Crop Science
Crop Science
Crop Science
Contributors:
Dr. Joven S. Lales
Mr. Danilo Lalican
Prof. Ma. Fatima O. Mercado
Dr. Celsa A. Quimio
Prof. Bong M. Salazar
Dr. Pompe Sta. Cruz
CROP SCIENCE page1
CROP SCIENCE
Part I. Principles
Unit I. The Nature and Importance of Agriculture
a) Some data and facts about Philippine Agriculture
b) Problems, status and prospects of Philippine Agriculture (AFMA,GATT/WTO,
BIOTECHNOLOGY)
c) The nature and features of agricultural systems
d) The nature of agriculture as a field of study
Components of AFMA:
Production and Marketing Support Services
o Designation of Strategic Agriculture and Fisheries Development Center
Sustainable for economic scale production and agro-industrial development
o Medium and Long-term Agriculture and Fisheries Modernization Plan
Global competitiveness, global climate change, WTO concerns and CARP concerns
o Access to credit
Small farmers involved in production, processing and trading; small and medium
enterprises involved in agriculture
o Rehabilitation of existing irrigation system; promotion of affordable and appropriate
irrigation system and watershed conservation
o Provision of timely and accurate market and trade information system
Supply, demand, price and price trends, product standards, etc.
o Other infrastructure requirements
Seaport, airports, energy, communications, water supply, post-harvest facilities and
agricultural mechanization
o Use of product standards
Production, processing, distribution and marketing of agricultural products
Human Resource Development
Research Development and Extension
o Establishment of the National Research and Development System in Agriculture and
Fisheries
o Use of appropriate technology to protect the environment, reduce production costs,
improve product quality and increase value-added for global competitiveness
Rural Non-Farm Employment
Trade and Fiscal Incentives
o 5-year exemption of private businesses from tariffs and duties
Budget Matters
o PhP 20B for 1st year implementation
CLASSIFICATION OF CROPS
Kingdom: Plantae
Division: Magnoliophyta
Class: Liliopsida
Order: Cyperales
Family: Gramineae
Genus: Oryza
Species: sativa
Variety: Mestizo
Agronomic classification
Based on the purpose for which the crop is grown
Categories or Groups:
o Cereals, legumes, root crops, fiber crop, industrial crop, forage and pasture, oil crop
Horticultural classification
Also based on the purpose for which the crop is grown
Categories or groups:
o Vegetables- leafy, cole or crucifers, root and bulb, legume, solanaceous, cucurbits,
tree
o Fruit- tree, nut, small fruit
o Plantation- oil, fiber, beverage, spices, condiments and essences, latex and resin,
medicinal and pesticidal
o Ornamental-cutflower, flowering pot plants, foliage, landscape, turf
Development
A property of an organisms from the moment of its inception
A process characterized by growth and differentiation/organization (morphogenesis) into
tissues, organs, organisms
Includes three aspects:
1. Growth
a. Quantitative aspect
b. ∆size (wt/ht)/time
c. Characterized through an S-curve or Sigmoid curve
2. Differentiation
a. Cells become “specialized”
b. External manifestation of a biochemical change in cells
3. Organization
a. Orientation and integration of differentiated sells with the consequent attainment of
form and structure of the complete organism
Cytokinins
o Discovered in 1954
o Biosynthesis is through the biochemical modification of adenine in root tips and
developing seeds
o ROLE:
promote cell division, organ formation, shoot initiation in tissue culture
leaf expansion due to cell enlargement
release of lateral buds from apical dominance
delays leaf senescence
enhance stomatal opening
promotes chlorophyll development and conversion of etioplast into chloroplast
Abscissic Acid (ABA)
o Discovered in 1965 in Wales
o A growth inhibitor
o Synthesized from mevalonic acid in mature leaves in response to water stress
o ROLE:
Induction and maintenance of dormancy in seeds and buds
Regulators protein synthesis
Promotes water balance
Leads to stomatal closure due to water stress
Counteracts the effect of gibberellins on amylase synthesis in germinating
cereal seeds.
Ethylene
o Most recent
o The only gaseous hormone
o Also known as ripening and stress hormone
o Synthesized by tissues in response to stress
o ROLE:
Expansion of cells during seedling growth
Hastens flowering and fruit ripening
Breaks seed dormancy and initiates germination
Induce femaleness in dioecious flowers
Promote leaf and fruit abscission
Respiration
Importance:
a) generates reducing compound (NADH) and high-energy compound (ATP),
b) produces carbon skeleton used for synthesis of other necessary compounds
Component reaction:
Glycolysis- breakdown of glucose, glucose-I-phosphate or fructose to pyruvic acid in the
cytosol (also in the chloroplast and other plastids). Oxygen is not involved. No carbon
dioxide is released.
Krebs Cycle - also called citric acid cycle because citric acid is an important intermediate
product; also known as tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle because citric and isocitric acids have
three carboxyl groups. The cycle starts with the oxidation of pyruvic acid and release of CO,
followed by the combination of the remaining 2-carbon acetate with sulfur containing
coenzyme A (CoA) to form acetyl CoA.
