Shear Stress in Smooth Rectangular Open-Channel Flows: Digitalcommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln
Shear Stress in Smooth Rectangular Open-Channel Flows: Digitalcommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln
January 2005
Pierre Y. Julien
Colorado State University
Guo, Junke and Julien, Pierre Y., "Shear Stress in Smooth Rectangular Open-Channel Flows" (2005). Civil Engineering Faculty
Publications. 1.
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Shear Stress in Smooth Rectangular Open-Channel Flows
Junke Guo1 and Pierre Y. Julien2
Abstract: The average bed and sidewall shear stresses in smooth rectangular open-channel flows are determined after solving the
continuity and momentum equations. The analysis shows that the shear stresses are function of three components: (1) gravitational; (2)
secondary flows; and (3) interfacial shear stress. An analytical solution in terms of series expansion is obtained for the case of constant
eddy viscosity without secondary currents. In comparison with laboratory measurements, it slightly overestimates the average bed shear
stress measurements but underestimates the average sidewall shear stress by 17% when the width–depth ratio becomes large. A second
approximation is formulated after introducing two empirical correction factors. The second approximation agrees very well (R2 ⬎ 0.99 and
average relative error less than 6%) with experimental measurements over a wide range of width–depth ratios.
DOI: 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9429(2005)131:1(30)
CE Database subject headings: Open channel flow; Boundary shear; Shear stress; Secondary flow; Velocity.
Introduction determine the shear stress and velocity distribution. Chiu and his
associates (Chiu and Lin 1983; Chiu and Chiou 1986) investi-
The problem of separating the bed shear stress and the side-wall gated the complex interaction between primary and secondary
shear stress is very important in almost all studies of open- flows, shear stress distribution, channel characteristics (rough-
channel flows. For example, one must know boundary shear stress ness, slope, and geometry), and other related variables in open
to study a velocity profile (Guo and Julien 2001; Babaeyan- channels. The difficulty is that the calculation of boundary shear
Koopaei et al. 2002). One must separate the bed shear stress from stress requires the knowledge of velocity profile.
the total shear stress to estimate bed-load transport in open- Keulegan (1938) and Johnson (1942) contributed to the early
channel flows. Similarly, to study channel migration or to prevent development of this subject, and Einstein’s (1942) hydraulic ra-
dius separation method (Chien and Wan 1999, p. 266) is still
bank erosion, one must know the side-wall shear stress. More-
widely used in laboratory studies and engineering practice. Ein-
over, a side-wall correction procedure is often needed in labora-
stein divided a cross-sectional area into two areas Ab and Aw, as
tory flume studies of velocity profiles, bedform resistance and
shown in Fig. 1. He assumed that the downstream component of
sediment transport (Julien 1995; Cheng 2002; Berlamont et al.
the fluid weight in area Ab is balanced by the resistance of the
2003). Wall shear stress measurement techniques were also re-
bed. Likewise, the downstream component of the fluid weight in
cently reviewed by Bocchiola et al. (2003). This paper aims at area Aw is balanced by the resistance of the two side walls. There
determining the average boundary shear stress in smooth rectan- is no friction at the interface between the two areas Ab and Aw. In
gular open channels from continuity and momentum equations. terms of energy, the potential energy provided by area Ab is dis-
Seven decades ago, Leighly (1932) proposed the idea of using sipated by the channel bed, and the potential energy provided by
conformal mapping to study the boundary shear stress distribution area Aw is dissipated by the two side walls. Following this idea,
in open-channel flows. He pointed out that, in the absence of Yang and Lim (1997, 1998) recently proposed an analytical
secondary currents, the boundary shear stress acting on the bed method to delineate the two areas. However, their method is in-
must be balanced by the downstream component of the weight of convenient for applications because of its implicit and segmental
water contained within the bounding orthogonals. This idea has form (Guo 1999) except without considering the effects of sec-
not rendered any conclusive results (Graf 1971, p. 107), though ondary currents.
Lundgren and Jonsson (1964) extended the logarithmic law to a Since the 1960s, several experimental studies have been re-
parabolic cross-sectional open channel and proposed a method to ported by Cruff (1965), Ghosh and Roy (1970), Kartha and
Leutheusser (1970), Myers (1978), Knight and Macdonald
1
Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering, Univ. of Nebraska– (1979), Knight (1981), Noutsopoulos and Hadjipanos (1982),
Lincoln, PKI 110 S. 67th St., Omaha, NE 68182; and, Affiliate Faculty, Knight et al. (1984), Hu (1985), and others. Knight and his asso-
The State Key Lab of Water Resources and Hydropower Engineering ciates collected a great deal of experimental data about the effect
Sciences, Wuhan Univ., Wuhan, Hubei 430072, PRC. of the side walls at different width–depth ratios. With these data,
2
Professor, Engineering Research Center, Dept. of Civil Engineering, they proposed several empirical relations which are very helpful
Colorado State Univ., Fort Collins, CO 80523. E-mail: pierre@ in the studies of open-channel flow and sediment transport.
