EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF DRUG METABOLISM AND PHARMACOKINETICS 2008, Vol. 33, No. 2, pp.

85-100

Vitamin D and the digestive system

WALTER E. STUMPF

University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC, and International Institute of Drug Distribution, Cytopharma-
cology and Cytotoxicology, 2612 Damascus Church Rd, Chapel Hill, NC 27516/USA

Received for publication: December 4, 2007

Key words: Gastro-intestinal system, Receptor microscopic autoradiography, Soltriol, Stomach, Liver, Ito
cells, Pylorus, Salivary glands, Colon, Esophagus, Entero-endocrine cells, Gastric glands

SUMMARY
Target tissues of in vivo receptor binding and deposition of 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 and its oxygen analog OCT are reviewed in rats,
mice, hamsters and zebra finch, identified with high-resolution microscopic autoradiography. Throughout the digestive system
numerous sites with nuclear receptor binding of 3H-1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 and 3H-OCT exist: in the oral region, epithelial cells of the
oral cavity, tongue and gingiva, teeth odontoblast and ameloblast precursor pulp and stratum intermedium cells; in the parotid,
submandibular and sublingual salivary glands, epithelial cells of striated ducts and granular convoluted tubules, intercalated ducts
and acinar cells, as well as myoepithelial cells; in the stomach, neck mucous cells of gastric glands, endocrine cells of the antrum,
and muscle cells of the pyloric sphincter; in the small and large intestine, absorptive and crypt epithelial cells; in the pancreas,
predominantly islet B-cells. Perisinusoidal stellate (Ito) cells in the liver concentrate and retain variable amounts of radiolabeled com-
pound in regions of their cytoplasm after administration of 3H-1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 and 3H-25(OH) vitamin D3, probably sites of
specific storage, similar to vitamin A. Submucosa in stomach and intestine also retain variable amounts of radiolabel, however
unspecific with all compounds studied. In pilot studies with 3H-25(OH)2 vitamin D3 and 3H-24,25(OH)2 vitamin D3, no nuclear
concentration was detectable. The reviewed data for vitamin D and its oxygen analogue OCT indicate genomic effects on multiple
target tissues of the digestive system that involve cell proliferation and differentiation, endo- and exocrine secretion, digestion and
absorption for maintaining optimal functions, with potentials for health prophylaxis and therapies.

.
INTRODUCTION unbiased identification and characterization of vita-
min D target sites. Therefore, through negative peer
Vitamin D target tissues in the digestive system are reviews funding of research proposals became diffi-
extensive. Their presence and distribution indicate an cult. Research was disrupted after new data chal-
important role of vitamin D for digestion. Recogni- lenged the concept of calcium regulation as the pri-
tion of many of the targets has evaded biochemical mary function of vitamin D (1-3). Discoveries of
homogenates (1) because of embeddedness in non- previously unexpected targets - that include brain,
targets and low signals. This review is based on re- spinal cord, pituitary, skin, heart atrium, prostate,
sults from histochemical studies with receptor micro- epididymis, ductus deferens, adrenal medulla, thymus
scopic autoradiography. Related experiments were reticular cells, teeth, esophagus, stomach, pyloric
conducted between 1979 and 1995 (1). In these stud- muscle, and others, slowly led to an appreciation of
ies the primary focus was not calcium regulation, but previously unexpected targets and related actions.
Considering our earlier reported over 50 target tis-
sues (1) with their functions mostly unrelated to sys-
Please send reprint requests to: Prof. Walter E. Stumpf, 2612
.
temic calcium metabolism, we proposed a holistic
Damascus Church Rd., Chapel Hill, NC 27516/USA, E-mail: concept for the main biological role of vitamin D:
[email protected], Website: (www.walterstumpf.com)
86 Eur. J. Drug Metabol. Pharmacokinet. 2008, No 2

