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Property Rights and Sustainable Irrigation A Developing Country Perspective
Property Rights and Sustainable Irrigation A Developing Country Perspective
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: While the role of secure property rights contributing to sustainable natural resource management is
Available online xxx increasingly recognized, translating that into practice is more challenging, especially in developing
countries. This article presents a framework for understanding the role of property rights for effective
Keywords: irrigation systems and then explores the complexity of property rights to land, water, and infrastructure
Bundles of rights and their underlying institutions. Understanding property rights in practice requires acknowledging legal
Collective action
pluralism—the coexistence of many types and sources of law, which can be used as the basis for claiming
Customary tenure
rights over the resources. Property rights do not necessarily imply full ownership, but are composed of
Legal pluralism
Water rights
different bundles of rights that may be held by different claimants—the state, user groups, families, or
Water tenure individuals. These rights are critical for the authority, incentives, and resources for irrigation operation
and maintenance. As resources become more scarce, property rights systems need to adapt to reduce con-
flict and provide incentives for saving water. However, efforts to improve irrigation by changing property
rights systems have often failed because they have not recognized the difficulty of transplanting property
rights systems from one place to another. Institutional change needs to be seen as an organic process,
building on existing norms and practices, rather than as an exercise in social engineering.
© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction including land, forests, and fisheries, but even more so to water,
which is a mobile and often fugitive resource, difficult to measure
Experience with the past 30 years of irrigation has shown that or control, with many different uses and values, both economic and
technology alone is not sufficient to ensure productivity gains, noneconomic (Rogers et al., 1995). Efforts to “improve” irrigation
let alone sustainability. In many cases, the technologies were not by changing property rights systems have often failed because
adopted or maintained, or the poor, women, and other marginal- they have not recognized the difficulties involved in institutional
ized groups were excluded from the benefits of technologies. change, especially of property rights.1
Appropriate institutions are needed to accompany technologies for While water rights, and especially water rights reforms, are
sustainable irrigation. complex in any context, the challenges are particularly severe in
Among these key institutions, property rights play a particu- developing countries.2 A major reason for this is the frequent lack
larly important role. When resources are abundant, there is little of state capacity to carry out the reforms as envisaged (as described
need to define property rights, but as the resource becomes more by Garduno, 2005 for Mexico or Schreiner, 2013 for South Africa).
scarce, users of the resource compete and even come into conflict. However, customary water rights are also likely to be particularly
In such contexts, there is pressure to define property rights over the strong in developing countries, often varying from one context to
resource, to clarify expectations, and assign both rights and duties another, and differing from state law (von Benda-Beckmann et al.,
(Otsuka and Place, 2001; Young, in press). 1998). Moreover, as North (1990) notes, institutional change is path
While the contribution of secure property rights to sustainable dependent: it is inherently shaped by the history of a particular
natural resource management is increasingly recognized in calls place. This means that transplanting property rights systems from
for policy reforms, translating that into practice is more challeng-
ing (Deininger, 2003). This applies to almost all natural resources,
1
For a review of some of these challenges in property rights change, see Libecap
(1998).
∗ Tel.: +1 6364051711. 2
See cases in Boelens and Hoogendam (2002), Bruns et al. (2005), Ingram and
E-mail address: [email protected] Brown (1998).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2014.03.017
0378-3774/© 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Please cite this article in press as: Meinzen-Dick, R., Property rights and sustainable irrigation: A developing country perspective. Agric.
