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GEF/UNEP PROJECT ON THE DUGONG AND SEAGRASS CONSERVATION

NATIONAL REVIEW OF DUGONG AND


SEAGRASS: INDONESIA

LAMINA
GEF/UNEP PROJECT ON THE DUGONG AND SEAGRASS
CONSERVATION

NATIONAL REVIEW OF DUGONG AND


SEAGRASS: INDONESIA

PREPARED BY

NATIONAL REVIEW TEAM:


Anugerah Nontji
Tri Edi Kuriandewa
Erix Harryadie

DECEMBER 2012
Acknowledgment

The National Review Team members would like to extend their gratitude to those
who has contributed or provided information for the preparation of this document:
Rofi Alhanif, (MMAF); Wawan Kiswara, (RCO-LIPI); Malikusworo Hutomo (Lamina);
Dwi Supriati (WWF-Indonesia); Ulva Takke (Mimpi Indah Resort); Priti, Nurul
Dhewani (COREMAP II).
TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page
Table of Content …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 1
1. Introduction ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 2
2. Distribution and status of dugong and seagrass …………………………………………………………. 2
2.1. Regional synthesis of dugong status and distribution ………………………………………… 3
2.2. Regional synthesis of seagrass status and distribution ………………………………………. 6
3. Threats, root causes and causal chain analysis …………………………………………………………… 9
3.1. Threats ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 9
3.2. Root causes ………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 11
3.3. Causal chain analysis ………………………………………………………………………………………… 12
4. Suggested management approach and project sites …………………………………………………… 12
4.1. Suggested management approach ……………………………………………………………………. 12
4.2. Suggested priority for project sites …………………………………………………………………... 13
5. On-going projects and studies …………………………………………………………………………………….. 13
6. Dugong and seagrass conservation measures…………………………………………………............. 16
6.1. National Biodiversity Policy …………………………………………………………….…………………. 16
6.2. Policy, strategy and action plans for dugong …………………………………………………….. 17
6.3. Legal aspects …………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 19
6.4. Protected area network and management plan ………………………………………………. 19
6.5. Awareness programmes, impact and effectiveness ………………………………………….. 22
6.6. Experiences of incentive mechanisms for conservation ……………………………………. 23
6.7. Ecosystem services related to carbon capture ………………………………………………….. 24
6.8. Key stakeholders’ roles and capacities ……………………………………………………………… 24
References …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 27
Annexes ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….. 30

1
NATIONAL REVIEW OF DUGONG AND SEAGRASS: INDONESIA

1. Introduction

Seagrass is a group of flowering plants (Spermatophyte) which have completely adapted to live
submerged under marine environment; posses vascular, leave, rhizome and root system, and
propagate generatively by seeds and vegetatively by shoot. The rhizome represents nodded stem
that grows horizontally underneath the substrate’s surface. The plant is able to cover large area of
shallow coastal waters and called seagrass bed or seagrass meadow. Seagrass bed may consists of
single species (monospecific) or more than one species (mixed vegetation), densely or sparsely
distributed.

Since the last few decades people realize the importance of seagrass beds that play roles as
sediment stabilizer as well as coastal protector against wave and current forces. From ecological
point of view, seagrass functions as producer of organic substance, as habitat for great variety of
animals, as substrate for several kinds of epibenthos, as well as nursery ground for the larvae and
jeveniles of fish and other organisms. Most important among the functions is the production of
organic matter which is of great value to support the lives of all associated fauna, including dugong
and turtle, both are by law protected.

Dugong (Dugong dugon, Müller, 1776) is herbivorous marine mammal which has become
endangered and is protected under the Ministry of Agriculture Decree No. 327/Kpts/Um/1972.
Dugongs depend on the production of seagrass, and they are the only marine mammals which graze
intensively on this plant. Its main diet is seagrass, which make up about 90 % of its diet. De Iongh
(1995) pointed out that dugong likes to feed on Halodule uninervis. Based on his research it became
apparent that there is a correlation between the number of dugong and the food available.
Moreover, the change of seagrass abundance and nutrient quality will influence the movement and
mating cycle of the dugong.

The aims of this review document are to provide picture on the current state of distribution and
condition of dugong and seagrass in Indonesian marine and coastal areas, on going projects and
studies related to dugong and seagrass conservation, and measures for conserving dugong and
seagrass. The document will be compiled with other countries’ similar document that participate in
the regional GEF/UNEP-CMS Project entitled “Catalysing the conditions for more robust dugong and
habitat conservation measures across the Indian and Pacific Oceans Basins through sustainable
community-led stewardship and economic development” .

2. Distibution and current status of dugong and seagrass

A preliminary dugong assessment for Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Bali, Nusa Tenggara,
Maluku and Papua is presented below. The main aim of this assessment is to summarize the
(published) information available about the different areas. Each area account includes: a general
description, overview of the status and distribution of the dugong and an overview of the status and
distribution of the seagrass. The assessment presented below is based on literature reviews only,
and since very little literature is available it is difficult to conclude if this assessment gives an
accurate overview of the dugong distribution and status in Indonesia.

2
2.1. Regional synthesis of dugong status and distribution

A preliminary dugong assessment for Sumatra, Java, Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Bali, Nusa Tenggara,
Maluku and Papua is presented below. The main aim of this assessment is to summarize the
information available about the different areas. Each area account includes: a general description,
overview of the status and distribution of the dugong and an overview of the status and distribution
of the seagrass. The assessment presented below is based on literature reviews only, and since very
little literature is available it is difficult to conclude if this assessment gives an accurate overview of
the dugong distribution and status in Indonesia.

Fig. 1. Distribution of dugong in Indonesia (synthesis from various sources)

Sumatra
In 1976 a survey team from the Jaya Ancol Oceanarium in Jakarta surveyed the islands Bangka and
Belitung during which two dugongs were caught in Klabat Bay. In a small town on the shore of Klabat
Bay (Blinyu) the survey team found that dugong meat was being sold in the market (Hendrokusumo
et al., 1976). In 2006 a dead dugong was again found on a local market on Bangka (Adrim pers.
comm. 2006). Anecdotal evidence also suggests that dugongs can be found in the Riau Archipelago
(Hendrokusumo et al., 1976). During the execution of Unep-GEF-SCS Trismades Program (Trikora
Seagrass Management Demonstration Site) in Bintan Island (Riau Archipleago) from 2007 to 2010,
four dugongs were reported entrapped in the fisher’s fishing trap, but three could be saved and
released back to the sea.

Java
Marsh et al. (2002) and de Iongh (1997) mention that dugongs have been observed in: Ujung Kulon
National Park, Cilegon Coast, Labuhan Coast, south of Cilacap, Segara Anakan, southeast of
Blambangan. In October a dugong was accidentally caught by fishers in Cilegon and transferred to
the Jaya Ancol Oceanarium. Dugongs have also been reported to occur at Banten Bay in the Banten
Province. During a survey study of the Jaya Ancol Oceanarium in 1975 local people in the area of
north Serang claimed they caught dugongs in 1974, as evidence they were able to show dugong
tusks (Hendrokusumo et al., 1976). The research team from the Jaya Ancol Oceanarium also found

3
anecdotal evidence of dugong presence in West Java, Cilacap, Macassar Strait, Banyuwangi/
Blambangan

Kalimantan
‘The Rare Aquatic Species of Indonesia Foundation and Coastal Resource Management Project’
surveyed dolphins from Mahakam Delta to Balikpapan Bay in December 2000, during which Danielle
Kreb found a dugong in Balikpapan Bay ( Marsh et al., 2002). In 2005 Kreb (Kreb and Budiono, 2005)
again mentioned an occasional sighting of an individual dugong in Balikpapan Bay. She also
mentioned the observation of one dugong in the Berau Archipelago around the Island of Derawan.
From 2001 till 2007 students from Leiden University in the Netherlands surveyed Balikpapan Bay and
recorded a number of dugong sightings and a vast number of dugong grazing tracks in the bay (de
Iongh et al., 2006). During this study they also found anecdotal evidence for dugong presence in
Derawan Island. In 2007 during an aerial survey over Balikpapan Bay at least one dugong has been
spotted. Marsh et al. (2002) moreover mentions dugong presence in Kotawaringin, Karimata Island
Marine Reserve and Kumai Bay. The Jaya Ancol Oceanarium also mention anecdotal evidence for
dugong presence in east, west and south Kalimantan (Hendrokusumo et al., 1976).

Sulawesi
According to Marsh et al. (2002) and De Iongh (1997) dugongs can be found in North Sulawesi,
around the seagrass bed of Arakan Wawontulap (southern portion of Bunaken Marine National
Park). In 1994 around Arakan Wawontalup at the Bunaken Marine National Park dugongs have been
observed in groups of between one and four during a snorkeling survey. One hundred dugongs were
supposed to be sighted at this seagrass bed over a period of one month. A local NGO, “KELOLA”,
which has been studying dugongs in northern Sulawesi, estimated approximately 1,000 dugongs in
the region (Marsh et al., 2002).

The Seagrass Watch Organization (McKenzie et al., 2006) also mentions that dugong have been
reported in northern Sulawesi, in Blongko Marine Sanctuary. At full moon dugongs should be able to
come over from a nearby bay to feed on seagrass meadows, which are only accessible for them
during spring tide. Dugongs should also be present at other locations within and outside Bunaken
Marine National Park and near Mantehage Island.