seasonal adaptation and regulation of vital functions Autoradiograms were evaluated at different times
(4,5). This view is not readily accepted, but has rather of exposure, after one to three months, some overex-
been ignored or resisted, still competing with the en- posed up to one year or longer. Long exposure times
trenched narrow primacy of systemic calcium regula- were used for easy recognition of radioactive labeling
tion. Effects on calcium metabolism are a part of at low magnification, also for minimizing oversight
vitamin D’s important actions on growth and mainte- of low receptor binding sites. Controls against arti-
nance of the musculo-skeletal system. Calcium facts included O-day exposure, competition with ex-
metabolism is one component only of the multiple cess amount of unlabeled compound, and compari-
functions of the hormone of sunshine. sons of results obtained with different compounds.
The pattern of 3H-thymidin labeling of the cell cy-
METHODS cle S-phase was compared with that of 3H-vitamin D
nuclear labeling of duodenal crypt epithelium: Two
The histochemical data are derived from experiments rats were injected intraperitonealy with 3H-thymidin,
with male and female animals of different age: rats, specific activity 60 Ci/mM, 1 µC/g bw, and sacrificed
mice, hamster, and zebra finch. Tritium-labeled one hour afterwards. Autoradiograms of duodenum
1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 (vitamin D, soltriol), were prepared as above, developed and processed
1,25(OH)2-22-oxa-vitamin D3 (OCT), 25(OH) vita- after 3-week exposure time and evaluated.
min D3 or 24,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 with a specific Receptor microscopic autoradiography was devel-
activity of 160Ci/mM (a few animals with 100 or 90 oped in our laboratories and has been described in
Ci/mM), dissolved in alcohol-isotonic saline, was detail (6).
administered iv, subcutaneously, or intraperitonealy
at a near physiological dose for young adults between RESULTS
0.2 to 0.4 µg per 100g bw. Most animals were fed a
normal chow, some a vitamin D-deficient diet. Target General
tissues recognized from animals fed a normal chow
did not seem to differ from that of animals fed a vita- Figures 1-6 provide samples auf autoradiograms with
min D-deficient diet. However, no quantification evidence for concentration of developed silver grains
through silver grain counting was made. For over nuclei of specific cell populations (labeled cells),
quantification, type and length of diet with a statisti- reviewed schematically in Fig. 7. No accumulation of
cal number of animals would need to be considered silver grains over or near plasma membranes has
and would require specifically designed studies. The been observed. Comparisons of nuclear concentration
total number of rodents studied in the author’s of radioactivity (nuclear labeling) in target tissues of
laboratory with tritiated vitamin D compounds over a the same animal, processed under identical conditions,
twenty-year period exceeds one hundert, including at reveal quantitative differences (7) attributable to
least two or three animals for each specific condition. properties of individual target cell populations. Tar-
The main focus of the reviewed studies was aimed at get tissues with nuclear concentration of radioactivity
the topographical identification and characterization appear to be identical for 3H-(OH)2 vitamin D3 and
3
of target cell populations in different age groups and H-OCT. Apparent quantitative differences of con-
species to provide an overview of vitamin D sites of centration and retention of radiolabeled compound
action and to establish a basis for follow-up experi- between 3H-(OH)2 vitamin D3 and 3H-OCT are possi-
ments. bly due to different blood and target pharmacokinet-
All animals were kept under a regular lighting ics, different target affinities and metabolism. The
schedule and sacrificed by decapitation between 1 to need for further quantitative studies is indicated.
3 hours after the injection, when specifically bound In all animals, variable concentration and retention
hormone is retained at the receptor. Tissues were of radiolabeled compound is visible in lumina of
processed according to the receptor microscopic blood vessels and in certain extracellular spaces,
autoradiography procedure, dissected, freeze-mount- especially in the submucosa (Figs. 2C,D,E,F and
ed on tissue holders, frozen sections cut at 4 µm and 5D,E).
thaw-mounted on nuclear emulsion-coated slides, After injection of radiolabeled 24,25(OH)2 vitamin
exposed in desiccator boxes at -20 ºC for different D3 (Fig. 5F) or 25(OH) vitamin D3 (Fig. 5E) no nu-
lengths of time, then photographically processed, clear concentration of radioactivity has been noted,
stained, and cover-slipped for microscopic examina- while diffuse radioactivity was present in extracellu-
tion. lar spaces.
 W.E. Stumpf, Vitamin D and digestive system 87

Figure 1. Autoradiograms after injection of 3H-1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 (Figs. A,C-F) or 3H-OCT (Fig. B) to adult rat showing nuclear
concentration (arrows) of radiolabeled compound in epithelial cells associated with the vomeronasal organ (Fig. A), in epithelium of
the tongue and filiform papillae (Fig. B), incisor tooth of neonatal rat (Fig. C) with strongly labeled pulp cells (Pu), unlabeled or
weakly labeled odontoblasts (Od) and ameloblasts (Am) (10). Labeled striated duct epithelium of submandibular gland (Fig. D) (8).
Esophagus epithelium with nuclear labeling (Fig. E). Radiolabeled compound in lumen (L) of esophagus with apparent epithelial
barrier (Fig. F).

In competition experiments with excess unlabeled lium of oral and nasal cavities, tongue and esopha-
1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 (Fig. 5D), nuclear concentra- gus; in cell populations of major salivary glands,
tion of radioactivity after injection of 3H-1,25(OH)2 especially epithelium of striated ducts and granular
vitamin D3 or 3H-OCT was abolished or diminished. convoluted tubules, as well as in myoepithelial cells
Control autoradiograms with long exposure times (8). Incisor teeth and molars of neonatal rats and
prepared from tissues of animals without radiolabeled adult human molars (9) contain strongly labeled cells
compound and with O-day exposure time from tis- in the dental pulp, especially those located closest to
sues of animals with radiolabeled compound did not odontoblasts. In the layers of odontoblasts und
show concentrations of silver grains. ameloblasts of rats only scattered and comparatively
weakly labeled cells are seen.
Oral region (Fig. 1)
After administration of 3H-1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 or
3
H-OCT, nuclear concentration exists in the epithe-
88 Eur. J. Drug Metabol. Pharmacokinet. 2008, No 2