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of scale by using large-scale pumps to irrigate many surround- of the broad comparative advantages of state and collective action
ing farms. These large pumps offer greater potential technical institutions at each level, but also as a reminder of the overlap of
efficiency over small-scale pumps. But these potential technical both types of institutions, and the need for them to work together,
efficiency gains were often not realized because of poor operational as in co-management approaches. Instead of the state crowding
performance of the government agencies running and maintain- out collective action, or local groups having to develop all techni-
ing the pumps. Instead of government-operated tubewells, a group cal capacity on their own, it is preferable to seek collaboration. For
of smallholder farmers may get together to make the investment example, state agencies may provide technical backstopping, but
in drilling the well, installing a pump, and operating it (collective recognize that farmers have important knowledge of local condi-
action coordination), or an individual farmer may install and oper- tions, or state agencies may facilitate access to external resources
ate the well, and sell water to neighbors. Shah and Raju (1988) argue or help resolve disputes. This is the premise behind a growing num-
that groundwater markets are much more effective than state tube- ber of catchment forums (as in South Africa) and other multi stake
wells in serving farmers’ water needs in India. Meinzen-Dick (1996) holder platforms. But even this is not straightforward: as Komakech
compared the performance of shared tubewells and groundwater and van der Zaag (2013) indicate in their study of catchment forums
markets in Pakistan, finding that smallholder farmers were quite in Tanzania that a detailed study of local institutional arrangements
well served by groundwater markets, but when the water became is needed as a starting point, with attention to power structures,
very scarce, the well owners would deny water to water purchasers, including whether large farmers, hydropower, or other influential
who had little recourse against more powerful well owners. actors will (or will not) participate.
Which institution is most appropriate depends on the particu- Similarly, there are options for combining market mechanism
lar conditions—e.g. scale, technical sophistication of the technology with user groups and the state. In identifying the potential for water
and the farmers, cultural factors (social capital, market orienta- markets, Rosegrant and Binswanger (1994) recognize the impor-
tion), and state capacity. In general, the advantages of the state are tance of user groups to provide coordination among smallholders
greatest at the largest scale, and collective action at more localized involved in water trades above the very local level, and overall
levels (although there are exceptions). Markets are highly variable state regulation. Similar combinations of market, collective action,
in whether they provide effective coordination among smallhold- and state institutions are also seen in payment for environmen-
ers, but seem to come in where machinery is involved, where it is tal services or watershed management programs that compensate
relatively easy to measure water deliveries and exclude those who upstream users for changing their water use patterns to improve
do not pay (as from a tubewell or piped system), and where users the flow, quality, or timing of water downstream (e.g. Asquith,
have alternative sources so that there is competition and they are 2006; Swallow et al., 2002, 2006). Because the coordinating institu-
not dependent on one provider. tion will need to have at least some control over the infrastructure
If group-based (collective action) approaches are selected by and even the water itself, the choice of coordinating institution (or
programs for water management or technology dissemination, it institutions) also has strong implications for property rights. The
is important to look beyond the formal rules and membership implications of this are discussed in more detail in the following
roles to see whether the group is actually acting collectively: section on property rights.
too many water user organizations exist only “on paper” and
do not actually work together. Moreover, it is important to con- 4. Understanding property rights
sider who is included and excluded from active membership and
decision-making. This means asking about women as well as men, There are numerous definitions of property rights, including:
land owners and tenants, farmers and other water users (e.g. “the capacity to call upon the collective to stand behind one’s
fishers, livestock keepers, home gardens, domestic users, other claim to a benefit stream” (Bromley, 1991:15), “the claims, enti-
enterprises). There may be formal as well as informal barriers to tlements and related obligations among people regarding the use
participation, different motivations and returns to be considered. and disposition of a scarce resource” (Furubotn and Pejovich,
There are indications that organizations with active participation 1972:1139–1140), or “the social institutions that define or delimit
of men and women may be more effective than single-sex organi- the range of privileges granted to individuals to specific assets, such
zations in managing resources like water because they draw upon as parcels of land or water. . .” (Libecap, 1998:77).
the skills and resources of both, but establishing active mixed orga- Key elements in these definitions are that property rights are
nizations is also more difficult than for single-sex organizations, social institutions: relationships among people with regard to
especially where there is high gender segregation in the society resources. They entail recognized claims and obligations, rights and
(Pandolfelli et al., 2008). All of these factors should be considered duties or responsibilities (Commons, 1968). To be valid, rights must
in relation to the objectives of the program when identifying the be accompanied by a duty of others to respect those rights. The
appropriate strategy for establishing or working with groups for second set of duties or responsibilities are the responsibilities of
irrigation. Unless there is a strong basis of collective action, group- the right-holder, which may be related to use or provision: to use
based approaches may require significant investment of time and the resource in certain ways (e.g. without polluting the water), or
facilitation to build up the necessary social capital to be effective. to provide for the construction or maintenance of facilities (e.g.
