Biology notes

Topic 1: Cell Biology

1.1 Introduction to cells
U1 According to the cell theory, living organism are composed of cells

U2 Organisms consisting of only one cell carry out all functions of life in that cell

U3 Surface area to volume ratio is important in the limitation of cell size

U4 Multicellular organisms have properties that emerge from the interaction of their cellular components

U5 Specialized tissues can develop by cell differentiation in multicellular organisms

U6 Differentiation involves the expression of some genes and not others in a cell’s genome

U7 The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and
also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses
A1 Questioning the cell theory using atypical examples, including striated muscle, giant algae and aseptate fungal hyphae

A2 Investigation of functions of life in Paramecium and one named photosynthetic unicellular organism

A3 Use of stem cells to treat Stargardt’s disease and one other named condition

A4 Ethics of the therapeutic use of stem cells from specially created embryos, from the umbilical cord blood of a new-born
baby and from an adult’s own tissues
S1 Use of a light microscope to investigate the structure of cells and tissues with drawing of cells. Calculation of the
magnification of drawings and the actual size of structures and ultrastructure shown in drawings or micrographs

Cell Theory
 The cell theory states:
1. Living organisms are composed of cells
 The invention of the light microscope showed that animal and plant
tissues seemed to be made up of independent and separate beings, now
known as cells
2. Cells are the smallest unit of life
 Components of cells cannot survive independently
 Currently there is no organism made up of less than one cell
3. Cells only arise from pre-existing cells
 Pasteur’s experiment showed that bacteria only grew in flasks open to the environment (Read 1.5)
 This showed that only new cells arise from existing cells

Exceptions to the Cell Theory

Striated Muscle Cell

 Challenges the idea that cells always function as autonomous, independent units
 Like cells, these fibers are enclosed inside a membrane, but these fibres are much larger
than most cells (300mm) and are multi-nucleated (they have multiple nuclei)
 Hence, despite being multi-nucleated striated muscles are also surrounded by a single
continuous membrane, thus not independent

Giant Algae
 Challenges the idea that larger organisms are always made of many microscopic cells
 Giant Algae can grow up to 100mm in length, yet are unicellular and contain only one nucleus
 Generally large organisms should consist of many small cells, but giant algae is an exception

Aseptate Fungal Hyphae

 Challenges the idea that living structures are composed of discrete cells
 In most fungi, hyphae are divided into cells by internal walls called
“septa”. These fungi are known as septate hyphae
 Aseptate hyphae (also known as non-septate hyphae) are not divided
up into sub-units because they don’t have septa. Therefore, they have
long undivided sections of hypha which will have a continuous cytoplasm
with no end wall or membrane and contain many nuclei

Functions of Life (Mr. H Gren)

 The functions of life are present in different ways in different types of organisms
 However, all organisms maintain the same general functions that allow them to continue life:
o Metabolism: The web of all enzyme-catalyzed reactions in a cell or organism
o Response: Living things can respond to and interact with the environment
o Homeostasis: The maintenance and regulation of internet cell conditions
o Growth: Living things can grow or change size/shape
o Excretion: The removal of metabolic waste
o Reproduction: Living things produce offspring, either sexually or asexually
o Nutrition: Feeding by either the synthesis of organic molecules or the absorption of organic matter
 Since unicellular organisms consist of only one cell, single cells must carry out all functions of life. Two examples are:

Function Paramecium Chlamydomonas

Metabolism Reactions in the cytoplasm catalyzed by enzymes

Reacts to stimuli: Reveres direction of Reacts to stimuli: Senses where the brightest light is
Response
movement when it touches a solid object with its eyespot and swims towards it

Homeostasis Keeps internal conditions within limits

Increases in size and dry mass by accumulating Increases in size and dry mass due to photosynthesis
Growth
organic matter and minerals from its food and absorption of minerals

Expels waste products of metabolism: CO2 from Excepts waste products of metabolism: Oxygen from
Excretion
respiration diffuses out of the cell photosynthesis diffuses out of the cell

Reproduction Reproduces asexually or sexually

Feeds on smaller organisms by ingesting and Produces its own food by photosynthesis using a
Nutrition
digesting them in vesicles chloroplast that occupies much of the cell