Figure 2. Autoradiograms of stomach after injection of 3H-1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 showing nuclear concentration (arrows) of radio-
label in rat gastric gland (Fig. A), entero-endocrine cells (Figs. B-D), and pyloric muscle (Figs. E-G). Nuclear labeling of mucous
neck cells, but not of parietal cells (pink cytoplasm), chief cells (dark blue cytoplasm), and surface epithelial cells at top left (Fig. A).
In the antrum, unlabeled or weakly labeled gland epithelium with singular labeled endocrine cell oriented toward a capillary (Fig. B,
high magnification), several labeled endocrine cells near submucosa (Sm, Figs. C and D, low magnification), immunostained with
antibodies to gastrin (Fig. D). Labeled pyloric muscle (Fig. E), interdigitating with unlabeled smooth muscle cells of the duodenum
below Brunner’s gland (Figs. F and G). Cells of Brunner’s gland (Br, Figs. F and G) and neurons of the plexus submucosus Meissner
(Ps, Fig. F) are also unlabeled. In submucosa (Sm) variable extracellular accumulation radioactivity (Figs. C, D, F, G). Figures A, B,
D, E (from 11,12).

Stomach (Fig. 2) sphincter muscle, nuclear concentration exists in

many but not all muscle cells. Pyloric muscle cells
In the stomach fundus, cells in the isthmus region of with nuclear labeling can be followed to interdigitate
gastric glands, probably mucous neck cells, are selec- with the unlabeled muscularis of the duodenum be-
tively and weakly labeled, while no nuclear labeling low the Brunner gland (Figs. 2e-g).
has been observed in surface epithelium, parietals
cell and chief cells (Fig. 2a). In the pyloric antrum,
strong nuclear radioactivity exists in scattered cells Small intestine (Figs. 3 - 5)
located in unlabeled or weakly labeled antral gland The transition between the unlabeled surface epithe-
epithelium (Figs. 2a-c). Antibodies to gastrin are co- lium of the stomach and the labeled epithelium of the
localized in the cytoplasm of many, but not all, of the duodenum is abrupt (Fig. 3A), as is the transition
singular radiolabeled cells (Fig. 2c). In the pyloric from the unlabeled epithelium of the Brunner gland
 W.E. Stumpf, Vitamin D and digestive system 89

to the labeled crypt epithelium of the duodenum (Fig. villi, occasional labeled cells are seen; their identity
3B). Throughout the duodenum, ileum and jejunum, is unknown. In the same experiments, smooth muscle
epithelial cells show strong nuclear concentration of cells of the muscularis interna and externa and nerve
radiolabeled 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3, while goblet cells cells of the plexus submucosus of Meissner and
are unlabeled. Migratory lymphocytes in the epithe- plexus muscularis of Auerbach are unlabeled. In the
lium also appear unlabeled, as are most of the extratracellular space of the submucosa frequently
connective tissue cells in the mucosa. In the core of and variably radiolabeld compound is accumulated.

Figure 3 Autoradiograms of small intestine after injection of 3H-1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 showing nuclear concentration in epithelial
cells of rat in the transition from stomach antrum (An) to duodenum (Du) with abrupt change from unlabeled (An antrum) to labeled
90 Eur. J. Drug Metabol. Pharmacokinet. 2008, No 2

(Du duodenum) epithelial cells (Fig. A). Similarly, in Fig. B, unlabeled cells of Brunner gland (Br) below connect to labeled cells of
duodenal crypts above. In Fig. C, muscle cells of muscularis interna (Mi) and externa (Me), neurons of plexus myentericus of Auer-
bach (Pm), and connective tissue cells of the mucosa and submucosa do not display nuclear labeling, in contrast to crypt cells above
with strong nuclear labeling. High magnification of segments of rat duodenal villi (Fig. D, high magnification) with labeled absorp-
tive epithelial and unlabeled goblet cells (Go). Epithelial nuclear labeling in crypt cells of rat ileum (Fig.E). Duodenum of Zebra
finch (from 13) showing high amounts of radiolabeled compound in the lumen (Fig. F, low magnification) and strong nuclear label-
ing in absorptive epithelium, highest in villi above and slightly lower in crypt epithelium below (Fig. G, high magnification). Ham-
ster duodenum villi with strongly labeled epithelium and some weakly labeled cells in the core of villus (Fig. H, high magnification).

Figure 4. Autoradiograms after injection of 3H-1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 reveal different patterns of nuclear concentration in epithelium
of intestinal crypts (at lower end of pictures) and villi. In some animals nuclear labeling is predominant in duodenum crypts as in
adult rat (Fig. A) and adult mouse (Fig. D) or in villi as in 15-day old rat (Fig. B), or similar in crypts and villi but diminished be-
tween as in jejunum of adult rat (Fig. C), or uniform along crypts and villi (Fig F, schematic at right). Fig. F reviews patterns of vita-
min D nuclear epithelial labeling of crypts and villi in small intestine (size of dots reflects different degrees of labeling). The pattern
of labeling of crypt cells with 3H-thymidin (Fig. E, one hour after injection) corresponds to that of vitamin D labeling in Figs A and
D. High levels of radioactivity in intestinal lumen contrast with low or absent radioactivity in cytoplasm of epithelium of villi (Fig.
4C; also Figs. 3F and 3G), suggesting a penetration barrier to excreted metabolites.