Takke (2012) reported that dugongs are sighted by local coammunities at a frequency of about twice
per month in the Island of Bankga - Minahasa Utara, North Sulawesi. The area, however, is facing
increasing threat from iron mining.

Zacot (2008) during his anthropogical studies at the Bajo communities at Lorosiaje (Gorontalo)
reported the catch of dugong and the traditional ceremonies associated with it.

Marsh et al. (2002) mentions that in 1997 a Taiwanese fishing company caught and disposed of nine
dugongs in the Lembeh Strait and that in Tumbak Village, locals often catch dugongs for their meat.
In Central Sulawesi around the Togian Islands Marine Park individual dugongs can often be seen. In
1975 a survey team from the Jaya Ancol Oceanarium caught five dugongs near Ujung Padang (Allen
et al., 1976). At that time, the area was thought to support about 15 dugongs. In more recent times,
local fishers in the area have said that dugong sightings in this area are now very rare, whereas
previously there had been many animals. Dugongs have also been caught around Barrang Lompo
Island in the Spermonde Archipelago (Erftemeijer et al., 1993)

Bali
According to Marsh et al. (2002) Individual dugongs have been sighted by surfers at Uluwatu- and
Padang-padang beache on the southwest extremity of the Bukit Peninsular and locals reported that

4
an individual dugong visits the beach almost every day. The survey team from the Jaya Ancol
Oceanarium (Hendrokusumo et al., 1976) mention that according to a report from the service for
Fishery and the protection of Natural conditions, two dugong were caught in south Bali during the
period 1977-1978.

Nusatenggara
According to Marsh et al. (2002) dugongs are present in Komodo National Park within Selat Lintah
separating Flores and Sumbawa. Singleton et al. (2002), the Seagrass Watch Organization (McKenzie
et l., 2006) and de Iongh (1997) also mention dugong presence in Komodo National Park. During the
catching program of the Jaya Ancol Oceanarium team, in 1978, two dugongs were caught in Kupang
Bay.

In 1997 in front of the Island of Rote, during a diving trip and during an boat expedition near the
Island of Sumba an individual dugong was sighted (personal communication). In 2004, a series of
interviews were conducted in the Savu Sea (Mustika, 2005). From the interviews it could be
concluded that dugongs in the area are incidentally caught by small scale fisheries. Again during a
visit to Rote Island in July 2004 the villagers revealed that the dugong populations there have
decreased to insignificant numbers, compared to what they recalled two or three decades ago.
Dugongs did not seem to be hunted on purpose; however artisanal fisheries (in addition to coastal
ecosystem degradation) were mentioned as a possible cause of the regional dugong population
decline.

Maluku
Marsh et al. (2002) and de Iongh (1996; 1997) mention that dugongs have been reported in: the Aru
Islands (including Aru Tenggara Marine reserve), Lease Islands (Ambon, Haruku, Saparua, Nusa Laut)
and south of Halmahera. Anecdotal evidence suggested that the Aru Islands (Maluku Province) once
had a large population of dugongs ( Marsh et al., 2002.; WWF, 1981). The sighting of dugongs at the
Kei Islands has been mapped by WWF.

De Iongh et al., (1995) concluded that the dugong population in East Aru and East Ambon has been
severely depleted. Dugong populations appeared to decline between 1978 and 1987. Aerial surveys
were conducted in 1990 and 1992 around the coastal waters of the Lease Islands (east Ambon and
the Islands of Haruku, Saparua, and Nusa Laut) in Maluku Province. The minimum population of
dugongs within the study area was estimated to be between 22 and 37 animals. De Iongh et al.,
(2006) also found that in Haruku Island dugongs consistently recropped and thus returned to specific
sites situated in front of villages. These villages were practicing strong traditional conservation (Sasi
Laut). According to De Iongh et al. (1995) local fishers have reported the presence of dugongs in the
coastal area of North and East Seram. In October 2011 a female dugong was caught by local fishers
at East Halmahera with a baby inside (Ivan Silaban, pers. comm.).

Papua
Dugongs have been recorded in Biak Island-Padaido Islands, Sorong, Fakfak coasts, Cendrawasih Bay
Marine National Park and Wasur National Parks (Marsh et al., 2002; de Iongh, 1997). A total of 13
dugongs were recorded in the western beach of the park during an aerial survey in 1982. Also
dugongs are rarely found in seagrass beds in Mioswar Island (small Island group near Biak),
Anggrameos Island and some mainland beaches in the southern part of the park. A small dugong
population has been observed around northern Papua Barat during scientific research cruises
(Petocz, 1989). A total of 14 dugongs were counted from the air along a stretch of the mainland and
the nearby Large Islands of Roon and Mioswar. Around the Auri reefs in Cendrawasih Bay, two
dugongs were seen (WWF, 1981).

5
2.2. Regional synthesis of seagrass status and distribution

Some 12 species of seagrass are reported to occur in Indonesian waters (den Hartog, 1978; Soegiarto
et al. 1981; Kiswara & Hutomo, 1985; Kuriandewa et al., 2003). Aside from that, two other species
i.e. Halophila beccarii and Ruppia maritima are believed to exist in Indonesian waters, although to
date they are known only from old deposited specimens at Bogor Herbarium. H. beccarii was
without clear information of the site, while R. maritima was found from mangrove areas at Ancol-
Jakarta Bay and Pasir Putih-East Jawa. But so far the two species have never been rediscovered in
the field by present day workers.

Until the past several decades, Thalassodendron ciliatum exhibits disjunctive distribution, i.e. it was
only observed in eastern Indonesia waters in Maluku and East Nusa Tenggara (den Hartog, 1987;
Soegiarto et al. 1981; Verheij et al., 1993). However, according to Tomascik et al. (1997) and Kiswara
et al.. 1997), it was also found in the western part of the archipelago i.e. in Kangean and Riau
Archipelago waters. Two other species, Halophila spinulosa and Halophila decipiens are only
recorded in a few locations. Thus, including R. maritima, Indonesian coastal waters are inhabited by
13 species of seagrass.

Fig. 2. Location of all seagrass study sites in the Indonesian Archipelago (Kiswara et al. 2011)

The Indonesian seagrass communities can be segregated into two types namely monospecific and
mixed vegetations. They grow on the muddy, sandy, coral rubble and mixed substrate, even on
massive rock (Thalassodendron ciliatum, at Kuta Bay Lombok) (Kiswara & Winardi, 1994).
Monospecific vegetation refers to seagrass community which consists of one species and grows by
forming dense or patches meadows. Meanwhile mixed vegetation consists of two to eight species on
the same area. The seagrass species which usually grow as monospecific vegetation are Thalassia

6
hemprichii, Enhalus acoroides, Halophila ovalis, Halodule pinifolia, H. uninervis, Cymodocea
rotundata and Thalassodendron ciliatum (Nienhuis et al., 1989; Kiswara et al. 2003.

Muddy substrates on the seaward edges of mangrove formation often have a single species meadow
of high biomass. Multi species meadows mostly occur in the lower intertidal and shallow subtidal.
Such meadows grow best in well-sheltered sandy (not muddy), stable and nearly horizontal
sediments (Hutomo et al. 1988; Nienhuis et al., 1989). High bioturbation, for example by burrowing
shrimps, tends to decrease seagrass density and favour pioneering species. Seagrass on terrigenous
(land derived) sediment is more influenced by land run off (turbidity, fresh water flooding, nutrient
pulses and salinity fluctuations) and subsequent light limitation than those of carbonate (reef
derived) sediments of reef island with less seasonal dynamics (Erftemeijer, 1993).

The most important area for seagrasses is in the lower intertidal and upper subtidal zones, where
heterogeneous vegetation sometimes appears with 7 to 8 species in the same bed. The intertidal
zone is characterized by pioneer (colonizer) vegetations, dominated by Halophila ovalis, Cymodocea
rotundata and Halodule pinifolia. However, Thalassodendron ciliatum in some areas is dominant in
the lower subtidal zone. It can grow in silty sand as well as in medium to coarse grain of sand and
coral rubble.The most widespread and dominant species of seagrass in Indonesia is Thalassia
hemprichii. It can be found on the muddy, sandy and coral rubble substrates. This species commonly
formes both homogenous and mixed vegetations. Its vertical distribution range from the intertidal
down to lower subtidal zone to a depth of 15 m (Hutomo et al., 1988; Brouns, 1985). The
distribution of Enhalus acoroides is also widespread. This species can grow well in medium to coarse-
grained sediment but seems to prefer muddy and silty sediment. It mostly forms monospecific stand
in silty subtidal area or localities with heavy bioturbation and mixed vegetation on the more stable
habitat. The species shows considerable morphological variations, with the average length and width
of leaves generally being greatest in muddy substrate, which has a higher nutrient content (Verheij
& Erftemeijer (1993).

Halodule uninervis and H. pinifolia are pioneer species. They forms a monospecific vegetation in
disturbed open spot of the inner reef flat, or on steep sediment slopes, from silty substrate to coarse
grained sands both in the intertidal and subtidal zones. Halodule uninervis can be found in mixed
vegetation stands with E. acoroides, C. rotundata, C. serrulata, S. isoetifolium and T. hemprichii on
sandy substrate.

