CODE-SWITCHING AND CODE-MIXING BY MALE AND FEMALES USERS OF

WHATSAPP

Rahmatya Ikhwanurrosida

Universitas Negeri Malang

E-mail: [email protected]

ABSTRACT: WhatsApp is one of the social media which is categorized as CMC (Computer
Mediated Communication) and the users are categorized as bilingual, by which code-
switching and code-mixing may occur as the CMC language. This study aims at analyzing
the code-switching and code-mixing by Indonesian male and female users getting engaged
in verbal communication Indonesian and occasionally using English. The data of this study
were taken from male and female chat threads, around 20 to 25 years old. The male and
female users are chosen randomly. As for the findings, female participants do code-switching
more often than male participants. Moreover, females also have a high number in using code-
mixing in delivering their messages. This analyzing demonstrated that female participants
have a strong tendency to using code-switching than male participants. Furthermore, female
participants also have a high number of using code-mixing in delivering their messages than
male participants. This study has revealed that gender differences in code-switching and
code-mixing concerning the set of language background.

Keywords: Code-Switching, code-mixing, chatting room, WhatsApp, Male, Female.

INTRODUCTION
Since WhatsApp belongs to most popular mobile messaging applications worldwide, it
has been across the board the communication network at this moment. WhatsApp offers its users
to share a set of linguistics norms regarding to the use of language, it can be defined as a speech
community. The chatting room which is offered by WhatsApp, not only as a personal chat room
but also group chat. The WhatsApp users may come across all sexes, ages, educational
background, and any other aspects. Therefore, WhatsApp is one of the CMC and offers messages
in form of textual as written and audio (voice note). In addition, WhatsApp users are categorized
as bilingual, code-switching and code-mixing may occur as the CMC language. Code-switching
and code-mixing on chatting message, may lead the users to feel easier to communicate through
written spoken language, which is the representation of spoken or gestural language by means of
a writing system, and it occurs on CMC language.
Seeing WhatsApp users from gendering aspect, there are some aspect that may lead
female and male users to show their language differences. In general terms, men language or
masculinity is displayed by showing one’s own skill and by using language to spread information
rather than emotion (Talbot, 2010). A general definition of femininity is that women “articulate”
themselves through their bodies (Talbot, 2010) and they use language to express emotion and in
order to establish relationship (Talbot, 2010). The grammatical masculine gender was treated as
the equivalent of an active attitude, while the feminine gender was ascribed a passive role. The
result of a study by Lubna B (2014) shows that code-switching in SMS is not the same among
men and women, since it differs according to the language background. According to Lubna
(2014) the percentage of code switching in the SMS messages of bilingual men is the same as
bilingual women which is 47%, while for multilingual men is less than women, men’s only 7%
while women’s 62%. Those findings are interesting to be observed in Indonesia.
Furthermore, according to Mahmoud A. Al-Khatib and Enaq H. Sabbah (2008) based on
their data analysis; the respondents consider using between English and Arabic exclusively or
both languages in communicating; the respondents found it much easier for them to express and
deliver their message in two languages. Based on Mahmoud A. Al-Khatib and Enaq H. Sabbah
(2008) English words are used for euphemistic purposes, as a mark of prestige, to fill gaps in the
language. Their study also defines that the sex of the text writer has a role, females have a
stronger tendency than males in using switching, and males have a stronger tendency in using
their mother tongue rather than English totally or mixed elements. The study that is conducted by
Mahmoud A. Al-Khatib and Enaq H. Sabbah were investigated from sociolinguistics point of
view.
Moreover, the style of language that is used to express their ideas can be classified as
‘code-mixing’ and ‘code-switching’. ‘Code-mixing’, intra-sentential code-switching, occurs
where the language changes inside a sentence (Das & Gambäck, n.d, 2013). While ‘code-
switching’, inter-sentential phenomena, is the more general term (Das & Gambäck, n.d., 2013).
A study by Wijayanti, 2014 finds that ‘code-switching’ uses different language variations in a
single conversation. According to Sutrismi, (2014) there are two motivations of people of using
‘code-mixing’, namely “need filling motive” and “prestige filling motive”. Need filling motive
occurs when people cannot describe something by particular word in their language and then use
another language to express their idea that have similar meaning in their language. Meanwhile,
the prestige filling motive is used when people want to show their educational status. According
to Grosjean (1982) in Ela K (2015) code-switching can be used in several situations, such as
quoting someone’s statement; specifying the addressee; and qualifying a statement that has been
said or talking about past events. Meanwhile, according to Eunhee (2006) in Ela K (2015),
several factors that triggers the use of ‘code-switching’ and ‘code-mixing’ are as follows;
participant and the relationship; situational factor; message-intrinsic factors; language attitude,
dominance and security.
According to Kongkerd (2015) code switching and code mixing are used to show respect
and convey politeness, as illustrated in Thais’ English chatting room, they may be mixing the
words “ka” and “krub” to show courteous and respect. Not only that but also for conveying clear
meanings and feeling, many of Thais mix the Thai words, idioms, and phrases in English chat to
present the clear and exact meaning in terms of enhancing understanding and express authentic
feelings especially in communicating non-verbally. To the best of my knowledge, there has not
been any investigation focusing on the presence of gender differences in WhatsApp language use
among English and Bahasa Indonesia seeing from their sex of text writers. Hence, the researcher
will attempt to provide valuable insight in regards to the said topic.
The reason why the researcher conducts this research on the language usage in
WhatsApps is to continue on previous study by Cardenas-Claros and Isharyanti (2009) about
code switching and code mixing in Internet chatting, especially language that aims to express
agreement by the word ‘yes’, ‘ya’, and ‘si’. The research will use WhatsApp as the Computer-
Mediated Communication to be observed because WhatsApps nowadays is widely used by the
majority of people to communicate. Another reason driving the researcher to focus on this
particular topic is the fact that in the statistic of number of monthly active WhatsApp users
worldwide from April 2013 to December 2017 (in millions), the number has been rising up to
1500 million in December 2017 (The Statista.com, 2018). Another reason driving the researcher
to focus on this particular area is the fact that the research on language use in WhatsApps and in
relation to gender issue are of rare availabilty. One of few studies is that by Isharyanti and
Cardenas-Claros (2009) finds that Indonesian speaker exhibited a higher number of alternations
adding up in code choice.
Therefore, there are some reasons why the researcher conducts an investigation on this
area, seeing how gender difference impose influence on the use of code-switching and code
mixing in CMC especially WhatsApp chat because men and women are different in producing
language.