Cells sizes
 An increase in cell size leads to an increase in chemical reactions. This means more substances need to be taken in, and more
substances need to be removed. These reactions depend on the surface area and volume:
o The surface area affects the rate at which particles can enter and exit the cell
o The volume affects the rate at which materials are made or used within the cell
 As the volume of the cell increases so does the surface area however not to the same extent. As the cell gets larger its
surface area to volume ratio gets smaller
 A cell that becomes too large may not be able to take in essential materials or excrete waste substances quickly enough
 However, if the cell is too small it might overheat
 Note: Larger organisms don’t have larger cells, they just have more of them

 Special cells can increase their surface area by:

o Changing their shape to be long and thin
o Halving folds in the cell membrane

Cell Reproduction
 Cells reproduce for a variety of reasons:
o For growth in multicellular organisms
o For reproduction in single-cell organisms
o To replace dead/damaged cells

Emergent properties
 Emergent properties are properties of a group that are not possible when any of the individual elements of that group act
alone. Emergent properties arise when the interaction of individual component produce new functions
 Thus, multiple cells together can perform a wider range of functions
compared to individual cells. This is also why individual cells aren’t
that useful alone. Furthermore, this is why multicellular organisms
are more preferred over unicellular organisms
 Many cells form tissues and organs which become systems to
perform an even wider range of functions

Stem cells
 Stem cells: Cells with the potential to develop into many different types of specialized cells in the body
o This is possible as stem cells are able to divide through mitotic cell division
 Stem cells differ from other body cells in three ways:
o Self-Renewal: Stem cells can continually divide (self-sustaining)
o Potency: Stem cells are undifferentiated (unspecialized) and can differentiate in different ways to produce different
cell types
 Cell differentiation includes:
o Cell division ensures all cells are genetically identical
o So, every cell in the body has the same set of genes
o During the differentiation of a cell, certain genes are expressed while others are not
o Gene expression results in proteins made that determine the function of the cell
 Once a cell has differentiated they cannot change type, hence the cell is said to be “committed” and are no longer stem cells
 Stem cells are necessary for embryo development:
o After fertilization, a zygote is formed in all multicellular organisms
o After the formation of a zygote, there is a large increase in the number of cells. This relies on the ability of stem cells
to continually divide
o Early embryonic stem cells are capable of becoming any type of specialized cell (pluripotent stem cells)
o Subsequently, cells of the embryo start to commit to different pathways of cell differentiation and become limited
in the types of specialized cells they can form
o Embryonic development results in a unique body pattern with organs and tissues comprising of specialized cells
o Fully specialized cells are no longer flexible to form other types of specialized cells
o Some stem cells remain in fully developed organisms. In humans, these include blood and skin cell stem cells
 Stem cells can be collected from:
 Embryonic stem cells: Cells from the embryo that are undifferentiated can become any time
of cell. These are found in the inner cell mass of blastocysts
 Adult stem cells: Cells found in certain adult tissues that can become a limited number of
types of cell. Adult tissues include the bone marrow or liver
 Blastocysts are a thin-walled hollowed structure in early embryonic development that contains a
 cluster of cells called the inner cell mass from which the embryo arises)

 The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and
also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses
 Stem cells can be used to treat a variety of problems:

Stargardt’s Disease
 Stargardt’s disease: A genetic disease that can cause blindness in children
 Stargardt’s disease affects a membrane protein in the retina causing photoreceptor cells in the retina to become
degenerative
 Stargardt’s disease is treated by injecting embryonic stem cells that can develop into retina cells into the back of the eyeball

Parkinson’s Diseases
 Parkinson’s disease: A degenerative disorder of the central nervous system caused by the gradual loss of dopamine-
producing cells in the brain
 Dopamine is a neurotransmitter responsible for transmitting signals involved in the production of smooth, purposeful
movements. Those with Parkinson’s disease typically exhibit tremors, rigidity, slowness of movement and postural instability
 Parkinson’s Disease is treated by replacing dead nerve cells with living, dopamine-producing ones

Ethical concern of using stem cells

 The main argument in favor of therapeutic use of stem cells is that the health and quality of life of patients suffering from
otherwise incurable conditions may be greatly improved
 Ethical arguments against stem cell therapies depend on the source of the stem cells.
 The use of stem cells involves the creation and death of an embryo that has not yet differentiated in order to obtain
embryonic stem cells. Thus, is it ethically acceptable to create a human embryo even if it could save human lives? Some say:
o Early stage embryos are little more than balls of cells that have yet to develop the essential features of a human life
o Early stage embryos lack a nervous system so do not feel pain or suffer in other ways during stem cell procedures
o If embryos are produced deliberately, no individual that would otherwise have had the chance of living is denied the
chance of life
o Larger numbers of embryos by IVF are never implanted and do not get the chance of life

Calculating magnification
 Magnification: The size of an image of an object compared to its actual size. This is calculated using the
𝐼
formula 𝑀 = 𝐴
 Where I: Size of image, A: Actual size of object, M: magnification
 Remember to bring a ruler to exams!

