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Biochemistry of Vitamins
Biochemistry of Vitamins
BIOCHEMISTRY OF VITAMINS
Zaporizhzhya - 2016
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Reviewers:
Kaplaushenko A.G. Head of Physical and Colloidal Chemistry Department,
doctor of pharmaceutical science, associate professor
Voskoboynik O. Yu. Assoc. professor of Organic and Bioorganic Chemistry
Department, Ph. D.
Authors:
Aleksandrova K.V.
Rudko N.P.
Aleksandrova K.V.
Biochemistry of vitamins. Textbook for students of international faculty
speciality: 7.120 10001 «General Medicine» / K.V. Aleksandrova, N.P. Rudko. –
Zaporizhzhya : ZSMU, 2016.- 73 p.
Александрова К.В.
Біохімія вітамінів. Начально-методичний посібник для студентів
міжнародного факультету спеціальності 7.120 10001 «Лікувальна справа»/
К.В. Александрова, Н.П. Рудько,.- Запоріжжя : ЗДМУ, 2016. – 73 с.
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INTRODUCTION
Sometimes it is difficult for students to find out the main important notions
for study of biochemistry in basic literature that is recommended. The
educational process for students of medical department requires the use not only
the basic literature but also that one which is discussed as additional literature
sources. This is because each day we have new scientific researches in
biochemistry, later which can improve our understanding of theoretical questions
this subject. This manual is proposed by authors as additional one for study of
water-soluble and fat-soluble vitamins: their structure, properties, functions and
metabolism in human organism.
Authors
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CONTENT
INTRODUCTION……………………………………………………….. 3
GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT VITAMINS…………………… 5
CLASSIFICATION AND NOMENCLATURE OF THE VITAMINS.. 10
GROUP I. FAT-SOLUBLE VITAMINS ……………………………...... 13
GROUP II. WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS.......................................... 24
GROUP III. VITAMIN-LIKE SUBSTANCES.......................................... 43
HEALTH EFFECTS OF VITAMINS AND ANTIVITAMINS …….… 45
METHODS USED IN VITAMIN RESEARCH ……………………...... 47
TEST-TASKS FOR SELF-CONTROL………………………………….. 60
ANSWERS TO TEST-TASKS FOR SELF-CONTROL………………... 72
LITERATURE…………………………………………………………...… 73
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GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT VITAMINS
Vitamins are a group of organic nutrients of various nature required in small
quantities for multiple biochemical reactions for the growth, survival and
reproduction of the organism, and which, generally, cannot be synthesized by the
body and must therefore be supplied by the diet. The most prominent function of
the vitamins is to serve as coenzymes (or prosthetic group) for enzymatic reactions.
The discovery of the vitamins began with experiments performed by
Hopkins at the beginning of the twentieth century; he fed rats on a defined diet
providing the then known nutrients: fats, proteins, carbohydrates, and mineral salts.
The animals failed to grow, but the addition of a small amount of milk to the diet
both permitted the animals to maintain normal growth and restored growth to the
animals that had previously been fed the defined diet. He suggested that milk
contained one or more “accessory growth factors” – essential nutrients present in
small amounts, because the addition of only a small amount of milk to the diet was
sufficient to maintain normal growth and development. The first of the accessory
food factors to be isolated and identified was found to be chemically an amine;
therefore, in 1912, Funk coined the term vitamine, from the Latin vita for “life”
and amine, for the prominent chemical reactive group. Although subsequent
accessory growth factors were not found to be amines, the name has been retained–
with the loss of the final “-e” to avoid chemical confusion. The decision as to
whether the word should correctly be pronounced “vitamin” or “veitamin” depends
in large part on which system of Latin pronunciation one learned – the Oxford
English Dictionary permits both. During the first half of the twentieth century,
vitamin deficiency diseases were common in developed and developing countries.
At the beginning of the twenty-first century, they are generally rare, although
vitamin A deficiency is a major public health problem throughout the developing
world, and there is evidence of widespread subclinical deficiencies of vitamins B2
and B6. In addition, refugee and displaced populations are at risk of multiple B
vitamin deficiencies, because the cereal foods used in emergency rations are not
usually fortified with micronutrients.
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Vitamins are grouped together according to the following general biological
characteristics:
1. Vitamins are not synthesized by the body and must come from food. An
exception are vitamin B3 (PP), which active form NADH (NADPH) can be
synthesized from tryptophan and vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol), synthesized from 7-
dehydrocholesterol in the skin. Amount of those ones and vitamins partially
synthesized by intestinal microflora (В1, В2, В3, B5, В6, К, and others) is normally
not sufficient to cover the body's need them.
2. Vitamins are not plastic material. Exception is vitamin F.
3. Vitamins are not an energy source. Exception is vitamin F.
4. Vitamins are essential for all vital processes and biologically active
already in small quantities.
5. They influence biochemical processes in all tissues and organs, i.e. they
are not specific to organs.
6. They can be used for medicinal purposes as a non-specific tools in high
doses for: diabetes mellitus - B1, B2, B6; colds and infectious diseases - vitamin C;
bronchial asthma - vitamin PP; gastrointestinal ulcers - vitamin-like substance U
and nicotinic acid; in hypercholesterolemia - nicotinic acid.
Since only a few vitamins can be stored (A, D, E, B12), a lack of vitamins
quickly leads to deficiency diseases (hypovitaminosis or avitaminosis). These
often affect the skin, blood cells, and nervous system. The causes of vitamin
deficiencies can be treated by improving nutrition and by administration vitamins
in tablet form. An overdose of vitamins leads to hypervitaminosis state only, with
toxic symptoms, in the case of vitamins A and D. Normally, excess vitamins are
rapidly excreted with the urine.
Lack of vitamins leads to the development of pathological processes in the
form of specific hypo- and avitaminosis. Widespread hidden forms of vitamin
deficiency have not severe external manifestations and symptoms, but have a
negative impact on performance, the overall tone of the body and its resistance to
various adverse factors.
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Avitaminosis is a disease that develops in the absence of a particular vitamin.
Currently avitaminosis are not commonly found, but hypovitaminoses are observed
with vitamin deficiency in the body. Numerous examples you can see in the table 1.
