MAHARISHI INTERNATIONAL

RESIDENTIAL SCHOOL
Chemistry Investigatory Project

Topic: Study the effect of acids and bases on tensile strength of

fibers.

P.M.ARUN
CLASS:XII-C4
 Index

 Acknowledgement
 Certificate
 Introduction
 Materials required
 Procedure
 Observation table
 Result
 Precautions
 Bibliography
 Acknowledgement

I have taken efforts in this project. However, it

would not have been possible without the kind support
and help of many individuals. I would like to extend
my sincere thanks to all of them.

I am highly indebted to Manivasagam sir for their

guidance and constant supervision as well as for
providing necessary information regarding the
project and also for their support in completing the
project. I would like to express my gratitude towards
my parents for their kind co-operation and
encouragement which help me in completion of this
project.

My thanks and appreciations also go to my friends in

developing the project and people who have willingly
helped me out with their abilities.
 Certificate
This is to certify that P.M.Arun of class
XII-C4 of Maharishi International
Residential School Sriperumbudur for
academic session 2019-2020, has prepared
his chemistry investigatory project on the
topic allotted to him properly.
I hereby certify that this project is
prepared by the above mentioned student.

Mr. Manivasagam
Department of Chemistry
Maharishi International Residential School ,
Sriperumbudur
 Fiber
Fiber is a natural or synthetic string used as a
component of composite materials, or, when matted
into sheets, used to make products such as paper,
papyrus, or felt.
Synthetic fibers can often be produced very cheaply
and in large amounts compared to natural fibers, but
for clothing natural fibers can give some benefits,
such as comfort, over their synthetic counterparts.
Classification of fibers
 Natural Fibers

Natural fibers include those produced by plants,

animals, and geological processes and can be
classified according to their origin:

 Vegetable fibers are generally based on

arrangements of cellulose, often with lignin:
examples
include cotton, hemp, jute, flax, ramie,sisal, bag
asse, and banana. Plant fibers are employed in
the manufacture of paper and textile (cloth),
and dietary fiber is an important component of
human nutrition.
 Wood fiber, distinguished from vegetable
fiber, is from tree sources. Forms
include ground wood, lacebark, thermo
mechanical pulp (TMP), and bleached or
 unbleached kraft or sulfite pulps. Kraft and
sulfite (also called sulphite) refer to the type
of pulping process used to remove the lignin
bonding the original wood structure, thus
freeing the fibers for use in paper
and engineered wood products such
as fiberboard.
 Animal fibers consist largely of particular
proteins. Instances are silkworm silk, spider
silk, sinew, catgut, wool, sea silk and hair such
as cashmere, mohair and angora, fur such as
sheepskin, rabbit, mink, fox, beaver, etc.
 Mineral fibers include the asbestos group.
Asbestos is the only naturally occurring
long mineral fiber. Six minerals have been
classified as "asbestos"
including chrysotile of the serpentine class
and those belonging to
the amphibole class: amosite, crocidolite, tre
molite, anthophyllite and actinolite.Short,
fiber-like minerals include
wollastonite and palygorskite.
 Biological fibers also known as fibrous
proteins or protein filaments consist largely of
biologically relevant and biologically very
important proteins, mutations or other genetic
defects can lead to severe diseases. Instances
are collagen family of proteins, tendon, muscle
proteins like actin, cell proteins
like microtubules and many others, spider silk,
sinew and hair etc.
 Man-made Fibers

Man-made fibers or chemical fibers are fibers

whose chemical composition, structure, and
properties are significantly modified during the
manufacturing process. Man-made fibers consist
of regenerated fibers and synthetic fibers.

Semi-synthetic fibers
Semi-synthetic fibers are made from raw
materials with naturally long-chain polymer
structure and are only modified and partially
degraded by chemical processes, in contrast to
completely synthetic fibers such
as nylon (polyamide) or dacron (polyester), which
the chemist synthesizes from low-molecular
weight compounds by polymerization (chain-
building) reactions. The earliest semi-synthetic
fiber is the cellulose regenerated
fiber, rayon. Most semi-synthetic fibers are
cellulose regenerated fibers.