Electron Transport System CETS) and Oxidative Phosphorylation - in the ETS, the oxidation of
NADH is accomplished through electron transfer rather than direct oxidation with oxygen.
For every molecule of glycolysis-derived NADH oxidized, two molecules are formed while
three molecules from each Krebs cycle-generated NADH. Two molecules of ATP are
likewise formed for each molecule of ubiquinol oxidized. The formation of ATP from ADP in
the presence of Pi and oxygen is called oxidative phosphorylation which is uncoupled from
the ETS.
Factors affecting respiration:
o Substrate availability-respiration depends on the presence of available substrate. This
explains why starved plants with low starch, fructan or sugar reserves have low
respiration rate. Leaves respire much faster just after sundown than just before sunrise.
Shaded lower leaves respire much slower than the sunlit upper leaves.
o Type and age of plant- land plants are very diverse and expectedly, their respiratory
rates vary widely.
Translocation
Significance:
o In plants, a balanced and integrated transfer of materials is needed for proper
functioning of each plant part
o Materials transferred are in the form of nutrients and other dissolved substances
o In plants, there is a definite relationship between the roots and the shoot
Roots derive water and nutrients from the soil but do not have chlorophyll (no PS)
Shoot is where active production of food takes place
Both roots and shoot are actively growing, hence, they both require materials to
maintain and sustain these processes
o Functions:
Water moves up from the roots to the shoot thru the xylem
It cannot be concluded that the phloem is the only translocatory system through
which organic substances are transferred
Sugar may also reach high concentrations in the xylem vessels.
The classical concept:
Phloem- organic substances
Xylem- inorganic substances (water and minerals)
o Factors affecting translocation:
Temperature
Inhibitors
Water stress
Potassium
Hormones
Transpiration
Importance:
1) aids mineral absorption and transport
2) helps regulate leaf temperature
Drilling force:
gradient in water potential, water tension gradient; these gradients are caused by
evaporation of water from the leaves (transpiration).
Concept of essentiality:
1) An element is essential if the plant fails to complete its life cycle in a medium devoid of the
element
2) An element is declared essential if it is a constituent of a necessary metabolite, e_g. sulfur in
methionine
The essential elements: 16 elements are essential for ail crops although, Na, Si and Co are
also essential to some plants.
General functions of the essential elements:
1. structural component - carbohydrates constitute the structure of plants; also as source of
metabolic energy. Approximately 45,6, and 43% of a plant biomass is composed of carbon,
hydrogen, and oxygen, respectively.
2. enzyme activation - most of the micronutrients are essential mainly because they activate
enzymes
3. regulation of osmotic potential - all elements in soluble form ( free or bound structurally to
essential compounds) aid buildup of turgor pressure necessary to maintain form, speed of
growth, and allow certain pressure-dependent movements (e.g. stomatal opening), and
"sleep" movements of leaves.
Nitrogen: plant is light green, lower leaves are yellow, drying to light brown color; stalks
are short and slender (if deficiency occurs at late stage of growth)
Handling Practices:
1. Trimming
2. Washing/Soaking
a. ordinary water with or without disinfectant
b. hot water treatment
i. Mango - 52-55°C for 10 minutes
3. Sorting and grading
a. based on size, shape, degree of maturity/ripeness
4. Packaging
a. Objectives
i. increase handling efficiency
ii. protect the produce
iii. prevent contamination by microorganisms
b. Containers
i. bamboo basket (kaing)
ii. wooden or plastic crates
iii. cartons
c. Lining materials/cushions materials:
i. banana leaves
ii. paper
iii. styrofor
5. Storage
a. Methods
i. Refrigeration and control of relative humidity
1. Temp: 12°C
2. RH: 90-95%
ii. Evaporative cooling techniques
1. sprinkling water
2. covering fruits with moist sawdust of cloth
3. keeping produce in clay jar with water
iii. Modified atmosphere storage
1. keeping produce inside perforated polyethylene bag (lower O2 and higher CO2
high relative humidity)
iv. Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage
1. Control the precise levels of O2, CO2, ethylene, relative humidity and
temperature.
I. Sexual Propagation
1. Seed propagation
most common method by which plants reproduce in nature
most efficient and widely-used method for cultivated crops, e.g. rice, coconut,
papaya, tomato, orchid seeds arise from the fusion of male and female gametes to
form a single cell (zygote) within the ovule of a flower
an easy and cheap method of multiplying plants
most practical and profitable method of propagation for crops like papaya and
coconut
Seed Storage: Behavior Categories
o Seed Dormancy
Physiological or physical condition of a viable seed that prevents
germination even in the presence of otherwise favorable germination
conditions such as warm temp., adequate water and aeration.
