Social Control Theory

Social control theory gained prominence during the 1960s as sociologists sought differing conceptions of crime. It was
during this period that Travis Hirschi put forth his innovative rendering of control theory, a theory built upon existing
concepts of social control. Hirschi’s social control theory asserts that ties to family, school and other aspects of society
serve to diminish one’s propensity for deviant behaviour. As such, social control theory posits that crime occurs when
such bonds are weakened or are not well established. Control theorists argue that without such bonds, crime is an
inevitable outcome (Lilly et al., 1995). Unlike other theories that seek to explain why people engage in deviant behaviour,
control theories take the opposite approach, questioning why people refrain from offending (Akers and Sellars, 2004). As
a result, criminality is seen as a possibility for all individuals within society, avoided only by those who seek to maintain
familial and social bonds. According to Hirschi, these bonds are based on attachment to those both within and outside of
the family, including friends, teachers, and co-workers; commitment to activities in which an individual has invested time
and energy, such as educational or career goals; involvement in activities that serve to both further bond an individual to
others and leave limited time to become involved in deviant activities; and finally, belief in wider social values. These
four aspects of social control are thought to interact to insulate an individual from criminal involvement (Siegel and
McCormick, 2006).

Those seeking to test the strength of this theory as it specifically relates to young people have closely examined bonds
with family, schools, community, and religion to determine the extent to which such bonds impact offending. The
following discusses a selection of the literature on social control theory as it pertains to youth delinquency and offending.

Parental Attachment
Social control theory is situated amongst other sociological theories that focus on the role of social and familial bonds as
constraints on offending. It is proposed that for young people, a key aspect of social control is found within the family,
particularly through interactions with and feelings towards parents. Of the studies that have examined the impact of social
control on delinquency, a large proportion has found a negative relationship between parental attachment and
delinquency. As such, it has been found that the greater the attachment to parents, the lower the likelihood of involvement
in delinquent behaviour. It should be noted that out of all of the studies reviewed for this report, only one found that
parental attachment had no effect on delinquency (Brannigan et al., 2002).

In their study on the effects of adolescent male aggression during early adolescence on later violent offending, Brendgen
et al. (2001) examined the role that parents play in juvenile aggression. More specifically, the authors were keenly
interested in examining how parental monitoring impacted aggression leading to later violent offending. The sample of
516 Caucasian males from Montreal was assessed by their teachers with respect to aggressive behaviour. Self-report data
were also collected from respondents approximately three and four years later, at the ages of 16 and 17, regarding the
perpetration of physically violent offending. The extent of parental supervision and caregiving exhibited were also
monitored at various junctures during this study period. Brendgen et al. (2001) found proactive aggression, aggression
exhibited without the presence of provocation, to be an early predictor of later delinquent violent offending. In contrast,
adolescent partner violence was associated with reactive aggression, or aggression categorized as defensive behaviour in
response to perceived aggression. The authors further found that adolescent males who experienced less monitoring by
parents were more likely to demonstrate proactive aggression and violence later on in adolescence. The authors conclude
by suggesting that early intervention, in the form of differing parenting strategies, could indeed lead to the prevention of
later adolescent violent offending. The findings of this study support the notion that parenting practices and parental
support can impact violent offending by youth.

Attachment is a central component of social control theory, particularly as it relates to parental attachment. Research has
found evidence that parental attachment can impact young people’s involvement in criminal activities. Amongst these
studies was a research study conducted by Henrich et al. (2005) on the effect of parental and school connectedness on
adolescent violence. The authors were particularly interested in how such attachments impacted young people’s violent
offending with weapons. Henrich et al. (2005) obtained survey data on 7,033 young people from a national sample of 132
American middle schools, gathered through the National Longitudinal study of Adolescent Health. The authors found that
young people who reported feeling a stronger connection with their parents were less likely to commit violent offences
with a weapon (Henrich et al., 2005). Similarly, Herrenkohl et al. (2003) found that young people who exhibited less
violent behaviour were more likely to hold stronger attachments to their parents. Chapple and Hope (2003) further found
that parental attachment lowered the likelihood of intimate violence in their sample of 1,139 students. The findings of
these studies support Hirschi’s conception of the role that parental attachments can play in insulating young people from
criminal activity.