METHOD
The study applied a qualitative descriptive methodology. Data were collected for a month
and no topics were chosen systematically. To make data comparable and consistent between two
genders, the researcher examined 4 chats of males and females WhatsApp chat. The data source
are limited on their diversity such as genders, female and male, and age, around of 20 to 25 years
old. The male and female were chosen randomly, and they knew that their chat threads were
observed by the researcher.
The data collected by using screenshot capture of males and females Whatsapp’s chat
threads. The chat threads were retyped to make easier in coding step through the table. The
coding of the English language used among female and male based on the code-mixing and
code-switching type. The data were analyzed through these steps below:
1. Collecting the screenshot capturing the chat threads of males and females Whatsapp’s chat
treads. The topic of the data were not selected since the required data had to be natural.
2. The screenshot picture had to type to the table.
3. Coding the data based on the types, such as intra-sentential switches, inter-sentential
switches, establishing continuity switches, and emblematic switching by using a table.
Furthermore, the researcher also classified the code-mixing based on the types, such as
insertion, alternation, and congruent lexicalization by using table. After that, the same
method in the second analysis was applied.
FINDINGS AND DISCUSSION
The coding result of the first round coding is placed on the table. At first, the data were
taken from 6 participants: 3 males and 3 females. There are 100 chats thread taken from each
participant of this study. The data are taken limited on their age, around of 20 to 25 years old and
their gender.
Table 1. The First Round Male Participants’ Information
Participant A B C
Gender Male Male Male
Age 22 years old 24 years old 22 years old
Intra-Sentential
- 1 1
switches
Code Switching

Inter-sentential
1 - -
switches
Establishing
- - 1
continuity switches
Emblematic
- - -
Switching
Insertion 5 4 2
Mixing
Code

Alternation 5 - -
Congruent
2 1 -
lexicalization

After analyzing the data taken from those 3 participants, it was done to see whether the
data have been stable enough or not since it deals with the numbers. Thus, after taking data from
the second round, the researcher checked whether the average of the data from the first round
and the second vary significantly or not to see the stability of the data. Turned out that the data
from first and second round do not differ greatly. These are some information about the other 3
participants.