Seed Quiescence- condition in which seed cannot germinate because of
unfavorable condition.
o Advantages:
Perpetuation of species
Prevent germination while still in the field
Keep seed quality while in storage
Types of Dormancy:
Primary
o Exogenous or coat-imposed dormancy- essential germination
components not available.
o Endogenous dormancy- caused by environment during seed
development and maturation
Secondary
o Imposed by: temp, light/darkness, abnormal amount of water,
chemicals and gases
Dormancy Terminology:
Ecodormancy- due to one or more unsuitable factors in the
environment w/ nonspecific effect
Paradormancy- due to physical factors or biochemical signals
originating externally to affected structure
Endodormancy- regulated by physiological factors inside the
affected structure
o Seed Germination
Series of events which take place when dry quiescent seeds imbibe water
resulting in an increase in metabolic activity and the initiation of a seedling
from the embryo;
Resumption of embryo growth
Criteria for seed germination
Embryo must be alive
Adequate moisture
Oxygen available and should reach storage tissues
Optimum appropriate environmental conditions present
Primary dormancy must be overcome
II. Asexual Propagation - involves reproduction from vegetative parts of plants and is possible
because the vegetative organs of many plants have the capacity for regeneration.
8. Tissue Culture techniques other than embryo culture- can be started from a variety of
plant parts which have cells capable of dividing, e.g. shoot-tip culture; meristem
culture and endosperm culture
G x E Interaction
A high yielding variety grown under poor environment will have low yield.
A low yielding variety grown in optimum (good) environment will still have low yield.
An ideal genotype therefore is one that has a wide range of environmental
An optimum environment is one that poses a minimum of constraints to crop growth and
development
Practical implications:
1. Develop management practices that can remove or avoid environmental constraints.
2. Continuously assess G x E interactions
3. Need for continuous development of improved varieties/cultivars.
In a production system;
inputs – controllable, manageable resources such as seeds, fertilizers, pesticides, etc.
output – yield
environment – uncontrollable factors external to the system
system – component crops, processes and activities
Practical implications:
1. Man (management has only partial control of the system.
2. Certain factors/conditions are given to which the system has to fit or adjust.
3. The design of the system emanates from man (his needs, objectives, knowledge and
capabilities)
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
includes CLIMATIC or above-ground factors and EDAPHIC or soil factors (abiotic factors)
also includes pests and beneficial organisms (biotic factors)
ABIOTIC FACTORS
Climatic factors:
Definitions of terms:
o Climate
the seasonal pattern of a particular place occuring from year to year.
a composite of day-to-day weather conditions described in both averages and
variability
o Weather
a momentary state of the atmosphere brought about by the combination of elements,
e.g., temperature, pressure, moisture content, air movements, radiation, etc.
day-to-day changes of the state or condition of the atmosphere
o Macroclimate
the climatic environment one meter above the plant canopy
o Microclimate
generally refers to the climatic environment one meter below the canopy in the case
of tall plants or the climate within the leaf canopy for short (below one meter)
plants.
1. Precipitation– is any form of water particles falling on the ground in liquid or solid form
(rainfall, hail, snow, etc.)
a. Average rainfall in the Philippines = 2553 mm (Luzon – 2724 mm; Visayas – 2391.7
mm; Mindanao – 2349.8 mm
2. Temperature
the degree of hotness or coldness of a body
every chemical, physiological and biological process in plants is influenced by
temperature.
Air circulation in the atmosphere results from the sun’s radiation falling more directly
on the tropical regions than on the polar regions, the warmer air rises and flow forward
the poles, cools and sinks as cold polar air and then returns toward the equator as
ground flow
The interactions cause the establishment of regions, large and small, each with a
different climate.
4. Solar radiation or light – energy given out by the sun through radiation
6. Gaseous environment
Carbon dioxide
o hardly limiting in crop production except at no or little air circulation in dense plant
populations
o critical in enclosed environments like greenhouses
Air pollution
o becomes crucial as the world becomes more industrialized
o toxic substances: lead, sulfur dioxide, smog, carbon monoxide, hydrofluoric acid (HF)
Origin of El Niño
From the Spanish word meaning “Boy child or Little child”
Used to be considered as a local event along the coasts of Peru and Ecuador - describing
the appearance of warm ocean currents flowing the South and Central American coasts
around Christmas time – believing that the temporary heavy harvest of fish was a gift of
the Christ child.
El Niño Watch
El Niño occurs in the Pacific Basin every 2 to 9 years. It usually starts during the
Northern winter (December to February). Once established, it lasts until the first half of
the following year, although at times, it stays longer. It exhibits phase-locking in annual
cycles.
Climatic indicators of El Niño in the Philippines include :
delayed onset of the rainy season
early termination of the rainy season
weak monsoon activity
weak tropical cyclones activity
El-Niño is said to be triggered when the strong westward-blowing trade winds weaken
and reverse direction.
Effects of El Niño
a. fish kill especially cold water fish- tuna and milkfish catch declines
b. decrease in yield for most crops
c. human death
5. Acid rain
Sulfur dioxide produces S which is released from natural sources and human activities
Oxides of S and water will produce acid rain
6. Lahar
Mt. Pinatubo eruption in the early 1990’s
lead to decreased in agricultural lands resulting to low production
A. What is soil?
Composed of mineral water, air, water and organic matter and organisms
Soil as a three-phase system:
o Solid-mineral + organic matter
o Liquid- soil solution
o Gas- various gases
B. Soil Properties in relation to Crop Production
I. PHYSICAL PROPERTIES
Soil Texture- the relative proportion soil particles, i.e., sand, silt and clay in a particular soil.