engr.colostate.edu Starting with the continuity and momentum equations for a
Note. Discussion open until June 1, 2005. Separate discussions must
steady uniform flow, the objective of this paper is first to formu-
be submitted for individual papers. To extend the closing date by one
month, a written request must be filed with the ASCE Managing Editor. late a theoretical basis for the boundary shear stress in rectangular
The manuscript for this paper was submitted for review and possible open channels. As a first approximation, the boundary shear stress
publication on January 29, 2002; approved on August 9, 2004. This paper will be solved by using conformal mapping, after neglecting sec-
is part of the Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, Vol. 131, No. 1, ondary currents and assuming a constant eddy viscosity. A second
January 1, 2005. ©ASCE, ISSN 0733-9429/2005/1-30–37/$25.00. approximation is then presented by introducing two lumped em-
pirical correction factors for the effects of secondary currents, 共uv兲 共uw兲 yx zx
variable eddy viscosity and other possible effects. Both approxi- + = gS + + 共3兲
y z y z
mations will be compared with the existing experimental data.
Finally, the implication to flume velocity profile studies will be The corresponding volume integral equation to the above equa-
briefly discussed. tion is
Theoretical Analysis 冕冋
V
共uv兲 共uw兲
y
+
z
dV = 册 冕 V
gS dV + 冕冉 V
yx zx
y
+
z
冊
dV
冕 冉 冊 冕冉 冊
continuity and momentum equations in the flow direction x are
y z y z
v w u v +w dA = gVS + yx + zx dA 共5兲
+ =0 共1兲 A n n A n n
y z
in which y / n = cosine of the angle between the axis y and the
冉 u
v +w
y
u
z
冊
= gS +
yx zx
y
+
z
共2兲
normal vector n pointing outside of the control volume; and simi-
larly z / n = cosine of the angle between the axis z and the normal
vector n. The left-hand side of the above equation is the net
in which = mass density of water; g = gravitational acceleration; momentum flux out of the control surface A. The first term of the
S = channel slope; and yx and zx = shear stresses in the flow di- right-hand side is the gravity component of the control volume,
rection x applied on the z – x plane and the y – x plane, respec- and the second term of the right-hand side is the shear force on
tively. The convective accelerations on the left-hand side of Eq. the control surface A. Eq. (5) will be used to formulate the bound-
(2) account for secondary currents. The first term on the right- ary shear stress equation.
hand side is the gravity component in the flow direction, and the
other two are net shear stresses applied on a differential element
Average Bed Shear Stress Equation
of fluid. The momentum equation in terms of shear stress is used
since this study focuses on boundary shear stresses instead of Consider a control volume BCHGB in Fig. 1 that has a unit length
velocity distributions. in the flow direction x. The delimitations BG and CH are sym-
Multiplying Eq. (1) by u and adding it to the left-hand side of metric with respect to the axis z. The momentum flux in Eq. (5) is
Eq. (2) gives then
冕 冕 冉
BC
=
BC
u v
y
n
+w
z
n
dA = 0 冊 共7兲 冕 =
CH
共yx dz − zx dy兲 共14兲
冕 冕 冕 冉
GB
=
CH
=
CH
u v
y
n
+w
z
n
dA 冊 because y / n = 0, z / n = 1, and yx = zx = 0 at the free surface.
Substituting Eqs. (13)–(15) into Eq. (12) gives
冕 冉 =
CH
u v
y
n
+w
z
n
dl 冊 冕冉 A
yx
y
n
+ zx
z
n
冊
dA = − ¯bb + 2 冕CH
共yx dz − zx dy兲 共16兲
冕 冕
=
CH
2 u共v dz − w dy兲 = gSAb − ¯bb + 2 共yx dz − zx dy兲
because dz = y / n · dl, −dy = z / n · dl, dA = dl · 1 = dl, in which CH CH
dl = differential length along delimitation CH, shown in Fig. 1, 共17兲
“1” means a unit length in the flow direction x, and the symmetric
condition has been used for the integration over the curve GB; which results in
冕 冕
and
gSAb 2 2
¯b = − u共v dz − w dy兲 + 共yx dz − zx dy兲
b b b
冕 冕 冉 冊
CH CH
y z 共18兲
= u v +w dA = = 0 共9兲
HG HG n n
This is the theoretical equation of the average bed shear stress.
because y / n = 0, z / n = 1, v ⫽ 0, and w = 0 at the free surface. The first term of the right-hand side describes the gravitational
Substituting Eqs. (7)–(9) into Eq. (6) yields component. The second term is associated with secondary cur-
rents and the last term represents the shear stress at the interface
CH.