Table 2. Second Round Male Participants’ Information

Participant G H I
Gender Male Male Male
Age 22 years old 23 years old 24 years old
Intra-Sentential -
Switchin

- -
Code

switches
g

Inter-sentential -
- -
switches
 Establishing -
- -
continuity switches
Emblematic -
- -
Switching
Insertion 3 2 -
Mixing
Code

Alternation - - -
Congruent -
1 -
lexicalization

For instance, the final result of code-switching used by male participant in WhatsApp
chatting room is categorized from these four types: intra-sentential switches, inter-sentential
switches, establishing continuity switches, and emblematic switching. The letters A-C and G-I in
the table 6 represent male participants.

Table 3. The number of code-switching used by male participants

Participants Intra- Inter- Establishing Emblematic
sentential sentential continuity Switching
switches Switches switches
A - 1 - -
B 1 - - -
C 1 - 1 -
G - - - -
H - - - -
I - - - -
TOTAL 2 1 1 -

Interestingly, the result for code-switching used by male participants show that from 4
instances identified, 2 instances (50%) correspond to the category of intra-sentential switches, 1
(25%) fit into the description of the inter-sentential switches, 1 (25%) fit into the definition of
establishing continuity switches and none fits into the emblematic switching. While, the final
result of code mixing by male participant in WhatsApp chatting room is categorized from these
three types: insertion, alternation, and congruent lexicalization.
Table 4. The Number of Code Mixing Used By Male Participants.
 Congruent
Participants Insertion Alternation
lexicalization
A 5 5 2
B 4 - 1
C 2 - -
G 3 - 1
H 2 - -
I - - -
TOTAL 16 5 4

As seen from the table above, the result of code-mixing for male participant show that
from 25 instances identified, 16 instances (64%) correspond to the category insertion, 5 (20%) fit
into the description of alternation and 4 (16%) fits the definition of congruent lexicalization.
Moreover, the coding result of the first round coding is placed on the table. At first, the
data were taken from 6 participants: 3 males and 3 females. There are 100 chats thread taken
from each participant of this study. The data are taken limited on their age, around of 20 to 25
years old and their gender.

Table 5. First Round Female Participants’ Information

Participant D E F
Gender Female Female Female
Age 22 years old 23 years old 22 years old
Intra-Sentential - - -
switches
Code Switching

Inter-sentential 2 1 -
switches
Establishing - - -
continuity switches
Emblematic - - -
Switching
Insertion 6 10 2
Mixing
Code

Alternation 1 1 1
Congruent 1 4 2
lexicalization
 After analyzing the data taken from those 3 participants, it was done to see whether the
data have been stable enough or not since it deals with the numbers. Thus, after taking data from
the second round, the researcher checked whether the average of the data from the first round
and the second vary significantly or not to see the stability of the data. Turned out that the data
from first and second round do not differ greatly. These are some information about the other 3
participants.

Table 6. Second Round Female Participants’ Information

Participant J K L
Gender Female Female Female
Age 23 years old 23 years old 22 years old
Intra-Sentential - - 1
switches
Code Switching

Inter-sentential - 1 -
switches
Establishing - - -
continuity switches
Emblematic - - -
Switching
Insertion 15 3 2
Mixing
Code

Alternation - 2 -
Congruent 4 2 -
lexicalization

The result of the code switching and code mixing by female participants shown in table 8.
is the number from the type of code-switching used by female participants. For an instance, the
final result of code-switching used by female participants in WhatsApp chatting room is
categorized from these four types: intra-sentential switches, inter-sentential switches,
establishing continuity switches, and emblematic switching.