Particle size
Sand >.02µ
Silt .02-.002µ
Clay < .002µ
o Soil texture range:
SAND SILT CLAY
<10% Equal >4.5%
clay Proportion of sand S,H and clay Clay
o Implication:
The desirable soil texture for crops is that in between heavy and light, i.e., heavy soil,
to allow for easy workability and sufficient water holding capacity.
Soil Structure- the arrangement of soil particles into aggregates
o How soil structure is formed?
Ped- natural structure
Clod- structure formed with the application of external force, e.g., plowing
Organic matter- binding agent
o Types of structure
Blocky
Granular
Columnar
No structure
o Importance of soil structure to crops:
To some extent, soil tillability is related to structure. There are soil that are
relatively easier to break-up because of their structure
Soil structure influences the infiltration of water through the soil
Soil structure influences soil aeration which is critical during seed germination and
seedling emergence
FAUNA
o Macro- small mammals, insects, millipedes, centipedes, sowbugs, mites, slugs, snails,
earthworms, spiders
o Micro- nematodes, protozoa
FLORA
o Roots of higher plants
o Algae- blue, blue-green, diatoms
o Fungi- mushroom, yeast, molds
o Bacteria- aerobic/anaerobic
o Actinomycetes
Benefits from Earthworms
Burrowing – channels for drainage and aeration, entry of other animals, entry of water,
nutrients, roots
Mix the soil, “plows” the soil
Incorporates crop residues
Contribute to OM
Humus enrichment
Improves soil structure
Control pests (e.g., leaf miner pupa, scub pathogen)
Nutrient recycling
BIOTIC FACTORS
- all living elements in the environment that can affect crop production
- includes: beneficial organisms pests
1. Beneficial organisms
provide beneficial effects on crop production includes:
Pollinators - important role in the preservation of species and in biodiversity conservation
Decomposers
an important part in the food chain which is related to energy flow in a crop production
system.
a trophic level, usually consisting soil microorganisms (soil biotic factors)
specifically important in the maintenance of soil organic matter.
Natural pest enemies
provide balance in a crop production system particularly in the control of pests
as bio-control agents against pests
Pests
a collective term that includes insect pests, diseases, weeds, invertebrates and
vertebrates
has always been a major limiting factor in crop production!
Damage can go as high as 100%.
GENETIC FACTORS
- Includes all factors internal to the plant
1. Genotype- the genetic design of a plant which dictates the ceiling of how much a
variety/cultivar can yield
a. Genome- sets the ultimate limit for plant variation
2. Selection indices of major Philippine crops:
a. The choice of variety is one of the most critical decisions in crop production
b. Technologies required in growing a certain crops are dependent on the characteristics
of a particular variety especially;
HUMAN FACTORS:
often overlooked but probably the most critical of all factors
from a system perspective, it is not only a factor, rather it is the core of the system itself (it
is the reason for crop production, for farming)
1. Farmer’s preference re: crop type, variety
ideally based on farmer’s objectives and aspirations
however, in the Philippines, this is often dictated by external factors, i.e., market
government policies
2. Farmer’s capability
depends on: resources knowledge
most Filipino farmers are resource-poor
our culture is very rich in indigenous knowledge particularly about farming
3. Management
a result of 1 and 2
goes along with eco-social-political realities
A. Plant breeding – science, art and business of crop improvement for human benefit.
higher yields, improved quality, disease and insect resistance, change in maturity duration,
agronomic characteristics, photo insensitivity, synchronous maturity, non-shattering
characteristics, determinate growth, dormancy, abiotic stress tolerance, etc.
1. CREATION OF VARIATION
naturally existing variability
a. domestication - process of bringing wild species under human management
b. germplasm collection - collection of a large number of genotypes of a crop species
and its wild relatives
c. introduction - taking a genotype or a group of genotypes of plants into new
environments where they were not being grown before
• Primary introduction - introduced variety is released for commercial
cultivation without any alteration in the original genotype
• Secondary introduction - introduced variety subjected to selection or
hybridized with local varieties to transfer one or few characters from this
variety to the local varieties
creation of new variability
a. hybridization - crossing genetically dissimilar individuals
hybrid - the immediate product of hybridization
• inbreeding - mating of individuals related by ancestry; leads to production of
homozygous individuals
o Inbred - product of inbreeding hence consequently a homozygous individual
selfing - mating with oneself: most intense form of inbreeding hence
approach to homozygosity is fastest
full sibbing - Crossing between members of selected pairs of plants: full sibs
have both parents in common
half sibbing - crossing one individual with several identified ones: half sibs
have one common parent or pollen source
o topcross - cross between an inbred and an open-pollinated variety
o testcross - cross between a plant or line and a tester (tester may be an inbred,
hybrid, synthetic or open-pollinated variety)
o backcross - a cross between a hybrid and one of its parents; also a breeding
method based on repeated backcrossing of the F I (first generation offspring of a
cross) and the subsequent generations to the recurrent parent usually to transfer
a major trait controlled by one or a few genes from the donor (as the non-
recurrent parent) and the recipient (as the recurrent parent)
Line improvement through backcross method:
Four backcrosses to recipient with selection for desired trait
Finish with selfing or DH to isolate homogenous line
Selgin or DH in case of recessive trait
Linked genetic markers
o polycross - open pollination in isolation among a number of selected genotypes
arranged in a manner that promotes random mating
o reciprocal cross - mating of two individuals in which each is used as the male
parent in one cross and the female parent in the other.