Genus Halophila has a wide vertical range and occurs from the intertidal zone down to the lower
subtidal zone more than 20 m depth. It especially grows on disturbed sediments, such as mounds of
burrowing invertebrates. Halophila decipiens is only encountered in deep-water reef based
sediments at a depth between 5 and 35 m. It forms monospecific meadows or occurs in mixed beds
with H. ovalis (Verheij & Erftemeijer, 1993). Halophila minor is found in sheltered or open localities
on sandy bottom in the lower part of eulittoral and the uppermost part of sublittoral to 2 m depth.
Halophila spinulosa grows on the sandy substrate from intertidal zone to a depth of 10 m. It forms
both monospecific and mixed vegetation. Cymodocea is found in shallow-water habitat (up to 5 m
depth, but is mainly confined to the upper 2 m) on both carbonate and terrigenous sediments
ranging from coral rubble, coarse sand to sandy mud. Cymodocea rotundata and C. serrulata, they
are found both as a monospecific and mixed vegetation, but mainly they grow as mixed vegetation.

Syringodium isoetifolium is found on muddy and sandy substratum to a maximum depth of 6 m. The
species does not occur in places, which experience long-lasting exposure during low water of spring
tide.

7
Thalassodendron ciliatum appears to favour coral substrate, where dense stands are found, but also
occurs in mixed vegetation (e.g. with E. acoroides, C. rotundata, C. serrulata, S. isoetifolium and T.
hemprichii) on finer carbonate sediments. Until the past several decades (den Hartog, 1970; Kiswara
& Hutomo, 1985) this species was known as a disjunctive species, it is distributed only in the eastern
Indonesian waters. Recently, however, it is also found in the western Indonesian waters i.e. Tanjung
Bira, south eastern of South Sulawesi; Kangean, Riau Archipelago; and Bujur Island, Bangka
(Tomascik et al., 1997; Kiswara et al., 1997).

The biological processes and function of seagrasses are generally recognized. Seagrasses fix organic
carbon, the majority of which enter the food chain through direct consumption by herbivorous
organisms as well as through decomposition as detritus. The broken seagrass leaves and shoots are
partly drifted to surrounding waters and decomposed by microorganisms. Decomposition processes
produce materials which are directly consumed by detritus feeder. Meanwhile, the particulate
detritus in the water column serves as food for filter feeding organisms. The estimated material of
Indonesian seagrass exported to other ecosystem is only 10 % (Nienhuis et al., 1989).

The key to a better understanding of the function of seagrass ecosystem lies on the growth
regulating factors, production, decomposition and regeneration processes. Whereas light is
considered to be one of the most important limiting factors to seagrass growth in the often turbid
coastal waters of the temperate region, this is unlikely to be the case in most tropical seas, which
usually are characterized by low turbidity. In these waters, seagrass growth is often limited by the
availability of nutrients.

Quantitative and detailed study on nutrient concentrations and on the resources in seagrass beds at
six different localities in Spermonde Archipelago and adjacent coastal waters in South Sulawesi
indicated significant structural and functional differences between seagrass beds of terrigenous
sediment along the coast (sand and mud deposited by rivers) and seagrass beds of carbonate
sediments on the shallow reef flats of the various coral reef island (Erftemeijer, 1993). Seagrass
communities at coastal sites (on terrigenous sediments) usually grow better than do those which
develop in the offshore reef flat.

The seagrass beds in Indonesia maintain a high productivity despite the low nutrient availability. It is
hypothetical, therefore, that these seagrass beds are largely self-sustaining and that most nutrients
are efficiently re-used within the system. Due to the dynamic character of coastal habitats, however,
seagrass ecosystem is considered to be open system with regard to nutrient fluxes. The long-term
persistence of seagrass meadows obviously depends on the replenishment of these nutrient losses.

Seagrass of coastal habitat receives ample nutrient replenishment provided by river discharges or
diffuse terrestrial run-off. So far, no data exist on the processes of nutrient losses and gains for these
seagrass systems. The studies in Spermonde Archipelago, South Sulawesi by Staple (1997) provide
data on the conservation and loss of nitrogen and phosphorus in such meadows.

Most of the nutrients that are lost by leaf fragmentation are translocated to the sediment surface or
into the sediment. About 80% of the nitrogen in deposit of leaf fragments is denitrified. The
remaining 20% of the nitrogen that is regenerated from leaf fragment deposit is released into the
water column, presumably along with a large portion of the nitrogen that is regenerated from leaf
litter in burrows of alpheid shrimps that is pumped out to the water column by bio-ventilation.
However the major portion of the N for seagrass growth is absorbed by the roots. The presence of
this considerable sediment nitrogen input, most likely arising from N-fixation. It is reported that the
pore water nutrient ratio contains larger phosphate than ammonium. This is probably due to
differences in microbial process that play a role in the N- and P-cycles. The important role of

8
seagrass leaves probably is that of capturing “new” nutrient, carried with the water current from
external sources to the meadow, a process that may counterbalance any nutrient losses. More
important role of the leaves is in recapturing nutrient that is regenerated by mineralization
processes within the seagrass systems.

Information on the ecology and biology of Indonesian seagrasses has grown considerably within the
past few years, however vast areas of the archipelago (e.g., north coast of Papua, southwest coast of
Indonesia, south and west coast of Kalimantan, etc.) have yet to be studied. Habitat diversity in
Indonesia is among the highest in the world. With 13 species and seven genera, Indonesian seagrass
diversity is surprisingly low. The low species diversity may be partly related to the relatively
homogeneous seawater temperatures throughout the archipelago, and the dominance of the
tropical genera, although Halophila ovalis is rather eurythermic (Zieman & Wetzel, 1980).

3. Threats, root causes and causal chain analysis

3.1. Threats

The characteristics of dugongs such as long-lived with a low reproductive rate, long generation time,
and a high investment in each offspring, makes the dugongs facing diffilculties in ensuring their
sustainability against various environmental pressures. A simulation study indicates that even if the
dugongs live ideally and naturally, and without disturbances from human, the growth of the dugong
population will not exceed 5 % per year (Marsh et al., 2002). This makes the dugong vulnerable to
over-exploitation. Even a slight reduction in adult survivorship as a result of habitat loss, disease,
hunting or incidental catch, can cause a chronic decline of dugong population.

In Indonesia, no reliable and accurate dugong population estimates are available. In 1970s the
dugongs population in Indonesia was estimated around 10,000 and again in 1994 the population was
estimated at about 1,000 (Marsh et al., 2002). Since both estimates are based on guesses this could
not be considered as evidence for a population decline. Anecdotal information from many parts of
Indonesia, however, indicates that dugong population is declining drastically.

There are several causes that make the dugongs under threat. Beside anthropogenic causes, natural
phenomena such as severe cyclone has been reported to cause disaster to the dugongs and their
habitat as occurred in Hervey Bay, Australia (Preen et al., 1995; Marsh et al., 2002). It is fortunate
that Indonesia, which lies directly on the equator, is not the place for the ocurrence of the
destructive tropical cyclone. The high frequency of tropical cylone is usually found in the region
between 10 to 30 degrees North and South Latitudes (Wyrtki, 1961).

Volcanic eruption discharges considerable amount of terrigeneous materials that might cover wide
area of coastal zones. The eruption of Mount Tambora, Sumbawa, was reported to cover extensive
coastal areas with thick terrigenous sandy sediment that caused the coastal area devoid of seagrass
vegetation. The same was true with the eruption of Krakatau Island (Sunda Strait) that caused the
surrounding coastal area sterile from any form of life.

Several anthropogenic threat factors have been identified to have a major negative impact on the
present dugong population in Indonesia (Marsh et al. 2002; de Iongh, 1997).

Coastal development
Building of coastal construction such for harbour, industrial estates or settlement cause the loss of
habitat and degradation of water quality. Increase of sedimentation and water turbidity are harmful

9
for the seagrass ecosystem, the essential habitat of the dugongs. The construction of the industrial
estate in Banten Bay (West Java) has wiped out 30 % of the seagrass cover in the area (Tomascik et
al, 1977).

Logging and mining


In West Papua, logging and mining give threat to the seagrass environment in the coastal area. In
Teluk Cenderawasih National Park, for instance dugong become harder and harder to find as their
seagrass habitat has been degraded by siltation from the logging activities (Marsh et al. 2002). Sea
sand mining can also cause destruction of seagrass beds by increasing the turbidity of the water that
harms the seagrass beds. Sea sand mining was formerly heavily done surrounding Bintan and Batam
Islands. Although the sea sand mining has been prohibited, the control is still a problem.

Coastal pollution
Coastal pollution is caused not only by land based sources, but also by sea based sources, which may
both have an impact on the dugong and their seagrass habitat. Land based pollution may originate
from domestic sewage, agriculture, and industries. Tourism if not properly manage may become
another source of pollution. In Bintan (Riau Archipelago), for instance, a lot of tourist cottages are
built on stilts directly on the seagrass meadows without any sewage treatment. The seabased
pollution may come from harbour activities, and ballast water discharged from ships.Tar balls have
been frequently reported stranded at the coast of Bintan Island, facing the busiest sea lane to and
from the Singapore Strait.