Unless the groups are relatively homogeneous with active partic- irrigation infrastructure).
ipation of men and women, further investment may be required Ribot and Peluso (2003) distinguish between access to resources
to get diverse groups to work together. Where poor literacy and (e.g. being physically able to get water) and rights (entitlements).
numeracy exist, adult education programs may be needed to sup- A tail end farmer may have a right to water, but might not be able
port group functioning as well as increase overall human capital for to get access because those upstream take too much. A farmer may
poverty reduction. also have access due to physical location, force, or even stealth,
Many irrigation management transfer programs that have even if he or she does not have a right to the water. Many water
sought to use farmer organizations for water management (Garces- users do not have formalized rights to the water they depend on for
Restrepo et al., 2007). One clear lesson from this and other irrigation their livelihoods. Pradhan and Pradhan (2000) provide an example
management reforms is that there are no universal formulas or of this distinction between access and rights from the hills of Nepal,
blueprint approaches; rather there is a need for adaptation to local in which irrigators from one system would allow farmers from
conditions, and as they change over time (Merrey et al., 2007). The another area to use water under what may be referred to as “tol-
triangles on the right-hand side of Fig. 1 are not only an indicator erated use”, as long as the farmers from the second system did not
Please cite this article in press as: Meinzen-Dick, R., Property rights and sustainable irrigation: A developing country perspective. Agric.
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claim rights over that water. However, this access was not enough are interpreted and enforced differently by various administrative
for the latter farmers, who used a range of strategies to claim rights units in Tanzania. Customary law is yet more diverse, differing
over that water. Pradhan and Pradhan (2000:201) find that this has between communities (however defined) and, because it is often
broader applicability to many farmer-managed systems: unwritten, even within a community. Moreover, although “custom”
is often interpreted as being rigid and unchanging, in fact “custom-
Wherever possible they divert water from new (uncontested)
ary” law changes, often quite rapidly, to the extent that they may
sources, and if this is not possible they try to acquire water
be referred to as “living law” instead (Ehrlich, 1936).
from sources used by others by negotiating, disputing, ‘stealing’
Beyond this conventional dichotomy there are international
water on the sly, or forcefully acquiring water, often using polit-
laws and treaties, such as the Ramsar Convention governing
ical or administrative connections. The farmers are not satisfied
wetlands,5 or international treaties governing shared water-
with just acquiring water; their long-term goal is to legitimize
courses. Each irrigation project generates its own regulations, such
their access to the water source, that is, to establish rights to the
as which parts of the command area are authorized to receive water
water. . . to get their claims to a share of the water from a water
in each season, from which date, and what the water users are
source accepted by other users and competitors.
required to do (and are prohibited from doing). Water users’ asso-
With regard to irrigation systems, there are three types of prop- ciations generate their own rules regarding the manner in which
erty rights that are important: to the land, the infrastructure, and different people may draw water, and what each needs to provide
the water. All three of these resources are necessary for produc- for the system. Because of the fundamental importance of water
tive use of the water, and how rights over these resources are for life itself, religious laws and rules also create the basis for water
distributed will affect both the amount and distribution of benefits. rights, as illustrated in Islamic water law (Faruqui et al., 2001) or
Recognizing property rights to water (as well as irrigation infra- the Balinese subak irrigation systems, which derive much of the
structure) often requires going beyond simplistic, legalistic, or authority for their detailed system of water rights from a series
externally-imposed assumptions. When discussing water rights of temples, from the local field canal up to the whole watershed
with government officials, I have often heard “There are no water (Lansing, 1991). Even local norms and sayings can become the basis
rights here” or “The State owns all water.” Both of these statements for claiming water rights. For example, in Kenya Onyango et al.
derive from a very narrow understanding of property rights. Con- (2007) relate how a local proverb that “even the hyena has a right
ventional images of property rights often derive from images of to water” is the articulation of a norm that no one should be denied
unencumbered land rights, with fixed boundaries, within which the water, therefore anyone should be allowed to cross even private
individual “owner”, backed by a state-issued title, can do whatever property to access water.
he (or more rarely, she) chooses with the resource.3 Those bound- These different bases for property rights do not exist in isolation.