Table 1. Vitamin functions and manifestations of hypo- and avitaminoses
Vitamin Functions Hypovitaminosis symptomes
B1 Thiamin Functional part of Peripheral nerve damage (polyneuritis
coenzyme TPP in pyruvate beriberi) or central nervous system lesions
and α-ketoglutarate (Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome)
dehydrogenases, Concentration of pyruvate is increased in the
transketolase; poorly patient's blood, the most of which is excreted
defined function in nerve with urine
conduction
B2 Riboflavin Functional part of Epithelial, mucosa, cutaneous, corneal
coenzymes FAD, FMN in lesions: lesions of corner of mouth, lips, and
oxidation-reduction tongue; seborrheic dermatitis
reactions
B3 Niacin, Functional part of Pellagra: photosensitive dermatitis, glossitis
(PP) nicotinic coenzymes NAD+, NADP+ (tongue inflammation), alopecia (hair loss),
acid, in oxidation-reduction edema (swelling), diarrhea, depressive
nicotin- reactions psychosis, aggression, ataxia (lack of
amide coordination), dementia, weakness
B5 Pantothenic Functional part of Numbness in the toes, burning sensation in
acid coenzyme CoA (universal the feet, the defeat of mucous membranes of
acyl carrier in Krebs cycle, internal organs, early graying, hair loss,
fatty and other carboxylic various disorders of the skin: the
acid metabolism) and development of small cracks in the corners of
phosphopantetheine (acyl the mouth, the appearance of white patches
carrier protein in fatty acid on various parts of the body. There may also
synthesis) be depressed mood, fatigue.
B6 Pyridoxine, Functional part of Dermatitis of the eyes, nose, and mouth.
pyridoxal, coenzyme PLP in There is mental confusion, glossitis and
pyridox- transamination and peripheral neuropathy, convulsions (due to
amine decarboxylation of amino lack of inhibitory neurotransmitter GABA)
acids and glycogen
phosphorylase
B7 Biotin Coenzyme in carboxylation Seborrheic dermatitis, anemia, depression,
(H) reactions in
hair loss, high blood sugar levels,
gluconeogenesis and fatty inflammation or pallor of the skin and
acid synthesis mucous membranes, insomnia, loss of
appetite, muscle aches, nausea, sore tongue,
dry skin, high blood cholesterol
B9 Folic acid Functional part of Megaloblastic anemia: red tongue, anemia,
coenzyme THFA in transfer lethargy, fatigue, insomnia, anxiety, digestive
of one-carbon fragments disorders, growth retardation, breathing
difficulties, memory problems.
Deficiency during pregnancy is associated
with neural tube defects
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B12 Cobalamin Functional part of Vitamin B12-deficiency anemia (in other
coenzymes words pernicious anemia or Addison–
adenosylcobalamin Biermer anemia) is one of many types of
(Methylmalonyl Co A megaloblastic anemias with degeneration of
mutase) and the spinal cord, anemia, fatigue, depression,
methylcobalamin low-grade fevers, diarrhea, weight loss,
(Methionine synthase) in neuropathic pain, glossitis (swollen, red and
transfer of one-carbon smooth appearance of the tongue), angular
fragments and metabolism cheilitis (sores at the corner of the mouth)
of folic acid Possible manifestations are also hypochromic
anemia, splitting hair and loss of hair,
increased nail bottling and taste alteration
C Ascorbic It serves as a donor of Scurvy: general weakness, subcutaneous
acid protons in hydroxylation hemmorhages (frequent hemorrhages from
reaction for: internals and mucous membranes), gingival
- collagen synthesis (prolyl- hemmorhages, loss of teeth, formation of
and lysyl residues are spots on the skin, spongy gums, yellow skin,
hydroxylated by prolyl fever, neuropathy
3(4)-hydroxylase and lysyl Multiple hemorrages in the places of clothes
5-hydroxylase respectively; friction are possible if a person often
- catecholamines and experiences acute respiratory infections
steroid hormone synthesis;
It has properties of
antioxidant; enhances
absorption of iron
A Retinol Functional part of visual Vision impairment hemeralopia (night
pigments (rhodopsins and blindness), xerophthalmia; keratinization of
iodopsins) in the retina; skin
regulation of gene
expression and cell
differentiation; β-carotene
(provitamin A) is an
antioxidant
D Calciferol Stimulation of Ca2+ Rickets = poor mineralization of bone;
absorption through osteomalacia = bone demineralization
intestinal wall, maintenance Osteoectasia of the lower extremities and
of calcium balance and delayed mineralization of cranial bones are
mobilization of bone onserved in infants
mineral
E Tocopherols Antioxidant, especially in Extremely rare is a serious neurologic
cell membranes dysfunction
K Phyllo- Coenzyme in formation of Impaired blood clotting, hemorrhagic
quinone, γ-carboxyglutamate disease, osteoporosis and coronary heart
mena- residues in structure of: disease
quinones - factors II (prothrombin), Intestinal dysbacteriosis occurs hemorrhagic
VII, IX, X, XIV, protein S syndrome
(blood coagulation system);
- bone matrix proteins
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External causes for hypovitaminosis
1. Lack of the vitamin in the diet or presence of food factors hindering the
absorption of vitamin. For example, use of large amounts of raw eggs (they contain
protein avidin binds vitamin H (biotin)) as a result may develop a state of
hypovitaminosis H.
2. Do not take into account the need for a particular vitamin. For example, in
protein-free diet is increasing demand for vitamin PP (with normal diet it may be
partially synthesized from tryptophan). If a person consumes much protein, it can
increase the need for vitamin B6 and reduce the need for vitamin PP.
3. Social reasons: urbanization, power and extremely high purity of canned
food; antivitamin presence in food. People are not enough exposed to sunlight in
large cities - so it can be hypovitaminosis D. In such cases, the medicine uses
ultraviolet radiation in the form of different physical treatments, which activate the
synthesis of vitamin D3 from 7-dehydrocholesterol in the skin cells.
Internal causes of hypovitaminosis
1. Physiological increased need for vitamins, for example, during pregnancy,
with heavy physical labor.