Parental controls were further found to lower delinquency among a sample of 980 Arkansas youth. Chapple’s (2003) 1997
study examined the connection between violent parents, parental bonds, and intimate violent offending. The research
findings suggest that young people who had observed violence between parents held lower levels of parental attachment
and were more likely to offend violently against an intimate partner. Further, lower levels of parental monitoring were
also related to adolescent partner violence. Chapple (2003) concludes that the findings are consistent with the claim made
by control theory that parental attachment and bonding reduce the likelihood of delinquency.

In contrast, research has refuted the notion that parental monitoring can impact youth aggression. In their study on the
effect of family structure and parenting on childhood misconduct and aggression, Brannigan et al. (2002) found that
positive parental contact and parental support were not found to affect childhood misconduct. Similar results were found
regarding predictors of aggression, with parenting consistency not found to be a significant predictor of aggression. Such
findings refute the notion that parental support necessarily impacts youth aggression.

School Attachment
In conjunction with parental attachment, adolescent attachment to school is seen by Hirschi’s social control theory as a
fundamental means of establishing social control. A significant number of studies pertaining to social control theory
include measures of the role of school attachment and school support in the lives of young people. A Canadian study of
1,311 young people from across the country found evidence demonstrating the impact of school attachment on
delinquency. Sprott (2004) examined the effects of school support during childhood on later adolescent violent and non-
violent offending. Data were collected from study participants on three separate occasions: in 1994/1995 when the
participants were approximately 10 and 11 years of age; at the ages of 12 and 13 in 1996/1997; and then again at ages 14
and 15 in 1998/1999. Over all, Sprott (2004) found that young people who behaved violently often came from classrooms
that provided little emotional support to the students. Students who were in classrooms characterized as having stronger
supportive and social interactions at the ages of 10 and 11 were less likely to behave violently at the ages of 12 and 13. In
addition, it was found that young people who displayed more aggression during the first data capture period were more
likely to have been violent during the second data capture period. Sprott (2004) speculates whether school support plays a
significant role in deterring future violent offending resulting from inadequate bonding in other aspects of the child’s life.
As such, young people may then desist from violent behaviour in order to ensure the ongoing support that they are
receiving from the school. Sprott et al. (2005) found further evidence to support these findings through their study on
1,956 Canadian youth. The authors found that strong attachment to school was associated with less violent offending. As a
result, they conclude that the important effect of school attachment in the lives of young people should not be minimized.

The impact of school attachment on violent offending was similarly found by Brookmeyer et al. (2006) in their US-based
study on characteristics of violent behaviour. Data on 6,397 youth from a national sample of 125 American schools were
gathered through the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. The data, which consisted of both self-
administered surveys of youth and interviews with parents, were collected on two occasions, in 1995 and again in 1996.
Brookmeyer et al. (2006) found that those young people who had committed increasingly more violent offences in the
second survey were more likely than other young people to express feeling less connection with their school. Further, a
positive relationship was found between feeling connected to parents and feeling connected to school. The findings
highlight the potential role that parents and schools can play in preventing violent offending amongst young people.
Similar conclusions were found by Resnick et al. (2004) and Banyard and Quartey (2006) in their studies on adolescent
violent offending risk factors. These authors similarly found that school attachment, amongst other social control factors,
protected young people from violent behaviour.

Moreover, the significance of school attachment and adolescent delinquency was also stressed by Herrenkohl et al. (2003)
in their study on the effects of both protective and risk factors on adolescent violence. Longitudinal data were obtained
from the Seattle Social Development Project, which collected teacher-completed assessments of the sample (N=808) at
various intervals during childhood. When youth were assessed at the age of 18, the authors found that those who had been
assessed as exhibiting less violent behaviour during childhood were more likely to have stronger connections with parents,
more likely to be religious, and more likely to have formed an attachment to school during mid-adolescence. The authors
found that adolescents who had been assessed by teachers as aggressive during childhood (and thus, for whom violence
had been predicted) were less likely to indeed be violent at age 18 if they had experienced the interaction of various social
protective factors such as family involvement, religiosity, and peer interactions. The authors conclude that, as previous
research has found, adolescent attachment to school appears to serve a protective function against later adolescent
violence.