aries are seen as rigid and unchanging, dividing people between Rather, the various forms of laws or rules overlap, interact, and
those on the inside and outside. Certainly these conditions rarely influence each other. A change in international law may change
apply to water, particularly in developing countries. state law to bring the latter into compliance; a change in national
But this view of property rights is flawed, even for land. As law may end up affecting custom; but also, customary or religious
noted above, property rights are above all, social institutions, which rules may shape statutory law.
define relationships among people. They connect more than they However, property rights are only as strong as the underlying
divide. Rights are never unencumbered. Instead of “ownership” that institutions – whether state, community, religious, or other – that
implies rights to do whatever one wants to the resource, it is bet- shape, endorse and enforce the rights. Rights that are not widely
ter to think of “bundles of rights” that may be held by different known, recognized, or enforced, have little meaning. Meinzen-
claimants, including individuals, households, water user groups, Dick and Nkonya (2007) describe these overlapping frameworks as
communities, and the state. Indeed, the inter linkages between “force fields” of varying strength. In the capital city, among a highly
these different claimants on the resource can even be conceptual- educated population that can call upon the courts or other govern-
ized as a “web of interests” (Arnold, 2002). Furthermore, all rights ment officials to enforce it, state law is generally stronger than in
do not derive from the state: there may be many different sources the hinterland, where even the officials – let alone the general pub-
of property rights. Each of these aspects apply, to some extent, lic – are often unaware of the provisions in statutory law. Each type
even to immobile property in industrialized countries. But they are of property rights has associated bearers of the law, such as state
especially relevant to property rights in developing countries, and authorities, elders, religious leaders, or irrigation system officials.
especially to rights over a fluid and often fugitive resource such as The strength of their authority certainly affects the strength of the
water. The following sections provide more detail on legal plural- property rights that they enforce. However, none of these have the
ism and bundles of rights, as they pertain to irrigation systems. ability to be everywhere and govern every water use or every act
to maintain (or damage) an irrigation system. Property rights and
4.1. Legal pluralism obligations also have to be known by those immediately involved,
which requires internalizing the rules.
Understanding property rights in practice requires acknowledg- This has important implications for the sustainability of
ing legal pluralism—the coexistence of many types and sources of irrigation systems. For any type of property rights to provide
law, which can be used as the basis for claiming rights over the security and incentives for careful management of the water or
resources or regulations on what can be done with them.4 This is infrastructure, the rules need to be clearly understood as well
often thought of in terms of “statutory” and “customary” law, but it as enforced. Four of Ostrom’s (1990) well-known “design princi-
is more complex than that. State law itself may be plural, with dif- ples” for the governance of irrigation systems relate to this: clearly
ferent – and even inconsistent –.laws issued for different types of defined boundaries, monitoring, graduated sanctions, and conflict
water use. Komakech et al. (2012) describe how water use permits resolution mechanisms. These principles were developed from a
review of many studies of irrigation systems (as well as other types
of common property). Cox et al. (2010) validated these principles
3
These notions can be traced back to English common law, notably to Blackstone
(1766).
4
For a more complete review on legal pluralism and property rights, see Meinzen-
5
Dick and Pradhan (2002), Meinzen-Dick and Nkonya (2007). See www.ramsar.org.
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based on many more such studies and found that it is important different, yet inter-linked, types of relationship exist between
not only that the resource and its use are monitored, but that the people with respect to water resources. More specifically, the
monitoring be done either by the users themselves or by someone question of water tenure goes beyond water rights and water
who is accountable to the users. law (Hodgson, 2013:1).
4.2. Bundles of rights This is a useful reminder that the focus needs to be on the insti-
tutional arrangements, rather than on specific formulations of what
As noted above, property rights to any resource almost never is recognized as property rights.
convey total rights, as is conjured up in notions of “freehold” or
5. Discussion: Property rights and irrigation management
“ownership.” Rather than holding that up as a standard, it is better
to look at the different particular rights that different stakeholders
Attention to property rights in developing country irrigation
have, which vary enormously, not only between different societies,
systems came to prominence in the 1980s and 1990s in response
but also between users within a particular locale. For comparative
to concerns with irrigation system maintenance and water scarcity.