Oil spill
Oil spill from tanker accidents is another potential threat to the seagrass ecosystem. The grounding
of the supertanker Showa Maru in the Striats of Singpore in 1975, spilling about 5,000 tons of crude
oil had caused a great environmental damage to the coastal areas of Indonesia, Singapore and
Malaysia. A more recent case is the collision of supertankers Evoikos and Orapin Global in the
Singapore Strait in Octrober 1997, spilling over 28.500 ton of crude olil to the surrounding
environment.

Destructive fishing
The practices of destructrive fishing methods such as the use of sodium cyanide and explosive for
coral fishing might have negative impact on the dugong as well as the seagrass environment.
Unselective bottom trawling is another type of destructive fishing practice that might harm the
bottom environment. These destructive fishing are occurring in many parts of Indonesia. Although
there have been many efforts to halt this practice, but the control is still facing problems.

Accidental catches
Accidental catches can occur from the use of shark nets, gill nets or tidal traps (belat or sero). During
the last four years (2008-2012), four dugongs were reported entrapped in fisherman’s tidal trap in
Bintan island, but three could be relieved and released back to the open sea. The use of shark nets
by industrial fisheries was reported from Aru Islands, where 80 – 200 dugongs were accidentally
caught in 1979 and decreased to 20 – 40 individulas in 1989. It was also reported that during 1979 –
1980 about 500 dugongs were caught yearly by Taiwanese fishers using shark nets (de Iongh &
Wenno, 1992).

Indigenous hunting
The deliberate harpooning of dugongs is reported from Aru Islands, but since the eighties this
practice has been abandoned in some areas. The indigineouus people used to hunt the dugongs, for
their meat, blubber, and hides. Compost (1980) estimated that in 1970 the total amount of dugong
in Aru is in the range from 545 – 1,020 which he considered to be still abundant. But later, Brasseur

10
and de Iongh ( 1991) reported that only 59 –90 individuals remained in 1989, and this figure
decreased again to 29 – 36 individuals in 1990 (Moss & van der Wal, 1998). Aerial dugong survey in
Lease Islands (Maluku) in 1990 - 1992, indicated that there were about 22 – 37 individuals in this
area (de Iongh et al. 1995) but later Moss & van der Wal (1998) concluded that dugong in this area
had decreased to only about 10 individuals.

Boat strike
Dugongs usually swim very slowly, and have to come to the surface to take breath after every 3-5
inutes. Therefore it is diffcult for them to avoid the fast approaching boat. Mortality of dugongs by
impact of outboard engines has been reported in Balikpapan Bay and in Ambon ( de Iongh et al,
1997). The potential threat from boat will become more important in heavy boat traffic.

3.2. Root causes

Lack of information and awareness


Lack of awareness drives the communities to take actions by ignorance so that finally can degrade
their own environment. A baseline survey on awareness level of the village community in Bintan
Island, for instance, indicates that most of the coastal community did not understand the important
functions of the seagrass beds and the consequent need for their conservation (Trismades Tech.
Report). Without adequte information and awareness, it is hard to call the community to participate
in conservation endeavour.

Poverty
In some areas dugong is caught because of poverty, where the people have limited choice for
livelihood. In pressing condition, they can do anything that can make money although it violates the
law. It was reported, for intance, that in Bangka dugong was sold in the local market place (de Iongh
et al. 2009). The very high price of the tusk of the dugong stimulate the fishers to hunt for the
dugong. In Tual (South East Maluku), for instance, a piece of dugong tusk was priced as high as Rp
350.000 which is higher than the average monthly income of a fisher (Moss & van der Wal, 1998).
This economic attraction drive the fishers to hunt for dugongs eventhough they understand that this
practice has been prohibited.

Weak law enforcement


Actually dugong has been protected under Indonesian Law No. 7 (1999) concerning the Conservation
of Flora and Fauna. The monitoring and enforcement of the law, however, is still very weak. The
personell and facilities for the law enforcement are considered inadequate to control the extensive
area of Indonesian waters.

Lack of institutional capacity


Lack of institutional capacity is considered as one of the root of the problems. Even with the
existence of good plan, if the capacity to undertake the plan is weak will not give appropriate results.

Improperly planned coastal development and inapropriate land-use practices


The improper planned and inappropriate land use practices will mostly lead to the seagrass habitat
degradation both directly and indirectly. For example, direct impact emerges through dredging and
reclamation from poorly planned infra-structure development for tourisms. Indirect impact can also
comes from land-based pollution that produced by poor treatment of sewage disposal from
domestic area. This may lead to phosphate and nitrate enrichment which can cause eutrophication.
Untreated industrial liquid/solid disposals decrease the water quality such as dissolved oxygen,
temperature, salinity and pH. Run off caused by deforestation for plantation or property/ industrial

11
development produces silt that in certain level will disrupt photosynthetic process of seagrass. Low
marine waters quality and heavy metal pollutant from industrial waste could directly affect the
health of dugong especially very young ones.

3.3. Causal chain analysis

Based on the information of the root causes as described before, then a causal chain analysis leading
to the decline of the dugong population could be briefly mapped as shown in the following diagram.
It is clear that the major risk to dugong population may come indirecly from the loss of habitat, and
degradation of seawater quality, and to certain extent also from direct impact such as from
destructive fishing, hunting, accidental catch and boat strike.

Fig. 3. Causal chain analysis leading to the decline of dugong population

4. Suggested management approach and project sites

4.1. Suggested management approach

From the overall view of the inter-related factors underlying the causal chain then it may be
suggested to consider the folowing approach of mangement for the dugong and seagrass
conservation:

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1. Increase the quality and the quantity of data and information on dugong and its habitat
through scientific approaches;
2. Improve the management capacity through training in management skill and basic
knowledge to decision makers and other relevant stake holders.
3. Strengthen law enforcement at all level;
4. Increase awareness on the important functions of seagrass habitat and associated animals
through effective campaign;
5. Enhance community involvement in all conservation efforts;
6. Improve and diversified environmentally sustainable alternative income generation
schemes through trainings and lessons learnt from other community success story.

4.2. Suggested priority for project sites

Based on the available information it is suggested to give priority for the dugong and seagrass
management project at two sites, namely at Pulau Bintan (Riau Archipelago) and Pulau Kei (Maluku).
The following are the background reasons for each site.

Pulau Bintan (Riau Archipelago)


 Seagrass bed condition in the area (especially the north-eastern part of the island) is
extensive and in good conditions;
 Existence of dugong in the area has been confirmed. During the last four years four dugongs
were entangled in fisher’s fish trap, but three could be saved and released back to the sea.
 Local community has had experience in seagrass management (from earlier Trismades
Project), and has managed community-based seagrass sanctuary;
 Strong support from the Local/ District Government (dugong has been adopted as flagship
species of the District).
 Easily accessible (daily flight from Jakarta, about one hour by ferry from Singapore).

Pulau Kei (Maluku)


 Extensive seagrass bed in the northern part.
 WWF-Indonesia recent report on the frequency of dugong sightings in the area.
 Existence of a Marine Research Station in Tual under LIPI (Indonesian Institute of Sciences)
which could support the project.
 Support from WWF-Indonesia which has already had marine observation activities in the
area.
 Although the location is rather remote but easily accessible. There is daily flight from
Ambon.

5. On-going Projects and Studies

Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME)


Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion (SSME) is a regional cooperation involving three neighboring
countries (Indonesia, Malaysia and the Philippines) to collaboratively manage vast marine
biodiversity and fisheries resources in the Sulu and Sulawesi Seas. This regional cooperation has
been initiated since 2004, and has come with a solid institutional arrangement and plan of actions
documents. The Tri-National Committee is the highest body to take decision and guidance under this
cooperation, and three Sub-Committees were formed to provide technical inputs, establish plan of
actions and to ascertain any activities within the respective countries as well as at regional level.
Those three Sub-Committees are: 1) Sub-Committee on Marine Protected Areas and Networks, 2)

13
Sub-Committee on Sustainable Fisheries, and 3) Sub-Committee on Threatened, Charismatic and
Migratory Species.

Currently, the three Sub-Committees have been equipped with a Comprehensive Action Plans
documents with the list of goals, objectives, activities and indicators. Activities addressing the
trans-boundary problems identified in the region have been implemented through the activities at
national level in the respective countries as well as through regional projects with the funding
support from donors and partners. Eventhough the turtle has become a flagship species since the
beginning of the cooperation, the issues related to the management and conservation of dugongs
and their habitats (seagrass) has also had a strong base and has become part of Marine Mammal
issues stated in the Short Term Goals by the Sub-Committee of Threatened, Charismatic and
Migratory Species.

Under the umbrella of SSME, at the moment two regional-scale projects are in progress, namely the
Sulu-Celebes Seas Sustainable Fisheries Management with support funding from GEF through UNDP,
and with the support from the German Government through GIZ for the project "Support to the
Implementation of the Tri-National Sulu-Sulawesi Marine Ecoregion Comprehensive Action Plans,
SSME Project ", addressing three main objectives: climate change issues in the region, support to the
implementation of ecosystem approach to fisheries management, and support the establishment of
MPA networks based on turtle migration corridors.

Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs, Fisheries and Food Security


The Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Triangle Initiative on Coral Reefs, Fisheries and Food Security
(CTI-CFF) is a multilateral partnership of six countries in the Southeast Asia and Western Pacific to
working together to sustain the unusual marine and coastal resources by addressing crucial issues
such as food security, climate change and marine biodiversity. The coral triangle area is a home for
more than 500 coral species to make it the most diverse coral reefs ecosystem in the world. At the
leaders’ summit in 2009, CTI-CFF was formally launched where the six countries (Indonesia,
Malaysia, Philippines, Timor Leste, Papua New Guinea and Solomon Islands) have come to the high
commitment to safeguard the marine and coastal resources of the region for the welfare of the
people and preserving the natures’ existence for future generations.
Indonesia is one of the initiators of this cooperation and had been providing considerable role in the
development of this cooperation. Indonesia has also been agreed by member states to host the
Regional Secretariat, and so far Indonesia has served as Interim Regional Secretariat until a
permanent Regional Secretariat is formed.
A 10-year CTI-CFF Regional Plan of Actions has been established and approved by the member
countries. There are five defined overarching goals of CTI-CFF: strengthening the management of
seascapes, promoting an ecosystem approach to fisheries management, improving the effectiveness
of MPAs management, improving coastal community resilient to climate change, and protecting
threatened marine species. Of those, Goal # 5 is particularly relevant to the efforts on dugongs and
their habitat protection. In fact, dugong is a species that has been identified as one of the
threatened species in the region and has also been addressed as target species to be managed in
cooperation within CTI-CFF particularly under Goal # 5.
Given that the six CTI-CFF countries are part of 'dugong range states', and with the strong
commitment of the six member countries of CTI-CFF to promote marine resources conservation and
management of marine biodiversity in the coral triangle area, stronger regional cooperation to
promote sustainable conservation of dugongs and their habitat is potential to be developed in the
future.

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Coremap
Coremap (Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Program) is a comprehensive long-term
program on coral reef rehabilitation and management in Indonesia funded by World Bank (WB) and
Asia Development Bank (ADB). The program comprised of three phases: Phase I (Initiation) from
1998 to 2004, Phase II (Acceleration) from 2007 to 2012, while Phase III (Institutionalization) is still
under preparation which is planned to be conducted from 2013 to 2018. Currently Coremap is under
the coordination of the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries. Coremap Phase II has seven
programs namely: Information and Training; Education; Public Awareness; Community Based
Management; Monitoring, Control and Surveillance; Institutionalization; and Marine Partnership.
The regions under WB funding includes seven districts (Selayar, Pangkep, Buton, Sikka, Biak, Raja
Ampat and Wakatobi) while those under ADB five districts (Batam, Bintan, Nias Selatan, Tapanuli
Tengah, and Mentawai). The coming Phase III will have a slight modification from the original plan,
as it is anticipated to also accomodate the CTI (Coral Triangle Initiative) Regional Plan of Action. CTI is
a multilateral partnership among six countries i.e. Indonesia, Malaysia, Philippines, Papua New
Guinea, Solomon, and Timor Leste, to address crucial issues covering food security, climate change
and marine resources. Among the five goals of CTI, two have close relevancies to Coremap, namely
a) marine protected areas established and effectively managed, and b) threatened species status
improving.

ATSEA
Arafura and Timor Seas are considered as semi-enclosed sea bordering three countries: Indonesia,
Australia and Papua New Guinea. This region is one of the remaining centers of tropical marine
biodiversity. However, this region has relatively less available information and data. UNCLOS
(United Nation Convention on the Law of the Sea) encourages states bordering semi-enclosed sea to
work together in implementing their rights and responsibilities. In this context Indonesia has
commitments to support regional efforts in integrating research and environmental interests, and
for this ATSEA (Arafura and Timor Sea Action) program was developed. To manage the vast
resources as well as to overcome existing problems, Arafura and Timor Sea Expert Forum (ATSEF)
was established with objective to assist the stakeholders who depend upon Arafura and Timor Seas
in achieving the goals of sustainable development. As the outputs of the activities, ATSEF delivered
(a) Arafura and Timor Seas Action Plan for sustainable development for 2006 - 2015, and (b) Capacity
development programs. ATSEF has also developed five Strategic Plans and Programs: 1) to combat
IUU (Illegal, Unresponsible, Unreported) fishing; 2) to sustain fish stocks, marine habitat and
biodiversity in coastal areas of Arafura and Timor Seas; 3) to improve coastal community welfare; 4)
to understand the systems of dynamics of ocean, coast and catchment areas: 5) to improve ATSEF
information capacity, management and exchange. Strategic Plan and Program # 2 is relevant to the
conservation of dugong.

Sea World Indonesia


Sea World Indonesia (SWI) is currently the only installation in Indonesia which is keeping dugong in
captivity for public show. The dugong was originally came from nature and now kept in a big tank.
The water of the tank originated from the Bay of Jakarta and piped into the reservoir. Preliminary
water treatment includes filltration, and sterilization. Water quallity is routinely monitored covering
physical, chemical and bacteriological parameters. The dugong is fed with seagrass Syringonium
isoetifolium collected from Banten Bay, and additional food supplement. Medical health of the
dugong is routinely monitored including the using of modern medical instruments, such as ECG, USG
and radiology. Recently a study on the behaviour and sound production by the dugong in the tank
was conducted by Khalifa (2011) who demonstrated that the dugong produce squeaking, barking, or
snoring sound responsive to external stimuli.

15
Research Centre for Oceanography
Research Centre for Oceanography, under the Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), is one of the
major research institutions in Indonesia dealing with marine and coastal waters. According to Pusat
Penelitian Oseanografi (2012) the research program for the year 2012 – 2014 is based on four major
pillars:
 Diversity of marine resources (biological and non-biological)
 Marine environmental health and protection
 Deep-sea and climate change
 Marine bioprospection.
Research on the diversity of marine resources includes: 1) studies on marine ecosystems:
mangroves, seagrass and coral reefs; 2) marine biological diversity covering various taxonomic
groups, and 3) genetic studies.
Research on environmental health and protection covers: 1) modelling studies for the protection of
ecosystem, and 2) conservation of biota and its ecosystem.
Although studies on dugong is not specifically mentioned, but the studies on its habitat (seagrass
ecosystem) as well as its conservation is clearly given.

Universities
Several universities in Indonesia such as University of Indonesia (Jakarta), Bogor Agricultural
University (Bogor, West Java), and University of Hasanuddin (Makassar, South Sulawesi) have been
conducting studies on seagrass ecosystem. The studies are executed by the university’s staffs and or
the graduate students. Several topics that currently are gaining interest concern among others with
ecological functions of the seagrass ecosystem, economic valuation, carbon stock and carbon
budget.

Non-Government Organization(NGO)
Currently there are some NGOs now active in Indonesia that work to some extent on seagrass and
dugong studies. Generally, however, the seagrass and dugong studies or observations are not their
specific projects but become part of their wider scope of natural conservation studies or
observations. To mention a few: WWF- Indonesia, Wetlands International – Indonesia Program,
Conservation International.

6. Dugong and seagrass conservation measures

6.1. National Biodiversity Policy

The global awareness on benefit of and threat to biological diversisty was reflected by the
enactment of UN Conventuion on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1992 in the Conference on the
Environment and Development held in Rio de Janeiro, Brasil. A year later, in 1993, Indonesia
facilitated by Bappenas (National Development Planning Board) was able to prepare a ducument
entitled Biodiversisty Action Pland for Indonesia (BAPI). In 1994, Indonesia ratified that convention
and legalized under the Law No.5, 1994 concerning ratification of CBD. Beside that, other
conventions related to biological diversity were also ratified, i.e. RAMSAR Convention concerning
wetland (including mangrove) as water bird habitat, and CITES (Convention on International Trade
of Endangered Species of Wild Flora and Fauna).

Due to increasing environmental threats on marine and coastal biodiversity and ecosystem, the CBD
signatory countries through the Conference of the Parties held in Jakarta in 1995 succeeded to
prepare a document, “The Jakarta Mandate”. The document contains global concensus on the
sustainable use of marine and coastal biodiversity. In 1997, Indonesia hosted the First Expert

16
Meeting on Marine and Coastal Biological Biodiversity that was able to prepare action plan of the
Jakarta Mandate.

Ten years after the launching of BAPI document, based on the availabe data and information, the
rate of degradation of biological diversity in Indonesia was in serious situation. However, this was
not to ineffectiveness of BAPI, but due many factors that influence the management in Indonesian
biological diversity. Since 1998 Indonesia experienced multidimensional cricis, both politically and
financially. But, on the side, there were positive changes to democratic era, local autonomy and
decentralization of power. Opportunity to involve community in biological diversity management
was developing. In line with those changes, there was a need to change the paradigm and system of
management in biologilogical diversity. New strategy and action plan, therefore, shall be prepared
which was more contextual with the existing situation.

To address those challenges, in 2003, a new strategy was prepared called “The Indonesian
Biodiversity Action Plan” (IBSAP). The activities in preparinrg the document was supported by grant
from Global Environment Facility (GEF-TF 023957) and facilitated by Bappenas.

