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Chapter 1 Solution
Chapter 1 Solution
Measurements
Mole
Solution
Chemical and Solution Stoichiometry
Mole
Mole ( mol)
Is the SI unit for the amount of substance.
Defined as the amount of a substance that contains the
same number of entities as the number of atoms in 12 g
of carbon-12. this number is called Avogadro’s number.
a homogeneous mixture.
composed of one phase (e.g., solid, liquid, gas).
Particles in a solution are not visible to the naked
eye and evenly distributed.
does not scatter a light beam.
Components of a solution do not separate upon
standing.
Components do not chemically react with each
other.
Concentration can be changed.
Types of Solution
Colloids and Suspensions
Solubility of a solute
• Is the maximum amount of solute that can dissolve
in a certain amount of solvent or solution at a certain
temperature.
Pressure
For solid and liquid solutes, changes in pressure have
practically no effect on solubility.
For gaseous solutes, an increase in pressure increases
solubility and a decrease in pressure decreases
solubility.
Example: When the cap on a bottle of soda pop is
removed, pressure is released, and the gaseous solute
bubbles out of solution. This escape of a gas from
solution is called effervescence.
The amount of carbon dioxide that was
dissolved in the drink at a higher pressure will
not stay dissolved once the drink is opened at a
lower pressure.
Factors Affecting the Rate Of Solution
Stirring
• With liquid and solid solutes, stirring brings fresh
portions of the solvent in contact with the solute.
Stirring, therefore, allows the solute to dissolve
faster.
Amount of solute already dissolved
• When very little solute in the solution, dissolving
takes place quickly.
• When a lot of solute in the solution, dissolving
takes place more slowly.
Factors Affecting the Rate Of Solution
Temperature
• For liquids and solid solutes, increasing the
temperature not only increases the amount of solute
that will dissolve but also increases the rate at which
the solute will dissolve.
• For gases, the reverse is true. An increase in
temperature decreases both solubility and rate of
solution.
Concentrations of Solution
1. Mass/mass percent
2. Volume/volume percent
For example:
A bottle of wine that is 14% (v/v)
alcohol means that 14 mL of alcohol is
present in 100 mL of the wine.
16.2
Percent Volume/Volume, % (v/v)
Mathematical Expression:
or
• To make a 0.5-molar
(0.5M) solution, first
add 0.5 mol of solute
to a 1-L volumetric
flask half filled with
distilled water.
16.2
Molarity
Relationship of M and N:
normality = molarity x h
• For Acids
Example:
1N solution of HCl = MWt/z per litre = 36.5/1 per
litre
= 36.5g HCl per litre
• Ionic Reactions
(eg Precipitation Reactions) the value of z is based on
the ion charge.
36
Parts per Million (ppm) and
Parts per Billion(ppb)
37
Ways of Expressing Solution
Concentration
Examples
1. What is the molality of a solution prepared by
dissolving 32.0 g of CaCl2 in 271 g of water?
42
16.2
Making Dilutions
• Making a Dilute Solution
16.2
Making Dilutions
• To prepare 100 ml of 0.40M MgSO4 from a stock
solution of 2.0M MgSO4, a student first measures
20 mL of the stock solution with a 20-mL pipet.
16.2
Making Dilutions
• Then transfers the 20 mL to a 100-mL volumetric
flask.
16.2
Making Dilutions
• Finally carefully add water to the mark to make 100
mL of solution.
16.2
Making Dilutions
• Volume-Measuring Devices
16.4
16.4
Dilution
For example, if 150 mL of 0.90% saline is diluted to a
final volume of 450 mL with water, what would the
concentration of the final diluted concentration be?
Solution
50
Colligative Properties of Solution
Electrolytes
* Form ions when
dissolved in water
* Produces solutions that
conduct electricity
Strong electrolyte Weak electrolyte
*complete * Partial
ionization ionization
Classifications of Electrolytes
CLASSIFICATION OF ELECTROLYTES
STRONG WEAK
1. Inorganic acids such as 1. Many inorganic acids
HNO3, HClO4,H2SO4, HCl, including H2CO3, H3BO3,
HI, HBr, HClO3, HBrO3 H3PO4, H2S, H2SO3
2. Alkali and alkaline-earth 2. Most organic acids
hydroxides
3. Most salts 3. Ammonia and most
organic bases
4. Halides, cyanides, and
thiocyanates of Hg, Zn,
and Cd
Classification of Solutes
( electrical conductivity)
• Electrolytes
An aqueous solution of an electrolyte conducts because
the solute separates into ions as it dissolves.
Strong electrolytes- soluble salts, strong acids, and
strong bases- dissociate completely
Weak electrolytes- weak acids and weak bases-
dissociate very little
• Nonelectrolytes
Solutions which do not conduct a current such as sugar
and alcohol do not dissociate into ions at all.
Colligative Properties of Non-volatile
Nonelectrolyte Solution
Raoult’s Law
The vapor pressure of solvent above a
solution ( Psolvent) equals the mole fraction of
solvent ( X solvent) times the vapor pressure of
the pure solvent (P0solvent)
∆Tb = Kbm
∆Tb= change in temperature
m = the molality, which is the moles of solute per
kilograms of solvent
Kb = the molal boiling point constant
(for water, Kb = 0.5121oC/m)
Freezing Point
∆T = change in temperature
m = the molality, which is the moles of solute
per kilograms of solvent
Kf = the molal freezing point constant
(for water, Kf = -1.86 oC/m)
Example
Osmosis
Occurs when solutions of different concentrations
are separated by a semipermeable membrane, one
that allows solvent, but not solute, to pass through.
Osmotic Pressure
Is a net flow of solvent into a more concentrated
solution causes a pressure difference.
Quantifying Osmotic Pressure
• Osmotic Pressure is proportional to the number of solute
particles in a given solution volume, that is, to the
molarity (M)
Example:
For Non electrolyte:
sucrose i = 1 [no dissociation]
For strong electrolyte:
NaCl i = 2 [NaCl → Na++Cl-]
K2SO4 i = 3 [K2SO4 → 2K+ + SO42- ]
Quantifying Colligative Properties for
Strong Electrolyte Solutions
Divide by MW (g/mol)
Mole of Mg(OH)2
Molar ratio
Divide by M ( mol/L)