purposes, these are often identified as bundles of rights, but even
This section analyzes the policy debates and trends around each of
how these bundles are defined varies. Schlager and Ostrom (1992)
these areas, and the factors that influence security of tenure.
define these bundles in terms of use rights of access and with-
drawal, and decision-making (or control) rights of management, 5.1. Maintenance
exclusion, and alienation. Others, following older Roman tradition,
group the bundles as: usus rights to use the resource; usufructus Many irrigation systems have been developed by government
rights to derive income from a resource; abusus rights to change agencies, but the performance of these systems has often been
the resource; and alienation rights to transfer the rights to others far below expectations. With the fiscal crisis of the state in the
(see Eggertsson, 1990; Alchian and Demsetz, 1972; Scott, 2008). 1980s, funding for system maintenance was often scarce, caus-
Combining the two classification systems, the following provide ing further deterioration of systems. At the same time, studies
examples of the bundles of rights that are particularly relevant for of farmer-managed irrigation systems showed that in many cases
sustainable irrigation. these performed better than state-managed systems, because the
• Access refers to rights for non consumptive use. The “right to ram- farmers themselves undertook maintenance and irrigation staff
were responsible to the farmers (Lam, 1998; Ostrom, 1992; Tang,
ble” or cross someone’s land for a walk is a classic example of such
1992; Uphoff, 1986).
access. Swimming in a reservoir would be another such example.
Irrigation rehabilitation projects have identified one of the
Although access rights should be non consumptive, there may be
causes of these problems with government-managed irrigation
crowding effects or wearing down of infrastructure if too many
system as being the tendency of the irrigators to feel that the
people access land or water resources.
• Withdrawal refers to rights to take resource units, such as con- responsibility for maintenance of the systems rested with the gov-
ernment, but the government agencies lacked the resources or
sumptive uses of water or taking produce of the land.
• Usufructus rights to earn income from the resource are not capacity to do adequate maintenance. In order to deal with this,
many government officials and donor-assisted irrigation programs
included in the Schlager and Ostrom (1992) framework, but can
have called for farmers to develop a “sense of ownership” over
be important where the state charges a water licensing fee.6
• Management covers rights to make rules and modify the resource, the irrigation systems so that they will take care of them (e.g.
Vermillion, 1987).8 Coward (1986) explicitly recognized the link
notably setting water delivery patterns or conducting mainte-
between property rights and management, but focused on the
nance.
• Exclusion refers to rights to determine who can use the resource, effect of creating and maintaining property together as creating
the “social glue” that would strengthen irrigator groups to maintain
and the transfer of those rights. In the case of irrigation, the right
their irrigation.
to decide who can draw water for irrigation, and whether other
Three reasons why property rights are important for maintain-
users can also access the water, infrastructure, or adjacent land
ing irrigation systems can be summarized as authority, incentives,
are all crucial exclusion rights.
• Alienation refers to the rights to transfer management and exclu- and resources (Meinzen-Dick, 2002).
sion rights to others, such as by sale or lease.
• Authority: Unless farmers are recognized as having management
rights over the infrastructure and water, they do not have the
”Ownership” or “complete property rights” are often interpreted
authority to make any changes in the irrigation systems, including
as holding all of these bundles of rights. If the term “water rights”
maintenance.
conjures up these images, then it is quite understandable that the
• Incentives: Property rights, especially use and usufructus (income)
concept would not seem to apply to water, especially in developing
rights, can provide incentives to maintain irrigation systems
countries.7 This is especially true if one looks only for formal rights
because they create confidence that the holder of the rights will
issued by the state. Recognizing this, Hodgson (2013) argues for a
reap the future benefits of investment and careful maintenance,
focus on tenure rather than rights:
and bear the losses incurred by misuse of the resources.
A key advantage of couching the issue of water allocation in • Resources: Control over water, land and infrastructure, includ-
terms of tenure, rather than simply in terms of water rights, is ing usufructus rights to earn income from them, can generate
that it facilitates recognition of the fact that a complex range of resources (cash or labor) for maintaining irrigation systems.
Please cite this article in press as: Meinzen-Dick, R., Property rights and sustainable irrigation: A developing country perspective. Agric.