Cellulose regenerated fibers

Cellulose fibers are a subset of man-made fibers,
regenerated from natural cellulose. The cellulose
comes from various sources: rayon from tree
wood fiber, Modal from beech trees, bamboo
fiber from bamboo, seacell from seaweed, etc. In
the production of these fibers, the cellulose is
reduced to a fairly pure form as a viscous mass
and formed into fibers by extrusion through
spinnerets. Therefore, the manufacturing process
leaves few characteristics distinctive of the
natural source material in the finished product.
Some examples are:

 rayon
 bamboo fiber
 Lyocell, a brand of rayon
 Modal, using beech trees as input
 diacetate fiber
 triacetate fiber.
Historically, cellulose diacetate and -triacetate
were classified under the term rayon, but are now
considered distinct materials.

Synthetic fibers
Synthetic come entirely from synthetic materials
such as petrochemicals, unlike those man-made
fibers derived from such natural substances as
cellulose or protein.
Fiber classification in reinforced plastics falls
into two classes: (i) short fibers, also known as
discontinuous fibers, with a general aspect ratio
(defined as the ratio of fiber length to diameter)
between 20 to 60, and (ii) long fibers, also known
as continuous fibers; the general aspect ratio is
between 200 to 500.

Metallic fibers
Metallic fibers can be drawn from ductile metals
such as copper, gold or silver and extruded or
deposited from more brittle ones, such as nickel,
aluminum or iron. See also Stainless steel fibers.

Carbon fiber
Carbon fibers are often based on oxydized and
via pyrolysis carbonized polymers like PAN, but
the end product is almost pure carbon.

Silicon carbide fiber

Silicon carbide fibers, where the basic polymers
are not hydrocarbons but polymers, where about
50% of the carbon atoms are replaced by silicon
atoms, so-called poly-carbo-silanes. The pyrolysis
yields an amorphous silicon carbide, including
mostly other elements like oxygen, titanium, or
aluminium, but with mechanical properties very
similar to those of carbon fibers.

Fiberglass
Fiberglass, made from specific glass, and optical
fiber, made from purified natural quartz, are also
man-made fibers that come from natural raw
materials, silica fiber, made fromsodium
silicate (water glass) and basalt fiber made from
melted basalt.

Mineral fibers
Mineral fibers can be particularly strong because
they are formed with a low number of surface
defects, asbestos is a common one.[8]

Polymer fibers

 Polymer fibers are a subset of man-made

fibers, which are based on synthetic chemicals
(often from petrochemical sources) rather than
arising from natural materials by a purely
physical process. These fibers are made from:
 polyamide nylon

 PET or PBT polyester

 phenol-formaldehyde (PF)

 polyvinyl chloride fiber (PVC) vinyon

 polyolefins (PP and PE) olefin fiber

 acrylic polyesters, pure polyester PAN fibers

are used to make carbon fiber by roasting

them in a low oxygen environment. Traditional
acrylic fiber is used more often as a
 synthetic replacement for wool. Carbon
fibers and PF fibers are noted as two resin-
based fibers that are not thermoplastic,
most others can be melted.
 Aromatic polyamids (aramids) such
as Twaron, Kevlar and Nomex thermally
degrade at high temperatures and do not
melt. These fibers have strong bonding
between polymer chains
 Polyethylene (PE), eventually with extremely
long chains / HMPE (e.g. Dyneema or
Spectra).
 Elastomers can even be used,
e.g. spandex although urethane fibers are
starting to replace spandex technology.
 polyurethane fiber
 Elastolefin

 Coextruded fibers have two distinct polymers

forming the fiber, usually as a core-sheath or
side-by-side. Coated fibers exist such as
nickel-coated to provide static elimination,
silver-coated to provide anti-bacterial
properties and aluminum-coated to provide RF
deflection for radar chaff. Radar chaff is
actually a spool of continuous glass tow that has
 been aluminum coated. An aircraft-mounted
high speed cutter chops it up as it spews from a
moving aircraft to confuse radar signals.

