Wave Optics
Wave Optics
: Introduction
: History
: Huygens’s Principle
: Refraction and Reflection of light by Huygen’s
…principle
: Doppler’s effect
: Interference of Light Waves
: Thomas Young
: Diffusion of Light
:
Wave optics
History
In 1637, Descartes gave the corpuscular model of light
and derived Snell’s law. It explained the laws of reflection
and refraction of light at an interface
The corpuscular model predicted that if the ray of light (on
refraction)bends towards the normal then the speed of
light would be greater in the second medium.
This corpuscular model of light was further developed by
Isaac Newton in his famous book entitled OPTICKS and
because of the tremendous popularity of this book, the
corpuscular model is very
Often attributed to Newton.In 1678, the Dutch physicist
Christiaan Huygens put forward the wave theory of light .
HUYGENS PRINCIPLE
Before studing Huygens Principle we should define a
term called wavefront. It can be easily understood
by an example as when we drop a small stone on a
calm pool of water, waves spread out from the point
of impact. Every point on the surface starts
oscillating with time. At any instant, a photograph of
the surface would show circular rings on which the
disturbance is maximum. Clearly, all points on such
a circle are oscillating in phase because they are at
the same distance from the source. Such a locus of
points, which oscillate in phase is called a wavefront
; thus a wavefront is defined as a surface of constant
phase. The speed with which the wavefront moves
outwards from the source is called the speed of the
wave. The energy of the wave travels in a direction
perpendicular to the wavefront.
It could not explain interference, diffraction, polarisation. photoelectric effect and Compton
effect. The theory failed as it could not explain why light travels faster in a rarer medium than in
a denser medium.
Wavefront
A wavefront is defined as the continuous locus of all the particles of a medium, which are
vibrating in the same phase.
All particles on a wavefront behaves as a secondary source of light, which emits secondary
wavelets.
Amplitude (A) ∝ 1 / √x
∴ Intensity ∝ (Amplitude)2 ∝ 1 / x
Huygen’s Principle
(i) Every point on given wavefront (called primary wavefront) acts as a fresh source of new
disturbance called secondary wavelets.
(ii) The secondary wavelets travels in all the directions with the speed of light in the medium.
(iii) A surface touching these secondary wavelets tangentially in the forward direction at any
instant gives the new (secondary) wave front of that instant.
v = 1 / √μo εo εr μr = c / √μo εr
(v) The velocity of electromagnetic waves in a medium depend upon the electric and magnetic
properties of the medium.
(ii) The energy of a photon is E == hv, where h is Planck’s constant and v is the frequency of
light.
(iii) Quantum theory could explain photoelectric effect, Compton effect and Raman effect.
(iii) Quantum theory failed to explain interference, diffraction and polarisation of light.
Two natures of light are like the two faces of a coin. In anyone phenomena only its one nature
appears.
Energy of photon = hv = hc / λ
Superposition of Waves
When two similar waves propagate in a medium simultaneously, then at any point the resultant
displacement is equal to the vector sum of displacement produced by individual waves.
y = y1 + y2
Interference of Light
When two light waves of similar frequency having a zero or constant phase difference propagate
in a medium simultaneously in the same direction, then due to their superposition maximum
intensity is obtained at few points and minimum intensity at other few points.
where λ is the wavelength of light d is the distance between two coherent sources.
Path difference, Δx = nλ
where, n = 0, 1, 2, 3,…
where, n = 1, 2, 3, …
If two waves of exactly same frequency and of amplitude a and b interfere, then amplitude of
resultant wave is given by
Rmax = (a + b)
Rmin = (a – b)
Intensity of wave
∴ I = a2 + b2 + 2ab cos φ
= I1 + I2 + 2 √I1 I2 cos φ
where I1 and I2 are intensities of two waves.
∴ I1 / I2 = a2 / b2 = ω1 / ω2
Where ω1 and ω2 are width of slits.
Energy remains conserved during interference.
