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Palm Oil and Palm Kernel Oil
Palm Oil and Palm Kernel Oil
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Palm oil and palm kernel oil: Versatile ingredients for food applications
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NOOR LIDA HABI MAT DIAN*; RAFIDAH ABD HAMID*; SIVARUBY KANAGARATNAM*;
WAN ROSNANI AWG ISA*; NORAZURA AILA MOHD HASSIM*; NUR HAQIM ISMAIL*;
ZALIHA OMAR* and MISKANDAR MAT SAHRI*
ABSTRACT
About 80% of the palm oil (PO), palm kernel oil (PKO) and their fractions produced globally are used for
edible purposes. The unique solid content profile of PO, and its excellent oxidative stability, high nutritional
value (free of trans fatty acids and cholesterols, and rich in micronutrients), and competitive price makes
PO as one of the most utilised oils by food manufacturers. Being naturally semi-solid and stabilises in β'
polymorphic form which is required for good creaming and baking performances, PO is an excellent choice
for the manufacture of cooking and baking fats such as margarine, shortenings and vanaspati. PKO which is
derived from the flesh of the oil palm fruits' kernel is high in lauric acid and has a sharp melting, a character
suitable for use in confectionery fats. Fractionation of PO into palm stearin (POs) and palm olein (POo),
and PKO into palm kernel stearin (PKOs) and palm kernel olein (PKOo) further enhances the usage of PO
and PKO in foods. PO and POo, due to their high content of oleic acid and natural antioxidant (vitamin
E) have excellent oxidative stability, hence, are a superior cooking and frying oil. POs which is available
in a wide range of saturation level serves as a good hardstock for trans-free solid fat product formulations.
Blending of POs with PKO or PKOo and liquid oils such as super POo, sunflower or soyabean oil produces
solid fat products such as bakery margarine/shortening, table margarine/spreads, pastry/laminating fats of
excellent functional, textural and storage properties.
Interesterification further enhances the usage of palm products especially the hard POs. The hard POs
can be interesterified with PKO or PKOo to produce hardstock that can be blended with liquid oils to get
stable texturised solid fats of excellent consistency and low saturates content. PKOs and palm mid fraction
are widely used as confectionery fats. PO, PKO and their products are also used in the manufacture of
dairy, meat and coconut milk product analogs. Apart from its main usage as frying/cooking oil, POo can be
used as salad oil. In their powdered form, PO, PKO and their fractions can be used in multiple application
in convenience food preparation. Development of functional food or nutraceutical products from palm
micronutrients such as tocotrienol-rich fraction, carotene, squalene and co-enzyme Q10 is also an in-thing.
Utilisation of the high technology processes would further enhance the nutrition and health benefits, and
applications of PO and its micronutrients in the food industry.
Keywords: palm oil, palm kernel oil, palm stearin, palm olein, trans-free, food applications.
Date received: 19 October 2017; Sent for revision: 19 October 2017; Received in final form: 20 November 2017; Accepted: 21 November 2017.
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JOURNAL OF OIL PALM RESEARCH 29 (4) (DECEMBER 2017)
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PALM OIL AND PALM KERNEL OIL: VERSATILE INGREDIENTS FOR FOOD APPLICATIONS
the food industry (Matthaus, 2007). Products fried had a longer induction period and it indicated that
in PO and POo include potato chips, French fries, they were less susceptible to oxidation than canola
doughnuts, ramen noodles, fritters and nuts. PO oil and soyabean oil.
and POo have good resistance to thermal oxidation Utilisation of POo as frying/cooking oil can
at prolonged elevated temperatures due to their be further extended by blending with other liquid
inherent composition. Their longer frying life, less vegetable oils. Blending helps to cater for a certain
tendency to foam and polymerise make them a segment of the market which has a preference for a
better frying oil than liquid oils such as corn and particular flavour. For example, blends of POo with
soyabean oil. The excellent oxidative and prolonged groundnut and/or sesame oils are very popular
heat stability of PO and POo are due to their fatty among the Chinese and Indian housewives.
acid composition and micronutrient content. PO Studies have shown that blending of POo with
and POo are high in oleic acid and contain only liquid vegetable oil improve POo clarity and
traces of the unstable linolenic acid and a moderate partial crystallisation at low-temperature storage,
amount of linoleic acid (Augustine et al., 1988). thus making POo suitable to be used in temperate
PO’s natural antioxidants, namely tocopherols and countries (Siddique et al., 2010; Basoglu et al., 1996;
tocotrienols, offer an outstanding oxidative stability Mahmoud et al., 1996; Nor Aini et al., 1992). Blending
to PO and POs, thus making PO and POo to have has a similar effect to partial hydrogenation in
a prolonged shelf-life (Edem, 2002). PO contains reducing the linoleic and linolenic acid contents
800-1270 mg kg-1 vitamin E (Puah et al., 2007; Choo of liquid vegetable oils without introducing trans
et al., 2004;1997), which further comprises of about isomers of fatty acids. A blend of POo and liquid
20% tocopherol (α-T) and 80% tocotrienols (22% α-, vegetable oils such as groundnut oil, cottonseed
46% γ- and 12% δ-tocotrienol) (Hashimoto et al., oil and soyabean oil enhances the stability of the
1980). Another promising attribute of PO and POo liquid vegetable oils (MPOB, 2014). Tarmizi and
as a frying oil is that they impart longer shelf-life Ismail (2014) demonstrated that blending of PO
to the fried products, do not give rise to unpleasant with unsaturated oils was generally proved to
room odour and do not polymerise to gums, due to keep most qualitative parameters comparable to
the presence of comfortable level of unsaturation those demonstrated in PO. Indeed, none of the oils
and natural antioxidants together with the absence surpassed the legislative limits for use in frying.
