum of
money to keep any grade lower than the maximum, in view of the possibility that at this
particular point the train load will be heavier than elsewhere on the division. Any saving
made will in general be of one or more of three kinds:
a. Amount or “quantity” of excavation or embankment;
b. Distance;
c. Curvature.
plotting such sections. The surveyor must take care, however, when computing areas of
this type of plotted section that the proper area is obtained. For example, a 1 inch equals
10 foot scale, both vertical and horizontal, yields 100 square feet, but 1 inch equals 10
foot horizontal and 1 inch equals 2 foot vertical yields only 20 square feet. An
exaggerated vertical scale is used in figure 4-2 to illustrate a five-level section.
The side slopes of a cross section are expressed by a ratio of horizontal distance to
vertical distance. A 1 ½:1 side slope indicates a slope extending 1 ½ feet horizontally per
foot of vertical rise or fall. Slopes may be inclined more or less sharply than this, such as
3:1,2:1, or 1:1. The surveyor usually determines the slope by the design specifications
based on the stability of the soil in cut or fill. However, the need for economy in
construction operations must often be considered. For example, cut slopes may be
flattened more than is required by soil characteristics solely to produce enough material
for a nearby fill. This practice is more economical than operating a borrow pit to obtain
this material.
30
A. SIMPLE CURVE
The simple curve is an arc of a circle. It is the most commonly used. The radius of
the circle determines the “sharpness” or “flatness” of the curve. The larger the radius, the
“flatter” the curve.
Length of tangent, T
Length of tangent (also referred to as subtangent) is the distance from PC to PI. It is the
same distance from PI to PT. From the right triangle PI-PT-O,
tanI/2=TR
T=RtanI/2
External distance, E
External distance is the distance from PI to the midpoint of the curve. From the same
right triangle PI-PT-O,
cosI2=RR+E
R+E=RcosI2
E=RsecI2−R
Middle ordinate, m
Middle ordinate is the distance from the midpoint of the curve to the midpoint of the
chord. From right triangle O-Q-PT,
cosI2=R−mR
RcosI2=R−m
m=R−RcosI2
RsinI2=L/2
L=2RsinI2
Length of curve, Lc
Length of curve from PC to PT is the road distance between ends of the simple curve. By
ratio and proportion,
Lc/I=2πR/360∘
Lc=πRI/180∘
An alternate formula for the length of curve is by ratio and proportion with its
degree of curve.
Lc/I=1station/D
Lc=1station×I/D
SI units: 1 station = 20 m
Lc=20I/D
Degree of curve, D
The degree of curve is the central angle subtended by an arc (arc basis) or chord (chord
basis) of one station. It will define the sharpness of the curve. In English system, 1
station is equal to 100 ft. In SI, 1 station is equal to 20 m. It is important to note that
100 ft is equal to 30.48 m not 20 m.
35
C. Deflection Angles
The Deflection angles are the angles between a tangent and the ends of the chord
from the PC. The surveyor uses them to locate the direction in which the chords are to be
laid out. The total of the deflection angle is always the one half of the I angle. This total
serves as a check on the computed deflection angles.
20 D 100 D
D = 1145.916 D= 5729.58
R R
Arc definition. The arc definition states that the degree of curve (D) is the angle
formed by two radii drawn from the center of the circle (point O, figure 3-3) to the
ends of an arc 100 feet or 30.48 meters long. In this definition, the degree of
curve and radius are inversely proportional using the following
formula:
As the degree of curve increases, the radius decreases. It should be noted that for
a given Intersecting angle or central angle, when using the arc definition, all the
elements of the curve are inversely proportioned to the degree of curve. This definition is
primarily
used by civilian engineers in highway construction.
English system.
Substituting D = length of arc = 100 feet, we obtain— 10 and
Therefore, R = 36,000 divided by 6.283185308
R = 5,729.58 ft
Metric system.
In the metric system, using a
30.48-meter length of arc and substituting D = 1°, we obtain—
Therefore, R = 10,972.8 divided by 6.283185308
R = 1,746.38 m
Chord definition. The chord definition states that the degree of curve is the angle
formed by two radii drawn from the center of the circle (point O, figure 3-3) to the ends
of a chord 100 feet or 30.48 meters long. The radius is computed by the following
formula:
37
1. Given the PI and the I angle from the preliminary traverse, place the instrument on
the PI and measure angle d, so that angle d is the angle between the fixed point and the
tangent line that lies on the same side of the curve as the fixed point.
c= 90 - (d + I/2)
Sin e = Sin c
Cos I/2
Angle b = 180°- angle e
a = 180° - (b + c)
D = 1,746.385 meters/R
6. Compute the remaining elements of the curve and the deflection angles, and stake the
curve.