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irrigators only have recognized use rights, often upon payment The question of how water rights systems can adapt to grow-
of an irrigation fee that is then supposed to fund operation and ing scarcity, either through proportional allocations, tradable water
maintenance. However, there is often no direct link between the rights, or other mechanisms, is likely to become increasingly impor-
fees paid by irrigators and the budgets available for the irrigation tant with increasing water use and climate change. Sharing ideas
agency, so the resources are not made available to sustain the from one place to another can assist in adaptation, but copying
irrigation systems. At the same time, farmers lacked the author- systems of water rights is not likely to succeed, because it does not
ity to undertake maintenance, and often had little incentive to do account for the variations in the physical and institutional environ-
so. Recognizing these problems, a number of irrigation manage- ment. For example, Chilean water law, with tradable water rights,
ment transfer programs have included ceremonies for transferring has been promoted as a model for other countries, but Bauer (2004)
“ownership” of the infrastructure of surface irrigation systems from shows that the Water Code was shaped by the particular history and
the government to farmers’ organizations (Vermillion, 1997). How- conditions of Chile, that are not found elsewhere, and even within
ever, without rights to the water as well, the infrastructure itself is that context, the Chilean water law has key shortcomings as well
of little value, and even is a burden to maintain. The water rights are as strengths that need to be understood.
key assets, because they determine both the level and distribution
of benefits from irrigation.
This is not to imply that secure property rights will necessarily 5.3. Security of tenure
lead to adequate maintenance. If the holder of the rights (farmers
or the state) has the authority but not the technical expertise, if the It is not only the content of the rights that matter, but the secu-
returns to irrigation are not high enough to provide incentives, or rity with which they are held. Especially the strength of incentives
if the costs of maintenance exceed what the usufructus rights can to sustain irrigation systems depends on how confident right-
generate, having the rights will not be sufficient. However, the role holders can be that they will hold that right in the future. Key
of property rights merits greater attention than it has received in aspects of tenure security include the expected duration of the right
most discussions of irrigation maintenance or programs to improve and its robustness.
irrigation maintenance. Duration of water rights are complex because of the inherent
fluctuations of the water cycle; these are becoming more severe
and uncertain with climate change. Thus, it is difficult to know,
5.2. Water scarcity
from one year to another, whether a water right can be realized the
next year. Here infrastructure can increase water tenure security,
As noted above, as water becomes scarce, it brings users
by providing storage (reservoirs or groundwater) to buffer against
into greater competition with each other. Even relatively water-
short-term fluctuations.
abundant systems may have scarcity at some times, whether during
Robustness of property rights refer to their ability to with-
a dry season or drought year, or as water use increases. Clear prop-
stand challenges. Some of these challenges come from the physical
erty rights define allocation rules for who may use how much water,
environment (e.g. weather fluctuations or landslides that destroy
in what ways, at what time and place. By clarifying expectations,
infrastructure). Other challenges, however, come from the insti-
these rules can help reduce conflicts. But a further reason for atten-
tutional environment. For example, immigrant communities may
tion to water rights in the context of scarcity is to provide incentives
begin using water from the same source as other right-holders, with
for efficient use and water conservation. Rosegrant and Binswanger
some basis for claiming that right. Or the state may decide to extend
(1994) argue that tradable property rights would create incentives
an irrigation system, creating new claimants, often to the detriment
for irrigators (and other water users) to conserve water, because
of existing users.
what they did not use could be sold to other uses (including to the
In some cases, robustness of property rights comes from being
environment). Thus, rather than requiring some users to give up
able to resist such challenges (e.g. by exercising exclusion rights
water, which often causes opposition, this would allow voluntary
to prevent new claimants from taking water away from the origi-
transfers from less efficient users to those who could use it more
nal right-holders). State recognition can play an important role in
productively, with those who give up water receiving payment. It
creating tenure security, especially where the state has enforce-
is beyond the scope of this paper to review empirical experiences
ment capacity. Yet in many parts of Africa, in particular, even land
with water markets,9 but it is important to note that tradable water
is held in customary tenure without formal state recognition, and
rights hinge upon vesting the right to transfer water to others in
the costs of developing full cadastres and titling programs are very
the water users, rather than in the state. While irrigation manage-
high, often prohibitively so because of the cost of demarcating
ment reform programs in many countries have been willing (albeit
property, registering it, settling disputes, and then keeping any reg-
sometimes reluctantly) to transfer to the users the use, usufruct,
istries up to date. It is even more expensive and difficult to develop
management, and exclusion rights, vesting alienation rights in the
registries of water rights, especially for millions of smallholder
users has been even more controversial.