of linolenic acid (MPOB, 2014). Studies by Matthaus Overall, it was noted that oil containing PO and
(2007), Bracco et al. (1981) and Faur (1975) indicated SFO showed higher resistance toward oxidative and
that PO and POo have similar frying performance hydrolytic behaviours as compared to the other oil
compared with other high-stability oils. blends. De Marco et al. (2007) found that blend of
Tarmizi and Ismail (2008) demonstrated that PO and SFO proved to keep qualitative parameters
frying stability of standard POo was comparable (free acidity, spectrophotometric indices, total polar
to special quality POo, and for use in the industrial components, fatty acid composition, short-chain
production of snack foods. Standard POo is graded fatty acids, tocopherol and tocotrienol content and
with maximum free fatty acids of 0.1% and peroxide composition, colour, flavour evaluated by means
value of 2-4 mequiv O2 kg-1. The special quality POo of an electronic nose) comparable to those shown
is a superior quality POo produced under stringent by PO during a prolonged (8 hr discontinuous
quality assurance from harvesting until refining frying without oil replenishment) frying process.
with free fatty acid and peroxide value of less than Leonardis and Macciola (2012) reported that thermal
0.05% and 1 mequiv O2 kg-1, respectively. Special stability of virgin olive oil greatly increased when
quality POo is traded at a premium price of about blended with PO. A study by Roiaini et al. (2015)
USD 50 per tonnes (FOB Bulk) higher than that of showed that canola and olive oils blend at a ratio of
standard POo. A study on the comparison of the 80%:20% had the best physico-chemical properties
stability of animal fats and highly unsaturated oils after addition of 20% PO. The study showed that the
towards oxidation by Zeddelmann and Wurziger tocopherols and tocotrienols in PO were most stable
(1973) showed that PO and partially hydrogenated in the blend of PO and canola oil as compared to
groundnut oil were the most stable oils against PO alone during deep fat frying. Omar et al. (2014)
oxidation at high temperature. Another study by found that the addition of a small proportion of
Siddique et al. (2010) compare the physico-chemical virgin coconut oil in palm-based shortening would
properties of blends of POo with other vegetable improve the frying performance of oil as well as
oils, proved that POo was the most stable against sensory scores of the fried products.
oxidation rancidity among soyabean, sunflower One of the most objective and valid criteria
(SFO) and canola oils. Abdulkarim et al. (2007) for the evaluation of deterioration in oils and fats
compared the frying quality and stability of high is the formation of polar compounds. The content
oleic Moringa oleifera seed oil with other vegetable of total polar compounds is the most predominant
oils which included POo, canola oil and soyabean indicator for oil quality and is widely used in
oil, and found that POo and Moringa oleifera seed oil many international regulations (Firestone, 2007;
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JOURNAL OF OIL PALM RESEARCH 29 (4) (DECEMBER 2017)
Fritch, 1981). For public health concerns, the systems. The pressure to reduce saturated fat
content of total polar compounds and acid value intake and eliminate trans fats from our diets
in frying oil are regulated at not more than 25% has made structuring liquid oils an active area of
(Lee, 2009). Polar compounds increase during research in the past decade. Solid fat (hard stock)
frying as a result of oxidation of fatty acids. The provides structure in numerous food products
level of polar compounds reflects the amount of contributing to hardness, mouthfeel and solid-
degraded products formed during heating and like behaviour. They are responsible for network
frying. Polar compounds include among others structure. Thus, it is often difficult or impossible
polymers, monoglycerides, diglycerides and cyclic to eliminate this ingredient to improve the health
compounds. Cyclic components are much more aspects of the product, without sacrificing some
harmful to health than other components of polar of the characteristic properties. For example, the
compounds (Nor Aini et al., 2002). triacylglycerol (TAG) profile is responsible for the
Razali (2005) reported on the frying narrow melting range of chocolate and the broad
performances of PO and POo in three major melting profile of margarine (Pernetti et al., 2007;
applications, i.e., industrial production of potato Rogers, 2009).
chips/crisps, industrial production of pre-fried Saturated TAG are used as structural fats to
frozen French fries and in fast food outlets. Study on develop a wider range of structuring agent in high
the performance of POo in industrial production of fat food or solid fat formulations such as margarine
potato chips/crisps (potato chips were continuously and shortening (Omonov et al., 2010). Traditionally,
fried 8 hr a day and five days a week) showed solid fat in high-fat food formulations is obtained
that POo performed well and was still in excellent by hydrogenation of liquid oils. Hydrogenation
condition and usable at the end of the trial. This results in the formation of trans fatty acids where
was reflected in low polar and polymer contents some cis double bonds are rearranged to trans bonds
of 10% and 2%, respectively, and high content of (Fomuso and Akoh, 2001; List et al., 1977). Several
tocopherols and tocotrienols of 530 ppm even after studies have suggested a direct relationship between
>1900 hr of frying. Study on the performance of PO trans fatty acids and increased risk of coronary
in industrial production of pre-fried frozen French heart diseases as well as rise of plasmatic lipid
fries (the industrial frying was continuously done levels. There are also suggestions that the negative
for 12 days), showed that PO performed excellently consequences of trans fatty acids consumption go
as reflected by its low polar and polymer contents beyond the cardiovascular risk (Wang et al., 2016).