o intraspecific cross- crossing individuals belonging to the same species
Heterosis of hybrid vigor; superiority of the F1 hybrid over its parents; maybe positive
or negative; ex. Positive heterosis for yield and negative heterosis for days to maturity.
o Mid-parent heterosis
Increase or decrease in performance of the hybrid in comparison with the
mid-parent value or average performance of the two parents
o Heterobeitiosis
The increase or decrease in the performance of the hybrid in comparison
with the better parent of the cross combination
o Standard heterosis
The increase or decrease in the performances of a hybrid in comparison with
the standard check variety of the region; type of heterosis practically
important to breeders
Theories to support heterosis:
o Dominance hypothesis
that heterosis is due to the accumulation of favorable dominant genes from
the two parents in the hybrid
o Over dominance hypothesis
that heterozygotes are more vigorous and productive than either
homozygotes
Heterosis is expected to be high when inbreds used in producing the hybrids have high
combining abilities.
Combining ability- the ability of a genotype to transfer its desirable traits to its progeny
o General combining ability (GCA)
Average performance of a strain in a series of crosses; estimated using testers
of broad genetic base and identifies mainly additive genetic effects
o Specific combining ability (SCA)
Deviation from performance predicted on the basis of general combining
ability of parent lines; estimated by using testers of narrow genetic base and
identifies both additive and non-additive gene action
Inbreeding depression- loss in vigor due to inbreeding
Mechanisms promoting self-pollination
o Cleistogamy- flowers do not open at all ensuring complete self-pollination
o Chasmogamy- flowers open but only after pollination has taken place
o Stigmas closely surrounded by anthers
o Flowers open but stamen and stigma are hidden by other floral organs
o Stigma when receptive elongate through stamina columns
Mechanisms promoting cross pollination
o Dicliny or unisexuality- flowers are either staminate(male) or pistillate (female)
Monoecy- staminate and pistillate flowers occur in the same plant either in the
same or in different inflorescences
Dioecy- male and female flowers are present on different plants, the plants in
such species are either male or female
Self-incompatibility
o Male sterility
GENETIC ENGINEERING
Production of transgenic plants
Changing the genetic makeup of plants by direct introduction of genes from
microorganisms, animals or other plant species; done when sexual hybridization between
the recipient and donor is impossible
Steps:
o Identification of genes, construction of vectors
o In vitro plant regeneration system
o gene introduction methods
o molecular analysis
o gene expression assays
o stability and transmission analysis
2. SELECTION
identification of individuals or lines that are more desirable than others in a heterogeneous
population
o natural selection- change in gene frequencies from one generation to another because
of differences in survival and reproductive abilities of parent genotypes in natural
populations
o artificial selection- change in gene frequencies brought about by man as is done in
plant breeding where certain individuals or genotypes are not used as parent of the
next generation
modes of selection
o stabilizing or normalizing selection- when adaptive individuals in the populations are
selected under a constant environment through the years; keeps the population
constant and eliminates the deviants; reduces the variability present in the population
Heritability- a portion of the phenotypic variation among individuals that is due to genetic
differences among them.
Broad-sense heritability is estimated from the ratio of the total genetic variance to the
phenotypic variance
Narrow- sense heritability is estimated from the ratio of the additive portion of the genetic
variance to the phenotypic variance.
Superior lines arc approved to be released as a variety by the National Seed Industry
Council (NSIC); the variety must have passed the tests for distinctiveness (D), uniformity (U) and
stability (S) or the DUS- test.
4. MULTIPLICATION
seed multiplication of an entry after it has been identified for release; the seed produced by
the breeder after a strain is identified but before it is released as a variety is termed as the
stock seed. The stock seed is known as breeder seed once the identified strain is released
and notified.