PROBLEMS:
Problem1.) The angle of intersection of a circular curve is 45° 30' and its radius is
198.17 m. PC is at Sta. 0 + 700. Compute the right angle offset from Sta. 0 + 736.58 on
the curve to tangent through PC.
A) 2.98 m
B) 3.37 m
C) 3.09 m
D) 3.87 m
Solution:
39
s=36.58 m
36.58θ=2π(198.17)360∘
θ=10.58∘
Length of offset x:
cosθ=R−xR
x=R−Rcosθ=198.17−198.17cos10.58∘
x=3.37 m [ B ] answer
Problem2.) Problem The angle of intersection of a circular curve is 36° 30'. Compute
the radius if the external distance is 12.02 m.
A) 203.74 m
B) 253.72 m
C) 226.94 m
D) 214.67 m
Solution:
40
Cos1/2I=R/R+E
cos18∘15′=R/R+12.02
Rcos18∘15′+12.02cos18∘15′=R
R−Rcos18∘15′=12.02cos18∘15′
R (1−cos18∘15′)=12.02cos18∘15′
R=12.02cos18∘15′/1−cos18∘15′
R=226.94 m [ C ] answer
A) 4.5°
B) 5.3°
C) 2.9°
D) 3.7°
Solution:
(R^2−4R+4)+1225=R^2
41
4R=1229
R=307.25 m
20/D=2π(307.25)/360∘
D=3.7∘ [ D ] answer
42
M. COMPOUND CURVE
A compound curve consists of two (or more) circular curves between two main
tangents joined at point of compound curve (PCC). Curve at PC is designated as 1
(R1, L1, T1, etc) and curve at PT is designated as 2 (R2, L2, T2, etc).
A compound curve consists of two (or more) circular curves between two main
tangents joined at point of compound curve (PCC). Curve at PC is designated as 1
(R1, L1, T1, etc) and curve at PT is designated as 2 (R2, L2, T2, etc).
PC = point of curvature
PT = point of tangency
PI = point of intersection
PCC = point of compound curve
T1 = length of tangent of the first curve
T2 = length of tangent of the second curve
V1 = vertex of the first curve
V2 = vertex of the second curve
I1 = central angle of the first curve
I2 = central angle of the second curve
I = angle of intersection = I1 + I2
Lc1 = length of first curve
Lc2 = length of second curve
L1 = length of first chord
L2 = length of second chord
43
PROBLEMS:
Problem1.)
44
Problem2.)
Problem3.)
45
46
O. Reversed Curve
Reversed curve, though pleasing to the eye, would bring discomfort to motorist
running at design speed. The instant change in direction at the PRC brought some safety
problems. Despite this fact, reversed curves are being used with great success on park
roads, formal paths, waterway channels, and the like.
locate the PT and the values ofR1 and R2 which are computed from the specified degree
of curve for each arc.
PROBLEMS:
Problem1.) Two parallel railway tracks, centre lines being 60 m apart, are to be
connected by a reverse curve, each section having the same radius. If the maximum
distance between the tangent points is 220 m calculate the maximum allowable radius of
the reverse curve that can be used.
49
Problem2.) The first branch of a reverse curve has a radius of 200 m. If the distance
between the tangent points is 110 m, what is the radius of the second branch so that the
curve can connect two parallel straights, 18 m apart ? Also calculate the length of the two
branches of the curve.
50
Compound
Surveyors often have to use a compound curve because of the terrain. This curve
normally consists of two simple curves curving in the same direction and joined together.
Reverse
A reverse curve consists of two simple curves joined together but curving in
opposite directions. For safety reasons, the surveyor should not use this curve unless
absolutely necessary.
54
Spiral
The spiral is a curve with varying radius used on railroads and somemodern
highways. It provides a transition from the tangent to a simple curve or between simple
curves in a compound curve.
B. Vertical Curves
When two grade lines intersect, there is a vertical change of direction. To insure
safe and comfortable travel, the surveyor rounds off the intersection by inserting a
vertical parabolic curve. The parabolic curve provides a gradual direction change from
one grade to the next. A vertical curve connecting a descending grade with an ascending
grade, or with one descending less sharply, is called a sag or invert curve. An ascending
grade followed by a descending grade, or one ascending less sharply, is joined by a
summit or overt curve.