of 17% and 2.8%, respectively, over the 12 days of There are scientific consensus that trans fatty acids
trial. Study on the intermittent frying of chicken specifically increase the risk of other chronic health
parts using palm shortening, PO and POo in the problems such as cancer (Chavarro et al., 2008),
laboratory simulating the conditions in fast food diabetes (van-Dam et al., 2002; Hu et al., 2001),
outlets showed that the three palm-based frying oils obesity (Gosline, 2006) and infertility (Chavarro
performed very satisfactorily, as reflected by their et al., 2007). Due to their high solid fat content at
reasonably low polar and polymer contents of <25% ambient temperature that contributes to structural
and <6%, respectively, after five days of consecutive stability, high oxidative stability (long shelf-life),
frying. All the quality indicators did not exceed the cost-effective price and availability, PO and its hard
maximum discard points for frying oils/fats in the fraction, POs of various IV or level of saturation have
three applications. The findings by Razali (2005) been widely used to replace hydrogenated lipids in
are coherent with findings by Chen et al. (2013) and the high-fat food or solid fat formulations (Pande
Omar et al. (2007). Chen et al. (2013) reported that and Akoh, 2013; Lai et al., 2000). PO and POs can
the rate of total polar compounds generation in be blended and interesterified with liquid oils in
POo was slower than that in soyabean oil during order to enhance the physical characteristics of
frying. Study by Omar et al. (2007) showed that PO the mixture to meet the functional properties and
solid frying fat which has a melting point of about the quality required for high-fat food or solid fat
42°C (to facilitate processing and so that it is stable formulations (Sellami et al., 2008). POs with specific
during transportation and on the supermarket and tailor-made modification techniques can deliver
shelf), showed to have polar content development excellent texture from the point of view of good
significantly lower than an imported hydrogenated structuring ability and ensure good mouthfeel of the
frying fat, and smoke point of only 220°C after five final product (Pande and Akoh, 2013). Combination
days of continuous frying on a standard frying of the solid POs with liquid oils such as soyabean,
method. (a) (d)
sunflower, canola and pine oils, and lauric fats such
as coconut oil and PKO provide fat blends of suitable
STRUCTURED FATS SFC and melting profiles for solid fat formulations
(Noor Lida et al., 2007; Foglia et al., 1993).
Saturated fats and trans fat are the main structuring Interesterification is a reaction involving acyl
agent in contributing to the texture of solid fats groups interchange between esters, normally TAG.
490
PALM OIL AND PALM KERNEL OIL: VERSATILE INGREDIENTS FOR FOOD APPLICATIONS
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JOURNAL OF OIL PALM RESEARCH 29 (4) (DECEMBER 2017)
while POs as hard stock (Pande and Akoh, 2013; found that interesterified POs/SFO 40%:60% and
Sellami et al., 2012). 50%:50% ratios are suitable for table margarine
Firmness, spreadability, smoothness and proper production. Adhikari et al. (2010) reported that fat
melt-down are the key textural characteristics of from the enzymatically interesterified POs, coconut
the margarine product, and these characteristics oil and rice bran produced suitable blend for
are influenced by the solid-liquid-fat ratio as a margarine having SFC of 15.5%-34.2% at 25°C, slip
function of temperature (Szczesniak, 1997). Crystal melting point of between 27.5°C-34.3°C and with β’
polymorph plays another important key role in the polymorphism dominant. Noor Lida et al., (2016a,
final product’s consistency and acceptability. In b, c) found that interesterified palm mid fraction
shortenings and margarine, β′ is the desired crystal (PMF) excellently performed as bakery margarine,
form because β′ crystals are desirably small and better than the performance of commercial bakery
could result in smooth texture and provide desirable margarine which was made of PO/PKO blend. The
functionality. On the other hand, β form tends to interesterified PMF also performed well in table
give rise to large crystal size and aggregating into margarine formulation.
grainy textured products. The development of Processing is another crucial determinant of
grainy texture in solid fat formulations, especially margarine quality apart from suitable formulation
margarine, is due to the transformation of β’ to β for a desired property. During processing, which
polymorph (Zaliha et al., 2015a, b; Garima and mainly involves crystallisation, a cooling condition
Akoh, 2013; Ward, 1998). As margarine should be applied that does not lead to the thermodynamic
at a complete melt in the mouth, the temperature equilibrium between the composition of the
of 37°C (body temperature) is typically used as a solid and the liquid phases could result in
reference for formulating table margarine. SFC of recrystallisation. Recrystallisation usually occurs
28% at 15°C and 12%-15% at 20°C are common for during transportation and retail, and could develop
table margarine in order to aid packing process as a new solid phase (Hishamudin et al., 2011; Smith
well as to abstain from oiling out (Miskandar and et al., 1994) that could result in an inferior product.