In the intestinal epithelium, the degree of nuclear and gradually diminished toward crypts (Fig. 4B). In
labeling can vary between the crypts of Lieberkuehn other animals, cryptal and villous epithelial labeling
and along individual villi, in the same animal and is both strong but weak between at the base of villi
among different animals. While in some animals the (Fig. 4C). In young animals, strong labeling of crypt
epithelial labeling of villi and crypts is fairly uniform, epithelium appears to prevail. This pattern of strong
in others, labeling of epithelium in crypts is strong vitamin D crypt labeling corresponds to that of S-
and toward the tip of villi gradually diminished (Figs. phase labeling with 3H-thymidine (Fig. 4E). In both
4A and 4D). In some animals this is reversed, with cases not all crypt cells are labeled (Fig. 4D).
strong nuclear labeling at the tip of individual villi
 W.E. Stumpf, Vitamin D and digestive system 91

The intestinal nuclear binding of vitamin D appears strated in the Zebra finch (Figs. 3F and 3G).
similar in different vertebrate species as demon-

Figure 5. Autoradiograms after injection of 3H-1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 to neonatal rats, 9-hour old (Fig. A), 2-day old (Fig. B), and 10-
day old (Fig. C), showing nuclear concentration of radiolabeled hormone in duodenal epithelium, strong in crypts (bottom) and weak
in villi. 9-hour after birth nuclear labeling is already present but restricted to basal crypt cells (arrows); radioactivity in the intestinal
lumen. In the 10-day old animal, a long exposure time renders crypt cells black through overexposure, while villous epithelium is
weakly labeled or unlabeled. - In competition experiments with excess of unlabeled 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3, nuclear concentration of
92 Eur. J. Drug Metabol. Pharmacokinet. 2008, No 2

radiolabeled hormone is abolished (Fig. D, duodenum crypts) or diminished. One hour after injection of the precursor 3H-(OH) vita-
min D3, no nuclear concentration can be seen in duodenal epithelium (Fig. E). Two hours after subcutaneous injection of 3H-
24,25(OH)2 vitamin D3, no nuclear concentration of radiolabeled compound is visible (Fig. F). Accumulation of radiolabeled com-
pound exists in submucosa (Figs. A, D, E). - In the liver, after injection of 3H-1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 accumulation and retention of
radioactivity is seen in cytoplasmic compartments of certain perisinusoidal cells, probably fat-storage (Ito) cells (Fig. G, arrows) that
differ in position, size and staining properties from nearby hepatocytes. Similar accumulation and retention of radiolabeled com-
pound in perisinusoidal cells exist after injection of 3H-(OH) vitamin D3 (Fig. H, long exposure time). - In the pancreas (Fig. I), after
injection of 3H-1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3, nuclear concentration is distinct in islet B-cells (14), while under the same experimental
conditions cells of the exocrine pancreas generally appear unlabeled. A low presence of nuclear radioactivity can be noted occasion-
ally in acinar cells and in epithelial cells of intercalated ducts (center above islet).

In competition controls, when excess unlabeled between cells located at the bottom and luminal end
hormone is co-administered with radiolabeled hor- of crypts. Connective tissue cells in general and mus-
mone, nuclear uptake is suppressed. In pilot studies, cle cells are unlabeled. In lymph nodules, lympho-
after administration of 3H-25(OH) vitamin D3 (Fig. cytes are without nuclear labeling, but dispersed sin-
5E) or 3H-24,25(OH)2 vitamin D3, (Fig. 5F) no nu- gle labeled cells can occasionally be seen.
clear labeling is observed. Similarly, in O-day expo-
sure autoradiograms from tissues of experimental DISCUSSION
animals that received radiolabeled compound, no nu-
clear accumulation of radioactivity is seen. Vitamin D target sites of nuclear receptor binding
and action exist at all levels of the digestive system in
Liver (Figs. 5G,H) and Pancreas (Fig. 5I) select cell populations. Nuclear uptake and retention
In the liver high levels of diffuse radioactivity with of hormone varies in cells of the same organ and
variations, depending on dose and time interveral be- among different organs, suggesting a hierarchy of
tween administration and sacrifice, can obscure receptor expression with differential target responses.
recognition of possible selective cellular or subcellu- Since nuclear concentrations of hormone vary greatly,
lar specific concentration. Under the conditions of the further quantitative studies are needed. In general,
experiments, no clear nuclear concentration in nuclear uptake and retention in target tissues depend
hepatocytes is observed, while in lumina of bile ducts, on hormone blood levels, that is, blood and target
blood vessels (esp. veins) and sinusoids, radioactivity bioavailability. Target bioavailability and target
is accumulated. In some animals, in various regions pharmacokinetics are relevant for action. Among the
of the liver, cells with pale cytoplasm, different in multiple factors that influence receptor expression
appearance from the larger hepatocytes, display and hormone binding are genetic aspects, age and
strong cytoplasmic concentration of radioactivity (Fig. endocrine status, time, dose, route of delivery, and
5G,H). These cells are located at sinusoids and ap- conditions of the experimental procedure. The re-
pear to correspond to perisinusoidal stellate cells, viewed histochemical data reveal and emphasize the
known also as fat-storing Ito cells. This select but importance of information about in vivo targets.
variable and sometimes strong cytoplasmic concen- Studies of low-receptor targets and low-dose effects
tration of radiolabeled compound is conspicuous not are a special challenge. Detailed information and at
only after administration of 3H-1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 once integrative overviews provided by the histo-
(Fig. 5G), but also after 3H-25(OH) vitamin D3 (Fig. chemical approach are highly relevant for drug re-
5H). search and development (5,15).
In the pancreas, distinct nuclear labeling exists in Many of the data available on vitamin D targets are
cells of islets, predominantly located in their center. based on discoveries with tritium-labeled hormone of
Epithelial cells of intercalated ducts and acinar cells high specific activity, thin frozen sections without
of the exocrine pancreas appear weakly labeled or fixation-embedding, and nuclear emulsion for signal
unlabeled (Fig. 5I). Epithelial cells of excretory ducts detection. The numerous target tissues thus discov-
and connective tissue cells are unlabeled. ered and characterized point to significance beyond
calcium homeostasis. Systemic calcium regulation,
related especially to skeletal growth and repair, is
Colon (Fig. 6)
only part of vitamin D’s many actions as ‘seasonal
Similar to the small intestine, strong nuclear uptake
regulator of vital functions’ (5).
and retention of labeled vitamin D exists in epithelial
cells, sometimes with regional variations of intensity
 W.E. Stumpf, Vitamin D and digestive system 93