6.2. Policy, strategy and action plan for dugong

Following a three series of workshops held in Jakarta, Manado and Bali concerning dugong
conservation in Indonesia during 2007 and 2008 a document was published which is known as the
National Conservation, Strategy and Action Plan for Dugong in Indonesia (NCSAPDI) (de Iongh et al.
2009 a, 2009 b). The main goal of NCSAPDI is to develop a conservation strategy which will be a
viable basis for the long term conservation and management of dugong population in Indonesia. The
document consists of two parts. Part I covers the scientific report and is focused on technical and
scientific background information regarding the ecology, population size, distribution, and legal,
socio-cultural and socio-economic aspects of the dugong in Indonesia, while Part II covers the
management aspects. The document gives a follow up to the Global Status for Countries and
Territories prepared by Marsh et al. (2002). The report also builds on the Policy, Strategy and Action
Plan for Management of Seagrass Ecosystems in Indonesia (UNEP-GEF, 2003). An Indonesian version
of the NCSAPDI was just published by synthesizing and updating the two parts into a single volume
(Hutomo et al. 2012).

The general policy for the conservation and management of dugong population in Indonesia has
been defined as follows: “To conserve, manage and sustainably use dugong populations and their
habitat; this conservation and management should be implemented in a synergic and integrated
manner by local government, communities, private sector, universities and non-governmental
organizations”.

The conservation and management of dugong population in Indonesia aims ultimately at the
protection of both dugongs and seagrass ecosystems as a life support system. Specific objectives of
the National Conservation Strategy and Action Plan for Dugongs in Indonesia have been defined as
follows:
a) to establish a management framework for implementation of the Strategy, with a national NGO
network, selection of pilot projects and establishment of regional task forces;
b) to make National Dugong Database operational and establish a national research and monitoring
program of dugong and seagrass;
c) to establish and implement pilot projects for community based conservation of dugong and
segarass habitat;
d) to establish a national communication and awareness program on dugongs and seagrass.

17
Hutomo et al. (2012) put forward five strategies for the conservation of dugongs in Indonesia. The
following are the strategies and the action plans under each strategy.

Strategy 1: Improve the level of protection of dugongs in and outside of the Marine Protection
Areas.
Action plans:
 Improve the level of protection of dugong in the existing Marine Protected Areas.
 Establish dugong sanctuaries or community-protected areas in sites currently unprotected
and unmanaged.
 Ban the gill-nets and in-shore trawling activities.
 Provide incentives and alternatives to gill-net fishers as well as the capacity of the
government to review existing policy and enforce regulation.
 Promote trans-boundary conservation collaboration and partnership initiatives.
 Integrate dugong conservation activities and actions with existing or proposed coastal
management and development initiatives.
 Promote the establishment of Local Working Group on dugong conservation.
 Develop partnership between national and international NGOs working in coastal areas,
national and regional governments and local communities.

Strategy 2: Promote public awareness campaign.


Action plans:
 Initiate public awareness campaign in pilot areas.
 Adopt dugong as local “flagship species”.

Strategy 3: Strengthen capacity of relevant (provincial) authorities to enforce legislation.


Action plans:
 Provide technical training and resources necessary to relevant government authorities to
enforce the law, monitor illegal activities.
 To maximize effectiveness along the coast, surveillance and monitoring of illegal activities
by involving tour operators, commercial and private air passenger services, NGOs and local
communities.

Strategy 4: Research, survey and monitoring of dugong population


Action plans:
 Conduct local aerial survey in the region.
 Carry out site-based aerial surveys in priority dugong areas.
 Initiate catch-monitoring programs, focusing on gill nets, trawlers and fence traps.
 Initiate dugong satellite tagging programs to track fine scale and long distance movement of
dugongs.
 Map seagrass habitats and monitor health and carrying capacity in key dugong areas.
 Establish and develop National Dugong Database.
 Develop monitoring system on dugong population in pilot areas.

Strategy 5: Establish a national network for NGOs and general conservation practitioners and
researchers.
Action plans:
 Encourage the establishment of a national NGO network and of regional dugong
conservation task forces in each pilot province.
 Promote the use of Sirenian International websites.

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6.3. Legal aspects

The Government Regulation No.7/1999 concerning protection of Indonesian Flora and Fauna is
the only legislation which protects Indonesian dugongs and seagrass directly. In Appendix no.20 of
the regulation, Dugong dugon is listed as protected fauna. In article 4, Verse 2 measures are dictated
for protection by: a) in situ management, through identification and inventory of species and
habitats, monitoring, management and research and b) ex situ management through research,
rehabilitation and protection of species and habitats.

However, a wide range of laws and regulations covering the coastal zone are relevant for the dugong
and its principal habitat, seagrass ecosystems. Among these regulations are the Act of the Republic
of Indonesia No. 5, 1990 concerning the conservation of living resources and their ecosystem; the
Act of the Republic of Indonesia No. 24, 1992 on spatial planning; the Act of the Repbulic of
Indonesia No. 5, 1994 concerning the ratification of the United Nation Conservation on Biodiversity
and the Act of the Republic of Indonesia No. 23, 1997 on the management of the living environment.
The Act of Republic of Indonesia No. 27 of 2007 on the Management of Coastal Zone and Small
Island gives directions on the integrated coastal zone management.

Other form of regulations, apart from Acts or Statutes, include Decrees of the People Consultative
Assembly; Government regulations, Presidential decrees and Ministerial decrees. The Directorate of
Marine Affairs and National Marine Parks of the Ministry of the Marine Affairs and Fisheries has the
mandate to protect and manage dugong populations in Indonesia. However, the management of
marine national parks is the mandate of the Ministry of Forestry and some of these marine national
parks support dugongs and their habitat. The Directorate General for Marine, Coastal and Small
Island Affairs of the Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries has also received mandate to manage
marine protected areas and marine biota resource conservation. This Directorate General received
its mandate based on 1) the Fisheries Act No. 31 of 2004; 2) the Management of Coastal Zone and
Small Island Act No. 27 of 2007; 3) Government regulation No. 60 of 2007 regarding Fisheries
Resource Conservation. Under the legislation mentioned, the esblishment of Regional Marine
Conservation Areas (Kawasan Konservasi Perairan Daerah – KKPD) has been made possible.

6.4. Protected Area Network and Management Plan

The Act No 5/1990 concerning the Conservation of Biological Resources and their Ecosystems
promotes two types of “nature protection areas”: nature reserve areas and nature sustainable areas
(Articles 14 and 29). Subsequent to this Act, a government regulation was enacted that specified the
types of nature reserve areas and nature sustainable areas. Indonesian Government Regulation No.
68 of 1998 divides the nature reserve areas into two types of nature protection areas: (i) nature
reserve area (kawasan cagar alam) and (ii) wildlife reserve area (kawasan suaka margasatwa). The
nature sustainable area is divided into three types: (i) national park area (kawasan taman nasional),
(ii) grand forest park area (kawasan taman hutan raya) and (iii) nature recreational park area
(kawasan taman wisata alam). Further Article 1 of Government Regulation No. 68 of 1968 defines:

 Nature Reserve Area is “the specific area in land or waters which has function as the area for
prevention of biodiversity of plants and animals and its ecosystems.”
 Wild Reserve Area is “the area that because of it nature has specific plants, animals and their
ecosystems that need to conserve.”

19
 National Park is “the nature preservation area on land and/or waters which consists original
ecosystems of plants animals that are managed by zoning system and used for research,
education, tourism and recreation.”
 Grand Forest Park Area is “the nature preservation area on land and/or waters that purposed for
the collection of origin or non-origin plants and animals that are used for research, education,
tourism and recreation.”
 Nature Recreational Park Area is “the nature preservation area on land and/or waters that
purposed for tourism and recreation.”

Fig. 4. Map of Marine Conservation Areas in Indonesia (KKP/KKJI 2012)

Based on the Act No.5/1990 on ratification of UN Convention of Biological Diversity, Ministry of


Forestry had developed marine protected areas in Indonesia which consist of National Marine Park,
Marine Nature Recreation Park, Marine Nature Reserve and Marine Nature Wildlife Reserve. Further
development of marine protected area was managed by Ministry of Marine Affair and Fisheries
based on the following acts, government regulation, ministerial regulation and guideline:
 Act No. 31/2004 concerning Fisheries
 Act No.32/2004 concerning Local Government of which local government has the authority to
manage marine resources
 Act No.27/2007concerning the management of coastal area and small islands
 Government Regulation No.60/2007 concerning Fishery Resource Conservation
 Minister of Marine Affair and Fishery Decree No.2/2009 concerning Procedure for Establishment
of Aquatic Conservation Area
 Minister of Marine Affair and Fishery Decree No.18/2008 concerning Conservation Area in the
Coastal Zone and Small Island Area
 Minister of Marine Affair and Fishery Decree No.38/2004 concerning General Guideline of Coral
Reefs Management and its Related Ecosystems
 Grand Strategy of Marine Biodiversity Conservation
 Grand Strategy of Marine Conservation Area Networks

Marine Protected Area is one way to protect and preserve for sustainable use of marine and coastal
ecosystems. Through the existing regulation, the Government of Indonesia has conducted some
efforts to conserve its marine and coastal resources and ecosystems.

