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Biology Cells Notes
Biology Cells Notes
U2 Organisms consisting of only one cell carry out all functions of life in that cell
U4 Multicellular organisms have properties that emerge from the interaction of their cellular components
U6 Differentiation involves the expression of some genes and not others in a cell’s genome
U7 The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and
also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses
A1 Questioning the cell theory using atypical examples, including striated muscle, giant algae and aseptate fungal hyphae
A2 Investigation of functions of life in Paramecium and one named photosynthetic unicellular organism
A3 Use of stem cells to treat Stargardt’s disease and one other named condition
A4 Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from specially created embryos, from the umbilical cord blood of a new-born
baby and from an adult’s own tissues
S1 Use of a light microscope to investigate the structure of cells and tissues with drawing of cells. Calculation of the
magnification of drawings and the actual size of structures and ultrastructure shown in drawings or micrographs
Cell Theory
The cell theory states:
1. Living organisms are composed of cells
The invention of the light microscope showed that animal and plant
tissues seemed to be made up of independent and separate beings, now
known as cells
2. Cells are the smallest unit of life
Components of cells cannot survive independently
Currently there is no organism made up of less than one cell
3. Cells only arise from pre-existing cells
Pasteur’s experiment showed that bacteria only grew in flasks open to the environment (Read 1.5)
This showed that only new cells arise from existing cells
Giant Algae
Challenges the idea that larger organisms are always made of many microscopic cells
Giant Algae can grow up to 100mm in length, yet are unicellular and contain only one nucleus
Generally large organisms should consist of many small cells, but giant algae is an exception
Reacts to stimuli: Reveres direction of Reacts to stimuli: Senses where the brightest light is
Response
movement when it touches a solid object with its eyespot and swims towards it
Increases in size and dry mass by accumulating Increases in size and dry mass due to photosynthesis
Growth
organic matter and minerals from its food and absorption of minerals
Expels waste products of metabolism: CO2 from Excepts waste products of metabolism: Oxygen from
Excretion
respiration diffuses out of the cell photosynthesis diffuses out of the cell
Feeds on smaller organisms by ingesting and Produces its own food by photosynthesis using a
Nutrition
digesting them in vesicles chloroplast that occupies much of the cell
Cells sizes
An increase in cell size leads to an increase in chemical reactions. This means more substances need to be taken in, and more
substances need to be removed. These reactions depend on the surface area and volume:
o The surface area affects the rate at which particles can enter and exit the cell
o The volume affects the rate at which materials are made or used within the cell
As the volume of the cell increases so does the surface area however not to the same extent. As the cell gets larger its
surface area to volume ratio gets smaller
A cell that becomes too large may not be able to take in essential materials or excrete waste substances quickly enough
However, if the cell is too small it might overheat
Note: Larger organisms don’t have larger cells, they just have more of them
Cell Reproduction
Cells reproduce for a variety of reasons:
o For growth in multicellular organisms
o For reproduction in single-cell organisms
o To replace dead/damaged cells
Emergent properties
Emergent properties are properties of a group that are not possible when any of the individual elements of that group act
alone. Emergent properties arise when the interaction of individual component produce new functions
Thus, multiple cells together can perform a wider range of functions
compared to individual cells. This is also why individual cells aren’t
that useful alone. Furthermore, this is why multicellular organisms
are more preferred over unicellular organisms
Many cells form tissues and organs which become systems to
perform an even wider range of functions
Stem cells
Stem cells: Cells with the potential to develop into many different types of specialized cells in the body
o This is possible as stem cells are able to divide through mitotic cell division
Stem cells differ from other body cells in three ways:
o Self-Renewal: Stem cells can continually divide (self-sustaining)
o Potency: Stem cells are undifferentiated (unspecialized) and can differentiate in different ways to produce different
cell types