The following paragraphs and figure shows:
B1. Symmetrical from the P.I. to middle to Curve
B2. Offset from the P.I. to middle of curve
B3. Elevations along the Vertical Curve
55
Where,
(G2-G1)
g= /2L
g = -0.020-0.025/(2x400) = -0.00005625
COMPUTATIONS
In order to achieve a smooth change of direction when laying out vertical curves,
the grade must be brought up through a series of elevations. The surveyor normally
determines elevation for vertical curves for the beginning (point of vertical curvature or
PVC), the end (point of vertical tangency or PVT), and all full stations. At times, the
surveyor may desire additional points, but this will depend on construction requirements.
59
Length of Curve
The elevations are vertical offsets to the tangent (straightline design grade) elevations.
Grades G1 and G2 are given as percentages of rise for 100 feet of horizontal distance.
The surveyor identifies grades as plus or minus, depending on whether they are
ascending or descending in the direction of the survey. The length of the vertical curve
(L) is the horizontal distance (in 100-foot stations) from PVC to PVT. Usually, the curve
extends ½ L stations on each side of the point of vertical intersection (PVI) and is
most conveniently divided into full station increments. The surveyor can derive the curve
data as follows (with BV and CV being the grade lines to be connected). Determine
values of G1 and G2, the original grades. To arrive at the minimum curve length (L) in
stations, divide the algebraic difference of G1 and G2 (AG) by the rate of change (r),
which is normally included in the design criteria. When the rate of change (r) is not given,
use the following formulas to compute L:
60
If L does not come out to a whole number of stations from this formula, it is
usually extended to the nearest whole number. Note that this reduces the rate of change.
Thus, L = 4.8 stations would be extended to 5 stations, and the value of r computed
from r = /\G/L. These formulas are for road design only. The surveyor must use different
formulas for railroad and airfield design.
Station Interval
Once the length of curve is determined, the surveyor selects an appropriate station
interval (SI). The first factor to be considered is the terrain. The rougher the terrain, the
smaller the station interval. The second consideration is to select an interval which
will place a station at the center of the curve with the same number of stations on both
sides of the curve. For example, a 300-foot curve could not be staked at 100-foot
intervals but could be staked at 10-, 25-, 30-, 50-, or 75-foot intervals. The surveyor
often uses the same intervals as those recommended for horizontal curves, that is 10, 25,
50, and 100 feet.
Since the PVI is the only fixed station, the next step is to compute the station
value of the PVC, PVT, and all stations on the curve.
PVC = PVI - L/2
PVT = PVI + L/2
Other stations are determined by starting at the PVI, adding the SI, and continuing
until the PVT is reached.
Tangent Elevations
Compute tangent elevations PVC, PVT, and all stations along the curve. Since the PVI
is the fixed point on the tangents, the surveyor computes the station elevations as
follows:
Elev PVC = Elev PVI + (-1 x L/2 x G1)
Elev PVT = Elev PVI + (L/2 x G2)
The surveyor may find the elevation of the stations along the back tangent as
follows:
Elev of sta = Elev of PVC + (distance from the
PVC x G1).
The elevation of the stations along the forward tangent is found as follows:
Elev of sta = Elev of PVI + (distance from the
PVI x G2)
Vertical Maximum
The parabola bisects a line joining the PVI and the midpoint of the chord drawn
between the PVC and PVT.
DE and is referred to as the vertical maximum(Vm). The value of Vm is computed as
follows:
(L= length in 100-foot stations. In a 600-foot curve, L = 6.)
Vm = L/8 (G2 - G1) or
61
Vertical Offset. The value of the vertical offset is the distance between the
tangent line and the road grade. This value varies as the square of the distance
from the PVC or PVT and is computed using the formula:
Vertical Offset = (Distance)2 x Vm
A parabolic curve presents a mirror image. This means that the second half of the
curve is identical to the first half, and the offsets are the same for both sides of
the curve.
Station Elevation. Next, the surveyor computes the elevation of the road grade
ateach of the stations along the curve. The elevation of the curve at any station is
equal to the tangent elevation at that station plus or minus the vertical offset for
that station, The sign of the offset depends upon the sign of Vm (plus for a sag
curve and minus for a summit curve).
First and Second Differences. As a final step, the surveyor determines the
values of the first and second differences. The first differences are the differences
in elevation between successive stations along the curve, namely, the elevation of
the second station minus the elevation of the first station, then elevation of the
third station minus the elevation of the second, and so on. The second differences
are the differences between the differences in elevation (the first differences), and
they are computed in the same sequence as the first differences.
