ACcktstut (Repaired) (Repaired)
ACcktstut (Repaired) (Repaired)
Learning Electronics
with PSpice
AC Circuits
1. OVERVIEW: ............................................................................................................................................................... 2
2. INTRODUCTION TO THE TOPIC
3. LEARNING GOALS: ................................................................................................................................................ 2
4. CONTENT:.................................................................................................................................................................. 6
4.1 AC RESPONSE OF RC CIRCUIT
4.1.1 ACADEMIC CONTENT
4.1.2 AN EXAPMLE IN OrCAD/PSpice
4.1.3 CORRELATION OF THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL RESULTS
4.2 AC RESPONSE OF RL CIRCUIT
4.2.1 ACADEMIC CONTENT
4.2.2 AN EXAPMLE IN OrCAD/PSpice
4.2.3 CORRELATION OF THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL RESULTS
4.3 AC RESPONSE OF RLC CIRCUIT
4.3.1 ACADEMIC CONTENT
4.3.2 AN EXAPMLE IN OrCAD/PSpice
4.3.3 CORRELATION OF THEORETICAL AND PRACTICAL RESULTS
5. SUMMARY: ................................................................................................................................................................ 7
6. SELF LEARNING EXERCISE: ............................................................................................................................... 20
7. POINTER FOR ADVANCED TOPIC .................................................................................................................. 20
IMPEDANCE :
REACTANCE:
In a direct current circuit the power is equal to the voltage times the current, or P = E X I.
If a voltage of 100 volts applied to a circuit produces a current of 10 amperes, the power
is 1000 watts. This is also true in an ac circuit when the current and voltage are in phase;
that is, when the circuit is effectively resistive. But, if the ac circuit contains reactance,
the current will lead or lag the voltage by a certain amount (the phase angle). When the
current is out of phase with the voltage, the power indicated by the product of the
applied voltage and the total current gives only what is known as the APPARENT
POWER. The TRUE POWER depends upon the phase angle between the current and
voltage.
When an alternating voltage is impressed across a capacitor, power is taken from the
source and stored in the capacitor as the voltage increases from zero to its maximum
value. Then, as the impressed voltage decreases from its maximum value to zero, the
capacitor discharges and returns the power to the source. Likewise, as the current
through an inductor increases from its zero value to its maximum value the field around
the inductor builds up to a maximum, and when the current decreases from maximum
to zero the field collapses and returns the power to the source.No power is used up in
either case, since the power alternately flows to and from the source. This power that is
returned to the source by the reactive components in the circuit is called REACTIVE
POWER.
In a purely resistive circuit all of the power is consumed and none is returned to the
source; in a purely reactive circuit no power is consumed and all of the power is
returned to the source. It follows that in a circuit which contains both resistance and
reactance there must be some power dissipated in the resistance as well as some
returned to the source by the reactance.
As mentioned before, the true power of a circuit is the power actually used in the circuit.
This power, measured in watts, is the power associated with the total resistance in the
circuit. To calculate true power, the voltage and current associated with the resistance
must be used. Since the voltage drop across the resistance is equal to the resistance
multiplied by the current through the resistance, true power can be calculated by the
formula:
Apparent power is the power that appears to the source because of the circuit
impedance. Since the impedance is the total opposition to ac, the apparent power is that
power the voltage source "sees." Apparent power is the combination of true power and
reactive power. Apparent power is not found by simply adding true power and reactive
power just as impedance is not found by adding resistance and reactance.
To calculate apparent power, you may use either of the following formulas:
If you are familiar with trigonometry, the easiest way to find the power factor is to find
the cosine of the phase angle q. The cosine of the phase angle is equal to the power
factor.
You do not need to use trigonometry to find the power factor. Since the power
dissipated in a circuit is true power, then:
If true power and apparent power are known you can use the formula shown above.
Going one step further, another formula for power factor can be developed. By
substituting the equations for true power and apparent power in the formula for power
factor, you get:
Since current in a series circuit is the same in all parts of the circuit, IR equals IZ.