Role of the Community

The role of the community and neighbourhood as agents of social control has also been assessed in the social control
literature. In their New England study on adolescent partner abuse, Banyard and Quartey (2006) surveyed 980 young
people in grades seven through twelve on various aspects of risk-taking behaviour. Specifically, self-report data were
collected on adolescent partner abuse, victimization, family background, and neighbourhood monitoring and support. The
authors found that young people who admitted to physical and/or sexual partner offending had lower perceptions of
neighbourhood monitoring than young people who did not report such partner abuse. Diminished feelings of social
responsibility were also found to be related to delinquency amongst study participants. The role of communities in
fostering values and normative beliefs on violence has been examined by other researchers, including Bernburg and
Thorlindsson (2005). Utilizing national survey data on 2,941 Icelandic adolescents, Berburg and Thorlindsson (2005)
sought to assess the effects of internal and external values and perceived norms on aggressive behaviour. The authors
found a significant relationship between the neutralization of aggression within community norms and aggressive
behaviour amongst both male and female respondents. Additionally, amongst male respondents, community conduct
norms were found to be a stronger predictor of aggression than the effect of conduct norms and peers. Findings such as
these support the notion that community groups that adhere to violent norms will likely affect the aggressive nature of
individual members.

Religiosity
While not as widely studied as other facets of social control, the impact of religiosity on delinquency has been assessed by
those seeking to understand this aspect of social control. Johnson et al. (2001) examine the debate on the effects of
religiosity on youth delinquency, questioning whether young people who are more religious are less delinquent. The
authors further sought to determine, if that was found to be the case, why religious adolescents did not engage in deviant
behaviour to the same extent as their non-religious counterparts did. Data were obtained from the National Youth Survey,
a national longitudinal study on American youth. Johnson et al. (2001) examined factors associated with social control
theory related to bonding, including parental attachment, school attachment and religious beliefs. Religiosity was based on
the extent to which individuals ascribed to the beliefs of a particular religion and were dedicated to attending services of
that church on a regular basis. The authors found that religiosity had a negative effect on delinquency, which included a
measure of violence. They argue that religion decreases delinquency due to the effect religion has on shaping beliefs.
Further, it is suggested that religious youth may be less inclined to associate with delinquent peers. Research conducted by
Benda and Turney (2002), Herrenkohl et al. (2003) and Resnick et al. (2004) further supports the notion that religiosity
lowers the likelihood of delinquency among young people. However, it should be noted that such findings are not entirely
conclusive, as other research has found otherwise. MacDonald et al. (2005), in a US study on the effects of life
satisfaction and risky behaviours on various forms of youth violence, found no support for the notion that religious
involvement lowered the likelihood of violent behaviour. The authors had initially hypothesized that young people who
were found to be more religious would be less likely, compared with young people who did not have a strong religious
affiliation, to participate in delinquent acts. While perceived as an insulating factor, this was not found to be the case. The
effect of religion on delinquency was further questioned by Benda and Corwyn (2002), who found increased religiosity to
be a strong predictor of violence among adolescents. At best, the extant literature on this aspect of social control
demonstrates mixed findings on the role of religion as a mechanism of social control against delinquency.

Critique
Despite research that supports the tenets of social control theory, some scholars have questioned the strength of the theory.
As Gibbons (1994) notes, some have questioned whether the notions of self-control as proposed by Hirschi can be used to
explain more serious offending behaviour. Critics of the theory contend that the theory may be better able to explain
minor offending, but does not necessarily adequately account for more serious crime (Gibbons, 1994).