Cell differentiation includes:
o Cell division ensures all cells are genetically identical
o So, every cell in the body has the same set of genes
o During the differentiation of a cell, certain genes are expressed while others are not
o Gene expression results in proteins made that determine the function of the cell
Once a cell has differentiated they cannot change type, hence the cell is said to be “committed” and are no longer stem cells
Stem cells are necessary for embryo development:
o After fertilization, a zygote is formed in all multicellular organisms
o After the formation of a zygote, there is a large increase in the number of cells. This relies on the ability of stem cells
to continually divide
o Early embryonic stem cells are capable of becoming any type of specialized cell (pluripotent stem cells)
o Subsequently, cells of the embryo start to commit to different pathways of cell differentiation and become limited
in the types of specialized cells they can form
o Embryonic development results in a unique body pattern with organs and tissues comprising of specialized cells
o Fully specialized cells are no longer flexible to form other types of specialized cells
o Some stem cells remain in fully developed organisms. In humans, these include blood and skin cell stem cells
Stem cells can be collected from:
Embryonic stem cells: Cells from the embryo that are undifferentiated can become any time
of cell. These are found in the inner cell mass of blastocysts
Adult stem cells: Cells found in certain adult tissues that can become a limited number of
types of cell. Adult tissues include the bone marrow or liver
Blastocysts are a thin-walled hollowed structure in early embryonic development that contains a
cluster of cells called the inner cell mass from which the embryo arises)
The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and
also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses
Stem cells can be used to treat a variety of problems:
Stargardt’s Disease
Stargardt’s disease: A genetic disease that can cause blindness in children
Stargardt’s disease affects a membrane protein in the retina causing photoreceptor cells in the retina to become
degenerative
Stargardt’s disease is treated by injecting embryonic stem cells that can develop into retina cells into the back of the eyeball
Parkinson’s Diseases
Parkinson’s disease: A degenerative disorder of the central nervous system caused by the gradual loss of dopamine-
producing cells in the brain
Dopamine is a neurotransmitter responsible for transmitting signals involved in the production of smooth, purposeful
movements. Those with Parkinson’s disease typically exhibit tremors, rigidity, slowness of movement and postural instability
Parkinson’s Disease is treated by replacing dead nerve cells with living, dopamine-producing ones
Calculating magnification
Magnification: The size of an image of an object compared to its actual size. This is calculated using the
𝐼
formula 𝑀 = 𝐴
Where I: Size of image, A: Actual size of object, M: magnification
Remember to bring a ruler to exams!
A1 Structures and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas and within palisade mesophyll cell of the
leaf
A2 Prokaryotes divide by binary fission
Semi-permeable and selective barrier It controls the movement of Made up of two layers of phospholipids
Cell membrane All cells
surrounding the cell materials in and out of the cell with embedded proteins
Hair like extensions that enable Not used for motility, but for
Small hair like projections emerging
Pili adherence to surfaces (attachment pilli) adhering to other bacterial cells Prokaryotes
from the outside
or mediate bacterial conjugtion or to animal cells
Plant vs Animal
Plant Animal
No centrioles within the centrosome area Has centrioles within the centrosome area
Generally have a fixed regular shape Generally have an amorphous (flexible) shape
U2 Membrane proteins are diverse in terms of structure, position in the membrane and function
A1 Cholesterol in mammalian membranes reduces membrane fluidity and permeability to some solutes
S2 Analysis of evidence from electron microscopy that led to the proposal of the Davson-Danielli model
S3 Analysis of the falsification of the Davson-Danielli model that led to the Singer-Nicolson model
Arrangement in Membranes
Phospholipids form a lipid bilayer in cell membranes of organisms
Phospholipids are amphipathic. The phosphate head is hydrophilic and the fatty acid
tails are hydrophobic. Due to this, a bilayer self-assembles in water. The phosphate
heads are attracted to water. Therefore, the phosphate heads are on the outside of
the bilayer. The fatty acid tails are not attracted to water and are attracted to each
other. Hence, the fatty acid tails are on the inside, positioned away from the water.
