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Water Needs and Hydration For Cats and Dogs - Brain M.zanghi
Water Needs and Hydration For Cats and Dogs - Brain M.zanghi
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assumed constant used for determining lean-mass and fat- ratio provides a convenient means of closely estimating a
mass proportions of body composition studies, the individual healthy pet’s water need while accounting for different
animal’s hydration constant will vary. Multiple studies in compositions of diet and varying levels of activity that result
cats and dogs have reported that the mean hydration constant in changing levels of calorie consumption. However, some
can range from 71.3 to 75.9% in dogs9,12,13 and from 71.8 to evidence exists that when exercising dogs in an extremely
75.7% in cats.8 Although it is not surprising that the TBW cold climate, this method overestimates the true need.22
proportion decreases with increased body weight, new Another limitation is that changes in the ratio are accurate
evidence highlights that LMH also appears to diminish only if caloric intake is verifiably stable.
with increasing percent of body fat.9 Specifically, dogs with In general, the daily water:calorie intake ratio for estimating
>25% body fat had an LMH ranging from 72 to 74%, whereas a cat’s water need has been reported to be 0.6 to 0.7 when
lean dogs with 7 to 20% body fat had an LMH ranging from ingesting dry food23-25 and 0.9 when ingesting wet food.26 In
74 to 78%. This may offer insight into an animal’s hydration sedentary dogs eating dry food, a 1:1 ratio previously was
status and body water pool in overweight or obese populations reported,3 and recent research by Nestlé Purina has gener-
of dogs. The assumption of a standard LMH and reference ally confirmed this estimate (1.1:1, B. Zanghi, unpublished
range of TBW values has also been a topic of discussion data). In dogs, total water intake appears to be similar
related to human nutrition and obesity, particularly because regardless of diet type (dry or wet food).15
of the increasing prevalence of obesity in humans.14 This difference of the daily water:calorie ratio observed
in healthy cats is because they self-regulate total water
Water Balance Regulation consumed through drinking to meet their daily needs in
Ultimately, the degree of water intake results from phys- response to the moisture content of the food.3,23,27,28 The
iological factors that regulate thirst, which is driven by the higher ratio in cats eating wet food is a result of ingesting
body’s attempt to maintain cellular homeostasis and stable a large portion of their daily water as food moisture, thus
body water pool during the daily cycling between states of they drink very little free water. By contrast, cats eating dry
mild hypohydration and mild hyperhydration.4 The regu- food receive considerably less water from food but drink
lation of water balance and thirst are tightly controlled by significantly more water. However, this volume of water
neuroendocrine mechanisms involving various hormone ingested through drinking when cats are fed a dry food
systems that largely include arginine vasopressin (AVP), does not typically compensate for the water received in wet
or vasopressin, and the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone food. Unfortunately, pet owners have a misperception that
system. Increases in plasma osmolality above a “natural” their cat drinks sufficiently when eating dry food because
set point, or decreases in blood volume, trigger secretion they can readily observe the cat drinking, and thus believe
of AVP, which in turn stimulates drinking in dogs15 and the cat must be adequately hydrated (Nestlé Purina, con-
cats.16,17 While the role of the neuroendocrine systems in sumer research). Interestingly, the opposite perception also
regulating water and sodium balance is germane to the exists in which pet owners who regularly feed wet food
overall topic relating to hydration and water intake, more indicate that they rarely observe the cat drinking, therefore
thorough reviews of these systems and the neurobiochemical they assume the animal must be dehydrated.