Policy Implications
Research examining the impact of various aspects of social control theory can shed some light on potential areas of policy
development. As discussed, social control theory asserts that the role of the parent is paramount to the bonding of young
people to the family. This bond is seen as fundamental to diminishing a child’s propensity for delinquent involvement. As
research in this area has largely found a strong relationship between parental attachment and lower levels of delinquency,
providing support to parents in the form of parenting skills training could be an effective step toward addressing youth
crime by building strong bonds between parents and children. Beyond the family, schools play a prominent role in the
socialization of young people and could also play a key role as an insulating factor against crime. The school can provide
support to young people that they may not be receiving elsewhere. In light of this, Sprott et al. (2005) advised that, as
school bonds have been found to play such a significant role in reducing violent offending, it seems antithetical for
schools to implement “zero tolerance” policies, which only serve to further exclude and isolate young people who have
acted violently and sever their ties to the school. Alternatively, young people deemed to be at risk or delinquent should
receive greater support from the school, not less. The authors suggest that policies promoting school cohesion and
bonding young people to their schools should be favoured.

Deviance
 Deviance refers to behaviors that violate social norms.
 Deviance, in a sociological context, describes actions or behaviors that violate informal social norms or formally-
enacted rules.

Deviance is often divided into two types of activities.

The first, crime, is the violation of formally enacted laws and is referred to as formal deviance. Examples of formal
deviance include robbery, theft, rape, murder, and assault.

The second type of deviant behavior involves violations of informal social norms (norms that have not been codified into
law) and is referred to as informal deviance. Examples of informal deviance include picking one’s nose, belching loudly,
or standing unnecessarily close to another person.

Attachment refers to the symbiotic linkage between a person and society. According to Hirschi, individuals with
strong and stable attachments to others within society are presumed to be less likely to violate societal norms.
Conversely, an individual with weak attachments is assumed to be unconcerned about the wishes of others, and
thereby inclined to deviate from social expectations. Thus, if one is attached to one's family, friends, and
community institutions (e.g., church), one is less likely to deliberately engage in behaviors which would harm or
distress the attachments. Although persons with strong family and community attachments can potentially
abuse drugs, Hirschi hypothesized that they are more likely to contemplate their decision and avoid deviant
behavior because of probable consternation from valued attachments.

Commitment refers to the investment an individual has in social activities and institutions (Hirschi, 1969). Hirschi's
commitment construct is based on the premise that there is an association between level of commitment and
propensity for deviance. Thus, an individual who has invested time, energy, and resources into conforming to
social norms and expectations (e.g., pursuing educational goals) are less likely to deviate than someone who has
not made such an investment. Hirschi asserted that individuals heavily invested in commitments have more to
lose (e.g., interruption of career path) than those who are moderately invested or uninvested. Consequently,
deviant behavior such as alcohol and drug abuse are less appealing to individuals with strong commitments.
Involvement is the third element of Hirschi's (1969) concept of social bonding. Hirschi postulated that large
amounts of structured time spent in socially approved activities reduces the time available for deviance. Thus, an
individual who is actively engaged in conventional endeavors (e.g., employment) simply has less time and
opportunity to engage in deviant activities such as drug abuse. However, an unemployed or underemployed
per, son has several hours more a day of free time in which to become enticed and involved in deviance. Hirschi
contended that involvement such as being a parent or maintaining a job fosters discipline and regiment, and
the discipline and regiment encourages a resolve to resist deviance such as substance abuse.

Individual's level of belief in the moral validity of shared social values and norms. In American society, certain
values (e.g., monogamous sexual conduct) are espoused as norms. Hirschi suggested that persons who strongly
believe in the these norms are less likely to deviate from them. However, those who question or challenge the
norms have a greater propensity to behave in a deviant manner. The belief system concerning alcohol and drug
use in American society can be complicated and confusing, Though social drinking is accepted, driving while
under-the-influence is considered deviant behavior. Likewise, the use of prescription medication tends to be
socially sanctioned. Reasonable medication for illness and pain is a belief that is encouraged and accepted in
our society. Moreover, the legal and medical professions have established guidelines for what is considered a
reasonable amount of medication. According Hirschi's logic, adherence to the belief and guidelines decreases
the probability of deviance. However, substance abuse occurs when individuals exaggerate the belief and ignore
the medical and legal rules.