Figure 6. Autoradiograms of rat colon after injection of 3H-1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 showing nuclear concentration of radiolabeled hor-
mone in epithelial cells (Figs. A-E) with variations along the length of crypts (Figs A,E). Goblet cell nuclei are unlabeled (Figs. C, D).
Cells in lymph nodules (Ln, Figs. B,D) are generally unlabeled, except for occasional single labeled cells. Cells of the muscularis
(Fig. B) and connective tissue are unlabeled. Lu lumen.

For effects on calcium absorption in the digestive Oral region

system, ample experimental and clinical data exist.
Other effects barely have been considered. Concept Epithelial tissues related to the oral cavity, nasal cav-
bias is one reason, another is methodology. Tissue ity, gingiva, tongue, and esophagus display a pattern
homogenization has impaired recognition of target of nuclear labeling similar to that observed in the epi-
cell populations embedded in non-target tissue. Bio- dermis, with differences related to different cell lay-
chemical procedures need to be complemented and ers (11). In these tissues, like in the epidermis, ac-
sometimes guided by appropriate histochemical ap- tions of vitamin D on cell renewal and differentiation
proaches with cellular resolution and preserved tissue seem to prevail.
structure. Immunohistochemistry, while useful for In teeth, the strongest nuclear labeling exists in
identifying receptor proteins, does not inform about odontoblast precursor cells in the pulp of incisors and
drug distribution, that is, tissue localization of non- molars, less in mature osteoblasts (9,10). In the same
covalently bound low molecular weight compounds. studies, in the stratum intermedium, labeled amelo-
Therefore, immunohistochemistry cannot replace blast precursor cells were noted, while there was little
autoradiography. Receptor microautoradiography and or no concentration of labeled hormone in amelo-
immunocytochemistry provide different and compli- blasts. Experiments with 14C-vitamin D3 and a differ-
mentary information, optimal for target characteriza- ent autoradiographic method failed to find evidence
tion when used together (1,6). for vitamin D uptake in developing teeth (16).
Supportive evidence for vitamin D sites of action in
teeth was provided from immunohistochemical stud-
94 Eur. J. Drug Metabol. Pharmacokinet. 2008, No 2

ies with antibodies to vitamin D receptor protein that The vomeronasal organ, albeit marginal to the
was localized in precursor cells, differentiated amelo- topic of this review, contains vitamin D target cells. It
blasts, and odontoblasts, together with calbindin-D is still present in humans and considered to “regulate
28K antibodies in odontoblasts (17). Incubation of reproductive, defensive and ingestive behavior” (22).
mouse embryonic molars with 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 There is an apparent nervous connection via the
resulted in an increase of the mitotic index of inner olfactory bulb to the central amygdala that has been
dental epithelium, indicating effects on cell prolifera- shown to contain vitamin D target neurons (23),
tion (18). Similarly, in vitamin D-deficient rats, in probably components of neural circuits that influence
postnatal molar tooth germ development, vitamin D gastrointestinal functions.
treatment enhanced cytodifferentiation of pulp cells In salivary glands, the strong nuclear concentration
as well as enamel and dentin mineralization (19). The of vitamin D in epithelial cells of striated ducts and
presence of calcium binding protein has been inter- granular convoluted tubules, as well as in myoepithe-
preted as supportive evidence for the presence of lial cells, indicates involvement of vitamin D in the
vitamin D receptors and action (20). While the latter regulation of secretion, probably exocrine and endo-
conclusion may apply, “definitive evidence that cal- crine. Also, effects on cell proliferation and
bindins are not required for active calcium transport” differentiation need to be considered The autoradio-
contradicts the dogma by showing that teeth and graphic data provide important new information on
bones were produced normally in null mutant mice salivary glands (8), extending results from experi-
lacking calbindin (28kDa) (21). These latter data ments with homogenized parotid, in which “all of the
correlate with our observation that calcium binding metabolites of the cholecalciferol were present which
protein cannot be used as a general guide for the exis- normally occur in known target tissues of vitamin D”
tence of vitamin D targets since in several target tis- (24). In another study, vitamin D receptors were as-
sues, e.g. brain and adrenal, there is no correspon- sayed in isolated rat parotid gland acinar cells, but
dence between vitamin D receptor binding and cal- were reported absent in the submandibular gland (25),
cium binding protein (1). Further comparative studies while in both glands salivary flow was stimulated
are required for clarification. after treatment with 1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 in vitamin
D-deficient rats (26).