2. Long-term severe infectious diseases, as well as during the recovery
period.
3. Disturbance of vitamin absorption in some diseases of the digestive tract,
for example impaired absorption of fat-soluble vitamins is observed at
cholelithiasis; vitamin B12 is done with atrophy of the gastric mucosa and a
deficiency of Castle intrinsic factor. Another case if a person who hadn’t been
consuming fats but had been getting enough carbohydrates and proteins for long
time revealed dermatitis, poor wound healing, vision impairment. Lack of vitamins
A, D, E, K, F (linoleic, linolenic, arachidonic acids) is probable cause of the
metabolic disorder.
4. Intestinal dysbacteriosis. It has the meaning as some vitamins are
synthesized by the intestinal microflora (these vitamins are B3, B6, B7 (H), B9, B12,
and K).
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5. Cirrhosis. The liver is the major depot of many vitamins, particularly fat-
soluble (especially high hepatic reserves of fat soluble vitamins A, D), but also
certain water-soluble, such as B9, B12, etc. In case of vitamin consumption increase
and reducing their dietary intake, which is usually the case, for example, in
alcoholism, megaloblastic anemia is developed in a short time as a characteristic
sign of hypovitaminosis B9. Patients with cirrhosis may experience blurred vision
in the twilight due to malabsorption of vitamin A in the intestine and its reduced
deposit in the liver.
6. Genetic defects of some enzymatic systems. For example, vitamin D-
resistant rickets occurs in children lack the enzymes involved in the formation of
the active form of vitamin D - calcitriol (1, 25-dihydroxycholecalciferol).
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soluble derivatives of several of the B vitamins and vitamin C have been developed
for therapeutic use and as food additives.
As the discovery of the vitamins progressed, it was realized that “Factor B”
consisted of a number of chemically and physiologically distinct compounds.
Before they were identified chemically, they were given a logical series of
alphanumeric names: B1, B2, and so forth.
Table 2. Classification of vitamins. Group B.
Alphanumeric name of Chemical and other names of vitamin
vitamin
Vitamin B1 thiamine
Vitamin B2 riboflavin
Vitamin B3 niacin, niacinamide, niacin, niacinamide, RR
Vitamin B4 choline
Vitamin B5 pantothenic acid
Vitamin B6 pyridoxine, pyridoxal
Vitamin B7 biotin, vitamin H
Vitamin B8 inositol, myo-inositol, vitamin U
Vitamin B9 folic acid, foliatsin, vitamin BC, M
Vitamin B10 para-aminobenzoic acid, PABA, vitamin H1
Vitamin B11 L-carnitine, vitamin T, vitamin D
Vitamin B12 cyanocobalamin, cobalamin
Vitamin B13 orotic acid
Vitamin B14 pyrrolo-quinoline quinone, metoksantin, coenzyme of
PQQ (Pyrroloquinoline Quinone)
Vitamin B15 pangamic acid, sometimes referred to as vitamin B16
Vitamin B16 sometimes pangamic acid - B15, and sometimes
cyanocobalamin - B12
Vitamin B17 (misnomer) L-citral, letral, letril, amygdalin (The structure - a
2glucose + mandelonitrile)
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And such vitamins or vitamin similar compounds as:
Vitamin C - ascorbic acid;
Vitamin P - bioflavonoids: quercetin, rutin, myricetin, apigenin, hesperin,
hesperidin, luteolin, catechin, eriodictyol, cyaniding and others;
Vitamin N - lipoic acid;
Vitamin U (ulcus - ulcer) - a derivative of methionine-methionine-methyl
sulfonium (pharmacology known as "metiosulfoniya chloride")
As can be seen from Table 2, a number of compounds were assigned vitamin
status, and were later shown either not to be vitamins, or to be compounds that had
already been identified and given other names.
For a compound to be considered a vitamin, it must be shown to be a dietary
essential. Its elimination from the diet must result in a more-or-less clearly defined
deficiency disease, and restoration must cure or prevent that deficiency disease.
Demonstrating that a compound has pharmacological actions, and possibly cures a
disease, does not classify that compound as a vitamin, even if it is a naturally
occurring compound that is found in foods. Equally, demonstrating that a
compound has a physiological function as a coenzyme or hormone does not
classify that compound as a vitamin. It is necessary to demonstrate that
endogenous synthesis of the compound is inadequate to meet physiological
requirements in the absence of a dietary source of the compound. There is some
evidence that premature infants and patients maintained on long-term total
parenteral nutrition may be unable to meet their requirements for carnitine, choline,
and taurine unless they are provided in the diet, and these are sometimes regarded
as “marginal compounds,” for which there is no evidence to estimate requirements.
The rigorous criteria outlined here would exclude niacin and vitamin D from
the list of vitamins, because under normal conditions endogenous synthesis does
indeed meet requirements. Nevertheless, they are considered to be vitamins, even
if only on the grounds that each was discovered as the result of investigations into
once common deficiency diseases, pellagra and rickets.
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In addition to the marginal compounds like carnitine choline, there are a
number of compounds present in foods of plant origin that are considered to be
beneficial, in that they have actions that may prevent the development of
atherosclerosis and some cancers, although there is no evidence that they are
dietary essentials, and they are not generally considered as nutrients.
VITAMIN A
Vitamin A includes two vitamers: retinol and dehydroretinol but group of
vitamin A consists and their biologically active molecules retinal (retinaldehyde)
and retinoic acid.
All-trans-retinal 11-cis-retinal
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Each of these compounds are derived from the plant produced molecule
carotene (a member of a family of molecules known as carotenoids). Beta-carotene
structure:
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Gene Control Exerted by Retinol and Retinoic Acid
Within cells both retinol and retinoic acid bind to specific receptor proteins.
Following binding, the receptor-vitamin complex interacts with specific sequences
in several genes involved in growth and differentiation and affects expression of
these genes. In this capacity retinol and retinoic acid are considered hormones of
the steroid/thyroid hormone superfamily of proteins. Vitamin D also acts in a
similar capacity. Several genes whose patterns of expression are altered by retinoic
acid are involved in the earliest processes of embryogenesis including the
differentiation of the three germ layers, organogenesis and limb development.