High and Low Points.The surveyor uses the high or low point of a vertical curve
to determine the direction and amount of runoff, in the case of summit curves,
and to locate the low point for drainage. When the tangent grades are equal, the
high or low point will be at the center of the curve. When the tangent grades are
both plus, the low point is at the PVC and the high point at the PVT. When both
tangent grades are minus, the high point is at the PVC and the low point at the
PVT. When unequal plus and minus tangent grades are encountered, the high or
low point will fall on the side of curve that has the flatter gradient.
Horizontal Distance. The determines the distance (x, expressed in stations)
between the PVC or PVT and the high or low point by the following formula:
G is the flatter of the two gradients and L is the number of curve stations.
Vertical Distance. The surveyor computes the difference in elevation (y)
between the PVC or PVT and the high or low point by the
Formula:
62
PROBLEMS:
Problem1.)
63
Problem2.)
64
Problem3.) The chainage of the intersection point of two straights is 1060 m, and the
angle of intersection is 120°. If radius of a circular curve to be set out is 570 m, and peg
interval is 30 m, determine the tangent length, the length of the curve, the chainage at
the beginning and end of the curve, the length of the long chord, the lengths of the sub-
chords, and the total number of chords. Refer in Fig. 7.10
Solution:
65
66
The spiral curve is designed to provide for a gradual super elevation of the outer
pavement edge of the road to counteract the centrifugal force of vehicles as they pass.
The best spiral Curve is one in which the super elevation increases uniformly with the
length of the spiral from the TS or the point where the spiral curve leaves the tangent.
The curvature of a spiral must increase uniformly from its beginning to its end. At he
beginning, where it leaves the tangent, its curvature is zero; at the end, where it joins
the circular curve, it has the same degree of curvature as the circular curve it intercepts.
Spiral Elements
TS = the point of change from tangent to spiral
67
Spiral Formulas
The following formulas are for the exact determination of the functions of the 10-
chord spiral when the central angle does not exceed 45 degrees. These are suitable for
the compilation of tables and for accurate fieldwork.
Spiral Lengths.
Different factors must be taken into account when calculating spiral lengths for
highway and railroad layout.
69
Railroads.
Spirals applied to railroad layout must be long enough to permit an increase in
superelevation not exceeding 1 ¼ inches per second for the maximum speed of train
operation. The minimum length is determined from the equation Ls = 1.17 EV. E is the
full theoretical superelevation of the curve in inches, V is the speed in miles per hour, and
Ls is the spiral length in feet. This length of spiral provides the best riding conditions by
maintaining the desired relationship between the amount of superelevation and the
degree of curvature. The degree of curvature increases uniformly throughout the length
of the spiral. The same equation is used to compute the length of a spiral between the
arcs of a compound curve. In such a case, E is the difference between the
superelevations of the two circular arcs.
SPIRAL CALCULATIONS
Spiral elements are readily computed from the formulas given. To use these
formulas, certain data must be known. These data are normally obtained from location
plans or by field measurements.The following computations are for a spiral when D, V, PI
station, and I are known.
D = 4°
I = 24°10’
Theory of A.R.E.A.
10-Chord Spiral
The spiral of the American Railway Engineering Association, known as the A.R.E.A.
spiral, retains nearly all the characteristics of the cubic spiral. In the cubic spiral, the
lengths have been considered as measured along the spiral curve itself, but
measurements in the field must be taken by chords. Recognizing this fact, in the A.R.E.A.
spiral the length of spiral is measured by 10 equal chords, so that the theoretical curve is
brought into harmony with field practice. This 10-chord spiral closely approximates the
cubic spiral. Basically, the two curves coincide up to the point where /\=15degrees.
Spirals applied to highway layout must be long enough to permit the effects of
centrifugal force to be adequately compensated for by proper super elevation. The
minimum transition spiral length for any degree of curvature and design speed is
obtained from the the relationship Ls = 1.6V3/R, in which Ls is the minimum spiral length
in feet, V is the design speed in miles per hour, and R is the radius of curvature of the
simple curve. This equation is not mathematically exact but an approximation based on
years of observation and road tests. When spirals are inserted between the arcs of a
70
E. Deflection Angles
One of the principal characteristics of the spiral is that the deflection angles vary
as the square of the distance along the curve.
PROBLEMS:
Problem1.)
72
73
74
75
Problem2.)
76
77
78
79
Problem3.)