Seed - seed or any other propagating material used for raising a crop
Seed multiplication involves:
o seed production - should observe proper isolation procedures to maintain genetic
purity of the variety
o Isolation - separation of a population of plants from other genotypes with which the
are capable of mating
temporal isolation – isolation by differences in growth stages
spatial isolation - isolation by distance
o seed processing - drying, cleaning and grading, testing (purity, viability and moisture
content determination), treating (disinfectants and protectants), bagging and labeling
Types of varieties
o hybrids - first generation offspring of a cross between two individuals differing in one
or more genes
5. DISTRIBUTION
Classes of seeds
o breeder seeds - controlled by the originating plant breeder; starting point of all the
subsequent classes of seeds: seeds obtained from uniform panicles by breeders:
100%pure
o foundation seeds - seeds produced from breeder seeds; source of registered and/or
certified seeds~ 98°-0 pure with at least 85% germination rate; carry a red tag
o registered seeds - produced from foundation or registered seeds and carry a green tag
o certified seeds - produced from foundation, registered or certified seeds and carry a
blue tag
o good seeds - produced from varieties not yet approved by NSIC
6. CONSERVATION OF GERMPLASM
Germplasm- is the sum total of hereditary material or genes present in a species
Plant germplasm - genetic source material used by plant breeders to develop new cultivars
(cultivated variety)
Centers of diversity - where extensive genetic variability of cultivated species could be
found; also believed by Vavilov to be centers of origin
o primary centers- where domestication occurred
o secondary centers - where variation continued after domestication
Germplasm storage
o as seeds in cold/refrigerated rooms
o maintained as living plants in field or through slow growth in vitro
o cryopreservation or freeze-preservation
Composition of NSIC
Secretary, Department of Agriculture (DA) – Chairman
Director, Bureau of Plant Industry (BPI) – Vice Chairman and Executive
Dean, College of Agriculture, University of the Philippines Los Banos, Laguna (UPLB) –
Member
Director, Institute of Plant Breeding (IPB) – Member
Crops Research Director, Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural
Resources Research and Development (PCARRD) – Member
Director, Philippine Rice Research Institute (PhilRice) – Member
Two (2) representatives from accredited farmer’s organizations – Members
One (1) representative from the Philippine Seed Industry – Member
SEED CERTIFICATION
Purpose: Provide guidelines for seed multiplication of various crops
Reasons: To assure cultivar identity, genetic purity, and trueness to type
Centers of Origin
Southeast Asia South America Africa Near East South Asia
-Pole sitao -Peanut -Sorghum -Wheat -Mungbean
-Taro -Sweet potato -Cowpea -Brassica -Mango
-Yam -Cassava -Yam -Lettuce -Cotton
-Eggplant -Potato -Okra -Pole sitao
-Mango -Tomato -Eggplant -sugarcane
-Banana -Squash -Coffee -Jute
-Rambutan -Pineapple -Cotton East Asia -Rice
-Mangosteen -Chico -Soybean
-Coconut -Atis Central -Pole sitao Pacific
-Sugarcane -Rubber America -Brassica -Taro
-Rice -Cacao -corn -Rice -Coconut
-Cotton -Sugarcane
IMPROVED VARIETIES
Corn
White Corn - For human consumption
IPB Var 4
o Open-pollinated
o Harvest maturity: 105-110 Days
o 4.89 tons/ha grain yield
o Highly acceptable corn grit quality
Yellow corn – for feeds and corn-based products; open-pollinated
IPB Var 1 (Ginintuan)
o 4.55 t/ha
o 105 days
IPB Var 9 (Tupi yellow)
o 5.39 t/ha
o 105 days
Yellow corn – for feeds and other corn-based products
IPB 929
o 3-way cross hybrid
o 7.0 t/ha
o 97-99 days
IPB 911
o Single cross hybrid
o 7.18 t/ha
o 97-99 days
Special types – open pollinated
Supersweet
o Yellow
o 7.2 t/ha (fresh)
o 70-72 days
o For boiling
Lagkitan
o White
o 6.5 t/ha (fresh)
o For native delicacies, viand and “kornik”
Cassava
All-purpose – suitable for food, starch, and feed production
o Culturally appropriate
Must embody the enhancement of and the protection of diverse cultures
PRODUCTION PRACTICES
C. Land Preparation
LOWLAND UPLAND
Flooding and soaking involved No flooding
Puddling- destroy soil structure and particles No puddling- structure and granulation
densely packed maintained
Macropores are lost, micropores maintained Macropores and micorpores are
and increased bulk density upon drying- maintained-high seepage and percolation
leaching percolation reduced
Formation of plowpan- further reduces Water drains easily, good drainage except
percolation and seepage when plowpan is developed
When dried, puddle soils become denser, hard Tillage is easy specially at field capacity
and structureless- tillage without submerge
more difficult
Shade Management
o Germination/ Rooting stage require partial shading
Coconut, mango, citrus can be exposed to full sunlight
Coffee, cacao, rambutan, mangosteen, lanzones, banana and grafted/budded planting
materials need 25-50% partial shade
Hardening
o Pre-sowing hardening
Soaking of seeds in water for 1-48hr depending on seeds
Then air-drying to their original moisture content before sowing
o Hardening
Starting 1 month to few days before planting or transplanting (depending on crop)
cultural practices to reduce transplanting shock are imposed:
Gradual withdrawal of water and fertilizer application
Gradual exposure to sunlight (if grown in partial shade)
Partial pruning/cutting of leaves and roots (blocking)
Gradual balling/burlapping of big trees (1 mo before transplanting)
Use of protectants/anti-transpirants to reduce transpiration
FARMING SYSTEM
Forms of Multiple Cropping
o Intercropping
Growing of two or more crops simultaneously on the same field
Crop intensification in time and space dimensions and competition occurs at particular
stage of crop growth
Types of Intercropping:
Mixed intercropping
o growing two or more crops simultaneously with no distinct row arrangement
Row Intercropping
o growing two or more crops simultaneously where one or more crops are
planted in rows;
o often referred to as intercropping.