farmers, fishers, or other small-scale water users (van Koppenet
Some farmer-managed irrigation systems, as in Nepal and Bali,
al., 2007). Hodgson (2013) notes that many minor uses of water are
have developed water rights systems in which proportions of the
exempt from requirements to register, especially for basic liveli-
flows are separable from the land itself. In these cases, farm-
hood needs. But this can also create insecurity because it denies
ers have the incentive to use the water efficiently to irrigate as
those users of state protection. This is particularly an issue in cases
much land as they can with their shares of water. Zekri and Al-
where so-called “land grabs” by outside investors have also become
Marshudi (2008) describe proportional water rights systems in
“water grabs”, taking water away from existing users. For exam-
centuries-old falaj systems in Oman that even reserve a share of
ple, Bues and Theesfeld (2012) analyze how large-scale farms in
the water rights to be auctioned to support the system operation
Ethiopia took water away from farmer-managed irrigation systems,
and maintenance—thereby combining resources for sustaining the
because of the outside investors’ greater power and ties to the state.
system and tradable water rights in a context of water scarcity.
Robustness also comes from being able to adapt to new situ-
ations, particularly changes in the hydrologic regime. Formalized
state-issued rights may provide less adaptive capacity than sys-
9
For reviews of water markets see Easter et al. (1998), Bjornlund and McKay tems in which farmers are able to play a greater role in setting and
(2002), Chong and Sunding (2006), Easter and Huang (in press). modifying the rules, i.e. when users have management rights.
Please cite this article in press as: Meinzen-Dick, R., Property rights and sustainable irrigation: A developing country perspective. Agric.
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Both infrastructure and institutions can play a role in increasing norms with internalize self-enforcement so they do not have to be
security of tenure, especially over water. The role of storage (infra- explicitly enforced by others. But customary rights alone may not
structure) in helping people respond to droughts has already been be secure in contexts where the state decides to reallocate water
mentioned. Pipes that reduce transmission losses can increase con- (or land) to other users.
fidence that users will receive the water they are entitled to. Meters As resources become more scarce, property rights systems need
and information technology (e.g. monitoring others’ water uses) to adapt. Irrigation development projects inherently change prop-
can increase users’ confidence that if they follow the rules, others erty rights, whether explicitly assigning water and land rights,
will as well because all will be monitored and can be caught if they or implicitly by generating rules about who can do what with
break the rules. But these technologies do not work on their own. the water and infrastructure, or simply by creating new “facts on
Someone has to operate the reservoirs, read the meters, or provide the ground,” of where and when water is available, which forces
the information; hence institutional arrangements are needed to changes in property rights. Many irrigation management transfer
ensure the infrastructure delivers. projects have included formal ceremonies to confer on the farmers
South Africa’s experience with the National Water Act (RSA, rights over the infrastructure (frequently only the onerous duties
1998) is instructive of the challenges of developing an equitable to maintain the infrastructure without real rights over its actual
water rights system that responds to water scarcity, giving due use and disposal), but rarely the water. The creation of transfer-
priority to environmental and basic domestic water uses. Despite able property rights, as in Chile or Australia, have been discussed
active consultation in developing the law, implementation has but rarely implemented in developing countries (beyond informal
proved a challenge, especially with limitations of state capacity to markets for groundwater in South Asia).
monitor and enforce (Schreiner, 2013), continuing resistance by Recognition of the need for coordinating institutions and prop-
powerful water users who stand to lose from the reforms, and lim- erty rights for sustainable and efficient management of irrigation
itations on the ability to redress power asymmetries through water is an important step. But identifying the important institutions
alone, without also addressing land rights (Kemerink et al., 2011). is relatively easy compared to ensuring that these are in place.