The surface of the bilayer is hydrophilic and the inside of the bilayer is hydrophobic
This organization of phospholipids in the cell membranes them selectively permeable to ions and
molecules
Characteristic of membranes include:
o Flexible: Move and form a variety of shapes
o Strong: The hydrophobic region hates water so much that the repelling nature keeps the
membrane together
o Self-healing: A hole in the membrane will self-heal due to the hydrophobic region’s
hatred of water
o Semipermeable: Only some solutes may pass through the membrane
Membrane Proteins
Phospholipid bilayers are embedded with proteins, which may be either permanently or
temporarily attached to the membrane (look at fluid mosaic model)
Proteins can be classified into:
o Integral proteins: Permanently embedded
o Peripheral proteins: Temporary embedded
The proteins in membranes can serve for many different functions:
o Junctions: Connects cells together
o Enzymes: Can act as enzymes
o Transport: Responsible for facilitated diffusion and protein pumps
o Recognition: For cells to identify each other
o Anchorage: Attachment points for the cytoskeleton
o Transduction: Receptors for hormones
Cholesterol
Membranes need to be fluid enough so the cell can move and necessary substances can move
across the membrane
However, if too fluid the membrane could not effectively restrict the movement of certain
substances across itself
Cholesterol controls membrane fluidity by making the phospholipids pack more tightly and
regulates the fluidity and flexibility of the membrane
o Cholesterol has a hydroxyl group which makes
the head polar and hydrophilic. Therefore, they
are attracted to the phosphate heads on the
periphery of the membrane
o The non-polar hydrophobic tail is attracted to the
hydrophobic tails of phospholipids
Cholesterol can be classified as a steroid as it has carbon
rings
Plants don’t have cholesterol molecules in their plasma membrane
Particles move from areas of higher Particles move from areas of lower
concentration to areas of lower concentration to areas of higher
concentration (along a concentration concentration (against a concentration
gradient) gradient)
Hence, passive transport does not require Hence, active transport requires energy
chemical energy as it is driven through by through ATP and the assistance of a type
kinetic and natural energy of protein called a carrier protein
There are four major types of passive There are three major types of active
transport: simple diffusion, facilitated transport: rotein pumps, endocytosis,
diffusion, filtration and osmosis exocytosis
Spontaneous Generation
Pasteur’s experiment disproved spontaneous generation (living things can arise from non-living
things)
In order to do this Pasteur:
1. Boil nutrient broth and place it in two flasks
2. One flasks had access to open air, other did not
3. A sample from each flask was incubated to check for the presence of live bacteria
Only the one with the open neck grew bacterial cells. This supported Cell Theory #3: Cells only
arise from pre-existing cells
Endosymbiotic Theory
The origin of eukaryotic cells can be explained by the endosymbiotic theory
The Endosymbiotic Theory suggests that mitochondria and chloroplast in eukaryotic cells were
once independent prokaryotic cells. This basically means that long ago there were three
prokaryotic cells. One was capable of aerobic respiration and converting energy, one was capable
of photosynthesis, and one was incapable of doing either of these processes. However, the one
incapable of doing either of these processes engulfed the other cells
When this cell engulfed a respiration cell it was then able to make useful energy. When it
engulfed a photosynthesis cell it was then able to convert energy from the sun into stored
chemical energy. Hence, both the mitochondria and chloroplasts were called an endosymbiont: A
cell which lives inside another cell with mutual benefit.