Figure 7. Vitamin D target tissues (red) in the digestive system (schematic overview).
 W.E. Stumpf, Vitamin D and digestive system 95

Stomach calcium homeostatic hormone’ suggests direct in-

volvement of vitamin D in any calcium-handling
Vitamin D applied after the feeding of rachitogenic tissue. Unexpectedly, in skeletal and smooth muscle
diet, increased the volume and acidity of gastric in rodents, no nuclear concentration and retention of
secretion (27). These early observations have not vitamin D has been found (1). The action of vitamin
been followed. Radioassays provided no evidence for D on skeletal muscle, however, can be attributed
the presence of vitamin D sites of action in the stom- primarily to neurotrophic effects through strong nu-
ach. This contrasts with our autoradiographic demon- clear receptor occupation in spinal and cranial motor
stration of several distinct target cell populations in neurons (40). Like pyloric muscle, atrial muscle is a
gastric glands, antrum, and pylorus (2,12). vitamin D genomic target, the latter related to the
The selective nuclear concentration of radiolabeled secretion of the heart hormone ANF (41). In atrial
vitamin D in cells of the isthmus region of gastric muscle cells, it correlates with a large Golgi appara-
glands – albeit weaker and with different pharma- tus and secretory vesicles. For pyloric muscle, no
cokinetics than that in duodenal epithelium, argues specific ultrastructural features have been reported.
for selective effects on cell renewal and differen- One wonders what specific pyloric functions vitamin
tiation. D has and whether there are pyloric conditions treat-
Mucous neck cells have been identified as provid- able with vitamin D. A report of a few cases indicates
ing the generative pool for surface epithelium, parie- a relationship between some skin conditions (epider-
tal cells and chief cells, even entero-endocrine cells, molysis), impaired bone mineralization, dental caries,
in autoradiographic studies with 3H-thymidin (29,30, and pyloric atresia (42), suggesting further studies
31). Mucous neck cells received attention in earlier and therapeutic considerations with vitamin D.
autoradiographic studies with macromolecular pre- Evidence for hormonal regulation of pyloric sphinc-
cursor molecules, and their special behavior was ter function implicates secretin, cholecystokinin and
recognized. There was no or little uptake of 35S-la- gastrin (43), to which vitamin D needs to be added.
beled amino acids in contrast to chief cells and sur- Pyloric muscle fibers with vitamin D nuclear labeling
face epithelium (32). Evidence of the regenerative that are recognized in the autoradiograms to extend
power of mucous neck cells and their involvement in into the region of the duodenum below the Brunner’s
wound healing has been demonstrated (33-35). gland (Figs. 2F and 2G) may help - associated with
Therefore, vitamin D appears to have high preventive pyloric contractions, to provide abundant alkaline
and therapeutic potentials for injuries of gastric mu- mucus to neutralize acid stomach secretions.
cosa by stimulating cell proliferation and differentia-
tion, similar to the promotion of wound healing in the
epidermis (36) demonstrated after the discovery of Small intestine
vitamin target cells in the generating and differentiat- Calcium uptake and transport in the intestine has long
ing stratum Malpighi of the skin (2,28). been considered a major effect of vitamin D. There is
The nuclear concentration in gastrin cells and other abundant literature to support vitamin D effects on
endocrine cells in the antrum (2,11,12) indicates vita- calcium absorption (44-46). Other effects of vitamin
min D regulation of gastrin endocrine and paracrine D, however, may be equally important, but are less
secretion with secondary effects, e.g. on parietal cell well studied, such as amino acid absorption (47),
HCL and chief cell pepsinogen secretion. In isolated protection against environmental toxins (48), and cell
perfused rat stomach of vitamin D-deficient rats, gas- proliferation and differentiation.
trin and gastric somatostatin secretion is impaired The results of the autoradiographic studies reveal
(37). Antrectomy in rats is followed by hypogatrine- that nuclear receptor binding can differ quantitatively
mia and a decrease in bone density and bone dry along villi, between villi and crypts, within the same
weight, a condition designated postantrectomy os- animal and among different animals. In postnatal ani-
teopenia (38). Extensive gastric surgery is known to mals, epithelial nuclear receptor binding of vitamin D
cause bone disorder, as measured in experiments with is much stronger in crypts compared to that in villi,
gastrectomy or fundectomy that resulted in lowering although calcium transport through villi and related
of blood calcium, indicating that the stomach plays vitamin D effects on villous absorptive epithelium
an important role in calcium homeostasis (39). would seem to be very important during growth of
In pyloric muscle fibers, nuclear concentration of the skeleton at postnatal age. In animals with prevail-
vitamin D exists adjacent to negative stomach and ing vitamin D crypt labeling, the pattern corresponds
intestinal smooth muscle cells. The doctrine of ‘the to that of 3H-thymidin labeling of the S-phase of the
96 Eur. J. Drug Metabol. Pharmacokinet. 2008, No 2