mechanisms have been described by others.18-20 The currently accepted understanding for cats is that the
higher total water intake and higher water:calorie intake
Water Intake and Daily Water Needs of ratio while eating wet food results in greater diuresis and
Cats and Dogs that cats eating dry food, while having a lower daily
Based on the most recent review on water requirements water:calorie ratio, are equally sufficient in meeting daily
of cats and dogs,3 daily water intake volume (mL) has been water requirement.3 However, cats with lower urinary tract
reported using three different methods: 1) mL/kg BW; diseases (LUTDs) appear to benefit from increased total
2) mL/kg dry matter ingested; and 3) mL/ME kcal ingested water intake and urine output. Therefore, for health concerns
(water:calorie intake ratio). Across all these methods, water related to LUTDs in cats, nutrition studies have provided
intake can be achieved from a combination of the ingestion some evidence that increased water intake can be achieved
of water as food moisture, free water from drinking, and through modification of dietary moisture to increase
metabolic water. Metabolic water is generated from the oxida- food-water27-29 or sodium content to stimulate drinking.30-32
tion of macronutrients (fats, carbohydrates, and protein) and Human research has demonstrated that increasing water
can be calculated as 10 to 16 mL water per 100 kcal ME21 or intake to increase urine volume and dilution is typically
through the calculation of water (g) per 100 g macronutrient recommended as one method of addressing the prevention
(107, 60, or 41, respectively).3 of urolith recurrence.33,34 To increase fluid intake in people,
Although there does not appear to be a consensus or voluntarily drinking more water is most common but also
recommendation on which method is the most accurate or includes drinking various other common beverages.33,35
appropriate, the third method based on water:calorie intake While increased total water intake for cats has been achieved
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through diet modification or stimulating thirst with sodium, is based on growing evidence that a low-hydration process
no studies have been reported on making liquid intake more (low daily TBW turnover) may have detrimental health con-
palatable to increase drinking, or through modifying the water sequences.47-49 A low-hydration process would be a result of
composition, which has been widely examined in people. low daily water intake and low urine volume output with
Although additions of flavorings to water or use of fountains higher urine osmolality.
have been previously suggested,36 only a single study has For people, drinking makes up the majority of total water
reported water intake from the use of a fountain versus a intake, whereas food water content is highly variable account-
bowl,37 which did not result in improved urine dilution as ing for approximately 20 to 30% of total water intake50,51 and
indicated by similar urine specific gravity and osmolality metabolic water production providing only a small propor-
between water sources. With regard to flavor and nutrient- tion. By contrast, as described above in cats, and possibly
enriched drinking water, initial studies by Nestlé Purina in dogs, dietary moisture significantly influences total daily
healthy cats25 and dogs (B. Zanghi, unpublished data) have water intake and directly impacts the proportion of water
revealed that water intake through drinking and dilution intake through drinking. Using diet moisture as the example
of urine can be significantly increased when provided with (wet food versus dry food), the distinct difference in total
nutrient-enriched water. daily water intake and water:calorie intake ratio in cats
poses a fundamental question related to categorically
Defining Hydration Status: What Is Optimal defining hydration status. What is the basis for defining
Versus Adequate? eu-hydration, and should or does the hydration process
Hydration is a dynamic process between water intake and apply, particularly in cats that naturally produce very
loss, with a constant regulation to maintain a stable total concentrated urine?
body water pool.38 Many factors influence daily water loss If the assumption is that cats, and possibly dogs, eating
and thus hydration, including environment, health condition, a dry food with free access to fresh water are maintaining
age, physical activity, water availability, and diet. Factors eu-hydration, then pets eating a wet food or high-moisture
such as environment, water availability, and physical activity food may be considered trending toward hyperhydration
play a significant role in acutely shifting hydration status. and having greater diuresis. Thus, this would likely result
However, factors like age, health condition, and diet can in an increased body water turnover, which would suggest
have a chronic influence on hydration status. a higher hydration process. Alternatively, if ingesting wet
Although targeting a healthy or optimal hydration status food was the basis of maintaining eu-hydration, then by
is believed to be important for pets and people, the physio- default the ingestion of dry food would suggest that pets may
logical parameters and daily water requirement to achieve be maintaining a slightly hypohydration status. A third perspec-
the desired level of “optimal” hydration are still undefined. tive is that maybe both scenarios are truly eu-hydration,
This is the focus of much ongoing work within human nutri- which further suggests consideration of the approach of
tion to better define biomarkers associated with optimal assessing hydration as a process and the need to account
hydration and more refined targets for daily water intake.7,38-41 for daily volume in and volume out. In this case, ingestion
Early categorical grouping of hydration was generally based of dry food or wet food may have each pet fall within some
on hypohydration (dehydration), eu-hydration, and hyperhy- yet-to-be determined place on a low-to-high spectrum of the
dration (water intoxication). However, questions remained “hydration process” and related total body water turnover.