Nor Aini, 2010). Crystal growth, as a result of recrystallisation, leads
Nor Aini and Miskandar (2007a) reported that to the formation of solid bridges (sintering) between
25% PO content in margarine is trivial. Although the narrow gaps of the crystal networks upon
PO content in a table margarine formulation can be storage (Johansson et al., 1995). A proper margarine
up to 50%, margarine meltability can be affected. processing method would improve the sensory
POs with various IV has gained popularity as an and physical characteristics of margarine products
alternative to partially hydrogenated or trans fat (Miskandar et al., 2005). Proper processing condition
(MPOB, 2017). POs at 10%-15% can be blended with proper selection of fat blends would also hinder
with soft oil to produce tub margarine (Nor Aini post-crystallisation problem in margarine made of
and Miskandar, 2007b). Non-refrigerated table palm-based fats. Post-crystallisation in palm-based
margarine is referred to can margarine which is margarine and shortenings is a general quality issue
commonly used as general-purpose margarine that is associated with their slow crystallisation
which should have sufficiently broad plasticity behaviour hence in some cases leads to processing
range (Miskandar et al., 2005). difficulties (Duns, 1985). This phenomenon increases
Bakery margarine does not require refrigeration the hardness of finished products several weeks
and therefore, could tolerate dough working after production and has limited the maximum
condition. Palm fractions of 50%-100% could be usage of palm fractions in soft margarine (Nor Aini
used to formulate cake margarine. PO which is and Miskandar, 2007a). Post-crystallisation of PO/
well-known for its high palmitic acid level could SFO soft margarine formulation has been minimised
aerate fat and sugar mixtures well. PKO is also a by optimising the processing conditions (Miskandar
suitable raw material for this product as it imparts and Zaliha, 2014). A relatively high-speed pin-
fast crystallisation which result to great creaming rotor unit coupled with a homogeniser operated at
properties for cake. Other than cake margarine, palm optimum pressure could enhance the completion
fractions especially POs are used to produce pastry of crystallisation activities during processing and
margarine. High SFC is required to obtain good improves the product quality.
plasticity to survive numerous layering process of
pastry making (Nor Aini and Miskandar, 2007b). REDUCED FAT SPREADS
Blend of PO, POs and PKO is suitable to prepare
pastry margarine and is comparable to commercial Reduced fat spread which normally contains 40%-
pastry margarine when high POs content is used 60% fats, can be formulated for convenience and
(POs IV 40 of more than 50% or POs IV 32 of more health. The oil or fat phase has a major influence
than 30%) (Noor Lida et al., 1996a). Suitable fats on the shape, size, and arrangement of the crystals
for margarine could also be achieved through the network, which in turn, determines the melting
interesterification of palm fractions. Lai et al. (1999) characteristics of the products and provides the
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PALM OIL AND PALM KERNEL OIL: VERSATILE INGREDIENTS FOR FOOD APPLICATIONS
forms and texture of the finished spreads (Charteris partially hydrogenated liquid oils (Reshma et al.,
and Keogh, 1991). PO, PKO, and their fractions are 2008; Berger and Nor Aini, 2005; Nor Aini et al.,
important fats in reduced fat spread formulations, 1989; Duns, 1985).
mainly from an economic standpoint, nutrition and Excellent performance of palm-based shortening
product performance and characteristics. Blends has been proven by many other studies. Sciarini
of PO and SFO in 50%:50% ratio can be used to et al. (2013) who studied the effect of lauric-based
formulate tub type reduced fat spread. Blends of shortening with varying SFC made from different
70%-75% PO, 24%-30% SFO and 0%-6% PKOo are ratios of high oleic SFO, PKO and hard POs on the
suitable for block type reduced fat spreads. Blends properties of dough and sugar-snap biscuits found
consisting of 16%-23% POs IV40, 60%-80% SFO and that shortening with 20%-25% SFC produced
0%-23% PKOo are also suitable for tub reduced fat the best quality biscuits. Furthermore, Nor Aini
spread. Interesterified blends consisting as high and Miskandar (2007a) found that the textural
as 66%-76% POo IV 60, 24%-30% SFO and 0%-8% characteristics of rolled biscuits made from 100%
PKOo are recommended for tub reduced fat spread PO were quite similar with those made from
and 78%-98% POo IV 60, 2%-12% SFO and 0%- 100% butterfat. Both biscuits received almost
18% PKOo are recommended for block reduced fat similar scores in the sensory evaluation except
spread (Noor Lida and Md Ali, 1998). for crispiness. Ramli et al. (2008a) who studied
the performance of shortenings prepared from
palm products in pound cake concluded that
SHORTENINGS palm-based high oleic cake shortening received a
high score in flavour, texture and eating quality.
Shortenings is a visco-elastic semi-solid food product Mayamol et al. (2004) formulated shortening
containing both liquid and solid fats. The liquid is consisting of POs and rice bran oil blends contain
entrapped in between the network of crystals. Being primarily the most stable β′ form, suitable for cake
semi-solid, PO is a useful and convenient ingredient making. Chin et al. (2010) who studied the effect
for shortening formulations since it is naturally of palm-based shortening with various melting
semi-solid at ambient temperature. An important points on the quality of the bread, found that
role of PO and palm fractions in shortenings is to bread incorporated with palm-based shortening
provide consistency, texture and structure to the had good volume and oven spring. Palm-based
products without the need for hydrogenation (Nor shortening could also enhance the quality of non-
Aini and Miskandar, 2007a). In formulating a gluten bread as reported by Aguilar et al. (2015),
consistent fat such as shortening, a common method Demirkesen et al. (2013), Miñarro et al. (2012),
is to match the SFC profile for compatible physical Sciarini et al. (2012) and Schober (2009). A study
characteristics. Bakery shortenings generally have a by Yanty et al. (2017) concluded that shortening
flat SFC profile. A good bakery shortenings should containing blended palm oil, POs, soyabean oil,
have 15%-25% solid fat at 20°C and melting point fat at various combinations of fat blend and ratios
of >38°C. However, even if the SFC and the melting gave similar characteristics to lard shortening.
points of two different shortenings are similar, their This study found that plant oil-based shortening
performance in baked products can still be affected and lard shortening were similar with respect
by their structural and compositional differences. to their consistency, hardness, compression and
PO with SFC of about 22%-25% at 20°C shows a adhesiveness values.