1.2 Ultrastructure of cells

U1 Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure without compartmentalization

U2 Eukaryotes have a compartmentalized cell structure

U3 Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution that light microscopes

A1 Structures and function of organelles within exocrine gland cells of the pancreas and within palisade mesophyll cell of the
leaf
A2 Prokaryotes divide by binary fission

S1 Drawing of the ultrastructure of prokaryotic cells based on electron micrographs

S2 Drawing of the ultrastructure of eukaryotic cells based on electron micrographs

S3 Interpretation of electron micrographs to identify organelles and deduce the function of specialized cells

Prokaryotic Cell Structure

 Prokaryotes are unicellular organisms that lack membrane-bound structure
 Hence, prokaryotes do not have a nucleus and instead generally have a single chromosome
 Prokaryotic chromosomes have a single, circular double stranded DNA located in an area of the cell called the nucleoid
 Most prokaryotes have a cell wall outside the plasma membrane
 Two of the three major domains are prokaryotes: Bacteria and Archean
 Prokaryotes are also small (between 1-10μm)

Eukaryotic cell structure

 Eukaryotic cells have a much more complicated cell structure than prokaryotic cells
 Eukaryotes have membrane bound organelles despite having a cytoplasm like prokaryotes
 Furthermore, eukaryotes compartmentalized their organelles. This compartmentalization allows for different chemical
reactions to be separated from other organelles and allows for an increase in efficiency
 Advantages of being compartmentalized:
o Efficiency of metabolism: Enzymes and substrates can become localized and much more concentrated
o Localized conditions: Different pH and other factors can be kept at optimal levels
o Toxic/damaging substances can be isolated: E.g. digestive enzymes can be isolated
o Numbers of organelles can be changed depending on the cell’s requirements
 Eukaryotic cells are larger (5-100μm) than prokaryotic cells
 Eukaryotes consist of both animal and plant cells:

The organelles of both prokaryotes and eukaryotes are as follows:

 Organelle Description Function Structure/Location Found in:

Internal fluid component of the

Cytoplasm
cell

A membrane of the cell surrounding the Found in plants,

In plant cells, the cell wall is generally
cell membrane bacteria, archaea, fungi
Maintains shape and prevents composed of cellulose
Cell wall and algea
It is permeable (doesn’t affect transport), bursting (lysis) In bacteria, the cell wall is composed of
strong (gives support), hard to digest Animals/protists do not
peptidoglycan
(lasts a long time) have

Semi-permeable and selective barrier It controls the movement of Made up of two layers of phospholipids
Cell membrane All cells
surrounding the cell materials in and out of the cell with embedded proteins

Hair like extensions that enable Not used for motility, but for
Small hair like projections emerging
Pili adherence to surfaces (attachment pilli) adhering to other bacterial cells Prokaryotes
from the outside
or mediate bacterial conjugtion or to animal cells

Flagellum Long, slender projections containing a

Mainly used for movement Long, slender, threadlike Prokaryotes/Eukaryotes
Flagrum = Whip motor protein that enables movement

Nucleoid Region Region of the cytoplasm where DNA is

Nucleo + Oid = Like a Not encased in a nucleus Prokaryotes
located
nucleus

There are two types of ER:

Rough ER bears many ribosomes giving it a rough
appearance. Since there are ribosomes the rough ER is The membranes of the
Endoplasmic Reticulum A membrane bound organelle
involved in protein synthesis and secretion ER are connected to the
Endo = Within that occurs as interconnected
nuclear membrane and Eukaryotes
Plasma = Contain network of flattened sacs or Smooth ER does not have ribosomes on its surface. It
run through the cell
Reticulum = Small Net tubules (called cisternae) functions include the transport of the rough ER products to
membrane
other cell parts like the Golgi apparatus. Other functions
include the synthesis of lipids, sex hormones and storing
calcium ions
 Organelle Description Function Structure/Location Found in:

One side of the Golgi Apparatus faces

the Rough ER. It receives the proteins
An organelle made of flattened sacs Involved in collecting, packaging and other materials and then packages
Golgi Apparatus Eukaryotes
called cisternae and transporting molecules them into vesicles. The vesicles then
exit on the other side towards the
nucleus

Enzymes primarily used for

Lysosome Spherical molecules, surrounded by a digestion and removal of excess
Lyso = Lysis = Break single membrane containing a large range of worn-out organelles, food Small spherical molecules Eukaryotes
Some = Soma = Body of digestive enzymes particles and engulfed viruses of
bacteria

Found attached to the rough ER and

Complexes of RNA and protein that are
throughout the cytoplasm
responsible for protein synthesis
Ribosome
The site of protein synthesis Consists of two subunits that fit Prokaryotes/Eukaryotes
Ribo = Ribonucleic Acid Ribosomes of prokaryotes are 70s and
Some = Soma = Body together and work as one to build
are smaller than ribosomes in eukaryotes
proteins using the sequences held
that are 80s
within mRNA (See 2.6)

The mitochondria consists of outer and

inner membranes, an intermembrane
A spherical or rod-shaped organelle with
space (spaces in between the
its own genome, and is responsible for
membranes), the cristae (infoldings of
Mitochondria cellular respiration The powerhouse of the cell Eukaryotes
the inner membrane) and the matrix,
Cells that need lots of energy have lost of (space within the inner membrane
mitochondria
Mitochondria have their own DNA and
ribosomes

A membrane-bound vesicle found in the

Vacuole cytoplasm of a cell. The size and shape of
To store material, like water, salt Generally very large in plants as they
Vacuolum = Vaccum = Inner vacuoles varies between plants and Eukaryotes
and proteins also help keep the plant cell rigid
part animal cells. In the plant cell the vacuole
also contains water
 Organelle Description Function Structure/Location Found in:

The nucleus has three main

components: the nucleolus (dark spot
The nucleus is responsible for where ribosomes are made), the
Nucleus The large, membrane bound organelle controlling cell
Nut = Nucleus = Inner part chromatin and the nucleus envelop
that contains genetic material in the form activities/mitosis/replication and Eukaryotes
of chromosomes chromosomes. It also stores and The envelope’s pores allow
protects chromosomes communication, while the rest of the
pores isolates the DNA from other
reactions in the cell

Double membrane structure with

Chlorophyll containing plastid found Site of photosynthesis: Captures internal stacks of membranous discs
within the cells of plants and other energy form the sun (solar (thylakoids)
Chloroplasts photosynthetic eukaryotes (algae and energy) and changes it into food Contains green pigment called
Chloro = Green plants) (chemical energy) for plants Eukaryotes (Plants)
chlorophyll
Plast = Form
(photosynthesis)
A plastic is an organelle that is commonly Chloroplast have their own DNA and it
found in photosynthetic plants is commonly referred to as chloroplast
DNA or cpDNA

The organelle located near the nucleus in

the cytoplasm that divides and migrates
Centrosome to opposite poles of the cell during
Helps with the movement during
Centrum + Kentron = Center mitosis, and is involved in the formation Located near the nucleus Occurs in all cells
cell division
Soma = Some = Body of mitotic spindle, assembly of
microtubules, and regulation of cell cycle
progression

Autonomous circular DNA molecules that

Plasmids
may be transferred between bacteria
Organelle Diagrams
Binary fission
 For unicellular organisms, cell division is the only method used to
produce new individuals. Prokaryotes reproduce asexually using
the process of binary fission
1. The chromosome is replicated and each identical copy is
moved to either end of the cell
2. The cell elongates. New cell wall forms and plasma
membrane pinches in
3. Cross walls form two separate cells. The two new cells separate

Plant vs Animal

Plant Animal

Cell wall No cell wall

Chloroplasts present No chloroplasts

Large central vacuole Vacuoles absent or small

Store excess glucose as starch Stores excess glucose as glycogen

No centrioles within the centrosome area Has centrioles within the centrosome area

Generally have a fixed regular shape Generally have an amorphous (flexible) shape