Ergosterol Vitamin D2
7-Dehydrocholesterol Vitamin D3
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Vitamin D2 and D3 are processed to D2-calcitriol and D3-calcitriol,
respectively, by the same enzymatic pathways in the body. Cholecalciferol (or
ergocalciferol) are absorbed from the intestine and transported to the liver bound to
a specific vitamin D-binding protein. In the liver cholecalciferol is hydroxylated at
the 25 position by a specific D3-25-hydroxylase generating 25-hydroxy-D3 [25-
(OH)D3] which is the major circulating form of vitamin D. Conversion of 25-
(OH)D3 to its biologically active form, calcitriol, occurs through the activity of a
specific D3-1-hydroxylase present in the proximal convoluted tubules of the
kidneys, and in bone and placenta. 25-(OH)D3 can also be hydroxylated at the 24
position by a specific D3-24-hydroxylase in the kidneys, intestine, placenta and
cartilage.
25-hydroxyvitamin D3 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3
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calcitriol and PTH are bone where they stimulate bone resorption and the kidneys
where they inhibit calcium excretion by stimulating reabsorption by the distal
tubules. The role of calcitonin in calcium homeostasis is to decrease elevated
serum calcium levels by inhibiting bone resorption.
VITAMIN E
Vitamin E is a mixture of several related compounds known as tocopherols.
The α-tocopherol molecule is the most potent of the tocopherols.
α-Tocopherol
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"vitamin E". Tocopherols and tocotrienols are fat-soluble antioxidants but also
seem to have many other functions in the body.
Vitamin E is absorbed from the intestines packaged in chylomicrons. It is
delivered to the tissues via chylomicron transport and then to the liver through
chylomicron remnant uptake. The liver can export vitamin E in VLDLs. Due to its
lipophilic nature, vitamin E accumulates in cellular membranes, fat deposits and
other circulating lipoproteins. The major site of vitamin E storage is in adipose
tissue.
The major function of vitamin E is to act as a natural antioxidant by
scavenging free radicals and molecular oxygen. In particular vitamin E is
important for preventing peroxidation of polyunsaturated membrane fatty acids.
The vitamins E and C are interrelated in their antioxidant capabilities. Active α-
tocopherol can be regenerated by interaction with vitamin C following scavenge of
a peroxy free radical. Alternatively, α-tocopherol can scavenge two peroxy free
radicals and then be conjugated to glucuronate for excretion in the bile.
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VITAMIN K
The K vitamins exist naturally as K1 (phylloquinone) in green vegetables
and K2 (menaquinone) produced by intestinal bacteria and K3 is synthetic
menadione (vicasol). When administered, vitamin K3 is alkylated to one of the
vitamin K2 forms of menaquinone.
Vitamin K2
Vitamin K3
Vitamin K1 "n" can be 6, 7 or 9
(Vicasol)
isoprenoid groups
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requires an uncharacterized reductase. This latter reaction is the site of action of
the dicoumarol based anticoagulants such as warfarin.
Mechanism action of warfarin is following:
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GROUP II. WATER-SOLUBLE VITAMINS
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VITAMIN B1
Vitamin B1 is also known as thiamine.
Thiamine structure
Thiamine pyrophosphate
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Clinical Significances of Thiamine Deficiency
The earliest symptoms of thiamine deficiency include constipation, appetite
suppression, nausea as well as mental depression, peripheral neuropathy and
fatigue. Chronic thiamine deficiency leads to more severe neurological symptoms
including ataxia, mental confusion and loss of eye coordination. Other clinical
symptoms of prolonged thiamine deficiency are related to cardiovascular and
musculature defects.
The severe thiamine deficiency disease known as Beriberi, is the result of a
diet that is carbohydrate rich and thiamine deficient. An additional thiamine
deficiency related disease is known as Wernicke-Korsakoff syndrome. This disease
is most commonly found in chronic alcoholics due to their poor dietetic lifestyles.
VITAMIN B2
Vitamin B2 is also known as riboflavin.
Riboflavin structure
Structure of FAD
nitrogens 1 & 5 carry hydrogens in FADH2
The normal daily requirement for riboflavin is 1.2 - 1.7 mg/day for normal
adults.
Both nicotinic acid and nicotinamide can serve as the dietary source of
vitamin B3. Niacin is required for the synthesis of the active forms of vitamin B3,
nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (NAD+) and nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide
phosphate (NADP+). Both NAD+ and NADP+ function as cofactors for numerous
dehydrogenase, e.g., lactate and malate dehydrogenases.
Niacin is not a true vitamin in the strictest definition since it can be derived
from the amino acid tryptophan. However, the ability to utilize tryptophan for
niacin synthesis is inefficient (60 mg of tryptophan are required to synthesize 1 mg
of niacin). Also, synthesis of niacin from tryptophan requires vitamins B1, B2 and
B6 which would be limiting in themselves on a marginal diet.
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Structure of NAD+
NADH is shown in the box insert.
The -OH phosphorylated in NADP+ is indicated by the red arrow.
29
An interesting aspect of the enzymes that require nicotinamide coenzymes is
that they are stereospecific and with draw hydrogen from either the pro-Ror the
pro-Sposition selectively. This stereospecificity arises from the fact that enzymes
(and the active sites of enzymes) are inherently asymmetric structures. These same
enzymes are stereospecific with respect to the substrates as well.
The NAD- and NADP-dependent dehydrogenases catalyze at least six
different types of reactions: simple hydride transfer, deamination of an amino acid
to form an α-keto acid, oxidation of α-hydroxy acids followed by decarboxylation
of the α-keto acid intermediate, oxidation of aldehydes, reduction of isolated
double bonds, and the oxidation of carbon–nitrogen bonds (as with dihydrofolate
reductase).
The recommended daily requirement for niacin is 13 - 19 niacin equivalents
(NE) per day for a normal adult. One NE is equivalent to 1 mg of free niacin).
31
VITAMIN B5.
Vitamin B5 is also known as pantothenic acid.