consistency similar to that in a plastic cake shortening. Fluid shortening is a suspension of hard fats,
However, a shortening based on 100% PO performs emulsifiers and additives, or combinations in liquid
poorly in cakes, as the cakes do not hold sufficient oils formulated to be pourable, or pumpable, at
air during preparation that leads to low volume. The room temperature and stable over the temperature
performance of PO-based shortening, however, can range of 15.6°C-32.2°C (O'Brien, 2004; Ghotra et al.,
be improved by the addition of PKO. The amount 2002). In Malaysia, the product should be stable at
of PO is generally 30%-40%, but exceptionally up room temperature, i.e., at 25°C-30°C (Miskandar
to 80%, in shortenings. With the right selection of et al., 2006). Fluid shortenings are milky-white
emulsifiers, shortenings based on 100% PO with or opaque in appearance due to suspended solid
good performance could be produced. POs of fat in the liquid oil. Thus, the product should be
various IV could also be used in formulating in a stable form before packaging to avoid any
shortening of excellent performance. POs of low solidification in the package (O'Brien, 2004; Weiss,
IV, such as IV 14, tends to stabilise shortenings in 1983). The suspended solids causing the opacity is
the β form for them to perform effectively in cakes. normally from hard fats, as in frying shortening,
Blending of palm products with other commercial and from the emulsifiers, as in baking shortening.
oils and fats could also produce shortenings that Monoacylglycerols and propylene glycol
perform well and comparable to the performance monostearate are the most common emulsifiers in
of commercial shortenings which are made of fluid shortening formulations. The amount of hard
493
JOURNAL OF OIL PALM RESEARCH 29 (4) (DECEMBER 2017)
material that may be added to the base oil depends CONFECTIONERY FATS
on the solubility of that material to make a solid/
liquid suspension of 5%-30% solid (Miskandar et al., PO and PKO are ideal raw materials for confectionery
2004; Bockisch, 1997). fats because of their unique properties. They can be
modified to extend their range of applications. The
uses of confectionery fats can be classified into hard
VANASPATI and soft chocolates. Applications of PO and PKO
and their fractions in confectionery fats have been
Vanaspati is the Indian name for a hydrogenated detailed in a review paper by Norazura and Noor
vegetable fat used as a substitute for butterfat Lida (2017).
(ghee) in cooking. In some countries, it is also called
‘vegetable ghee’ (Kheiri, 1985). It is an important Hard Chocolate
food item in India and Pakistan but is also
popular in the eastern Mediterranean countries Cocoa butter alternatives (CBA) can be classified
and known by various names, in Yugoslavia, into three main categories which are the cocoa butter
Greece (voutyros), Turkey, Algeria, Morocco equivalent (CBE), cocoa butter replacer (CBR) and
(smin) and others. The absence of moisture makes cocoa butter substitute (CBS). Vegetable fat having
it more resistant to microbiological deterioration. similar physical and chemical properties as cocoa
As vanaspati is produced as a substitute for butter is called CBE. On the other hand, vegetable
butterfat which exhibits slow crystallisation fats having similar physical properties only as cocoa
to result in a granular texture, this appearance butter are referred to as CBR (non-lauric-based) and
is usually looked upon as a sign of purity and CBS (lauric-based). CBE is compatible with cocoa
quality (MPOB, 2017). butter at any ratios. PMF is a source of symmetrical
PO and its solid fraction POs have desirable TAG [(primarily 1, 3-dipalmitoy-2-oleoyl glycerol
physical characteristics for vanaspati. Vanaspati (POP)] and is important in the formulation of a
can be made with direct blends of PO and POs. CBE. The PMF with its high content of POP TAG
Our study indicated that trans-free vanaspati structure could be modified easily either through
could be produced easily by the direct blending blending with fractions from exotic fats such as Sal,
of POs with other liquid oils. To maximise the Shea, Illipe or mango kernel fat or interesterified to
use of POs, interesterification can be employed. produce CBE of high quality and has all the desirable
The products obtained simulate conventional confectionery fat characteristics (Berger, 1981).
partially hydrogenated vanaspati in physical Studies by Bootello et al. (2013; 2012) have shown that
characteristics that include melting point, blends of PMF with sunflower hard stearin and high
appearance and consistency. The direct blending oleic-high stearic sunflower hard stearin are suitable
of 60% POs and 40% liquid vegetable oil produces as CBE. Palm mid stearin (IV 45, co-product of the
the most acceptable low melting vanaspati fractionation of POs IV 33 into POs IV 15) has
while blending of 80%-95% PO and 5%-20% POs also been reported to be suitable for cocoa butter
(IV 33) could produce vanaspati of 38°C melting extender. However, it has limited application
point. The product appears homogenous, has soft (Kellens et al., 2007). The limitation might be due
consistency with no oil separation. In the case of to its poor compatibility with cocoa butter (Pease,
interesterified vanaspati, higher amounts of POs 1985). Cocoa butter extender is used mainly to
of up to 80% can be incorporated (Nor Aini et al., make the confectionery fat more economical
1997). Blends of PO, POs and POo in 60%-80%:5%- (Timms, 2003). CBE can also be produced with sn-
20%:10%-15% ratios, and blends of PO, POs and 1,3-specific enzymatic interesterification of PMF
PKOo in 60%-80%/:5%-20%:10%-20% ratios could and stearic acid (Undurraga et al., 2001) and PO
also produce vanaspati with similar characteristics and fully hydrogenated soyabean oil (Abigor et
to hydrogenated vanaspati (Nor Aini et al., 1999). al., 2003).