Rather than looking for any prescriptions for property rights Efforts to improve irrigation by changing property rights systems
reforms, it is more realistic to recognize that changes are likely have often failed because they have not recognized the difficulty of
to be a process of what Cleaver (2001:26) refers to as: “insti- transplanting what is seen as clear property rights systems from
tutional bricolage”, a process by which people consciously and one place to another. Rapid reforms can be counter-productive.
unconsciously draw on existing social and cultural arrangements They are unlikely to be fully implemented as planned, and create
to shape institutions in response to changing situations.” An impor- uncertainty and resentment in the process. Negotiation with stake-
tant aspect of this understanding of institutional change—whether holders, looking for ways to compensate those who might lose out,
in property rights or coordination institutions, is that people them- leads to more legitimacy of the reforms.
selves are actors, shaping the outcomes, with outsiders (including Institutional change is possible, but it needs to be seen as an
the state) playing variable roles. organic process, building on existing norms and practices, and rec-
ognizing that local people will be active in adapting – or even
resisting – external interventions. Analogies of “social engineering”
6. Conclusions have been misplaced, because they imply a mechanistic approach.
What is required is a more nuanced approach, which may involve
The development of irrigation systems that serve more than adaptation to the physical and institutional environment. A good
one farm require coordination systems and some form of property strategy is to start with people’s experiences with water—how they
rights to at least identify who has what rights to use, manage, and access it, what claims they make for their different water uses. This
exclude others from the associated land, infrastructure, and water. will help to identify the relevant legal frameworks to address. Then
Even for individual wells and rainwater harvesting, as more and an intervention can work to strengthen the claims of poor people
more people start to irrigate, they impact other users in the water- for their important water uses. In many cases, water rights become
shed, and some form of coordination and rules governing water use operationalized through user organizations. Ensuring that women,
can help prevent conflicts and give users some assurance that their smallholders, livestock keepers, or other poor and marginalized
investments in irrigation will be sustainable. water users are represented in these organizations is an impor-
However, the state is not the only source of coordination and tant step to strengthening their water rights, but is often difficult,
property rights; collective action through customary institutions, because of overt resistance from those who do not want to share
newly developed user groups, and even market mechanism can water rights and decision-making, or because of social challenges
all play a role. Nor do property rights need to include complete of including marginalized groups in local organizations.
“ownership”: particular bundles of rights can be held by the state, Officially-recognized rights also help ensure that their holders
user groups collectively, or different individual users. Use rights have a “seat at the table” in discussions about further water devel-
of access and withdrawal, as well as usufructus rights to earn opment or land use changes that may impinge on their rights. Joint
income from the resources can provide incentives for investing planning and modeling of water resource development with gov-
in and maintaining irrigation systems; management and exclu- ernment agencies and different user groups helps to put this into
sion rights provide authority to do so; usufructus rights provide practice, but it may require strengthening the capacity of both the
revenue for operation and maintenance. Alienation rights that are agencies and the users. There is no single, optimal property right
transferrable, either seasonally (rental) or in perpetuity (sale), can system for irrigations systems—in developing countries or else-
provide incentives for those with existing water rights to con- where. Rather, we need a range of options and the understanding
serve their use because they can gain income from transferring the necessary to be able to tailor them to their (ever-changing) physical
unused water to others. and institutional context.
What matters is the security of these rights—the confidence that
they provide that others will fulfill their duty to respect those rights.
Rights are only as strong as the institutions that stand behind them. Acknowledgments
Where the state has very little effective capacity – as in remote
regions or when the state is weak – then customary rights are often This paper draws on the framework of the CGIAR Program on
stronger, especially if their legitimacy is reinforced by widely held Collective Action and Property Rights (CAPRi), which is part of
Please cite this article in press as: Meinzen-Dick, R., Property rights and sustainable irrigation: A developing country perspective. Agric.
Water Manage. (2014), http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2014.03.017
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8 R. Meinzen-Dick / Agricultural Water Management xxx (2014) xxx–xxx
the CGIAR Research Program on Policies, Institutions and Markets. Resource Management: The Role of Property Rights and Collective Action
Special thanks are due to Henning Bjornlund Sarah Wheeler for in Developing Countries. Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD, pp.
12–44.
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