Do not have cholesterol in cell membrane Have cholesterol in membrane

Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic Cell

 Prokaryotic Eukaryotic

DNA in a loop form, with no proteins DNA wrapped around proteins

DNA free in the cytoplasm DNA enclosed within nucleus

No membrane-bound organelles Has membrane-bound organelles

70s ribosomes 80s ribosomes

Size less than 10μm Size more than 10μm

Light microscope vs Electron Microscope

 The light microscope focuses visible light through a specimen
 An electron microscope uses beams of electrons to form highly magnified images
 Resolution: The shortest distance between two points that can be distinguished

Light microscope Electron microscope

Light rays Electron beams

x2000 x500 000

Living or dead can be viewed Has to be dead

Small & portable Large

Easy to use Time consuming to set up

Relatively cheap Very expensive

1.3 Membrane structure
U1 Phospholipids form bilayers in water due to the amphipathic properties of phospholipid molecules

U2 Membrane proteins are diverse in terms of structure, position in the membrane and function

U3 Cholesterol is a component of animal cell membranes

A1 Cholesterol in mammalian membranes reduces membrane fluidity and permeability to some solutes

S1 Drawing of the fluid mosaic model

S2 Analysis of evidence from electron microscopy that led to the proposal of the Davson-Danielli model

S3 Analysis of the falsification of the Davson-Danielli model that led to the Singer-Nicolson model

Phospholipids: Phosphor = Phosphorus, Lipos = Lipid = Fat

 Phospholipids: A lipid consisting of a glycerol, bound to two fatty acids and a
phosphate group
 Phospholipids are made up of two parts, a phosphate head and a fatty acid tail
 Lipids are amphipathic as:
o The head is hydrophilic (water-loving) and is attracted to water
o The tail is hydrophobic (water-hating) and is repelled by water

Arrangement in Membranes
 Phospholipids form a lipid bilayer in cell membranes of organisms
 Phospholipids are amphipathic. The phosphate head is hydrophilic and the fatty acid
tails are hydrophobic. Due to this, a bilayer self-assembles in water. The phosphate
heads are attracted to water. Therefore, the phosphate heads are on the outside of
the bilayer. The fatty acid tails are not attracted to water and are attracted to each
other. Hence, the fatty acid tails are on the inside, positioned away from the water.
The surface of the bilayer is hydrophilic and the inside of the bilayer is hydrophobic
 This organization of phospholipids in the cell membranes them selectively permeable to ions and
molecules
 Characteristic of membranes include:
o Flexible: Move and form a variety of shapes
o Strong: The hydrophobic region hates water so much that the repelling nature keeps the
membrane together
 o Self-healing: A hole in the membrane will self-heal due to the hydrophobic region’s
hatred of water
o Semipermeable: Only some solutes may pass through the membrane

Membrane Proteins
 Phospholipid bilayers are embedded with proteins, which may be either permanently or
temporarily attached to the membrane (look at fluid mosaic model)
 Proteins can be classified into:
o Integral proteins: Permanently embedded
o Peripheral proteins: Temporary embedded
 The proteins in membranes can serve for many different functions:
o Junctions: Connects cells together
o Enzymes: Can act as enzymes
o Transport: Responsible for facilitated diffusion and protein pumps
o Recognition: For cells to identify each other
o Anchorage: Attachment points for the cytoskeleton
o Transduction: Receptors for hormones

Cholesterol
 Membranes need to be fluid enough so the cell can move and necessary substances can move
across the membrane
 However, if too fluid the membrane could not effectively restrict the movement of certain
substances across itself
 Cholesterol controls membrane fluidity by making the phospholipids pack more tightly and
regulates the fluidity and flexibility of the membrane
o Cholesterol has a hydroxyl group which makes
the head polar and hydrophilic. Therefore, they
are attracted to the phosphate heads on the
periphery of the membrane
o The non-polar hydrophobic tail is attracted to the
hydrophobic tails of phospholipids
 Cholesterol can be classified as a steroid as it has carbon
rings
 Plants don’t have cholesterol molecules in their plasma membrane