Table 7. The number of code-switching used by female participants

Participants Intra-sentential Inter-sentential Establishing Emblematic
switches Switches continuity switches Switching
D - 2 - -
E - 1 - -
 F - - - -
J - - - -
K - 1 - -
L 1 - - -
TOTAL 1 4 - -

The result for code-switching used by female participants show that from 5 instances
identified, 1 instance (20%) correspond to the category of intra-sentential switches, 4 (80%) fit
into the description of the inter-sentential switches, none fits into the definition of emblematic
switching and establishing continuity switches. While, the final result of code mixing by female
participants in WhatsApp chatting room is categorized from these three type: insertion,
alternation, and congruent lexicalization.
Table 8. The number of code-mixing used by female participants
Participants Insertion Alternation Congruent
lexicalization
D 6 1 1
E 10 1 4
F 2 1 2
J 15 - 4
K 3 2 2
L 2 - -
TOTAL 38 5 13

The result of code-mixing for female participant show that from 56 instances identified,
38 instances (67.9%) correspond to the category insertion, 5 (8.9%) fit into the description of
alternation and 13 (23.2%) fits the definition of congruent lexicalization.
The switching and mixing of English language are frequently found in the chat
conversation of Indonesian WhatsApp users. Among males and females, the code-switching and
code-mixing are used to make the message is simpler and understandable, for instance stating
some word in English rather than Bahasa Indonesia. This phenomenon is to make the sentence
more hype, understandable and enjoyed by the reader. The code-switching refers to the alternate
use of two or more languages, varieties of language or event speech style or switched essentially
between sentences.
In male cases, the switching from Bahasa Indonesia to English is used to remind the
receiver or the reader of a statement. For example, the switching used by males to remind or
quote someone’s statement; C= “soale bapaknya bilang go online and read” (Since the teacher
said to go online and read). From the example below, if the sender stated “Go online and read” in
Bahasa Indonesia, the reader or the receiver might not feel the sense of the sentence delivered by
the teacher. Moreover, the switching is also useful to stimulate the readers to go back to certain
sequences. Male users commonly also are influenced by the other interlocutor in using language.
This phenomenon has proved in establishing continuity switching type, where male responds on
their interlocutor in the same language. This might be happened to make the conversation run a
line and understandable. In males chat thread, they commonly do mixing codes from Bahasa
Indonesian, and also their own traditional language to the English to express conditions or things
such as OTW, BTW, HP, Uninstall, Download, Print, Headset, Cancel, Login, etc. This code-
mixing phenomena also occur on female chat threads.
In contrary, females also commonly do the switching to create a new sense in reading so
the reader will attract to read and be curious about the further message. For example, in the inter-
sentential switches type; “Beb, u know?”; “Tapi you know me, aku mana bisa”. From that
example, the switching is useful to create a new sense, attract the reader to read more and also
emphasize the messages. Moreover, females are commonly mixing the code from Bahasa
Indonesia to English in the form of describing something that is not commonly known in Bahasa
Indonesia, or more understandable by using the English word. For example, “Tpi jadi kesannya
wana yg terpaku itu peach”, “peach” is used to describe the color of the pale of the peach fruit.
Based on Xiufang Xia (2013) that females are good in using language at color words that are
borrowed from other languages. According to the examples above, one of the most common
reasons of code-mixing used is that the unknowledgeable the proper word in Bahasa Indonesia or
language currently used.
According to the coding result, female participants shifted code more often rather than
male participants. As an illustration, male participants switched code 29 times, while female
participants switched code 61 times. Interestingly, participant-initiated code-switching is higher
for females participants (56.6% compared to 44.4% for males), as shown in the table 10. as the
occurrences of code-switching classification.
Table 9. Occurrences of Code-Switching classification
Type of code switching Males Participants Females Participants
Intra-sentential switches 2 1
Inter-sentential switches 1 4
Establishing continuity 1 -
switches
Emblematic Switching - -
Total 4 5