on what biomarkers to use to assign an individual to a hy- The approach to using a hydration process may or may not
dration status. These are still critical points of discussion be appropriate for pet cats and dogs. Or, the biomarkers that
and debate.42-44 are used to define various degrees of hydration for cats and
One measure that has been demonstrated in the past to be dogs may differ from those used for people. In contrast to
important in describing some delineation of eu-hydration humans, serum osmolality in cats has been reported over
in healthy people is the very narrow range of average, but a very wide range (276 to 361, Table 1), and while it is less
not individual, serum osmolality (279 to 281 mOsm/kg). broad for dogs (281 to 333, Table 2), it is still considerably
However, serum osmolality has been shown to be main- greater than in people. In addition, once diet type and moisture
tained across a very wide range of total daily water intake content are established for the individual cat and dog, total
(1.7 to 7.9 L H2O/d).5 This narrow range of serum osmolality daily water intake remains relatively stable when the pet has
was confirmed in a separate study (289 to 292 mOsm/kg a predictable routine and maintains a mildly active to
with water intake <1.2 to 4 L/d).39 Based on this wide range sedentary lifestyle. Compared to total water intake in the
of water intake, urine osmolality for healthy kidney function adult human, attempting to determine and recommend
also can be wide ranging (50 to 1200 mOsm/kg),46 thus water the volume of water intake per day for dogs is possible but
turnover can be low to high. Consequently, a new perspective not ideal, because body weight (BW) can vary dramatically
has recently emerged to consider hydration more as a “pro- across breeds, thus volume ranges will require caveats to
cess” instead of a “state.” 7 The idea of a hydration process account for pet BW. However, this comparison may work
17
Table 1. Mean (± SD) serum, urine, and water intake measures in adult cats by separate or combined gender, ingesting dry or wet
food with free access to tap water.
Health Status (Age) Gender and N Serum Urine Specific Urine Osmolality Daily Water Refs
Food Type* Osmolality Gravity (g/mL) (mOsmo/kg) Intake (mL/kg BW)
(mOsmo/kg)
healthy (3-15 years) M+F# - dry 23 310 ±11 1.053 ±0.007 2222 ±257 20.9±9.1 53
Female - dry 11 312 ±11 1.050 ±0.008 2177 ±315 19.6 ±8.9
Male - dry 12 309 ±12 1.052 ±0.009 2197 ±312 22.0 ±9.2
median (range) 313 (283-332) 1.052 (1.026-1.072) 2200 (1199-2864) 19.8 (6.5-61.5)
healthy (2-11 years) Female - dry 5 305 ±12 1.058 ±0.005 2402 ±194 28
Male - dry 7 300 ±12 1.060 ±0.005 2445 ±234
median (range) 12 300 (286-327) 1.059 (1.052-1.068) 2428 (2194-2874) 109.2 (93.0-128.0)††
Female - wet 6 319 ±7 1.055 ±0.005 2197 ±187
Male - wet 6 (9)† 323 ±13 1.049 ±0.008 2197 ±343
median (range) 317 (310-341) 1.054 (1.036-1.064) 2071 (1398-2550) 29.7 (17.7-126.3)††
healthy (0.5-10 years) M+F - dry 12 ND 1.055 ±0.005 2469 ±367 22.9 ±10.2 37
Female - dry 6 ND 1.056 ±0.004 2496 ±334 ND
Male - dry 6 ND 1.054 ±0.005 2442 ±428 ND
median (range) ND 1.055 (1.046->1.060) 2372 (1977-3105) ND
healthy (0.5-21 years) Female - dry NR ND ~1.050‡ ND ND 60
Male - dry NR ND ~1.050‡ ND ND
Female - wet NR ND ~1.040‡ ND ND
Male - wet NR ND ~1.050‡ ND ND
median (range) 949 ND 1.050 (1.005-1.090) ND ND
healthy (2-9 years) M+F - dry 6 ND ~1.053 ±0.005 ND 103.4 ±13.0** 27
M+F - wet 6 ND 1.036 ±0.005 ND 144.7 ±12.7**
healthy (adult) Male - dry 10 ND ND ND 156** 26
Male - wet 9 ND ND ND 156**
healthy (1-8 years) Male - dry 10 ND 1.051 ND 211.6 ±67.2** 61
Male - dry 10 ND 1.040 ND 234.6 ±61.7**
healthy (NR) Male - dry 15 ND 1.056 ±0.007 2079 ±541 179 ±42** 24
idiopathic cystitis M+F - dry 28 ND 1.052 ±0.012 ND ND 29
(1-7 years) M+F - wet 18 ND 1.041 ±0.013## ND ND
* ‡
food type indicated as dry is representative of food with less than 10% visually estimated mean based figure 4 from reference 60
††
moisture, whereas wet is representative of food having approximately representative of only free water volume ingested (total mL/d)
**
65-75% moisture data units: total mL /d
# ##
M+F: combination of males and females data collected after 6 months of feeding diet
†
number in brackets is for the number of pets used for urine data ND: not determined NR: not reported
Table 2. Mean± SD) serum, urine, and water intake measures in healthy, adult dogs, reported by separate or combined gender, ingesting
dry with free access to tap water.