Strip Intercropping
o growing of two or more crops in strips
o Wide enough to permit independent cultivation but narrow enough for the
crops to interact agronomically
Relay intercropping
o Growth of two or more crops overlaps at the l;ater stage of the first crop
o A second crop is planted after the first crop has reached its reproductive stage
Types of Maturity
• Physiological maturity
o end of developmental stage of fruit when it has developed the ability to ripen
normally at harvest
• Horticultural or commercial maturity
o stage of development when the plant part possesses the necessary characteristics
required by the consumers
o varies depending on the intended use
Agronomic Crops
Corn (Zea mays)
• 95-105 days from planting
• 55 days from flowering (silking)
• the base of the kernels show a black layer when husks are dried
• kernels are nearly glazed
Cotton
• 110-170 days from planting
• 45 days from flowering
Mungbean
• 55-65 days from planting
• 30-35 days from flowering
• pods turn black or tan
Peanut
• 90-100 days from planting
• 70-80 days from flowering
• leaves of majority of the plant begin to wither and turn yellow
• pods full and firm
Rice
• 100 to 150 days from planting/transplanting
• 27 to 30 days from flowering
• 80% of the grains are straw-colored
• hulled grains on the upper portion of the panicles are clear and firm and most of those
at the base are in hard dough stage
Soybean
• 80-90 days from planting
• 50-60 days from flowering
• leaves of the plant turn yellow and slowly drop off from the stem
• pods change in color from green to brown or dark brown
Sugarcane
• 10-12 or 12-14 months from planting
• uniform TSS reading from basal, middle, and top portions of the stalk
Sweet/glutinous corn
• 18 days from silking
• kernels are soft and tender
Tobacco
• 60-65days after transplanting
• 15 leaves are fully expanded
• lower 6 leaves turning pale green
• leaves are silvery
Fruit Crops
Banana
• fullness of finger (loss of angularity)
• change in peel color from green to yellow
• increase in fruit size
• drying up of leaves
• number of days from flower emergence (or shooting) to maturity
Jackfruit
• dull, hollow sound when the fruit is tapped by the finger
• last leaf of the peduncle turns yellow
• fruit spines become well-developed and well-spaced
• spines yield to moderate pressure
• aromatic odor
Lanzones
• fruits turn yellow
• disappearance of bloom on the peel
• all the fruits on the bunch are full yeilow
• peduncle loses most of its green color
Mango
• 110-120 DAFI or 82-88d after anthesis
• flattened shoulders at the stem-end
• fullness of cheeks
• presence of bloom (powdery deposit) on the peel
• yellowing of the pulp (flesh)
• sinkers' in 1% salt solution
Papaya
• 3 to 6% color break on the peel surface and on internal tissues
• 5 to 6 months after flowering
• has about 8⁰Brix
Pineapple
• space between the eyes fills out; color becomes dark green
• eyes change from pointed to flat
• more aromatic, light or golden yellow when ripe
• 5 to 6 months after flowering
Rambutan
• 90% of the fruit changes to yellow, yellow-red, or red depending on the variety
Vegetable Crops
Bitter gourd
• 80-90 days from planting to first harvest
• 10-14 days from flowering
• Change in color of fruit from deep to light green
Cauliflower/Broccoli
• 50-60 days from planting
• curd is compact
Eggplant
• 70-90 days from planting to first harvest
• 7-10 days from flowering
• firm, color changes into a lighter shade and shiny appearance
Garlic
• 110-120 days from planting
• drying of the leaves
Ginger
• 9 months from planting
• tops begin to dry and rhizomes full
Muskmelon
• 80-85 day: to first harvest
• conspicuous netted appearance
• development of abscission zone
Potato
• 90-100 days from planting
• tops mature and dry out
• skin slipping from the tuber indicates immaturity
Ornamental Crops
Anthurium (Anthurium spp)
• female part is rough (lower part of the spadix)
• peduncle begins to stiffen
Chrysanthemum
• for immediate use: fully opened but before center petals have reached full size or lost
their greenish color
Dendrobium
• 30-50% of florets in the spike are open
Gladiolus
• for immediate use: florets at the bottom of the upper I '3 of the spike show color
• lower most floret is fully open
• for storage: first 2 florets show color
Plantation Crops
Special management practices refers to production practices that are regularly done but are
particularly applicable to a specific crop or group of crops
1. Windbreak establishment
Windbreaks or shelterbelts are rows of trees and shrubs that protect crops from strong
winds
• a windbreak can reduce windspeed up to 20x its height
• windbreaks should have deep root system and dense canopy (examples: ipil-ipil,
bamboo, pili, tamarind, narra, eucalyptus, mahogany, etc.
• windbreaks should be planted perpendicular to the direction of the wind
• for small areas, these are planted along the borders while for large areas. These are
planted every rows of crop.
2. Shading
• forsciophytes, shading is required for normal growth and development
• ways of achieving shaded condition
increase plant density
use of shade trees
use of built-in structures e.g. slat houses, nets, etc.
3. Hardening
• exposing young plants slowly to the outdoor environment
• involves withdrawal of water and fertilizer and gradual exposure to increased light and
high/low temperature
4. Pricking
• transfer of seedlings from overcrowded container to another container
5. Rouging
• removal of off-type or diseased plants
6. Mulching
Mulch is a protective layer of a material that is spread on top of the soil
• mulching materials can either be organic (e.g. grass clippings, straw, bark chips. etc.)
or inorganic (plastic. stones, brick chips, etc.)