cell cycle. This supports a primary role of vitamin D nuclear receptors and are not genomically direct ac-
on cell proliferation in these animals. With 3H- tive.
thymidine and 3H-1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3, not all crypt None of the vitamin D compounds studied by
cells are labeled. Unlabeled cells may belong to a microscopic autoradiography provide support for
resting stem cells population, but also may include plasma membrane associated receptor existence and
goblet cell precursors or Paneth cells, which requires binding.
further studies.
The vitamin D receptor expression in intestinal Liver
epithelium and the size of villi change.
Semiquantitative immunocytochemical studies with Depending on dose and time interval after
antibodies to vitamin D receptor noted differences in administration of radiolabeled compound, large
vitamin D receptor staining in goat intestine in seg- amounts of radiolabeled compound are present in
ment- and location-specific patterns (49). Changes of blood vessels, bile ducts, and cellular-extracellular
enterocyte expression of receptor and function are compartments. At early time intervals, tissue levels of
likely to occur during their migration from crypts to diffuse radioactivity are high but not uniform. Differ-
the tip of villi and to hormonal effects during sexual ences related to perivenous compared to periportal
maturation as observed in connection to altered cal- lobular distribution of labeled compound can be
cium transport in chickens (50). Vitamin D treatment noted. High amounts of diffuse radioactivity obscure
increased mucousal weight in vitamin D-depleted rats, specific associations and render cellular attribution
predominantly in the duodenum and, to a lower de- difficult. It is therefore important to study different
gree, in the ileum (51). In experiments with vitamin time intervals after the administration and different
D-deficient rats, after a single dose of vitamin D3, 3H- dose levels to be able to identify sites of select
thymidin incorporation and the migration rate of distribution of labeled compound as related to
epithelial cells enhanced and the villous hight in- metabolism, receptor binding, storage, and biliary
creased (52). Similarly, the villous length in normal excretion.
chicken was 30 % longer than that of vitamin D-defi- In autoradiographic studies with 3H-1,25(OH)2 vita-
cient chicks (53), although these authors concluded min D3 and 3H-25(OH) vitamin D3, a high accumula-
that “1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D can exert its action tion of radiolabeled compound has been noted in the
only on cells well advanced in their migration up the cytoplasm in scattered littoral cells located at sinusoi-
villus.” dal margins, described first by Kupffer as stellate
In the reviewed autoradiographic studies, consider- cells and later by Ito as fat-storing cells (54). These
able variations in the crypt-villous pattern of nuclear perisinusoidal stellate cells have been recognized as
uptake and retention of radiolabeled vitamin D have vitamin A-storing cells (55). Based on our autoradio-
been noted among different animals. Causes and graphic evidence, these same cells probably are also
functional significance require further quantitative vitamin D-storing for both the precursor and the ac-
analyses under consideration of age, hormonal status, tive hormone. Liver stellate cells are implicated in
time and dose of treatment. It is also conceivable that human liver diseases and play an active role in fi-
differences exist in receptor binding and related func- brotic liver disorders (56). Whether and to which de-
tions among different segments of the small intestine, gree vitamin D, like vitamin A, is involved in liver
although at present there is no evidence to support it. pathology, remains to be studied.
A type of absorption barrier is suggested in
autoradiograms of the small intestine with high Pancreas
radioactivity in the lumen versus absent or very low Evidence for the presence of vitamin D binding pro-
radioactivity in adjacent cytoplasm of absorptive tein has been obtained in cytosol from homogenized
epithelium. The barrier may exist against excreted whole chick pancreas (57). Specific nuclear binding
liver metabolites. A barrier has been noted also in the sites in B-cells of islets were first demonstrated with
esophagus, however with stratified epithelium, thus receptor microautoradiography (14,58). Effects of
constituting a barrier of a different kind. vitamin D on blood levels of glucose and insulin have
In the experiments with 3H-(OH) vitamin D3 and been reported (58-60). Vitamin D deficiency has
3
H-24,25(OH)2 vitamin D3, the absence of nuclear been shown to impair insulin synthesis and secretion
concentration in the autoradiograms indicates that in humans and in animal models of diabetes and may
these compounds do not have noticeable affinities to be involved in the pathogenesis of both forms of
 W.E. Stumpf, Vitamin D and digestive system 97