Health Status (Age) Gender N Serum Urine Specific Urine Osmolality Daily Water Refs
Osmolality Gravity (g/mL) (mOsmo/kg) Intake (mL/kg BW)
(mOsmo/kg)
Mongrel (3-15 years) M+F 19 ~298 ND 1514 ±436 63-67 62
female ND ND ND
male ND ND ND
median (range) ND ND ND
Kelpie (2 years) female 4 ND ND ND 72.9 ±7.4 63
Beagle or Hound M+F 12 ND ND ND 27.5 ±3.6 64
(0.5-10 years) female 6 ND ND ND 28.8 ±4.1
male 6 ND ND ND 26.2 ±2.8
median (range) ND ND ND 26.6 (22.5-35.7
Beagles and Labrador female 6 298 ±6 1.022 ±0.012 879 ±446 66.5 ±31.4 NP
Retriever male 8 294 ±5 1.034 ±0.010 1356 ±323 56.5 ±16.8
(2.4-11 years) median (range) 14 295 (286-305) 1.033 (1.008-1.046) 1278 (268-1801) 57.0 (35.4-122.6)
Breed not specified female 4 ND ND ND 36.8 ±21.4 65
(adult) median (range) ND ND ND 32.1 (16.6-66.5)
NP: Nestlé Purina, unpublished data
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for cats, as there is much less Figure 1. Dog data (N=345) comparing urine osmolality (mOsmo/kg) generated from
variation in BW among breeds. samples collected 5 times over 2 weeks in N=35 dogs on same days as water:calorie
Regardless, if applying the water:- (mL:ME kcal) data was recorded, followed by replicating the collection a second time
several weeks later.
calorie ratio as a surrogate for total
water intake when cats are housed
indoors in a climate-controlled
environment and calorie intake is
stable, then the day-to-day range
of group mean water:calorie ratio
tracked over seven days is relatively
narrow (0.55 to 0.69, B. Zanghi,
unpublished data). This contrasts
the water intake range in people.
The day-to-day variation is slightly
greater in dogs based on the range
of group mean water:calorie ratio
tracked over 14 days (1.0 to 1.4, Water intake ratio, mL:ME kcal
B. Zanghi, unpublished data).
Although water:calorie ratio does Figure 2. Dog data (N=325) comparing urine osmolality (mOsmo/kg) and serum osmolality
not discern if water intake is increas- (mOsmo/kg) generated from samples collected 5 times over 2 weeks in N=33 dogs, followed
ing or calorie intake is decreasing, by replicating the collection a second time several weeks later.
Biomarkers of Hydration:
Characterizing Normal
Ranges Is Needed
Using the same logic that is the
focus of ongoing research in human
nutrition to assess hydration, it
appears that it will be important
Serum osmolality, mOsmo*kg-1
to further characterize the various
physiological measures of urine
and water intake across a range of Figure 3. Cat data (N=135) comparing urine osmolality (mOsmo/kg) and serum osmolality
(mOsmo/kg) generated from samples collected 3 times over 2 weeks in N=23 cats (tap
health populations with varying water), followed by replicating the collection a second time several weeks later(test water). 53
demographics.4,7,52 While many
(%%%
urine measures are traditionally
used as a clinical reference to assess
$!&
')%%
normal or abnormal kidney function,
several of these measures could be '%%%
used to establish confidence intervals,
percentile ranges, and thus targeted &)%%
estimates within the feline or
canine population to at least define &%%%
eu-hydration. This is obviously
easier said than done, as much )%%
work is necessary to determine how
and to what extent eu-hydration may %
')% '*% '+% (&% ((% ()% (*%
differ between breeds, gender, body
$!&
Serum osmolality, mOsmo*kg-1
composition, age, etc. With the
19
Figure 4. Cat data (N=135) comparing urine osmolality (mOsmo/kg) generated from urine
concentrating ability versus humans,
samples collected 3 times over 2 weeks in N=23 cats on same days as water:calorie (mL:ME this can yield a broad urine:serum
kcal) data (tap water), followed by replicating the collection a second time several weeks osmolality ratio range (0.5 to 6.7,
later (test water).53
Figure 2). By contrast, cats have a
/,,, much higher minimum threshold
! for urine concentration, which
.1,, typically ranges from approximately
" $ +(-
!