• Benefits from mulching:
prevents weed growth
conserves soil moisture
reduces soil erosion
keeps fruits and vegetables clean
7. Pruning
• removal of plant parts to attain a specific objective
• general effect is the reduction in plant size
• types of pruning according to its purpose:
preventive pruning - removal of dead and diseased branches or plant parts
formative pruning - done to improve/ develop the desired plant shape
corrective pruning - removal of interlacing branches which are out of place. Done after
formative pruning
rejuvenative pruning - done to re-invigorate or reshape the top of old trees
• other purposes of pruning:
removal of undesirable watersprouts and suckers
open the tree canopy to allow sunlight and facilitate spraying operation
produce a less dense canopy
Types of pruning according to nature of cut:
Heading back- cuts are made on the terminal portion of the plant
Thinning out- complete removal of a branch of a trees
8. Fruit Thinning
• removal of some fruits to minimize 'inter-fruit' nutrient and assimilate competition
• e.g. case of guava and melon
9. Deblossoming
• removal of flowers on the young woody plants to have full canopy development
10. Ratooning
• growing of a new crop out of the shoots arising from previous crop
• reduces cost of production since land preparation and planting materials are no longer
needed
• e.g. case of sugarcane, pineapple, rice, eggplant and sorghum
11. Desuckering
• removal of unnecessary slickers from the base (mat) of banana or abaca
• controls mat population
• prevents overcrowding and shading
• reduce competition for water and nutrients
• source of planting material
12. Training
• directs the growth of the plants in terms of shape, size, and direction
• involves bending, twisting and tying of plants to support structures mayor may not
involve cutting of plant parts
13. Trellising
• provision of structural support to plants so that:
stem and leaves are kept away from the ground
allow better exposure to sunlight
LANDSCAPING
the art and science of selecting, arranging and growing plants together with the landscapes for
aesthetics, privacy and pleasure.
POSTPRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY
Primary processing
o Postproduction activities that involve handling of produce to make them suited to the
manufacturers or consumers
Secondary processing
o postproduction activities that involve conversion of the produce into more stable form
that can no longer be changed to other forms
o types of secondary processing:
heat sterilization
inactivates the enzymes that may alter the quality of the product and kill the
microorganisms that can grow during storage
used in canning, puree and juice making
Dehydration
Removal of water from the product
Dried fruits and vegetables
Fermentation
Involves the action of microorganism
Pickling, wine making, vinegar making
Freezing
The lower the temperature and the shorter the time of exposure, the better the
quality of the produce
Frozen vegetables and fruits
procedures to which crops are subjected after harvest including all the technological
aspects of distribution
Types of crops based on their postharvest characteristics:
o Durables- have low MC (≤14%), eg. Corn, rice, mungbean
o Perishable- have high MC (80-95%), eg. Fruits, vegetables, ornamentals.
After harvesting, perishables are transported to a packinghouse
Packinghouse- any area that provides shelter where commodities are assembled
from different production areas and prepared in such manner as to meet quality
requirements of a target market
In the packinghouse, the procedure undergo one or several preparatory processes
like:
Washing, trimming, curing, waxing, pre-cooling, fumigation, sorting, grading,
packaging, storage, degreening, etc.
Transport packages should be appropriate to ensure adequate protection and safe
delivery of the produce from the producer to the consumer
Kinds of packages:
Flexible packages- burlap or gunny sack, mesh or net bags, PEBs, palm leaf,
bags/baskets, sacks of woven plastic fabric
Rigid and semi-rigid- baskets (bamboo and rattan), wooden crates, cartons,
wood-paper laminated container, plastic crates and foamed plastic boxes.
Shelf-life of perishables can be prolonged by:
Cold storage
Evaporative cooling
Modified atmosphere (MA) storage
Controlled atmosphere (CA) storage
Postharvest Science
Definition of Terms
Air cooling (syo. room cooling) - method of pre-cooling which relies on rapidly moving air
that is made to flow through the container: heat exchange is mainly through conduction
Airjet cooling – pre-cooling method done by allowing high velocity air (blasts) on top of
open containers
Ammonia injury- caused by leaking ammonia in storage rooms; slight injury manifests as
greenish-black discoloration of the outer tissues of fruits and vegetables
Atmospheric modification - packaging, storing, or transport of produce in an atmosphere
that differs substantially from normal air with respect to proportion of O2, CO2, and N2;
metabolism is slowed down in low O2 or high CO2 atmosphere thus retarding, respiration,
softening, compositional changes, and ethylene production and action
Bulk packing (syn. bulk handling)- packing in bulk bins or packing cases for lifting by
forklifts
Chilling injury - occurs when a commodity is stored at temperatures lower than is required:
exposure time-temperature effect
Cleaning - the objective is to render the commodity more saleable by removing dirt, latex,
residues, mealy bugs, sooty molds, and other extraneous materials
Control points - points in the food distribution where control must be exercised to reduce or
eliminate hazard or risk