Fluid Mosaic Model

 Fluid Mosaic Model: A model created by S.J. Singer and Garth Nicolson in 1972 to describe the
structural features of biological membranes
 Cell membranes are represented according to a fluid-mosaic model
o Fluid: The cell membrane is described to be fluid because of its hydrophobic integral
components such as lipids and membrane
proteins that move laterally or sideways
throughout the membrane. This means that the
membrane is not solid, but more like a fluid
 o Mosaic: The membrane is depicted as mosaic because like a mosaic that is made up of
many different parts. The cell membrane is composed of different kinds of
macromolecules, such as integral proteins, peripheral proteins, glycoproteins,
phospholipids, glycolipids and in some cases cholesterol and lipoproteins
 Singer and Nicolson proposed that there was a double layer of phospholipids. However instead
of layer of proteins they claimed that proteins were embedded within the lipid bilayer
 The phospholipid bilayer is not permeable to all substances (E.g polar substances, ions)

Danielli and Davson Model

 In 1935, Hugh Davson and James Danielli suggested a model that proposed the lipid bilayer was
covered on both sides by a thin layer of protein. As electron microscopy emerged, there were
some inconsistencies between new observations
 These observations included:
o Not all membranes were symmetrical
o Membranes with different functions also
have a different composition, which the
model did not allow for
o A protein layer is not likely because it is
non-polar and doesn’t interact well with
water
 Thus, the Danielli and Davson Model was rejected due to proof:
 Freeze fracture electron micrographs:
o Fracturing frozen cells allowed the outer phospholipid layer to be removed
o Micrographs showed globular proteins present on the upper surface of the inner
phospholipid layer
 Protein extraction:
o Proteins extracted from the plasma membrane were globular and varied in size. Parts of
their surface were hydrophobic. Suggesting proteins were embedded within the
phospholipid bilayer and their hydrophobic regions could attract the fatty acid tails.

1.4 Membrane transport

U1 Particles move across membranes by simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis and active
transport
U2 The fluidity of membranes allows materials to be take into the cells by endocytosis or released by
exocytosis. Vesicles move materials within cells
A1 Structure and function of sodium-potassium pumps for active transport and potassium channels for
facilitated diffusion in axons
A2 Tissues or organs to be used in medical procedures must be bathed in a solution with the same
osmolarity as the cytoplasm to prevent osmosis
S1 Estimation of osmolarity in tissues by bathing samples in hypotonic and hypertonic solutions

Passive vs Active Transport

 Passive Transport Active Transport

 Particles move from areas of higher  Particles move from areas of lower
concentration to areas of lower concentration to areas of higher
concentration (along a concentration concentration (against a concentration
gradient) gradient)
 Hence, passive transport does not require  Hence, active transport requires energy
chemical energy as it is driven through by through ATP and the assistance of a type
kinetic and natural energy of protein called a carrier protein
 There are four major types of passive  There are three major types of active
transport: simple diffusion, facilitated transport: rotein pumps, endocytosis,
diffusion, filtration and osmosis exocytosis

Passive Transport: Diffusion

 Diffusion may be simple diffusion or facilitated. A simple diffusion is one that occurs unassisted.
Facilitated diffusion is an assisted diffusion in a way that it requires a carrier molecule:
 Simple Diffusion: When molecules move between phospholipids
 Facilitated Diffusion: When molecules move through proteins that change shape to allow only
certain molecules to move through
o Larger polar molecules, such as glucose, and ions pass through channel proteins
spanning the phospholipid bilayer
o A channel protein forms a small hydrophilic pore through which hydrophilic substances
can pass
o Channel proteins are specific for a single type of substance

Passive Transport: Osmosis

 A type of facilitated diffusion includes osmosis
 Osmosis: The passive movement of water between a semi-permeable membrane
 Water moves in and out of cells by osmosis through special protein channels called aquaporins
 When molecules are unable to even out their own concentrations via diffusion, osmosis will even
out the concentrations
 Osmosis requires a membrane because if there was no membrane the molecules would just
spread out on their own and the water would stay put
 Osmolarity is a measure of solute concentration, as
defined by the number of osmoles of a solute per litre of
solution.
o Hypotonic solution: A word used to describe a
solution that has a lower concentration of
solutes
o Isotonic: When the solutions on either side of
the membrane is equal
o Hypertonic: A word used to describe a solution that has a higher concentration of
solutes

Size and Charge

 Two factors determine how easily molecules moves across the membrane: size and charge