Low saturates (less than 30%) trans-free vanaspati CBR is less compatible with cocoa butter and is
based on 100% palm products can also be produced typically used for coating. Currently, low or zero
using hard feedstock from a combination of POs, trans-fatty acid CBR is the preference as trans fatty
PKO and PO. The crystallisation curve shows that acids are detrimental to health. Low and zero trans
higher hard feedstock in the formulation will give CBR can be manufactured from fat similar to CBE
faster crystallisation in the product. but possesses higher asymmetrical disaturated,
PO and its fractions (POs and POo) can be monounsaturated TAG (SSU) such as PPO, whereby
interesterified with PKO or other oils to produce P is palmitic and O is oleic acid which can be
granular vanaspati. Example of a good grainy achieved, with special fractionation conditions of
texture vanaspati formulation is interesterified palm fractions (Smith, 2012). POs and palm mid
blend of POs and rapeseed oil in 70%:30% ratio stearin can also be applied as a hard coating, though
(MPOB, 2017). the utilisation is limited (Kellens et al., 2007). PKO
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PALM OIL AND PALM KERNEL OIL: VERSATILE INGREDIENTS FOR FOOD APPLICATIONS
is the main source of palm-based CBS. Examples has significant contribution to ice-cream properties
of CBS are PKOs and hydrogenated PKO. Blend of (Goff, 1997) in which milk fat is the traditional fat for
POs with first and second fractionated palm kernel ice-cream. The fat content of 10%-16% is common in
fat will result in better molding and demoulding ice-cream in which different types of fat and amount
properties (Cain et al., 1995). Norizzah et al. (2004) affect the end product (Adapa et al., 2000). The
revealed that confectionery fats (non-temper type) requirements for ice-cream fat are that they should
having β’-tending polymorph can be produced from be partly solid at -5ºC to +5ºC, substantially liquid
POs and PKOo through chemical interesterification. at 37ºC and good melt in the mouth characteristics
Low-calorie CBS can be obtained through (Berger, 1990).
interesterification of PMF, PKOs and medium chain PO and PKO are widely used commercially to
triglycerides oil (Borhan et al., 2011). replace butterfat in ice-cream formulation. Not only
economical and easily available, the use of PO, PKO
Soft Chocolate and their fractions in ice-cream formulation, due to
their physical characteristics, produces ice-cream of
Soft chocolate or chocolate spread is lipid good texture, mouthfeel and stability especially
fraction(s) dispersed with fine solids. It is common upon storage. The sharp melting properties of PKO
for chocolate spread to have fat content of between is found to be suitable for ice-cream. Fat blend
40%-44%. The fat content of between 28%-35% is consisting of 60%-100% PO and 0%-40% PKO has
typically found in the low-fat chocolate spread. been reported to be manufactured in commercial
Oil separation is one of the important factors scale (Berger and Nor Aini, 2005). Further cost
to be considered when formulating chocolate reduction in ice-cream production can be achieved
spread. Chocolate spread after storage of 6-12 when PO is mixed with 10%-15% POs. PMF (IV 40-
months should not show any development of oil 45) having high solid content at 5°C with low solid
separation for it to be considered as good stability content at 35°C is also suitable fat for ice-cream as
product (Salmi Yati, 2006). Thus, the distinct it melts completely below body temperature (Wan
ratio of solid and liquid is required to develop Rosnani et al., 2017).
this product. Blends of PO, POo, red POo or POs The versatility of PO and PKO and their
with other soft oils or butterfat are suitable for fractions in ice-cream production has been reported
chocolate spread (Jeyarani et al., 2015; El-Hadad by many researchers. Ramli et al. (2008b) reported
et al., 2011; El-kalyoubi et al., 2011). that apart from POo, PKO and PMF, red POo is also
suitable for the production of ice-cream. Okiyama
et al. (1993) used PO and skimmed milk blend in
NON-DAIRY PRODUCTS their ice-cream to study the applicability of bacterial
cellulose in ice-cream. Nadeem et al. (2009) reported
Non-dairy products include non-dairy ice-cream, that incorporation of 3% POo with 1.5% milk fat
whipped topping, reconstituted filled milk, coffee shows no adverse effect on flavour, pH and melting
creamer and cheese analogs. Vegetable oils are quality of the ice-cream. In addition, Sung and Goff
commonly used to replace milk fat in imitation (2010) found that the use of PKO and high oleic SFO
dairy products. These products have better keeping produces ice-cream of excellent structure and high
properties than those containing milk fat, especially melt resistance. Interesterified PKOo and anhydrous
when palm oil is used. PO, PKO and their fractions milk fat in 70%:30% ratio is also suitable to produce
are versatile materials with many applications in ice-cream of excellent melting characteristics (Liew
non-dairy products. et al., 2001).
Ice-cream is a complicated food colloid made Cheese substitutes or cheese imitates, have long
up of fat globules (1 nm-1 µm in size), air bubbles, gained popularity among the food processors due
ice crystals and an unfrozen serum phase (Goff, to their cost-effectiveness in the production which
1997). Production of ice-cream involves numerous normally use cheaper non-dairy fats or proteins
steps of process which includes mixing pre- to replace the costly milk-derived ingredients
heating, homogenisation, pasteurisation, ageing, (Bachmann, 2001; Guirguis et al., 1985). Cheese
cooling, freezing and packaging. The ingredients substitutes are well-accepted among consumers
in ice-cream play a major role in determining its as they can be manufactured to be nutritionally
quality although it is predominantly dependent on equivalent or have more nutritional benefits than
its processing and freezing conditions. Sensorial the natural cheese. Cheese substitutes can be
properties of ice-cream such as texture, resistant classified according to the manufacturing processes
to melt and mouthfeel are dictated by ice-cream namely filled cheese and cheese analogs. Vegetable
structure (Granger et al., 2005; Adapa et al., 2000). Fat oils are often used in both types of cheese analogs
495
JOURNAL OF OIL PALM RESEARCH 29 (4) (DECEMBER 2017)
496
PALM OIL AND PALM KERNEL OIL: VERSATILE INGREDIENTS FOR FOOD APPLICATIONS
Filled milk is available in three forms, i.e., sweetened ANIMAL FAT REPLACER
condensed, evaporated and powdered (Nor Aini
et al., 2002). Filled milk is basically meant to Animal fat is a major constituent in the production
replace fresh milk and full cream milk products of processed meat such as nuggets, frankfurters and
such as sweetened condensed milk, evaporated burgers as it provides texture and flavour to the end
milk or full cream milk powder which are often products. However, it has been described as the
expensive, contain trans fatty acids and cholesterols. main factor for numerous diseases related to diet.