β = Dλ / d
where, D = distance of screen from slits, λ = wavelength of light and d = distance between two
slits.
When a transparent sheet of refractive index μ and of thickness t is introduced in one of the path
of interfering waves, then fringe pattern shifts in that direction by a distance Y
Y = D / d (μ – 1) t = β / λ (μ – 1) t
Fresnel’s Biprism
It is a combination of two prisms of very small refracting angles placed base to base. It is used to
obtain two coherent sources from a single light source.
Lyod’s Mirror
The shape of interference fringes are usually hyperbolic.
When screen is held at 900 to the line joining foci of the hyperbola, the fringes are circular.
When distance of screen (D) is very large compare to the distance between the slits (d), the
Cringes are straight.
Diffraction
The bending of light waves around the corners of an obstacle or aperture is called diffraction of
light.
Opticals are in the form of Collimating lens and focusing lens are
2 No optJcals are required. required.
where, λ = wavelength of light, a = width of single slit, D = distance of screen from the slit and f
= focal length of convex lens.
where, n = 1, 2, 3,.,.
Important Points
A soap bubble or oil film on water appears coloured in white light due to interference of light
reflected from upper and lower surfaces of soap bubble or oil film.
In interference fringe pattern all bright and dark fringes are of same width,
In diffraction fringe pattern central bright fringe is brightest and widest. and I remaining
secondary maximas are of gradually decreasing intensities.
The difference between interference and diffraction is that the interference is the superposition
between the wavelets coming from two coherent sources while the diffraction is the
superposition between the wavelets coming from the single wavefront
Polarisation
The phenomena of restructuring of electric vectors of light into a single direction is
called polarisation.
Ordinary light has electric vectors in all possible directions in a plane perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of light.
When ordinary light is passed through a tourmaline, calcite or quartz crystal the transmitted light
have electric vectors in a particular direction parallel to the axis of crystal. This light is plane
polarised light.
Nicol Prism
A nicol prism is an optical device which is used for producing plane polarised light and
analysing light the same.
The nicol prism consists of two calcite crystal cut at 68° with its principal axis joined by a glue
called Canada balsam.
Law of Malus
When a beam of completely plane polarised light is incident on an analyser, the intensity of
transmitted light from analyser is directly proportional to the square of the cosine of the angle
between plane of transmission of analyser and polariser, i.e.,
I ∝ cos2 θ
When ordinary light is incident on a polariser the intensity of transmitted light is half of the
intensity of incident light.
When a polariser and analyser are perpendicular to each other, then intensity of transmitted light
from analyser becomes O.
Brewster’s Law
When unpolarised light is incident at an angle of polarisation (ip) on the interface separating air
from a medium of refractive index μ, then reflected light becomes fully polarised, provided
μ = tan ip
If angle of polarisation is ip and angle of refraction is μ then
ip + r = 90°
Refractive index μ = tan ip = 1 / sin C
where, C = critical angle.
Double Refraction
When unpolarised light is incident on a calcite or quartz crystal it splits up into two refracted
rays. one of which follows laws of refraction. called ordinary ray (O-ray) and other do not follow
laws of refraction. called extraordinary ray (E-ray). This phenomena is called double refraction.
Dichroism
Few double refracting crystals have a property of absorbing one of the two refracted rays and
allowing the other to emerge out. This property of crystal is called dichroism.
Polaroid
It is a polarising film mounted between two glass plates. It is used to produce polarised light.
Uses of Polaroid
(i) Polaroids are used in sun glasses. They protect the eyes from glare.
(ii) The polaroids are used in window panes of a train and especially of an aeroplane. They help
to control the light entering through the window.
(iii) The pictures taken by a stereoscopic camera. When seen with the help of polarized
spectacles, create three dimensional effect.
(iv) The windshield of an automobile is made of polaroid. Such a mind shield protects the eyes
of the driver of the automobile from the dazzling light of the approaching vehicles.