Easy Ease of movement across the membrane Difficult

 Small & non-polar molecules  Large & polar molecules

 Ex: Oxygen, carbon dioxide  Ex: Ions, glucose

Active Transport: Sodium Potassium Pump

 Protein pumps are specific for a single type of substance
 The sodium-potassium pump is an active transport pump that exchanges sodium ions for
potassium ions:
1. 3 Na+ ions located inside the cell bind to the carrier protein
2. A phosphate group is removed from ATP and binds to the carrier protein
3. The carrier protein changes shape and transports Na+ ions outside of the cell
4. 2 K+ located outside of the cell bind to the carrier protein
5. The phosphate group is released, restoring the protein to its original shape
6. The 2 K+ ions released into the cell

 Remember: This is an active process because it requires 1 ATP

Active Transport: Endocytosis: Endo = Within, Cytosis = Hollow vessel

 Endocytosis: The taking in of external substances by an inward pouching of the plasma
membrane, forming a vesicle
 Endocytosis occurs when a part of the plasma membrane is pinched off to enclose a large
molecule
 This molecule is now inside of the cell and surrounded by a membrane sac called a vesicle
 There are two different types of endocytosis:
o Pinocytosis (cell-drinking): Intake of extracellular fluids
o Phagocytosis (cell-eating): Intake of large particles (like pathogens)

Active Transport: Exocytosis: Exo = Outside, Cytosis = Hollow vessel

 Exocytosis: The release of substances from a cell
(secretion) when a vesicle joins with the cell plasma
membrane
  The Golgi wraps large molecules in a vesicle, then that vesicle fuses with the membrane which
pushes the material to the outside of the cell
 Endocytosis and exocytosis both create temporary holes in the cell membranes as a part of the
membrane is removed
 Fortunately, the hydrophobic nature of the phospholipid tails makes the membrane fluid,
meaning that the phospholipids immediately region to fill those holes to avoid contact with
water

1.5 The origin of cells

U1 Cells can only be formed by division of pre-existing cells
U2 The first cells must have arisen from non-living material
U3 The origin of eukaryotic cells can be explained by the endosymbiotic theory
A1 Evidence from Pasteur’s experiments that spontaneous generation of cells and organisms does not
now occur on earth

Spontaneous Generation
 Pasteur’s experiment disproved spontaneous generation (living things can arise from non-living
things)
 In order to do this Pasteur:
1. Boil nutrient broth and place it in two flasks
2. One flasks had access to open air, other did not
3. A sample from each flask was incubated to check for the presence of live bacteria
 Only the one with the open neck grew bacterial cells. This supported Cell Theory #3: Cells only
arise from pre-existing cells

Endosymbiotic Theory
 The origin of eukaryotic cells can be explained by the endosymbiotic theory
 The Endosymbiotic Theory suggests that mitochondria and chloroplast in eukaryotic cells were
once independent prokaryotic cells. This basically means that long ago there were three
prokaryotic cells. One was capable of aerobic respiration and converting energy, one was capable
of photosynthesis, and one was incapable of doing either of these processes. However, the one
incapable of doing either of these processes engulfed the other cells
 When this cell engulfed a respiration cell it was then able to make useful energy. When it
engulfed a photosynthesis cell it was then able to convert energy from the sun into stored
chemical energy. Hence, both the mitochondria and chloroplasts were called an endosymbiont: A
cell which lives inside another cell with mutual benefit.
 The process of the Endosymbiotic Theory:
1. About 2 billion years ago, a host cell engulfed a prokaryotic cell (bacteria) capable of
photosynthesis or cell respiration
2. The bacterial cell and prokaryote formed a symbiotic relationship
3. Over time, that bacteria cell underwent changes to eventually become a mitochondria
4. The same could be said for photosynthetic bacteria and chloroplasts
 Evidence that supports this theory can be seen through mitochondria and chloroplasts:
 1. They are about the same size as prokaryotes
2. Divide by binary fission, like prokaryotes
3. Have their own DNA in a circular loop, like prokaryotes
4. Have 70s ribosomes, like prokaryotes
5. Have a double membrane (from when they were engulfed)
6. Genes in the DNA of mitochondria and chloroplasts are more similar to prokaryotes than the
cell in which they are found

1.6 Cell division

U1 Mitosis is division of the nucleus into two genetically identical daughter nuclei