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Implementation and Achievement
Based on the Act No.5/1994 and Government Regulation No.68/1968, Ministry of Forestry had
developed several types and numbers marine protected area namely National Marine Park, Marine
Nature Recreation Park, Marine Nature Reserve and Nature Wildlife Reserve). The total extent of
marine protected area designated by Ministry of Forestry is about 4.7 million ha.
Since 2001 Ministry of Marine Affair and Fishery, in cooperation with its related partners, had
initiated the development of marine protected areas to continue which were carried out by Ministry
of Forestry. Currently, this effort has resulting of approximately 11.4 million ha the total extent of
MPAs in Indonesia by 2012. Most of the MPAs established are Regional Marine Protected Areas.
Further target for 2020 is the establishment of 20 millions ha marine protected area. Recently, a very
large Marine National Park, i.e. Sawu Marine National Park, had been gazetted covering about 5
million hectares of marine area. Therefore, the total area of established Marine Conservation Areas
in Indonesia is around 16.1 million ha (KKP/KKJI, 2012).

Table 1. Marine Conservation Areas in Indonesia (KKP/KKJI, 2012)

Number of Area extent


No. Conservation Area
Areas (Ha)
A Managed by Ministry of Forestry 32 4,694,949.55
National Marine Park 7 4,043,541.30
Marine Nature Recreation Park 14 491, 248,00
Marine Nature Reserve 5 5,678.25
Nature Wildlife Reserve 6 154,480.00
B Managed by Ministry of Marine Affairs and 11,420,599.34
81
Fishery
National Marine Park 1 3,521,130.00
Marine Nature Reserve 3 445,630.00
Marine Recreation Park 6 1,541,040.20
Regional Marine Protected Area 71 5,912,799.73
TOTAL 113 16,115,547,49

In the early planning stage the Ministry of Marine Affair and Fisheries and partners have decided the
target of the Indonesian Marine Protected Area development as the followings:
(i) Short tem target (2009-2010)
 Improvement of the existing MPAs towards its functional management
 Finalization of establishment status of the existing MPA to reach 10 million ha by 2010
 Adoption of MPA grand strategy for Indonesia
(ii) Mid term target (2010-2014)
 Achievement of 14 million ha of MPA by 2014
 Effectiveness of management as a model in priority locations
 Integration of MPA within ICM implementation
(ii) Long term target (2015-2020)
To expand, scaling up and developing Marine Conservation Area to reach 20 million ha by 2020.
With the current progress, the achievement for 2012 is already above the target. It is most likely the
target to reach 20 million ha by 2020 will be met earlier. However, the most important thing is to
achieve its functional management which is more difficult.

21
6.5. Awareness programmes, impact and effectiveness

Awareness programs concerning marine and coastal conservation have been implemented by
several institutions or projects. Several examples are described below.

Trismades
Trismades (Trikora Seagrass Management Demonstration Site) is under the UNEP-GEF South China
Sea Project: Reversing Environmental Degradation Trends in the South China Sea and Gulf of
Thailand, officially conducted from 2017 to 2010. The first step in Public Awreness Campaign of the
Trismades Project in Bintan Island (Riau Archipelago) was to make a base-line survey on the level of
awareness of the community and the influencers (government, private officials). The same survey
was repeated every year to see the impact of awareness campaign. The result of the survey
indicated that after intensive intervention of awareness campaign, the level of awareness increased
significantly in all the villages surveyed (Trismades Tech. Report). Awareness campaign includes:
 Focus group discussions with local communities.
 Publication and distribution of leaflets, brochures, booklets, posters, T-shirts, bags,
calenders etc containing messages for seagrass conservation.
 Production and enstallment of banners and bill-boards at strategic places.
 Radio broadcast with interactive dialogue with listeners.
 Establishment of Information Centers at pilot villages.
 Encouraging local poetry recital art (pantun) and by inserting messages to conserve the
seagrass ecosystem.
 Writing competition for high-school students on marine conservation issues.
 Beach cleaning up with local communities and school children.
 Support sustainable tourism which ensure the protection of natural ecosystems, and support
the establishment of two tourism villages.
 Writing of articles for newspapers on seagrass conservation issues.
 Commemorate the International Year of Biodiversity 2010, by involving coastal communities
and school children.
 Develop and distribute bilingual Newsletter, published quarterly.
 Develop bilingual website as portal for seagrass Indonesia.

The most significant outcome of the awareness campaign is that the local community are willing
enthusiastically to take part in the seagrass conservation, or even with their own initiatives. In all
three pilot villages each head of the village issued decree on community-based seagrass sanctuaries.
This was later on strengthened by the higher level decree of the Bupati (Head of District of Bintan)
concerning the need to save the dugongs and their seagrass habitat in the District. The Bupati also
decided to adopt dugong as the icon or flagship species of the District. Following up, the regional
Tourism Service of the District of Bintan encourages the use of the dugong icon for various tourism
activities and for souvenirs. A big welcome gate to the village of Teluk Bakau was built by the local
community with dugong as the main decoration.

Coremap
The implementation of Public Awareness program under Coremap (Coral Reef Rehabilitation and
Management Program) was started since the early beginning of Coremap Phase I (1998 – 2004).
During Coremap Phase II (2007 – 2012), the awareness program is continued and is aimed to change
the attitude of the coastal people from destructing the ecosystem to building awareness in keeping
and nurturing coral ecosystem. Achievement for Coremap Phase II has been reported in Coremap
(2011). Several achievements are as follows:

22
 Perception of community on the importance of protecting coral ecosystem increased about
75 %.
 Various socialization materials distributed to 310 villages.
 Talk show, TV and radio broadcast.
 Providing local contents for education from primary schools to high schools.
 Supporting responsive research for 33 topics.
 Providing fellowship for 618 high school students.
 Providing support for university paper and thesis report writing for 310 students.
 On the job training for 660 students.
The main outcomes can be seen from the high participation of the community at all pilot sites in
various activities for the protection and conservation of coral reefs.

6.6. Experiences of incentive mechanisms for conservation

Coremap ADB experience


Coremap (Coral Reef Rehabilitation and Management Program) under ADB funding during Phase II
(2007 – 2012) dealt with enhancement of community welfare and incomes in eight districts: Nias,
Nias Selatan, Tapanuli Tengah, Mentawai, Batam, Bintan, Natuna and Lingga. Starting from 2007,
the AIG (Alternative Income Generation) projects were implemented through a community
contract system. The AIG beneficiaries were provided input assistance using ADB loan proceeds.
Through NGOs and extension workers, technical, financial, and marketing assistance were
provided to the pokmas (community groups). The performance target for technical and financial
assistance was 10,000 persons. At loan closing date, 7,300 persons had been covered. The AIG
projects covers many kinds of activities such as grouper cage culture, mud-crab culture, seaweed
culture, sea cucumber raising, smoked fish, local ecotourism, handicraft and souvenir business,
poultry production, coconut oil processing, production of fish cracker, boat repair (Asia
Development Bank, 2012).

About 50% of the microenterprises established were successful. The major factors that
contributed to the success of some livelihood enterprises were cooperation among the pokmas
members and the PIUs (Project Implementation Unit) and NGOs, good technical skills, extension
services, and management, including transparent bookkeeping. Furthermore, livelihood enterprises
were found to be successful in the project areas where the LPSTK‘s (Coral Reef Management
Body) leadership was active, technical and marketing support provided by the extension workers
and the local government was strong, and where feasibility studies of project proposals were
properly and thoroughly conducted. On the other hand, business failures were caused by (i)
improper site selection, (ii) the poor quality of the project feasibility study, (iii) marketing
problems, (iii) high mortality rate of fingerlings, (iv) fish diseases, (v) climatic changes, and (vi)
the high cost of commercial feed and fish as raw materials for fish cracker processing (Asia
Development Bank, 2012).

Trismades experience
During the execution of Trismades (Trikora Seagrass Management Demonstration Site) project in
Bintan Island from 2007 to 2011, several activities on AIG (Alternative Income Generation) were
performed. The initial steps was to survey the local potential resources and types of AIG suitable for
the local communities and discuss the problems with the communities. Some alternative types of
AIG were then identified, and trainings for the types of activities were prepared. Types of AIG that
had been developed included: naga fruit cultivation, weaving of pandanus and coconut leaves for
various kinds of handicrafts and souvenirs, sewing skill, and preparation to develop marine
ecotourism. Initial capital and to some extent also the marketing of products were assisted by the

23
project. Post project evaluation indicated that handicraft production and sewing skill were regarded
by the communities as fruitful to help their livelihood.

6.7. Ecosystem services related to carbon capture

The ocean’s vegetated habitats, in particular mangroves, salt marshes and seagrasses, cover < 0.5 %
of the sea bed. These form earth’s blue carbon sinks and account for more than 50 %, perhaps as 71
%, of all carbon storage in ocean sediment. They comprise only 0.05 % of the plant biomass on land,
but store a comparable amount of carbon sinks on the planet. Blue carbon sinks and estuaries
capture and store beween 235 – 450 Tg C yr-1 (Nellemann et al. 2009). Absorbed carbon was stored
as carbon stock and distributed in various compartments such as in sediments, herbivores and other
ecosystems (Supriadi, 2012).