Pantothenic Acid
Coenzyme A
32
VITAMIN B6
Vitamin B6. are collectively known as pyridoxal, pyridoxamine and
pyridoxine.
All three compounds are efficiently converted to the biologically active form
of vitamin B6, pyridoxal phosphate. This conversion is catalyzed by the ATP
requiring enzyme, pyridoxal kinase.
Pyridoxal Phosphate
33
The requirement for vitamin B6 in the diet is proportional to the level of
protein consumption ranging from 1.4 - 2.0 mg/day for a normal adult. During
pregnancy and lactation the requirement for vitamin B6 increases approximately
0.6 mg/day.
Deficiencies of vitamin B6 are rare and usually are related to an overall
deficiency of all the B-complex vitamins. Isoniazid (see niacin deficiencies above)
and penicillamine (used to treat rheumatoid arthritis and cystinurias) are two drugs
that complex with pyridoxal and pyridoxal phosphate resulting in a deficiency in
this vitamin.
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VITAMIN B7
Vitamin B7 is known as biotin.
Biotin
VITAMIN B9
Vitamin B9 is known as folic acid.
Folic Acid
positions 7 & 8 carry hydrogens in dihydrofolate (DHF)
positions 5-8 carry hydrogens in tetrahydrofolate (THF)
35
Folic acid is a conjugated molecule consisting of a pteridine ring structure
linked to para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) that forms pteroic acid. Folic acid itself
is then generated through the conjugation of glutamic acid residues to pteroic acid.
Folic acid is obtained primarily from yeasts and leafy vegetables as well as animal
liver. Animal cannot synthesize PABA nor attach glutamate residues to pteroic
acid, thus, requiring folate intake in the diet.
When stored in the liver or ingested folic acid exists in a polyglutamate form.
Intestinal mucosal cells remove some of the glutamate residues through the action
of the lysosomal enzyme, conjugase. The removal of glutamate residues makes
folate less negatively charged (from the polyglutamic acids) and therefore more
capable of passing through the basal lamenal membrane of the epithelial cells of
the intestine and into the bloodstream. Folic acid is reduced within cells
(principally the liver where it is stored) to tetrahydrofolate (THF also H4folate)
through the action of dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR), an NADPH-requiring
enzyme.
The function of THF derivatives is to carry and transfer various forms of one
carbon units during biosynthetic reactions. The one carbon units are either methyl,
methylene, methenyl, formyl or formimino groups.
36
Active center of tetrahydrofolate (THF). Note that the N5 position is the site of
attachment of methyl groups, the N10 the site for attachment of formyl and
formimino groups and that both N5 and N10 bridge the methylene and methenyl
groups.
These one carbon transfer reactions are required in the biosynthesis of serine,
methionine, glycine, choline and the purine nucleotides and dTMP.
The ability to acquire choline and amino acids from the diet and to salvage
the purine nucleotides makes the role of N5,N10-methylene-THF in dTMP
synthesis the most metabolically significant function for this vitamin. The role of
vitamin B12 and N5-methyl-THF in the conversion of homocysteine to methionine
also can have a significant impact on the ability of cells to regenerate needed THF.
VITAMIN B12
Vitamin B12 is known as cobalamin.
Cobalamin is more commonly known as vitamin B12. Vitamin B12 is
composed of a complex tetrapyrrol ring structure (corrin ring) and a cobalt ion in
the center. Vitamin B12 is synthesized exclusively by microorganisms and is found
in the liver of animals bound to protein as methycobalamin or 5'-
deoxyadenosylcobalamin. The vitamin must be hydrolyzed from protein in order to
be active. Hydrolysis occurs in the stomach by gastric acids or the intestines by
trypsin digestion following consumption of animal meat. The vitamin is then
bound by intrinsic factor, a protein secreted by parietal cells of the stomach, and
carried to the ileum where it is absorbed. Following absorption the vitamin is
transported to the liver in the blood bound to transcobalamin II.
There are only two clinically significant reactions in the body that require
vitamin B12 as a cofactor. During the catabolism of fatty acids with an odd number
of carbon atoms and the amino acids valine, isoleucine and threonine the resultant
38
propionyl-CoA is converted to succinyl-CoA for oxidation in the TCA cycle. One
of the enzymes in this pathway, methylmalonyl-CoA mutase, requires vitamin B12
as a cofactor in the conversion of methylmalonyl-CoA to succinyl-CoA. The 5'-
deoxyadenosine derivative of cobalamin is required for this reaction.
The second reaction requiring vitamin B12 catalyzes the conversion of
homocysteine to methionine and is catalyzed by methionine synthase. This reaction
results in the transfer of the methyl group from N5-methyltetrahydrofolate to
hydroxycobalamin generating tetrahydrofolate (THF) and methylcobalamin during
the process of the conversion.
Cyanocobalamin
39
Clinical Significances of B12 Deficiency
The liver can store up to six years worth of vitamin B12, hence deficiencies
in this vitamin are rare. Pernicious anemia is a megaloblastic anemia resulting from
vitamin B12 deficiency that develops as a result a lack of intrinsic factor in the
stomach leading to malabsorption of the vitamin. The anemia results from
impaired DNA synthesis due to a block in purine and thymidine biosynthesis. The
block in nucleotide biosynthesis is a consequence of the effect of vitamin B12 on
folate metabolism. When vitamin B12 is deficient essentially all of the folate
becomes trapped as the N5-methylTHF derivative as a result of the loss of
functional methionine synthase. This trapping prevents the synthesis of other THF
derivatives required for the purine and thymidine nucleotide biosynthesis pathways.
Neurological complications also are associated with vitamin B12 deficiency
and result from a progressive demyelination of nerve cells. The demyelination is
thought to result from the increase in methylmalonyl-CoA that result from vitamin
B12 deficiency. Methylmalonyl-CoA is a competitive inhibitor of malonyl-CoA in
fatty acid biosynthesis as well as being able to substitute for malonyl-CoA in any
fatty acid biosynthesis that may occur. Since the myelin sheath is in continual flux
the methylmalonyl-CoA-induced inhibition of fatty acid synthesis results in the
eventual destruction of the sheath. The incorporation methylmalonyl-CoA into
fatty acid biosynthesis results in branched-chain fatty acids being produced that
may severely alter the architecture of the normal membrane structure of nerve cells
VITAMIN C
Vitamin C is more commonly known as ascorbic acid. Ascorbic acid is
derived from glucose via the uronic acid pathway. The enzyme L-gulonolactone
oxidase responsible for the conversion of gulonolactone to ascorbic acid is absent
in primates making ascorbic acid required in the diet.