The process of the Endosymbiotic Theory:
1. About 2 billion years ago, a host cell engulfed a prokaryotic cell (bacteria) capable of
photosynthesis or cell respiration
2. The bacterial cell and prokaryote formed a symbiotic relationship
3. Over time, that bacteria cell underwent changes to eventually become a mitochondria
4. The same could be said for photosynthetic bacteria and chloroplasts
Evidence that supports this theory can be seen through mitochondria and chloroplasts:
1. They are about the same size as prokaryotes
2. Divide by binary fission, like prokaryotes
3. Have their own DNA in a circular loop, like prokaryotes
4. Have 70s ribosomes, like prokaryotes
5. Have a double membrane (from when they were engulfed)
6. Genes in the DNA of mitochondria and chloroplasts are more similar to prokaryotes than the
cell in which they are found
U3 Cytokinesis occurs after mitosis and is different in plants and animal cells
U4 Interphase is a very active phase of the cell cycle with many processes occurring in the nucleus and
cytoplasm
U5 Cyclins are involved in the control of the cell cycle
U6 Mutagens, oncogenes and metastasis are involved in the development of primary and secondary
tumors
A1 The correlation between smoking and incidence of cancers
Mitosis
Mitosis is a process where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells (cell division)
Mitosis is used for several purposes:
o Growth: Multicellular organisms increase their size by increasing their number of cells
through mitosis
o Asexual Reproduction: Certain eukaryotic organisms may reproduce asexually by mitosis
o Tissue Repair: Damaged tissue can recover by replacing dead or damaged cells
o Embryonic development: A fertilized egg (zygote) will undergo mitosis and
differentiation in order to become an embryo
If the timing is off, mistakes made during mitosis can result in changes in the DNA that can
potentially lead to genetic disorders
Cell Cycle
The cell cycle is a series of events through which cells pass to divide
and create two identical daughter cells
Cells spend the majority of their time in interphase. It is a very active
phase of the cycle. Interphase is where the cell carries out normal
functions
Interphase: Consists of the cell parts of the cell cycle that don’t
involve cell division (G1, S, G2 phases)
o G1 phase: increase in cytoplasm volume, organelle
production and protein synthesis (normal growth)
o S phase: DNA replication
o G2 phase: increase in cytoplasm volume, double the amount of organelle and protein
synthesis (prepare for cell division)
G0 phase: Resting phase where the cell leaves the cell cycle and has stopped dividing. Cell carries
out all normal functions without the need of dividing
Stages of Mitosis
This part of the cycle is known as M phase has two parts: mitosis and cytokinesis
o Mitosis produces 2 identical cells with full sets of genetic materials and organelles
o Cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm of a parental cell into two daughter cells after mitosis
Prophase
DNA Supercoil: chromatin condenses and becomes sister chromatids, which are visible under the
light microscope
Nuclear membrane is broken down and disappeared
Centrosomes move to the opposite poles of the cell
Spindle fibers begin to form
Metaphase
Chromatids line up in the equator
Spindle fibers (microtubules) attach to the
centromere of sister chromatids
Anaphase
Contraction of the spindle fibers cause the separation of the sister chromatids
The chromatids are now considered as chromosomes
Chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell
Telophase
Chromosomes uncoil to become chromatin
Spindle fibers break down
New nuclear membrane reforms at opposite pole
Cytokinesis
Cytokinesis: The splitting/separation of the cell immediately following mitosis
Cyclins
Cyclins are proteins that control the progression of cells through the cell cycle
Cells cannot progress to the next stage of the cell cycle unless the specific cyclin reaches it
threshold
It is used to mark the checkpoints between two stages
The cyclins bind to receptors and this complex must be present for the next part of the cell cycle
to being
This serves as a checkpoint, preventing cells from moving too quickly or from progressing at all
Nerve cells (like others) lack the necessary cyclins, as they can’t reproduce
Cancer
Definitions
Cancer – The disease that results when the primary tumor spreads to other parts of the body
Metastasis – The spreading of cancerous/tumor cells through the body via the blood or other
mechanisms
Oncogenes – Genes that have turn “on” to start division and a turn “off” when cell division is complete
Carcinogens – Agents that can cause cancer, such as viruses, X-rays, UV radiation
Mutagens – Agents that can cause mutations in one’s DNA which can lead to cancer
Primary tumor: A mass of cells that are dividing at abnormally fast rates for no apparent reason
Primary tumors form when:
o Carcinogens or genetic mutations cause a change to the oncogene of a cell
o The malfunctioning oncogene causes the cell to continuously replicate
o The mass of defective cells forms a primary tumor
Secondary tumor: The tumor that forms in other parts of the body after metastasis of the
primary tumor