Study on carbon stock and budget in Indonesian seagrass ecosystem was only recently started.
Kiswara (2010) initiated the study in Pari Island (Jakarta) at a mixed vegetation of Enhalus acoroides,
Cymodocea rotundata and Thalassia hemprichii. The study showed that the carbon stock varied
from 30.63 to 545.33 g C m-2 and their carbon sink varied from 0.20 to 1.83 g C m-2 . In a later study
at the same island on a mono-specific vegetation of Enhalus acoroides, Rahmawati and Kiswara
(2012) showed that carbon stock in this monospecific vegetation was 72.51 g C m -2 and 154.55 g C
m-2 respectively. The ability of Enhalus acoroides vegetation to absorb, release and store carbon
were 1.75 g C m-2d-1; 0.55 g C m-2d-1 and 1.20 g C m-2d-1 respectively.

Study on carbon budget was also initiated by Supriadi (2012) in the Island of Barranglompo,
Makassar. The aim of his research was to analyze the carbon stock, productivity and carbon budget
through herbivore grazing and leaf litter. The research was conducted from December 2010 to
November 2011. Carbon stock was obtained by conversion from seagrass biomass using carbon
contents of seagrass tissues. Productivity was measured using marking method, while leaf litter
production used cages. Grazing rate was determined in the laboratory for sea urchins and in situ
for other herbivores. Seagrass community had leaf and rhizome productivity of 0.187-1.494 g C
m-2day-1 and 0.013-0.050 g C m-2day-1, respectively. The total carbon stocks were as much as 73.86
tonnes from overall 64.3 ha of seagrass bed areas. Total production of leaf litter was 0.18-1.30 g C
m-2day-1, consisted of 0.13-0.86 g C m-2day-1 of burial leaf litter, while floating litter was 0.05-
0.54 g C m-2day-1. Total grazing of herbivores ranged between 0.04-0.10 g C m-2day-1. Grazing by sea
urchins was 0.003-0.023 g C m-2day-1, relatively low compared to the grazing by other herbivores
i.e. 0.015-0.236 g C m-2 day-1. Mean carbon budget through floating litter was as much as 22.0% of
the total leaf production, 50.6% of burial litter, 1.4% of sea urchin grazing and 7.9% of other
herbivore grazing or total carbon that flowed to other compartments achieved 81.8%.

At the Marine Science and Technology Graduate Program of the Bogor Agricultural Univerity
(Bogor, West Java) there is currently a study on the economic valuation, including carbon stock of
seagrass ecosystem at Kotania Bay (Ceram Bay, Maluku), under the investigator Mintje Wawo.

6.8. Key stakeholders’ roles and their capacities

There are many types of stakeholders relevant to dugong and seagrass conservation. Several
government ministries play important roles in producing important regulation and management
measures in various levels of involvement. The most important one is the Ministry of Marine Affairs
and Fishery which has the mandate to issue regulations and control over the Marine Protected
Areas and on the conservation of marine species. Complementary to this, the Ministry of Forestry

24
has also the mandate to manage the National Marine Parks and law enforcement within the area of
the parks. Other Ministries are engaged in relatively lower level of involvement which shown on
Tabel 2 .

Among several of the Government non-ministerial bodies, the Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI)
plays important roles as provider of scientific data and information on seagrass and other marine
biodiversity.

The role of the Local Government is inevitable in the implementation of projects in the local areas.
The Local Government plays determinant roles in this era of autonomy. Certain District such as
Bintan, has issued regulation on the conservation of dugong and its habitat, and adopted dugong as
flagship species of the District. The community group in a local area is important in involving the
community in the seagrass and dugong conservation.

To some extent universities (Government and non-Government) contribute in studies or research


on various aspects marine conservation.

There is a number Non Government Organizations (NGOs) working on marine biodiversity with
different approaches, and only one (LAMINA) which is specializing in seagrass and dugong
conservation.

Table 2. Stakeholders and their functions relevant to seagrass and dugong conservations

Relative level
Functions relevant to seagrass and
of
Stake holder dugong conservation
involvement

Central Government
Ministerial
Ministry of Security and Defence Law enforcement +
Indonesian Police Law enforcement +
Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fishery Regulation, Marine Proctected
+++
Areas, Species conservation
Ministry of Forestry Regulation, National Marine Park,
+++
law enforcement
Ministry of Environment Environmental policy, focal point
++
CBD, external cooperation
Ministry of Tourism Marine ecotourism +
Ministry of Internal Affairs Regulation, coordination of local
++
government
Ministry of Education Environment education, local
+
content for coastal regions
Ministry of Public Works National Spatial Plan Development;
Public works and construction ++
standard and regulation
Ministry of Energy and Mineral Regulation on of Offshore OIL and
resources Gas and other mineral resources ++
Mining Activities

25
Ministry of Transportation Regulation on development and
operation of port and shipping ++
including marine dumping.
Ministry of Finance Financing of government projects ++
National Planning Board (BAPPENAS) National development planning,
++
financial plan
Non-Ministerial
Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI) Coastal and marine research and
information, studies on seagrass
+++
ecosystem and related aspects,
community-based management
National Geospatial Agency Geographic Information System,
Develop and provide base-map of
marine and coastal environment ++
and resources

Local Government
Kabupaten (District) and Municipal District regulations and control.
Coastal and Small Islands Zoning +++
Plan.
All government agencies /offices Control, monitoring and evaluation
related to the central government +++
ministries
Community groups in local areas Involved in the implementation of
+++
various coastal projects.

Universities
State and non-government universities Research on seagrass ecosystem
++
and related aspects

Non-Government Organizations
WWF Indonesia Conservation, biodiversity ++
TNC / The Nature Conservancy Conservation, biodiversity ++
CI / Conservation International Conservation, biodiversity ++
Walhi Environment advocacy ++
Yayasan Terangi Coral reef management ++
Yayasan Lamina Seagrass and dugong studies and
+++
conservation
Yayasan Mangrove Mangrove conservation ++

26
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29
Annexes

Annex 1.

Seagrass recorded in Indonesian waters with brief ecological notes

Family/Genus Species Notes


Common on silty/muddy to medium and coarse
Hydrocharitaceae sediments and areas with high bioturbation; found
in estuarine habitats and low salinity anchialine
Enhalus E. acoroides
lagoons; forms monospecific meadows and
dominates in mixed communities where it often
grows with T. hemprichii; wide depth distribution to
ca. 30 m; important shelter for juvenile fishes,
shrimps-prawn
Known as dugong food; found in lagoonal
H. decipiens environment on fine to medium sands
Found in shallow lagoonal environments with sandy
H. minor substrates, often with H. ovalis
Dominant species in the intertidal; wide depth
range to a maximum of ca. 40 m; pioneering
Halophila species common in areas with high bioturbation;
H. ovalis
frequently follows Halodule species in succesion;
often found just seaward of mangroves
Found in deep lagoonal environments with fine
H. spinulosa sand; it may be confused with two species of green
algae, Caulerpa sertularioides and C. mexicana
The most abundant and widespread species; often
dominates in mixed communities; depth range
from intertidal to 30 m; grows on a variety of
Thalassia T. hemprichii
substrates such as silty sand, medium coarse sand
or coarse coral rubble
One of the dominant species in the intertidal;
Cymodoceaceae C. rotundata pioneering species; known as dugong food from
eastern Indonesia
Cymodocea
Known as dugong food; frequently found just
C. serrulata seaward of mangroves
Fast-growing, pioneering species often occurring in
Halodule H. pinifolia the intertidal; forms monospecific stands on muddy
substrates
Often forms monospecific meadows in disturbed
H. uninervis inner reef flats and steep sediment slopes
Common in shallow subtidal sand/mud/silt sub-
Syringodium S.isoetifolium strates; food for dugongDin captivity
Often dominates in the upper sublittoral in
Thalassodendron T. ciliatum association with corals; depth ranges from reef
crest to ca. 4 m; common in atoll lagoons where it
forms large monospecific meadow

30
Annex 2.

Map of Bintan Island, Riau Archipelago. One of the suggested sites for the dugong and seagrass
conservation project.
Above: Bintan Island (Riau Archipelago) showing the suggested project site for dugong conservation.
Below: Detail map of the seagrass ecosystem of the suggested project site.

31
Annex 3.

Map of Kei Island of the suggested Project site. Frequencies of dugong sighting are indicated in map.
(Source: WWF Indonesia)

32
Annex 4

Histogram of Marine Conservation Areas in Indonesia (KKP/KKJI, 2012)

Remarks: Last update December 2012


Under the management of Ministry of Forestry:
 Taman Nasional Laut (National Marine Park)
 Taman Wisata Alam Laut (Marine Nature Recreation Park)
 Suaka Margasatwa Laut (Marine Nature Reserve)
 Cagar Alam Laut (Marine Nature Wildlife Reserve)

Under the management of Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fishery


 Taman Nasional Perairan (National Marine Park)
 Suaka Alam Perairan (Marine Nature Reserve)
 Taman Wisata Perairan (Marine Recreation Park)
 Kawasan Konservasi Perairan Daerah (Regional Marine Conservation Area)

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