Therefore, in a series circuit,
AC RESPONSE OF RC CIRCUIT
AC RESPONSE OF RL CIRCUIT
AC RESPONSE OF RLC CIRCUIT
CONCEPT OF RESONANCE
4. Content:
4.1 AC Response of RC circuit
4.1.1 Academic Content
𝑉 1 𝑗 𝛱 𝑉𝑚 1 𝛱
Vc = -jIXc = 1 ῳC
exp ( ῳRC) exp (-j 2
)= 1
sin(ῳt + tan−1 ῳRC − 2
),
√𝑅2 + (ῳC)2 ῳC √𝑅2 +
(ῳC)2
And hence it can be clearly seen that voltage drop across the capacitor lags behind the
𝛱
current by an angle 2
……………………………………………………………………….(i)
− 𝑿𝒄
i.e if current is reference phasor , than source voltage lags behind it by angle 𝐭𝐚𝐧 ø = .
𝑹
PLOT-1
One can turn the toggle cursor on by clicking on button located on the toolbar of
PSpice and a window will pop-up as shown below giving x and y axis value at specified
point which in this case is indicated in above figure by red horizontal and vertical lines.
Now select AC sweep as simulation profile and set logarithmic sweep of V1 from
10hertz to 1000 hertz and plot a curve of voltage across capacitor divided by current
through it i.e of reactance of capacitor versus frequency. A curve decreasing in nature as
shown below will be obtained.
𝑉 𝑗ῳL 𝛱 𝑉𝑚 ῳL ῳL 𝛱
VL = jIXL = × (ῳL) × exp ( )exp (j )= sin(ῳt - tan−1 +2)
√𝑅2 +(ῳL)2 R 2 √𝑅2 +(ῳL)2 R
Here it can be clearly seen that voltage across inductor leads the current through it by an
𝛱
angle of ……………………………………………………………………………………(ii)
2
𝑿𝑳
i.e if current is reference phasor , than source voltage leads it by angle 𝐭𝐚𝐧 ø = .
𝑹
Now plots of current through circuit and voltage across capacitor with time can be easily
plotted through transient analysis simulation settings. Curves obtained will look
something like:
PLOT-3
Now select AC sweep as simulation profile and set logarithmic sweep of V1 from
10hertz to 1000 hertz and plot a curve of voltage across capacitor divided by current
through it i.e of reactance of capacitor versus frequency. A curve increasing in nature as
shown below will be obtained.
PLOT-4
For every combination of L and C, there is only ONE frequency (in both series and
parallel circuits) that causes XL to exactly equal XC; this frequency is known as the
RESONANT FREQUENCY. When the resonant frequency is fed to a series or parallel
circuit, XL becomes equal to XC, and the circuit is said to be RESONANT to that
frequency. The circuit is now called a RESONANT CIRCUIT; resonant circuits are tuned
circuits. The circuit condition wherein XL becomes equal to XC is known as
RESONANCE.
Each LCR circuit responds to resonant frequency differently than it does to any other
frequency. Because of this, an LCR circuit has the ability to separate frequencies.
RESONANT FREQUENCY
As stated before, the frequency at which XL equals XC (in a given circuit) is known as the
resonant frequency of that circuit. Based on this, the following formula has been derived
to find the exact resonant frequency when the values of circuit components are known:
There are two important points to remember about this formula. First, the resonant
frequency found when using the formula will cause the reactances (XL and XC) of the L
and C components to be equal. Second, any change in the value of either L or C will
cause a change in the resonant frequency.
An increase in the value of either L or C, or both L and C, will lower the resonant
frequency of a given circuit. A decrease in the value of L or C, or both L and C,
will raise the resonant frequency of a given circuit.
Q factor or quality factor of the circuit is given by,
𝑉(𝐿) 𝑉(𝑐) ῳ𝑜 𝐿 1
Q= = = =
𝑉 𝑉 𝑅 ῳ𝑜 𝐶𝑅
Current curve
Curves showing current
and impedance variation
with frequency.
Impedance curve
frequency
One can turn the toggle cursor on by clicking on button located on the toolbar of
PSpice and a window will pop-up as shown below giving x and y axis value at specified
point which in this case is indicated in above figure by red horizontal and vertical lines.
And it comes out to be 1.592 khz, which came out to be1.6280khz as was shown above and
thus both theoretical and practical results match upto a good approximation.
Also seen in fig. that with increasing value of R maximum current or current at resonant
frequency decreases as well as curves for current at different frequency values shift
downwards and it should also be the case as Q-factor is inversely proportional to the
resistance.