40
Ascorbic Acid
The active form of vitamin C is ascorbate acid itself. The main function of
ascorbate is as a reducing agent in a number of different reactions. Vitamin C has
the potential to reduce cytochromes a and c of the respiratory chain as well as
molecular oxygen. The most important reaction requiring ascorbate as a cofactor is
the hydroxylation of proline residues in collagen. Vitamin C is, therefore, required
for the maintenance of normal connective tissue as well as for wound healing since
synthesis of connective tissue is the first event in wound tissue remodeling.
Vitamin C also is necessary for bone remodeling due to the presence of collagen in
the organic matrix of bones.
Scurvy results from a dietary vitamin C deficiency and involves the inability
to form collagen fibrils properly. This is the result of reduced activity of prolyl
hydroxylase, which is vitamin C–dependent. Scurvy leads to lesions in the skin and
blood vessels, and, in its advanced stages, it can lead to grotesque disfiguration and
eventual death. Although rare in the modern world, it was a disease well known to
sea-faring explorers in earlier times who did not appreciate the importance of fresh
fruits and vegetables in the diet.
Hydroxylation of proline residues is catalyzed by prolyl hydroxylase. The
reaction requires α-ketoglutarate and ascorbic acid (fig 1).
41
Figure 1. Hydroxylation of proline residues is catalyzed by prolyl hydroxylase. (The reaction
requires α-ketoglutarate and ascorbic acid (vitamin C).
42
adrenal vitamin C levels is unclear but may be due either to redistribution of the
vitamin to areas that need it or an overall increased utilization.
43
Myo-inositol
The biological significance of myo-inositol has not yet been established with
certainty. It is present in large amounts—principally as a constituent of
phospholipids—in humans. Inositol is a carbohydrate that closely resembles
glucose in structure; inositol can be converted to phytic acid, which is found in
grains and forms an insoluble (and thus unabsorbable) calcium salt in the intestines
of mammals. Inositol has not been established as an essential nutrient for humans;
however, it is a required factor for the growth of some yeasts and fungi.
Para-aminobenzoic acid
Para-aminobenzoic acid (PABA) is required for the growth of several types
of microorganisms; however, a dietary requirement by vertebrates has not been
shown. The antimicrobial sulfa drugs (sulfanilamide and related compounds)
inhibit the growth of bacteria by competing with PABA for a position in a
coenzyme that is necessary for bacterial reproduction. Although a structural unit of
folic acid, PABA is not considered a vitamin.
Carnitine
Carnitine is essential for the growth of mealworms. The role of carnitine in
all organisms is associated with the transfer of fatty acids from the bloodstream to
active sites of fatty acid oxidation within muscle cells. Carnitine, therefore,
regulates the rate of oxidation of these acids; this function may afford means by
which a cell can rapidly shift its metabolic patterns (e.g., from fat synthesis to fat
breakdown). Synthesis of carnitine occurs in insects and in higher animals;
therefore, it is not considered a true vitamin.
Lipoic acid
Lipoic acid has a coenzyme function similar to that of thiamin. Although it
is apparently an essential nutrient for some microorganisms, no deficiency in
mammals has been observed; therefore, lipoic acid is not considered a true vitamin.
44
Bioflavinoids
The bioflavinoids once were thought to prevent scurvy and were designated
as vitamin Pc, but additional evidence refuted this claim.
48
The above procedures are practical only with small groups of animals or
human subjects and thus are not entirely representative of larger populations of a
particular species. A less precise, but more representative, method used among
human populations involves comparing levels of dietary intake of a vitamin in a
population that shows no deficiency symptoms with levels of intake of the vitamin
in a population that reveals clinical or biochemical symptoms. The data for dietary
intakes and incidence of deficiency symptoms are obtained by surveys of
representative segments of a population.
Determination of vitamin sources
A quantitative analysis of the vitamin content of foodstuffs is important in
order to identify dietary sources of specific vitamins (and other nutrients as well).
Three methods commonly used to determine vitamin content are described below.
Physicochemical methods
The amount of vitamin in a foodstuff can be established by studying the
physical or chemical characteristics of the vitamin—e.g., a chemically reactive
group on the vitamin molecule, fluorescence, absorption of light at a wavelength
characteristic of the vitamin, or radioisotope dilution techniques. These methods
are accurate and can detect very small amounts of the vitamin. Biologically
inactive derivatives of several vitamins have been found, however, and may
interfere with such determinations; in addition, these procedures also may not
distinguish between bound (i.e., unavailable) and available forms of a vitamin in a
food.
Microbiological assay
Microbiological assay is applicable only to the B vitamins. The rate of
growth of a species of microorganism that requires a vitamin is measured in
growth media that contain various known quantities of a foodstuff preparation
containing unknown amounts of the vitamin. The response (measured as rate of
growth) to the unknown amounts of vitamin is compared with that obtained from a
known quantity of the pure vitamin. Depending on the way in which the food
49
sample was prepared, the procedure may indicate the availability of the vitamin in
the food sample to the microorganism.
Animal assay
All of the vitamins, with the exception of vitamin B12, can be estimated by
the animal-assay technique. One advantage of this method is that animals respond
only to the biologically active forms of the vitamins. On the other hand, many
other interfering and complicating factors may arise; therefore, experiments must
be rigidly standardized and controlled. Simultaneous estimates usually are made
using a pure standard vitamin preparation as a reference and the unknown food
whose vitamin content is being sought; each test is repeated using two or more
different amounts of both standard and unknown in the assays listed below.