From the table shown, females have a tendency to use Inter-sentential Switches in code-
switching. The participants of this study are multi-linguals, multi-linguals speaking Indonesian,
English, and Javanese. In total females have more tendency to use code-switching rather than
males, it supports the finding of Lubna in 2014 that males who use multilingual have less
tendency of using code-switching and code-mixing. However, in some aspects males have a lot
more tendency. Those aspect is Intra-sentential switches in code-switching. Males have a
stronger tendency in using their own mother tongue which is seen from the data that they always
use English as mixed elements for delivering their message in multilingual situation. This
situation also support the study by Mahmoud A. Al-Khatib and Enaq H. Sabbah in 2008 that sex
of the text writer has a role, females have a stronger tendency than males in using switching and
males have a stronger tendency in using their mother tongue rather than English totally or mixed
elements.
Moreover, the researcher also found that male uses code-switching in quoting someone’s
statement. This situation proved by the males chat threads as intra-sentential switches, for
example “Soale bapaknya bilang go online and read” (“As teacher said, go online and read”).
While females have more tendency in specifying the addressee. This situation seen from Inter-
sentential switches, for example “Kill em with kindness mbak 😊” to respond thanking
expression by females chat sender. On the contrary, the same participant express their idea, as
follow “Wkwkwk okeee” to the other receiver in responding thanking expression by male chat
sender. Those situations states by Eunhee (2006) in Ela K (2015) that quoting someone’s
statement and also specifying the addressee are parts of several factors that triggers the use code-
switching and code-mixing.
Interestingly, based on the data analyzed, it was revealed that male used establishing
continuity switching. Although, from all participants it is a small number that respond English by
using English as the language, it shows that males have a strong tendency to answer or respond
in the same language. This collaborated to the study by Talbot (2010) that men language or
masculinity is displayed by showing one’s own skill. Then, supporting by Mahmoud A. al-
Khatib and Enq H. Sabbah (2008) that English words are used as a mark of prestige. It leads
male to respond English language by using English is to show his own skill.
Example: I = A (female) & B (male)
A: Thank you
B: Yuuuhuu no prob
As seen from the example, rather than responding by using male’s mother language
(Indonesian), he responded by using English to show that he has his own skill, and this is one of
proved that sex of the text has a role, and English words are used as a mark of prestige.
Furthermore, code switching also used to show respect and courteousness. In Indonesian
society, a senior system has an influenced on the way people addressing interlocutors. They may
be thought to behave politely and respectfully to the older people. One way to express politeness
and respect to older people is by using a sentence that show the social statues such as “mbak”,
“beb” for female and “mas”, “men”, “bro” for males in both verbal and non-verbal
communication. Clear example of this issue can be seen below.
Example: I = A (female) & B (female)
A: Kill em with kindness mbak 😊
B: Sippp
Example: II = C (male) & D (male)
C: Pokok arek e genah gas wes
D: Lah tmbng ra iso move on men.
According to the examples above, the two particles of “mbak” and “men” were used to
show politeness to convey respect between Indonesian WhatsApp uses of different and the same
ages. Based on the first example, it can be assumed that A was younger than B since A addressed
B with the word “Mbak” which means elder sister. Therefore, C used “men” to show his
politeness toward B who might be his friend or in the same age as him. This issue also support
the study by Kongkerd (2015) that a combination of mother tongue and English language over
WhatsApp is influenced by the culture of politeness ad proper social manners.
In addition, female participants have no tendency in using establishing continuity
switching. As the description that establishing continuity switching means using the other
language expect their mother tongue to express their thought, and respond by using its language,
English. By which, the participant needs to fully master at grammatical and semantic levels.
However, females also have a high number in using code-mixing in delivering their
messages. Both males and females Indonesian participant used more insertion rather than
alternation or congruent lexicalization. In fact, the number of insertion occurrences is
significantly higher than the two other types, 64% and 68%. Moreover, females have a stronger
tendency than males in using insertion as code choice. It can be seen in the table 11.
Table 10. Occurrences of code-mixing classification
Type of code mixing Males Participants Females Participants
Insertion 16 38
Alternation 5 5
Congruent Lexicalization 4 13
Total 25 56