Microfibers
Microfibers in textiles refer to sub-denier fiber
(such as polyester drawn to 0.5
denier). Denier and Dtex are two measurements
of fiber yield based on weight and length. If the
fiber density is known, you also have a fiber
diameter, otherwise it is simpler to measure
diameters in micrometers. Microfibers in
technical fibers refer to ultra-fine fibers (glass
or meltblown thermoplastics) often used in
filtration. Newer fiber designs include extruding
fiber that splits into multiple finer fibers. Most
synthetic fibers are round in cross-section, but
special designs can be hollow, oval, star-shaped or
trilobal. The latter design provides more optically
reflective properties. Synthetic textile fibers
are often crimped to provide bulk in a woven, non-
woven or knitted structure. Fiber surfaces can
also be dull or bright. Dull surfaces reflect more
light while bright tends to transmit light and
make the fiber more transparent.
Very short and/or irregular fibers have been
called fibrils. Natural cellulose, such as cotton or
bleached kraft, show smaller fibrils jutting out
and away from the main fiber structure.

Tensile Strength Of
Fibers
Depending upon the sources, the various types of
fibers can be classified into the following main three
categories:
 Animal Fibers
 Vegetable Fibers
 Synthetic fibers

Besides their chemical

composition and properties,
most important property of these fibers is their
tensile strength, meaning the extent to which a fiber
can be stretched without breaking and it is measured
in terms of minimum weight required to break the
fiber. To determine the tensile
strength of nay fiber, it is tied
to a hook at one end and
weights are slowly added to the
other end until the fiber
breaks.
Since peptide bonds are more
easily hydrolyzed by bases
than by acids, therefore wool
and silk are affected by bases
and not by acids.
It is because of this reason that wool and silk
threads breakup into fragments and ultimately
dissolves in alkalines.
In
othe
r
wor
ds,
alkalines decrease the tensile strength of animal
fibers (wool and silk), vegetable fibers (cotton and
linen), on the other hand, consist of long
polysaccharide chains in which the various glucose
units are joined by ethers linkage. Since ethers are
hydrolyzed by acids and not by bases, therefore
vegetable fibers are affected by acids but not by
bases. In other words, acids
decrease the tensile strength
of vegetable fibers. In
contrast, synthetic fibers such
as nylon and polyester
practically remain unaffected by both acids and
bases. Synthetic fibers owe some of their chemical
resistance to their more 'crystalline' structure, i.e.,
there is greater regularity in the molecular
structure, and this regularity reduces the ability of
bases or acids to approach the amide bonds to
initiate a hydrolytic reaction.
 Procedure
 Cut out equal lengths of a cotton fiber, nylon
fiber and silk fiber from the given sample.
 Tie one end of cotton fiber to a hook which has
been fixed in a vertical plane. Tie a weight hanger
to the other end. Let the thread get straight.
 Put a weight to the hanger and observe the
thread stretch. Then, increase the weights
gradually on the hanger until the breaking point is
reached. Then note the minimum weight needed
for breaking the cotton fiber.
 Repeat the above experiment by tying nylon and
silk fibers to the hook separately and determine
the tensile strength of each fiber.
 Soak the woolen thread in a dilute solution of
sodium hydroxide for five minutes. Take it out
from hydroxide solution and wash it thoroughly
with water and then dry by keeping it in the sun.
Determine the tensile strength again.
 Now take another piece of woolen thread of the
same size and diameter and soak it in a diluter
 solution of hydrochloric acid for five minutes.
Take it out, wash thoroughly with water, dry and
determine the tensile strength agin.
 Repeat the above procedure for the samples of
cotton and nylon fiber.
 Observation Table

S.No. Type Wt. Required Wt. Required To Wt. Required To

Of To Break The Break The Fiber Break The Fiber
Fibre Untreated Fiber After Soaking In After Soaking In
Dil. HCl(any dilute NaOH Solution(any
acid) dilute alkali)
1. Wool 750gm 700gm 750gm

2. Cotton 75gm 75gm 50gm

3. Nylon 375gm 375gm 375gm

 Result
 The tensile strength of woolen fiber decreases in
alkalies but practically remains unaffected on
soaking in acids.
 The tensile strength of cotton fiber decreases on
soaking in acids but remains practically
unaffected on soaking in alkalies.
 The tensile strength of nylon fibers remain
practically unaffected on soaking either in acids
or in alikalies.
 Precautions

 The threads must be of identical diameters.

 The length of the threads should always be same.
 The weights should be added in small amounts
very slowly.
 The chemicals should be handled very carefully.
 Bibliography
Google

Wikipedia

Britannica Encyclopedia

Books
 Materials &
Chemicals Required

Weight Hanger & Hook

Weights

Dilute Hydrochloric Sodium

Acid Hydroxide
Solution
 Silk Cotton

Nylon Wool