冕 冉 A
u v
y
n
+w
z
n
dA = 2 冊 冕 CH
u共v dz − w dy兲 共10兲
Average Side-Wall Shear Stress Equation
The gravity term in Eq. (5) becomes Similarly, the average side-wall shear stress ¯w can be formulated
by applying Eq. (5) to the control volume BGEB or CFHC in Fig.
1. However, a short way to derive the average side-wall shear
gSV = gSAb 共11兲 stress is to consider the overall force balance in the flow direction.
That is
in which V = Ab · 1 = Ab that is the flow area corresponding to the
channel bed. ¯ b = gbhS
¯ w + b
2h 共19兲
The term of shear force in Eq. (5) becomes in which the first term on the left-hand side is the shear force on
the two side walls, the second term is the shear force on the
冕冉 冊 冕 冕 冕 冕
channel bed, and the right-hand side is the component of water
y z gravity in the flow direction. Applying Eq. (18) in Eq. (19) gives
yx + zx dA = + + + 共12兲
A n n BC CH HG GB the average side-wall shear stress as
in which gbhS − b
¯b
¯w =
2h
冕 冕冉
BC
=
BC
yx
y
n
+ zx
z
n
冊
dA = − ¯bb 共13兲 =
gSAw 1
2h
+
h
冕 CH
u共v dz − w dy兲 −
1
h
冕 CH
共yx dz − zx dy兲
共20兲
because y / n = 0, z / n = −1, zx =¯b (note that zx is positive in
the negative direction of a negative plane y – x, according to the in which Aw = bh − Ab has been used.
sign conventions of shear stresses) that is the average bed shear To summarize Eqs. (18) and (20), one can see that the bound-
stress, and the area of the channel bed is A = b · 1 = b ary shear stress consists of three components: the first term is the
The first term is the dominant term with small contributions from or
the second and third terms on the right-hand side of Eqs. (18) and
(20). Note that although Eqs. (18) and (20) are here derived for
smooth rectangular open channels, they are valid for all types of
y
2b
= tan−1 exp −
z
b
冉 冊 共25b兲
冕 冕 冉 冊
one must know the main velocity u and secondary currents v and h h
w, the shear stresses yx and zx, and the integration path CH. On 4b z
Ab = 2 ydz = tan−1 exp − dz 共26兲
the other hand, to solve for velocity field, one must know the 0 0 b
boundary shear stresses. This interaction between velocity and
shear stress makes the solution of boundary shear stresses or ve- Expanding the integrand of Eq. (26) in terms of exp共−z / b兲 and
locity profiles very complicated, as shown by Chiu and Chiou integrating it yields
(1986). As a first approximation, one may neglect the effects of
secondary currents and the fluid shear stresses. Thus, Eq. (18)
becomes
Ab =
4b2
2
冉
− 共t − 1兲 +
t3 − 1 t5 − 1 t7 − 1
32
− 2 + 2 − ¯
5 7
冊
⬁
gSAb 4b2 t2n−1 − 1
¯b =
b
共21a兲 = 2
n=1
兺
共− 1兲n
共2n − 1兲2
共27兲
冋 册
The remaining problem is to find the areas Ab and Aw, which is
equivalent to find the delimitations BG and CH in Fig. 1. ⬁
4 b t2n−1 − 1
Aw = bh 1 − 2
h n=1
共− 1兲n 兺
共2n − 1兲2
共30兲
Delimitations BG and CH
Furthermore, the average side-wall shear stress ¯w from Eq. (22b)
The first approximation assumes that: (1) secondary currents are
becomes
冋 册
neglected; and (2) the eddy viscosity t is constant. Applying
these two assumptions to Eq. (2) gives ⬁
¯w Aw b 4 b t2n−1 − 1
2u 2u gS
= 2=
ghS 2h 2h
1− 2
h n=1
共− 1兲n
共2n − 1兲2
兺 共31a兲
+ =− = const 共23兲
y 2 z2 + t
or
冉 冊
in which yx = 共 + t兲u / y; zx = 共 + t兲u / z; and = water ki-
¯w b ¯b
nematic viscosity. The above equation is the Poisson equation and = 1− 共31b兲
can be solved by a conformal mapping method (White 1991, p. ghS 2h ghS
115). That is, the orthogonals of the velocity contours can be used in which ¯b / 共ghS兲 is estimated by Eq. (28).
to delineate BG and CH in Fig. 1. Although the solution of Eq.