From the table shown, females have a tendency to use Insertion and Congruent
lexicalization in code-mixing. Insertion type, is the higher tendency that used by both gender.
This situation as the result of previous study by Cardenas-Claros and Isharyanti that the number
of insertion occurrences compared to the number of alternation and congruent lexicalization
might be that inserting a word from one language to another does not require participants to fully
master the language at grammatical and semantic levels. The insertion of words, especially
nouns, accounted for the highest number of code-mixing used by both males and females
participants.
Example of insertion used by male participant (Indonesian/English)
A = Lah aku pasiko login gagal i lho
(At that time, I could not be able to log in)
Example of insertion used by female participant (Indonesian/English)
 A = Okeee nanti tak streaming. Aku udah ngerasain begadang buat streaming kok mbak
wkwkwkwk
(Ok I’ll go streaming later. I have experienced staying up all night to enjoy streaming
wkwkwkwk)
Furthermore, according to Sutrismi, (2014) there are two motivations of people of using
‘code-mixing’, namely “need filling motive” and “prestige filling motive”. Need filling motive
occurs when people cannot describe something by particular word in their language and then use
another language to express their idea that have similar meaning in their language. Need filling
motive used by males as well as females in describing something. This study also corroborates
the findings of Huang (2004) that insertion of words, especially nouns, accounted for the highest
number. Most of word used by both male and females are nouns, such as “HP”, “Email”,
“caption”, “game”. Meanwhile, the prestige filling motive is used when people want to show
their educational status which is not field observed by the researcher.
Moreover, both male and female participants have the equal number in using alternation.
In this case, alternation is a true switch from one language to other. Generally, both male and
female participants switch their code to make their utterances understandable. The words
commonly used by both genders is abbreviation, such as “BTW” (By the Way).
For example:
I: Aku jek di kos btw
“I am still in the boarding house, btw”
In this case of alternation, there is a true switch from one language to other, involving both
grammar and lexicon. In the example, it cannot be assumed that the English second segment is
embedded in the Indonesian first segment.
Furthermore, female participants have a strong tendency in using congruent lexicalization
codes. The participant-initiated congruent lexicalization is higher for females participants (23.2%
compared to 15.3% for males).
For example:
I: Ternyata gymnya itu ga sepuasnya
(Apparently, the gym is not as much as you can)
II: Editno skkmku yo ngkok
(Please, edit my skkm later on)
III: Lek gak trimo uninstall en
(If you do not receive anything just uninstall it)
From case I, the sentences consist of a shared grammatical structure, which is English
(noun) and add Indonesian (suffix) and turn into possessive pronoun. This term is used to clarify
about the word “Gym”. While from case II, the word “Editno” created from word Edit (English)
and suffix “No” (Javanese, means please). This sequence has function as verb and asking for a
help. It also occurs to the case III, the word “Uninstall” followed by “en” originated from
Javanese which function as a command.

CONCLUSSION AND SUGGESTIONS

This study aimed to show the gender difference impose influence on the use of code-
switching and code mixing in CMC especially WhatsApp chat because males and females are
different in producing language. Indeed, the multilingual might influence the way male and
female write their WhatsApp messages, by using code-switching and code-mixing to make
delivering messages simpler. The result of this study demonstrated that there are several types
among code-switching and code-mixing used by male and females participants which is
supported by the data shown. This study is unique in the sense that no other study has compared
the code switching and code-mixing used across genders in synchronous CMC.
By conducting this study, it is demonstrated that female participants have strong tendency
in using code switching rather than male participants. Furthermore, female participants also have
a high number in using code-mixing in delivering their messages rather than male participants.
This study have revealed gender differences in code-switching and code-mixing which are
concerned on the set of language background. Further study comparing code-switching and
code-mixing occurrences among genders, age and educational background is needed to better
understand the synchronous CMC phenomena.
The findings of this study have revealed that code-switching and code mixing in
WhatsApp Users is influenced by the bilingualism or multilingualism that has shaped the way
male and female participants write their messages. Moreover, other factors such as participants’
social life, business, academic background, and others might influenced them in producing a
language.
 In addition, this study in line from previous study that it much easier for participants to
deliver and express their message in two languages. Moreover, female participants have strong
tendency in using code-switching and using code-mixing in delivering their messages rather than
male participants. That is in line with study from Mahmoud et al (2008) that females have a
strong tendency in using switching rather than males and also delivering and expressing message
in two language is much easier for the participants.
The researcher has several suggestions related to the findings of this study and the
product for students of Linguistics, and further researchers as follows. This study is expected to
give a clear information to the students of English Linguistics about the implementation of
language style especially code-switch and code-mixing. Lastly, future researchers can use this
research as a reference in conducting research. For instance, the codes produced by the gender in
hyping utterances, the codes produced by Indonesian teenagers in daily conversation, and so on.