U2 Chromosomes condense by supercoiling during mitosis

U3 Cytokinesis occurs after mitosis and is different in plants and animal cells

U4 Interphase is a very active phase of the cell cycle with many processes occurring in the nucleus and
cytoplasm
U5 Cyclins are involved in the control of the cell cycle

U6 Mutagens, oncogenes and metastasis are involved in the development of primary and secondary
tumors
A1 The correlation between smoking and incidence of cancers

S1 Identification of phases of mitosis in cells viewed with a microscope or in a micrograph

S2 Determination of a mitotic index from a micrograph

Mitosis
 Mitosis is a process where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells (cell division)
 Mitosis is used for several purposes:
o Growth: Multicellular organisms increase their size by increasing their number of cells
through mitosis
o Asexual Reproduction: Certain eukaryotic organisms may reproduce asexually by mitosis
o Tissue Repair: Damaged tissue can recover by replacing dead or damaged cells
o Embryonic development: A fertilized egg (zygote) will undergo mitosis and
differentiation in order to become an embryo
 If the timing is off, mistakes made during mitosis can result in changes in the DNA that can
potentially lead to genetic disorders

Cell Cycle
 The cell cycle is a series of events through which cells pass to divide
and create two identical daughter cells
 Cells spend the majority of their time in interphase. It is a very active
phase of the cycle. Interphase is where the cell carries out normal
functions
 Interphase: Consists of the cell parts of the cell cycle that don’t
involve cell division (G1, S, G2 phases)
o G1 phase: increase in cytoplasm volume, organelle
production and protein synthesis (normal growth)
 o S phase: DNA replication
o G2 phase: increase in cytoplasm volume, double the amount of organelle and protein
synthesis (prepare for cell division)
 G0 phase: Resting phase where the cell leaves the cell cycle and has stopped dividing. Cell carries
out all normal functions without the need of dividing

Stages of Mitosis
 This part of the cycle is known as M phase has two parts: mitosis and cytokinesis
o Mitosis produces 2 identical cells with full sets of genetic materials and organelles
o Cytokinesis divides the cytoplasm of a parental cell into two daughter cells after mitosis

Prophase
 DNA Supercoil: chromatin condenses and becomes sister chromatids, which are visible under the
light microscope
 Nuclear membrane is broken down and disappeared
 Centrosomes move to the opposite poles of the cell
 Spindle fibers begin to form

Metaphase
 Chromatids line up in the equator
 Spindle fibers (microtubules) attach to the
centromere of sister chromatids

Anaphase
 Contraction of the spindle fibers cause the separation of the sister chromatids
 The chromatids are now considered as chromosomes
 Chromosomes move to opposite poles of the cell

Telophase
 Chromosomes uncoil to become chromatin
 Spindle fibers break down
 New nuclear membrane reforms at opposite pole

Cytokinesis
 Cytokinesis: The splitting/separation of the cell immediately following mitosis

Animal Cells Plant Cells

 A cleavage furrow forms around  A cell plate forms in the middle

the middle  The cell plate grows until the
 The ring contracts pinching the two cells separate
 cell in two

Cyclins
 Cyclins are proteins that control the progression of cells through the cell cycle
 Cells cannot progress to the next stage of the cell cycle unless the specific cyclin reaches it
threshold
 It is used to mark the checkpoints between two stages
 The cyclins bind to receptors and this complex must be present for the next part of the cell cycle
to being
 This serves as a checkpoint, preventing cells from moving too quickly or from progressing at all
 Nerve cells (like others) lack the necessary cyclins, as they can’t reproduce

Cancer

Definitions

Cancer – The disease that results when the primary tumor spreads to other parts of the body
Metastasis – The spreading of cancerous/tumor cells through the body via the blood or other
mechanisms
Oncogenes – Genes that have turn “on” to start division and a turn “off” when cell division is complete
Carcinogens – Agents that can cause cancer, such as viruses, X-rays, UV radiation
Mutagens – Agents that can cause mutations in one’s DNA which can lead to cancer

 Primary tumor: A mass of cells that are dividing at abnormally fast rates for no apparent reason
 Primary tumors form when:
o Carcinogens or genetic mutations cause a change to the oncogene of a cell
o The malfunctioning oncogene causes the cell to continuously replicate
o The mass of defective cells forms a primary tumor
 Secondary tumor: The tumor that forms in other parts of the body after metastasis of the
primary tumor