(23) gives a laminar velocity profile, the orthogonals provide a
first approximation of the boundary shear stress. According to the Second Approximation with Correction Factors
Schwarz–Christoffel transformation (Spiegel 1993, p. 204), the
delimitation CH is found as (Guo 1998; Guo and Julien 2002) The first approximation also implies that the maximum velocity
y z occurs at the water surface. However, experiments (Tracy 1965;
sin cosh = 1 共24兲 Imamoto and Ishigaki 1988; Nezu and Nakagawa 1993, p. 98)
b b
and numerical simulations (Naot and Rodi 1982) showed that in
which is identical to narrow channels, the maximum velocity occurs below the water
surface, shown in Fig. 3. This is called the velocity dip phenom- and
冉 冊
enon that is caused by secondary currents (Graf 1971, p. 107;
Chiu and Chiou 1986). The second approximation aims at im- 1h 2h 1h
exp − → 共40兲
proving upon the first approximation by introducing two lumped b b b
empirical correction factors in the first approximation. substituting the above two relations into Eq. (36) gives
Substituting Eq. (26) into Eq. (21b) gives
¯b
=
41
ghS h
冕
h
−1
tan exp −
z
b
dz冉 冊 共32兲
¯w
ghS
→
b
2h
冋 冉 冊 册
1− 1−
2h
b
−
1h
b
1
= 1 − 1
2
共41兲
0
Combining Eq. (38) and Eq. (41) yields
Applying the theorem of integration by parts to the above gives
¯b 4
= tan−1exp −
ghS
h
b
+冉 冊 冕
4
bh
h
0
z exp共− z/b兲
1 + exp共− 2z/b兲
dz
1 = 0.78 ⬇
4
Applying the condition Eq. (37) in Eqs. (35) and (36) at b / h = 2,
共42兲
冕 冕 冉 冊
h h
z exp共− z/b兲 z in which Eq. (42) has been applied. Solving the above equation
dz ⬃ z exp − dz
1 + exp共− 2z/b兲 b gives
0 0
冉 冊
⬃ h · 共h兲exp −
h
b
共34兲 2 = 0.316 ⬇
1
共44兲
in which the mean value theorem for integrals has been applied Finally, with Eqs. (42) and (44), the second approximation of the
and 0 ⬍ ⬍ 1. average bed shear stress Eq. (35) reduces to
冉 冊 冉 冊
To include the effects of secondary currents, variable eddy
¯b 4 h h h
viscosity and other possible effects, two lumped empirical correc- = tan−1 exp − + exp − 共45兲
tion factors 1 and 2 are introduced in Eq. (34). In other words, ghS b 4b b
from Eqs. (33) and (34) one can assume and the side-wall shear stress Eq. (36) reduces to
¯b 4
= tan−1 exp −
ghS
h
b
冉 冊
+
1h
b
exp −
2h
b
冉 冊 共35兲 ¯w
=
ghS 2h
b
冋4
1 − tan−1 exp −
h
b
− 冉 冊
h
4b
exp −
h
b
冉 冊册 共46兲
Substituting Eq. (35) into Eq. (31b) gives the second approxima- One can demonstrate that for a very wide channel where b / h
tion for the average side-wall shear stress → ⬁, the second term of Eq. (45) vanishes and tan−11 = / 4,
¯w
=
ghS 2h
b 4
冋
1 − tan−1 exp −
h
b
−
1h
b
冉 冊
exp −
2h
b
冉 冊册 which reduces Eq. (45) to ¯b → ghS. This coincides with the
result in a two-dimensional flow. However, the average side-wall
shear stress Eq. (46) for large width–depth ratios is not zero,
共36兲 which can be clearly seen from Eq. (41).
Table 1. Comparison of Calculated Bed Shear Velocities with Measurements in Smooth Flumes
Coleman’s Lyn’s (1986, 2000) Muste and Patel’s (1997)
(1986)
Parameter Run 1 C1 C2 C3 C4 CW01 CW02 CW03
Slope S 共⫻10 兲
−3
2.00 2.06 2.70 2.96 4.01 0.739 0.768 8.13
Temperature T (°C) 21.1 18.7 21.3 21.0 21.3 18.4 17.2 17.4
Depth h (cm) 17.2 6.54 6.53 5.75 5.69 13.00 12.8 12.70
Average velocity V (m/s) 1.050 0.658 0.772 0.734 0.868 0.624 0.628 0.634
Hydraulic radius R (cm) 8.75 4.39 4.38 4.02 3.99 10.10 10.00 9.90
Reynolds numer R = VR / 共⫻104兲 9.17 2.73 3.41 2.96 3.50 6.00 5.80 5.80
Froude number F = V / 冑gh 0.80 0.82 0.97 0.97 1.16 0.55 0.56 0.57
Width–depth ratio b / h 2.00 4.08 4.09 4.64 4.69 7.00 7.10 7.16
Bed shear velocity u*b (cm/s), from Eq. (45) 4.14 3.05 3.49 3.50 4.06 2.78 2.82 2.89
Measured shear velocity u*b (cm/s) 4.10 3.10 3.70 3.60 4.30 2.92 2.92 2.98