497
JOURNAL OF OIL PALM RESEARCH 29 (4) (DECEMBER 2017)
This is mostly due to the contents of its saturated and possesses the necessary emulsification, film-
fatty acid, trans fatty acid as well as cholesterol forming and good drying properties (Young et al.,
(Rafidah et al., 2015; Ospina et al., 2012). Animal 1993; Balassa and Fanger, 1971). In addition, its
fat substitution with vegetable fat would be able to concentrated solution should have low viscosity.
eliminate or reduce these parameters. The variety of coating materials commonly used
PO and its fraction POo dan POs have been include natural gums, carbohydrates and proteins
reported as vegetable fats that are suitable to be (Dziezak, 1988).
used as animal fat replacer. The blend of PO and The applications of PO-based products in
POs is suitable for partial substitution of chicken food formulations can be extended by using
fat in chicken frankfurters in which it is comparable microencapsulation technique. It has been shown
to commercial sample in terms of its sensory that under carefully selected conditions and
properties. The incorporation of POo in meat batter process, microencapsulated or powdered palm-
was found to eliminate fat and water separation based oil containing up to 70% PO (or higher with
problem. Chicken fat substitution with POo received the higher melting fraction of PO, e.g., POs), can be
greater acceptance by sensory panellists in which it produced. The microencapsulated PO-based oils
was rated to have good hardness, oiliness, chicken have good flowing properties and are mechanically
flavour as well as overall acceptance (Tan et al., 2006; stable (Noor Lida et al., 1996b). Microencapsulation
2001). A study by Hsu and Yu (2002) shows that technique has also been applied to protect and
partial PO substitution is suitable for the making improve the functionality and properties of red
of low-fat emulsified meatball (Kung-wans). Vural PO/POo as reported by Voon et al. (2013) and
and Javidipour (2002) found that interesterified PO Noor Lida et al. (1996b). Red PO is one of the
was able to partially replace beef fat in frankfurters richest sources of vitamin E (tocotrienols 70%-
formulation. In addition, Rafidah et al. (2015) have 80% and tocopherols 20%-30%) (Mukherjee and
successfully produced vitamin E-enriched palm fat Mitra, 2009) and carotenoids of which 80%- 90%
vegetable nuggets. Nuggets formulated with 6.4% is present as α-carotene and β-carotene (Benadé,
vitamin E-enriched palm fat was found the best for 2013). It also contains appreciable amounts of
the formulation. phospholipids, ubiquinones, sterols, and squalene
(Choo et al., 2005) and phenolic compounds
(Sambanthamurthi et al., 2011). The micronutrient
MICROENCAPSULATED PALM-BASED in PO especially in the red PO has been found
PRODUCTS to have potent protective effects against chronic
diseases, that is, cardiovascular disease, diabetes,
Microencapsulation is a method in which tiny and cancer (Che Idris et al., 2014; Benadé, 2013).
particles or droplets of bioactive components Microencapsulated or powdered palm-based fats
are surrounded by a coating or wall material, to containing vitamin E, carotenoids and other palm-
form small capsules or microcapsules (Calvo et al., based micronutrients can be produced using spray
2011; Gharsallaoui et al., 2007). The wall material drying technique. Voon et al. (2013) used spray
protects the bioactive core materials from chemical drying technique to produce microencapsulated
and physical reactions to maintain the biological, or powdered red POo with the aim to deliver the
functional, and physico-chemical properties of the lipophilic nutrients of red POo in an encapsulated
core materials. Microencapsulation is one of the system for better organoleptic acceptability,
techniques used for downstream processing of PO sensory and nutritional values, shelf-life stability
and processed PO products. Droplets of liquid oil or and ease of handling and storage. Once dried,
solid fat particles of PO-based products (core material) the products can be packaged and stored at
are coated with a thin film of the encapsulating agent room temperature for long periods of time. The
(e.g., a polymer). The cover over the core material red POo in the dried form is able to reduce or
protects it against deterioration, then releases it eliminate the unpleasant colour, taste and odour
under the desired conditions (Fang and Bhandari, of the red POo. It can be incorporated into a
2010; Young et al., 1993; Dziezak, 1988). beverage product, food product, or other aqueous
There are numerous techniques for producing system suitable for consumption by a human
microencapsules. The choice, to a great extent, or animal. Noor Lida et al. (1996b) used spray
depends on the core material to be treated. The most drying technique to produce microencapsulated
common technique for oils and fats is spray drying palm-based fat containing vitamin E and carotene
which produces fine oils or fats powders. The from red POo and POs in the ratio of 60%:40%.
process is economical and flexible, and only requires Omar et al. (2001) prepared an instant flavour
equipment that is readily available, and produces ingredient by microencapsulation of POo with
products of good quality (Reineccius, 1988; Heath pandan, ginger, lemongrass and durian extract.