80
A. Definition
Super elevation is the tilting of the roadway to help offset centripetal forces developed
as the vehicle goes around the curve. Along with friction they are what keeps a vehicle
from going off road.
Step 1
Calculate the Length of Superelevation Development Using Rate of Rotation
Calculate the length of superelevation development using the following formulae;
Step 2
Calculate the Length of Superelevation Development Using Relative Grade
Select a value of Gr from Table 7.8 Austroads GRD Part 3: Geometric Design
Step 4
Calculate the Shift for the Superelevation Runoff Length/Plan Transition Length
(i) The superelevation runoff length is assumed to be equal to the plan transition
length.
Ls = Lp = plan transition length.
(ii) Calculate the shift using the formula: -
P=L2/24R
Where, P = shift (m)
L = plan transition length/superelevation runoff length (m)
R = radius of central curve (m)
If the shift is less than 0.2m then no plan transition is required.If the shift is equal
to or greater than 0.2m then a plan transition is to be applied equal in length to the
superelevation runoff length. Refer to Figure 5 Main Roads Horizontal Curve Tables. For
values of curves not requiring plan transitions refer to Table 7.2 below. Main Roads
method of rounding the superelevation development and runoff lengths is to round to
the nearest 1 meter. The uniform application of the super development tends to locate
the level cross section at the tangent point when plan transitions are used. The
superelevation runoff length should be coincident with the plan transition.
When the plan transition is omitted, the superelevation development length is
positioned with the larger portion of the superelevation runoff length on the approach
tangent.
Operating Speed (km/h) Maximum Radius (m)
60 or under Not required
83
70 250
80 340
90 490
100 640
110 700
Table 7.2 - Maximum Radius Requiring a Plan Transition
Superelevation on Bridges
Bridge Designers prefer that bridges are located on straight alignments and
grades. If this is not possible, the next best situation is a bridge on constant curvature
and crossfall to avoid the need for superelevation transitions on bridges.
Superelevation at Intersections
Where a side road junction is on the outside of a curve, a compromise may be
necessary between adequate superelevation on the through road and safe conditions for
vehicles turning against the adverse crossfall. The situation worsens if the curve is
located on a steep grade. If the intersection cannot be relocated, the superelevation may
need to be modified to ensure safe turning conditions.
Generally, if the through road has a longitudinal grade over 3%, the
superelevation/crossfall on the through road should not exceed 4% and should preferably
be limited to 3%. The same problem does not exist where the junction is on the inside of
the curve as the superelevation then favours the turning movements. However, junctions
on the inside of curves are not desirable due to sight distance constraints. The maximum
effective adverse crossfall for turning movements at intersections is 5%. At intersections
with higher speed turning movements (i.e. traffic signal controlled intersections) the safe
effective adverse crossfall may need to be less than the maximum. Other combinations
may be used to provide correct road drainage and appearance. Normal sight distance
requirements still apply.
84
Figure 8.6.9 General Method of Application of Superelevation with Plan Transition –Profile
85
For appearance purposes Main Roads has adopted the rounding curves lengths as shown
in Table 7.7.5
General rules for coordination of vertical curves with superelevation transition
rounding curves:
The main profile vertical curve should not overlap the rounding vertical curve.A
main profile vertical curve may be compounded with a rounding vertical curve turning the
same direction.Compound reverse vertical curves shall not be used.On a superelevation
transition the whole pavement shall have a longitudinal fall in only one direction.
Problem:
86
87
A. Introduction/Purposes
Sight Distance is the distance a driver can see from his or her vehicle. This becomes
important when determining design speed, as it would be unsafe to allow a driver to
drive faster and not be able to stop in time for a potential, unforeseen hazard. Sight
distance is applied to two main categories:
It should be obvious from the concept of FOSD that it is used in the design of
single carriageways only, where safety when overtaking is the prime consideration.
For instance, consider the design of a crest curve on a dual carriageway with a design
speed of 100 km/h.
C1 Desirable minimum K-value = 100
C2 One step below desirable minimum K-value = 55
C4 FOSD K-value = 400
As overtaking is not a safety hazard on a dual carriageway, FOSD is not necessary and
one would use:
L = 100 A (desirable minimum) or L = 55 A (one step below desirable minimum)
Had the above road been a single carriageway then FOSD would be required and:
L = 400 A
If this resulted in too long a curve, with excessive earthworks, then it might be decided to
prohibit overtaking entirely, in which case:
L = 55 A would be used.
Diagram of stopping sight distance
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C. Passing sight distance – is the distance required to overtake a vehicle on same lane
considering the distance on the other lane for the safe passage.