REFERENCES

Al-Khatib, Mahmoud & Sabbah, Enaq. Language Choice in Mobile Text Message among
Jordanian University Students. SKY Journal of Linguistics 21, 37-65. Jordan. 2008
Bassam,Lubna. Gender and Linguistics Background in SMS Code-Switching by Lebanese
Students. Universitat Rovira I Virgili, Spain. 2014.
Brown,Steven., & Attardo.Salvatore. Understanding Language Structure, Interaction, and
Variation: An introduction to Applied Linguistics and Sociolinguistics for Nonspecialists.
University of Michigan Press. 2000
Cárdenas-Claros, M. S., & Isharyanti, N. Code Switching and Code Mixing in Internet Chatting:
Between ‘Yes’, ‘Ya’, and ‘Si’ A Case Study, 12. Vol 5 No. 3 Pages 67-78. 2009
Das, A., & Gambäck, B. Code-Mixing in Social Media Text, 24. 2013.
Hamers, Josiane F. and Michel H.A Blanc. Bilinguality and Bilingualism. English: Cambridge
University Press. 2000.
Hoffmann, Charlotte. An Introduction to Bilingualism. New York: Longman. 1991
Holmes, Janet. An Introduction to Sociolinguistic. London and New York: Longman. 1992.
Kurnia, Ela. Description of Using Code Switching and Code Mixing in Conversation by The 9th
Semester English Literature Students of State University of Semarang in The Academic
Year 2014/2015. Semarang. 2015.
Kongkerd, Wllaalporn. Code switching and Code Mixing in Facebook Conversations in English
among Thai Users. Bangkok University. 2015.
Li, Ruan. Lexical Formation Rules and Chatting Language Online in English. School of Foreign
Languages, Qingdao University of Science & Technology. Qingdao, China. 2012.
Muyskeen, P. Bilingual speech: A Typology of Code-Mixing. Cambridge: Cambridge University
Press. 2000.
Nababan, P.W.J. Sosiolinguistik: Suatu Pengantar. Jakarta: PT. Gramedia Pustaka Utama. 1993.
Talbot, & Mary M. Language and Gender, 2nd edition. Cambridge: Polity Press, 2010.
Sutrismi. The Use of Indonesian English Code Mixing in Social Media Networking (Facebook)
by Indonesian Youngsters. Surakarta. 2014
Wijayanti, Widdy. Bahasa Indonesia/English Code-Switching at USBI The Sampoerna
University, Jakarta. Bali, 2014.
Xiufang, Xia. Gender Differences in Using Language. Theory and Partice in Language Studies,
Vol. 3, No. 8,pp. 1485-1489. Qingdao University of Science and Technology, China. 2013.
WhatsApp. Number of monthly active WhatsApp users worldwide from April 2013 to December
2017 (in millions). https://www.statista.com/statistics/260819/number-of-monthly-active-
whatsapp-users/. Accessed on April, 15th 2018 at 8.00 am.
GlobalWebIndex. Of Penetration Of Leading Social Networks In Indonesia As Of 3rd Quarter
2017. https://www.statista.com/statistics/284437/indonesia-social-network-penetration/.
Accessed on April, 15th 2018 at 10.37 am.
GlobalWebIndex. Share Of Population In Selected Countries Who Are Active WhatsApp Users
As Of 3rd Quarter 2017. https://www.statista.com/statistics/291540/mobile-internet-user-
whatsapp/. Accessed on April, 15th 2018 at 11.48 am.