diabetes (61). In cell lines derived from human may be involved in the regulation of cell proliferation.
pancreatic cancers, vitamin D receptor is expressed Human colon adenocarcinomas contain vitamin D
and increased three-fold compared to normal pan- binding sites (66) that also play a crucial role in
creas, responding with a decrease in cell numbers to inflammatory bowel diseases (67). What determines
treatment with high concentrations of vitamin D3 ana- expression of vitamin D receptors, vitamin D binding
logue (62). In xenografts of human pancreas tumor, affinity and metabolism at the target? Other steroids,
heterogeneous cell populations concentrate the radio- e.g. estrogens (68), adrenal steroids, retinoic acid,
labeled vitamin D analogue OCT (63). Vitamin D thyroid hormone are likely modulators. Their blood
receptor expression and function in cells of the exo- levels may play a significant role in tumor pathoclisis
crine pancreas, the potential role for vitamin D in the and therapeutic responses interactive with vitamin D
pathogenesis and prevention of pancreatic cancer (69,70).
(64) require further studies.
Conclusions
Colon
This review testifies to the importance of high-resolu-
Uptake and retention of 3H-1,25(OH)2 vitamin D3 in tion identification of in vivo targets and the related
nuclei of epithelial cells in the colon resembles that in recognition of vitamin D’s involvement in the
the small intestine. Nuclear labeling occasionally var- physiology and pathology of the digestive system.
ies between the bottom and the luminal surface of According to the histochemical evidence of vitamin
crypts. It may be highest at one end, bottom or top or D receptor binding, vitamin D-soltriol effects on
high at both ends and weak between. The radio-la- digestive processes are extensive and involve all lev-
beled cells are absorptive (principal) cells, not goblet els of the digestive system selectively. From the
cells. Whether caveolated cells, entero-endocrine and extensive presence of vitamin D-specific sites of ac-
undifferentiated stem cells are also vitamin D targets, tion it is apparent that vitamin D is needed to assure -
remains to be studied. While there is no conspicuous at the right dose (71) - optimal functions for develop-
labeling of lymphocytes, except for dispersed single ment, growth, maintainance and repair, with high
cells in lymph nodules, vitamin D regulation of the therapeutic potentials. Vitamin D deficiencies are
intestinal immune system and their cellular elements likely to predispose for multiple chronic diseases,
is expected and requires further investigation. presenting a challenge for preventive medicine (69).
Epithelial cell proliferation in the distal colon A near century concentration on vitamin D and
apparently is not as simple as that in the small intes- bone by focus-expedient but gestalt-scotomized ex-
tine. Studies in rats, mice and humans determined perts has put researchers in a Procrustes’ calcium bed
that proliferation is maximal in the basal thirds of (1), inhibiting advancement of research and recogni-
crypts, but the zone of proliferation may reach as tion of vitamin D’s main biological role as a seasonal
high as 80% of the crypt height. In the rabbit distal regulator steroid hormone (3-5). Vitamin D actions
colon, a major proliferation zone was detected in the need to be viewed in context and concert with other
upper third of the crypt column and mitotic figures steroid hormones (Fig. 8), including also retinoic acid,
were noted at all levels of the crypt column. In the thyroid hormone, and melatonin (4,5). These relation-
rabbit distal colon, therefore, populations of ships remain to be studied. Functional connections
proliferative cells are not limited to the crypt base, between vitamin D and melatonin have been pointed
but extend into the upper third of the crypt column out (72,73) and are considered relevant for harmoni-
(65). Differentiated vacuolated cell proliferation was ous regulations in a natural environment. Evidence
detected at three crypt sites: base, middle and top of exists in the literature for melatonin actions on the
the crypt, while columnar cells arose from a popula- digestive system as well, such as protective effects
tion of dividing cells at the top of the crypt. Goblet against gastric ulceration (74,75) and periodontal
cells exhibited maximal proliferation at the crypt base inflammatory disease (76), uptake of melatonin-re-
and migrated at a slower rate than the other cell types lated compound in submandibular gland (77) and
(65). secretion of nerve growth factor (78). Identification
Which cell types are involved in tumor genesis, of melatonin targets is still lacking but would be
prevention and therapy? Cell proliferation, studied indispensable for clarification and assessment of
with 3H-thymidine autoradiography, is abundant in functional relationships between these hormonal
the lower half of the crypts (29), and it changes with regulators and solar zeitgebers (72).
age (65). Similar as in the small intestine, vitamin D
98 Eur. J. Drug Metabol. Pharmacokinet. 2008, No 2

After tritium-labeled vitamin D became available, vitamin D target tissues discovered and reported ear-
with the sensitive method of receptor microscopic lier (1), including those of the digestive system re-
autoradiography, over 50 vitamin D targets have been viewed, remain to be further studied and their signifi-
identified and characterized following the first cance for health and disease evaluated.
demonstration of non-calcitropic target tissues in
1979 (1,2). Comparisons of nuclear receptor binding Acknowledgments:
of vitamin D with the localization of antibodies to
Original work reviewed here has been conducted at
specific calcium-binding protein revealed that there is
the University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill,
only occasional correspondence and that calcium-
Department of Cell Biology and Anatomy, and at
binding proteins are no general guide posts for vita-
Chugai Pharmaceutical Company, Tokyo, Japan,
min D sites of action as had been assumed. Now, af-
with the assistance of students and associates recog-
ter two decades, the existence “in over 30 tis-
nized in referenced original articles. Some of the
sue/organs of man” of vitamin D receptors has been
autoradiograms in this review have not been previ-
endorsed with biochemical approaches (79). The gen-
ously published but are parts of published experi-
eral correspondence of preclinical animal and clinical
ments.
human targets (80,81) is noteworthy. Many of the

Figure 8. Vitamin D (soltriol) steroid hormone for seasonal adaptation of growth, procreation and maintainance-survival. Interactions
with gonadal and adrenal steroid hormones (incl. retinoic acid, thyroid hormone, melatonin).

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