2000 to 3000 mOsm/kg (Table
.,,, 1). Consequently, this is 5.9 to 8.5
times serum osmolality (Figure 3)
-1,, when they have free access to tap
water regardless of wet or dry food
-,,, ingestion. One related measure-
ment that needs better characteri-
zation is the potential relationship
1,,
between urine concentration and
urine output volume, particularly
,
,&, ,&1 -&, -&1 .&, .&1 /&, /&1
in cats.
Interestingly, recent research
!%
$%
Water:calorie ratio, mL:ME kcal
has indicated that urine dilution
is possible below 2000 mOsmo/
Figure 5. Cat data (N=135) comparing urine osmolality (mOsmo/kg) generated from urine kg in cats when they are provided
samples collected 3 times over 2 weeks in N=23 cats to the previous day’s total water
free access to a nutrient-enriched,
intake volume (mL/kg BW) data (tap water), followed by replicating the collection a
second time several weeks later (test water).53 flavored water (test water) that
increases water intake (Figure 4).
However, the dilution in urine is
not wholly explained with water:-
calorie intake ratio, since urine
dilution is observed even when the
ratio is below 0.6. This is partially
influenced by the slight decreased
food calorie intake that cats experi-
ence while drinking the palatable
test water. Examination of this
data on the basis of only water in-
take volume and standardized on
a body weight basis (mL/kg BW)
provides more clarity to the value
of increasing water intake through
Water intake volume, mL*kg BW-1 drinking to support a dilution in
urine (Figure 5).
existing published literature in cats and dogs, some values Concentrated urine is also normal with adequate water
have been compiled based mostly on data from healthy pets intake in dogs, and increased water intake will result in
with segregation of gender and food moisture when possible diluted urine (Figure 1). Considering this dog data (Figure 1)
(Tables 1 and 2). and cat data (Figure 5) begins to provide some evidence in
In most healthy animals, the kidney is normally producing support of exploring the hypothesis of increased hydration
concentrated urine, and fluid intake does not typically occur process. However, it is only the first part for dogs and cats
in excess of need to maintain eu-hydration. In people, since it will be necessary to examine urine output and
urine osmolality has a typical range of 100 to 1200 mOsmo/kg, total water balance to begin characterizing the hydration
which decreases with increasing total water intake and is 40 process more thoroughly.
approximately two to three times serum osmolality. Similarly Based only on the canine data set in Figure 1, and not the
with dogs, urine osmolality can be wide ranging (150 to 1943 body of literature compiled in Table 2, it appears that adequate
mOsm/kg) and also declines with increasing water:calorie hydration, or eu-hydration, may be achieved if the water:calorie
intake ratio (Figure 1). Because dogs have a much higher ratio is at least 0.9 and up to 1.1. Although optimal hydration
20
is yet to be defined, increasing water:calorie intake ratio to less so for dogs. How the varying amounts of daily water
at least 1.4, appears to sustain a low to moderately concen- intake relate to a low, moderate, or high hydration process,
trated urine. For cats based solely on the data described along with the prospect of how this impacts long-term health,
in Figure 5, it appears that when cats have approximately not only remains to be determined, but could be interesting
30 mL/kg BW of total water intake per day from all dietary and possibly very important to consider to improve dietary
and metabolic sources, urine can be effectively diluted water recommendations for healthy pets. For pets with some
while remaining within normal clinical ranges of healthy type of urinary tract condition, obesity, and/or geriatric life
kidney function (urine specific gravity >1.025 or osmolal- stage, the need is likely even greater.
ity >~1000). This data also corresponds with higher urine
output volume and no difference in glomerular filtration References
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