Once you have a radius that seems to connect the two previously disjointed
sections of roadway safely and comfortably, you need to make sure that you have
provided an adequate stopping sight distance throughout your horizontal curve.
Sight distance can be the controlling aspect of horizontal curve design where obstructions
are present near the inside of the curve. To determine the actual sight distance that you
have provided, you need to consider that the driver can only see the portion of the
roadway ahead that is not hidden by the obstruction. In addition, at the instant the driver
is in a position to see a hazard in the roadway ahead, there should be a length of
roadway between the vehicle and the hazard that is greater than or equal to the stopping
sight distance.
Because the sight obstructions for each curve will be different, no general method
for calculating the sight distance has been developed. If you do have a specific
obstruction in mind, however, there is an equation that might be helpful. This equation
involves the stopping sight distance, the degree of the curve, and the location of the
obstruction.
M = (5730/D)*(1 - cos(SD/200))
Where:
M = Distance from the center of the inside lane to the obstruction (ft.)
D = Degree of the curve. Where R = 5730/D
S = Stopping sight distance (ft)
R = Radius of the curve (ft)
Once your rough design has been adjusted to accommodate the sight distance
restrictions, and you are satisfied with the aesthetic and financial consequences of your
superelevation scheme, you can begin to polish your design into its final form.
Unlike straight, level roads that would have a clear line of sight for a great distance,
horizontal curves pose a unique challenge. Natural terrain within the inside of the curve,
such as trees, cliffs, or buildings, can potentially block a driver's view of the upcoming
road if placed too close to the road. As a result, the acceptable design speed is often
reduced to account for sight distance restrictions.
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Two scenarios exist when computing the acceptable sight distance for a given
curve. The first is where the sight distance is determined to be less than the curve
length. The second is where the sight distance exceeds the curve length. Each scenario
has a respective formula that produces sight distance based on geometric properties.
Determining which scenario is the correct one often requires testing both to find out
which is true.
Given a certain sight distance and a known curve length and inner lane
centerline radius , the distance a sight obstraction can be from the interior edge of the
road, can be computed in the following formulas.
In any case, there are equations that relate these two parameters to the change in
grade for both possible conditions. The designer must double-check that the equation
that is used agrees with its own assumptions. For example, if the equation that is
based on sight distances that are less than the curve length produces a curve length
that is less than the sight distance, you know that the result is invalid. The equations
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that are normally used to calculate the lengths of crest vertical curves are given
below.
If S > L then
If S < L then
Where:
L = Length of the crest vertical curve (ft)
S = Sight distance (ft)
A = The change in grades ( |G2-G1| as a percent)
h1 = Height of the driver's eyes above the ground (ft)
h2 = Height of the object above the roadway (ft)
The heights in the calculations above should be those that correspond to the sight
distance of interest. For the stopping sight distance, h1 = 3.5 ft and h2 = 0.5 ft. For
the passing sight distance, h1 = 3.5 ft and h2 = 4.25 ft.
While the sight distance has been portrayed as the only parameter that affects the
design of vertical curves, this isn't entirely true. Vertical curves should also be
comfortable for the driver, aesthetically pleasing, safe, and capable of facilitating
proper drainage. In the special case of crest vertical curves, it just so happens that a
curve designed with adequate sight distances in mind is usually aesthetically pleasing
and comfortable for the driver. In addition, drainage is rarely a special concern for
crest vertical curves.
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PROBLEMS:
Problem 2) A driver with a 2.5-second reaction time is travelling at 65 miles per hour up
a 2% grade. Assuming AASHTO standard values for all other information, what distance
will be required for the driver to come to a complete stop if an obstruction enters his or
her field of vision?
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Problem 3.)
A very long horizontal curve on a one-directional racetrack has 1750-meter
centerline radius, two 4-meter lanes, and a 200 km/hr design speed. Determine the
closest distance from the inside edge of the track that spectators can park without
impeding the necessary sight distance of the drivers. Assume that the sight distance is
less than the length of the curve, a coefficient of friction of 0.3, and a perception-reaction
time of 2.5 seconds.
Solution:
With a centerline radius of 1750 meters, the centerline of the interior lane is 1748
meters from the vertex (1750 - (4/2)). Using the stopping sight distance formula, SSD is
computed to be 664 meters. With this, the distance from the track that spectators can be
parked can easily be found.
This gives the distance (31.43 m) to the center of the inside lane. Subtracting half
the lane width (2m in this case) would give the distance to the edge of the track, 29.43
m.