In a growth assay, the rat, chick, dog (used specifically for niacin), and
guinea pig (used specifically for vitamin C) usually are used. One criterion used in
a vitamin assay is increase in body weight in response to different amounts of a
specific vitamin in the diet. There are two types of growth assay. In a prophylactic
growth assay, the increase in weight of young animals given different amounts of
the vitamin is measured. In a curative growth assay, weight increase is measured in
animals first deprived of a vitamin and then given various quantities of it. The
curative growth assay tends to provide more consistent results than the
prophylactic technique.
In a reaction time assay, an animal is first deprived of a vitamin until a
specific deficiency symptom appears; then the animal is given a known amount of
a food extract containing the vitamin, and the deficiency symptom disappears
within a day or two. The time required for the reappearance of the specific
symptoms when the animal again is deprived of the vitamin provides a measure of
the amount of vitamin given originally. The graded response assay, which may be
prophylactic or curative, depends on a characteristic response that varies in degree
with the vitamin dosage. An example of this technique is an assay for vitamin D in
which the measured ash content of a leg bone of a rat or chick is used to reflect the
amount of bone calcification that occurred as a result of administration of a
50
specific amount of vitamin D. In an all-or-none assay, the degree of response
cannot be measured; an arbitrary level is selected to separate positive responses
from negative ones. The percent of positively reacting animals provides a measure
of response; i.e., vitamin E can be measured by obtaining the percent of fertility in
successfully mated female rats.
0.088•A • 100
X = ----------------------- mg %, where
5
51
X - the content of vitamin C, mg %;
0.088 - the equivalent of ascorbic acid, which is titrated by 0,001N DCIP
solution;
À - the quantity of DCIP (ml), used for titration;
100 - recalculation at 100 g of the product;
5 - quantity (g) of the product taken for the analysis.
Compare the received results with the content of vitamin C in foodstuff: in
potatoes (6-20 mg %), cabbage (20-50 mg %), apples (20-40 mg%), lemons (40-55
mg%), needles (150-250 mg %), onions (30 mg %), parsley (150 mg %),
cauliflower (70 mg %).
52
The significance of vitamin C determination in the blood plasma and
urine:
In norm the content of vitamin C in the urine is 20-30 mg / daily.
It is very important to define this index during the stage: the latent form of
vitamin C Hypovitaminosis. The patient drinks the ascorbic acid - glucose solution,
containing a daily norm of vitamin C (correlated with the patient’s age). In 2-3
hours later the vitamin C concentration is determined in the patient’s urine. If the
result correlates with normal value, you can say about the latent form of vitamin C
Hypovitaminosis.
Clinical significance:
A large quantity of PA is accumulated in blood plasma and is excreted with
urine during B1 hypovitaminosis in human organism. The content of this acid
increases in the urine during diabetes mellitus, cardiac insufficiency, pituitary-
54
adrenal system superstimulation. The quantity of pyruvic acid increases during the
drugs treatment: camphor, strychnine, adrenalin.
The content of pyruvic acid reduces during anesthesia.
59
TEST-TASKS FOR SELFCONTROL
1. The avitaminosis of ascorbic acid is named as:
A. Cushing`s syndrome
B. Addison`s disease
C. Kwashiorkor
D. Hemolytic anemia
E. Scurvy
2. Find out the vitamin whose deficiency is associated with disturbed
transamination of amino acids:
A. Pyridoxine
B. Rutin
C. Thiamine
D. Folic acid
E. Ascorbic acid
3. The glycolysis duration is in need for one vitamin, only. Name it:
A. Pyridoxal phosphate
B. Riboflavin
C. Thiamine
D. Nicotinic acid
E. Ascorbic acid
4. Examination of a patient with frequent hemorrhages from internals and mucous
membranes revealed proline and lysine being a part of collagen fibers. What
vitamin absence caused disturbance of their hydroxylation?
A. Vitamin A
B. Thiamine
C. Vitamin K
D. Vitamin E
E. Vitamin C
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5. A woman who has been keeping to a clean-rice diet for a long time was
diagnosed with polyneuritis (beri-beri). What vitamin deficit results in
development of this disease?
A. Folic acid
B. Thiamine
C. Ascorbic acid
D. Riboflavin
E. Pyridoxine
B. Polyneuritis (beri-beri)
C. Pellagra
D. Rachitis
E. Scurvy
7. Pyruvate concentration in the patient's urine has increased 10 times from normal
amount. What vitamin deficiency can be the reason of this change:
A. Vitamin B6
B. Vitamin A
C. Vitamin E
D. Vitamin C
E. Vitamin B1
8. Hydroxylation of endogenous substrates and xenobiotics requires a donor of
protons. Which of the following vitamins can play this role?
A. Vitamin C
B. Vitamin E
C. Vitamin P
D. Vitamin A
E. Vitamin B6
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9. A 10-year-old girl often experiences acute respiratory infections with multiple
hemorrages in the places of clothes friction. Hypovitaminosis of what vitamin is in
this girl organism?
A. A
B. B2
C. B1
D. B6
E. С
10. A 9-month-old infant is fed with artifical formulas with unbalanced vitamin B6
concentration. The infant presents with pellagra dermatitis, convulsions, anaemia.
Convulsions development might be caused by the disturbed formation of:
A. Dopamine
B. Histamine
C. Serotonin
D. DOPA
E. GABA
11. Vitamin C is in need for certain type of reaction. Choose it.
A. Carboxylation
B. Dehydrogenation
C. Hydroxylation
D. One-carbon transfer
E. Transamination
12. Which of the following vitamins requires the intrinsic factor for absorption?
A. Folic acid
B. Vitamin B12
C. Vitamin C
D. Vitamin E
E. Vitamin K
13. Choose the vitamin which is important in non-oxidative decarboxylation,
transamination and transsulfuration reactions from the following list:
62
A. Riboflavin
B. Thiamine
C. Pyridoxine
D. Pantothenic acid
E. Folic acid
14. Point out vitamin which is the most indispensable during mitosis:
A. Folic acid
B. Pantotenic acid
C. Ascorbinic acid
D. Aspartic acid
E. Thiamine
15. Which vitamin is related to cofactor in glycine metabolism?
A. Tocopherol
B. Folic acid
C. Thiamine
D. Cobalamin
E. Pantothenic acid
16. What vitamin takes part in flavoprotein formation?
A. Vitamin B6
B. Vitamin B2
C. Vitamin B1
D. Vitamin A
E. Vitamin PP
17. Point out the vitamin that is essential for transamination:
A. B1
B. B2
C. B6
D. B12
E. B9
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18. Choose the name of phase for vitamin K use in the formation of clotting
factors:
A. Post-transcription processing
B. Post-translation modification
C. Transcription
D. Reparation
E. Replication
19. Choose the vitamin required for carboxylation reactions in human tissues:
A. Vitamin B2
B. Vitamin B6
C. Vitamin H
D. Vitamin B12
E. Vitamin K
20. Which enzyme activity is measured in diagnostic of Beri-beri?
A. Transketolase
B. Glucose-6-phosphste dehydrogenase
C. Alanine transaminase
D. Deaminase
E. Glutamate decarboxylase
21. People eating only maize as staple diet develop vitamin PP deficiency due to
low content in maize of:
A. Niacin
B. Leucine
C. Tryptophan
D. Isoleucine
E. Positions A & C are right
22. Choose the correct statement about vitamin K:
A. It increases a coagulation time in infants with hemorrhagic diseases
B. It is helpful in preventing thrombosis
C. It is synthesized by intestinal bacteria
64
D. It is present in increased amount in cows and breast milk
E. It is derived to coenzyme of α-decarboxylases
23. Point out a similarity between vitamin C and vitamin K:
A. Both help in conversion of proline to hydroxyproline
B. Both help in post-translational modification of polypeptide chains
C. Both are fat soluble vitamins
D. Both are involved in coagulation cascade
E. Both are water soluble vitamins
24. Point out the function for vitamin C:
A. Coenzyme in the synthesis of clotting factors
B. Coenzyme for enzymes of post translational modification of procollagen
C. Anticoagulant
D. The component of electron transport chain in mitochondria
E. Coenzyme for beta-oxidation of HFA
25. Choose the vitamin, whose antivitamin is named as Dicoumarol:
A. Vitamin A
B. Vitamin B6
C. Vitamin C
D. Vitamin D
E. Vitamin K
26. Choose the vitamin, whose deficiency leads to osteomalacia at adults:
A. Vitamin C
B. Vitamin E
C. Vitamin D
D. Vitamin K
E. Vitamin PP
27. Choose the vitamin, which is a powerful natural antioxidant:
A. Retinal
B. Tocopherol
C. Ergocalciferol
65
D. Riboflavin
E. Pyridoxine
28. Name the blood plasma index whose low value will prove the deficiency of
vitamin K in patient:
A. Urea
B. Albumins
C. Immunoglobulin G
D. Prothrombin
E. C-reactive protein
29. Name the active form of vitamin whose level in the blood is depended on the
secretion rate of parathyroid hormone:
A. Ascorbic acid
B. Calcitriol
C. Thiamine
D. Tocopherol
E. Naphtoquinone
30. Find out the fat-soluble vitamin whose function is hormone-similar one:
A. Vitamin C
B. Vitamin E
C. Vitamin D
D. Vitamin K
E. Vitamin PP
31. Vitamin A group contains substance whose function is associated mainly with
stimulation of proliferation and differentiation processes in tissues. Name it:
A. Retinal
B. Pantothenic acid
C. Retinoic acid
D. Nicotinic acid
E. Nicotine amide
66
32. A patient suffers from vision impairment – hemeralopia (night blindness).
What vitamin preparation should be administered the patient in order to restore his
vision?
A. Pyridoxine
B. Retinol acetate
C. Vicasol
D. Thiamine chloride
E. Tocopherol acetate
B. Riboflavin
C. Folic acid
D. Ergocalciferol
E. Thiamine chloride
35. There is an inhibited coagulation in the patients with bile ducts obstruction,
bleeding due to the low level of absorption of vitamin. What vitamin is in
deficiency?
A. K
B. E
C. D
67
D. A
E. Carotene
69
44. Some infections diseases caused by bacteria are treated with sulfanilamides,
which block the synthesis of bacteria growth factor. What is the mechanism of
their action?
A. They inhibit the absorption of folic acid
B. They are allosteric enzyme inhibitors
C. They are allosteric enzymes
D. They are anti-vitamins of para-amino benzoic acid
E. They are involved in red-ox processes
45. A patient complains of photoreception disorder and frequent acute viral
diseases. He has been prescribed a vitamin that affects photoreception processes
by producing rhodopsin, the photosensitive pigment. What vitamin is it?
A. Cyanocobalamin
B. Tocopherol acetate
C. Pyridoxine hydrochloride
D. Thiamine
E. Retinol acetate
46. A 6-year-old child suffers from delayed growth, disrupted ossification
processes, decalcification of teeth. What can be the cause?
A. Vitamin D deficiency
B. Hyperthyroidism
C. Vitamin C deficiency
D. Decreased glucagon production
E. Insulin deficiency
47. A patient, who has been suffering for a long time from intestine disbacteriosis,
has increased hemorrhaging caused by disruption of posttranslational
modification of blood coagulation factors II, VII, IX and X in the liver. What
vitamin deficiency is the cause of this condition?
A. K
B. B12
C. B9
70
D. C
E. P
48. During regular check-up a child is detected with interrupted mineralization of
bones. What vitamin deficiency can be the cause?
A. Calciferol
B. Riboflavin
C. Tocopherol
D. Folic acid
E. Cobalamin
49. Choose uncharacteristic symptom of vitamin A deficiency in humans among
the listed ones below:
A. Growth retardation
B. Malformation of the long bones
C. Loss of body mass
D. Affected mucous epithelium and eyes
E. Night blindness
50. Point out the vitamin, whose deficiency leads to pellagra:
A. Vitamin P
B. Vitamin A
C. Vitamin C
D. Vitamin B3
E. Vitamin B2
71
ANSWERS TO TEST-TASKS FOR SELF-CONTROL:
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
E A D E B E D A E E
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
C B C A B B C B C A
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
E C B B E C B D B D
31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40
C B A A A D E C A D
41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50
E D B D E A A A B D
72
LITERATURE
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