and Reineccius, 1986). The coating material for spray The encapsulated powders have moisture, oil and
drying should have a bland flavour, high solubility, surface oil content at 2.0-2.7, 56.8-68.1 and 15.2%-
498
PALM OIL AND PALM KERNEL OIL: VERSATILE INGREDIENTS FOR FOOD APPLICATIONS
499
JOURNAL OF OIL PALM RESEARCH 29 (4) (DECEMBER 2017)
enzymes. Dietary supplements are marketed in the A deficiency in lactating mothers (Canfield et al.,
forms of tablets, capsules, soft gels, powders and 2001). Thus, red PO/POo is highly efficacious in
liquids. The intended use of dietary supplements improving vitamin A status among populations
is to ensure that a person gets enough essential at risk of vitamin A deficiency around the world
nutrients. Dietary supplements should not be used (Sommerburg et al., 2015; Rice and Burns, 2010).
to treat any disease or as preventive healthcare A number of epidemiological studies have
(USFDA, 2017). demonstrated an inverse correlation between
PO is rich in micronutrients such as carotenoids, dietary intake or blood level of vitamin A/
tocopherols, tocotrienols, sterols, phospholipids, carotenoids and cancer risk, as well as an anti-
squalene, and tripterpenic and aliphatic carcinogenic effect for these compounds. The
hydrocarbons (Goh et al., 1985). The carotenoids, inhibition of chemical carcinogenesis by PO
tocopherols, and tocotrienols are the most important carotenoids with reference to Benzo(a) pyrene
minor components of PO. Together, they contribute metabolites in vivo and in vitro in rat hepatic
to the stability and nutritional properties of PO cells has been reported by Tan and Chu (1991).
(Ooi et al., 1996). Carotenoids impart the orange- The inhibitory effect palm carotenoids on the
red colour to crude PO. Carotenoids, in particular proliferation of a number of human cancer
α- and β-carotene, are precursors of vitamin A cells, which include the neuroblastoma, GOTO,
that are converted into vitamin A in vivo. In its pancreatic cancer PANC-1, glio-blastoma A172
crude form, PO is also high in carotenoids (500- and gastric cancer HGC- 27, has been reported
800 mg kg-1), in the form of α-carotene, β-carotene, by Murakoshi et al. (1989).
γ-carotene, lycopene and xanthophylls (Choo and Apart from liquid red PO/POo, palm vitamin
Ng, 2010). Rice and Burns (2010) and Zeba et al. E and carotenes supplements are also available in
(2006) suggested that PO carotenes improve vitamin emulsion, soft gel, capsule and tablet forms.
A status in individuals with vitamin A deficiency.
Nguyen et al. (2001) and Stuijvenberg et al. (2000)
reported that South African and Vietnamese OTHER FOOD USES
children who were fed with foods enriched with
PO carotenes had significantly higher serum retinol. PO, PKO and their fractions could also be used
Carotenes have also been reported as having in sugar confectioneries, expanded and extruded
antioxidant and anti-cancer properties (Ashfaq et snack, peanut butter, can soup and sardine, biscuit
al., 2001). Tocopherols and tocotrienols are vitamin E spray oil and others (MPOB, 2017).
isomers which are present in high amount (800-1270
mg kg-1) in PO (Puah et al., 2007). Palm vitamin
E possesses unique properties such as antioxidant CONCLUSION
(Cerecetto and López, 2007), cardioprotective (Heng
et al., 2013), neuroprotective (Mangialasche et al.,
PO and PKO and their fractions are very versatile.
2010), anti-cancer and cancer suppression (Wong
They can be used in a myriad of food applications
and Radhakrishnan, 2012; Nesaretnam et al., 1998),
from cooking/frying oil to margarine, vanaspati,
nephroprotective (Siddiqui et al., 2010), anti-diabetic
shortenings, fat spreads, confectionery fat, ice-
(Siddiqui et al., 2013), gastroprotective (Azlina et
cream, cheese analogs, animal fat replacer, filled
al., 2005), hepatoprotective (Ngah et al., 1991) and
milk, mayonnaise and salad dressing, coconut milk
neurologic and brain development effects (Traber,
analog, health supplements, and many others. The
2014).
versatility of PO, PKO and their fractions in food
Palm-based dietary supplement such as vitamin
applications is attributable to their availability,
E and carotenes have long been commercially
competitive price (in the case of PO and its fractions),
available. Red PO/POo is suitable to be used in many
their distinctive quality such as their natural
dishes. One tablespoon of red POo a day provides
excellent oxidative stability (in the case of PO and
enough carotenes and vitamin E for children
POo), unique solid content profile, high nutritional
requirements (Nor Aini et al., 2002). A study on the
value (free of trans fatty acids and cholesterols, and
efficacy of utilising red PO as a source of carotene in
high in micronutrients), antioxidant properties and
rectifying vitamin A deficiency in school children in
naturality (non-genetically modified organism, non-
India conducted by Manorama et al. (1996) showed
GMO).
that red PO is an efficient source of β-carotene and
can be used for supplementary feeding programmes
to combat vitamin A deficiency in target population.
In Guatemala, a similar recommendation was made ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
to use red POo to combat vitamin A deficiency
(International Vitamin A Consultative Group, 1996). The authors thank the Director-General of MPOB
Red PO/POo has also been used to combat vitamin for permission to publish this article.
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PALM OIL AND PALM KERNEL OIL: VERSATILE INGREDIENTS FOR FOOD APPLICATIONS
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