DISSERTATION / DOCTORAL THESIS

Titel der Dissertation /Title of the Doctoral Thesis

„Pastoral Counselling in the Spirit of St Francis de Sales: A Comparative

Study of Person-Oriented Spiritual Direction in St Francis de Sales and
Person-Centred Counselling in Carl R. Rogers – Developing a Strategy for
Pastoral Counselling in the Context of India“

verfasst von / submitted by

Sen VELLAKADA

angestrebter akademischer Grad / in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
Doktor der Theologie (Dr. theol.)

Vienna, February 2016

Studienkennzahl lt. Studienblatt / A 780 011

degree programme code as it appears on the student
record sheet:
Dissertationsgebiet lt. Studienblatt / Katholische Fachtheologie
field of study as it appears on the student record sheet:

Betreut von / Supervisor: Univ.-Prof. Mag. Dr. Johann Pock

 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................... iii

Foreword ................................................................................................................................. xi
Introduction ................................................................................................................................ 1

CHAPTER 1

PASTORAL COUNSELLING AS CONTINUATION OF THE HEALING MINISTRY OF

JESUS: BACKGROUND, HISTORY AND IMPORTANCE

Introduction ........................................................................................................................... 7
1.1 Foundation of Pastoral Ministry ....................................................................................... 8
1.1.1 Ministry of Jesus: Foundation of the Ministry of the Church ............................................... 9
1.1.2 Contemporary World and its Needs .................................................................................... 10
1.1.3 Responding to the Needs of the Time ................................................................................. 11
1.2 Pastoral Psychology: The Psychology of Pastoral Care .................................................. 12
1.2.1 Pastoral Psychology as the Basic Element of Practical Theology ....................................... 15
1.2.2 Development of Pastoral Psychology ................................................................................. 15
1.2.2.1 From the Earliest Times to the 18th Century ....................................................................... 16
1.2.2.1.1 Desert Fathers ..................................................................................................................... 16
1.2.2.1.2 Fathers of the Church and the Middle Ages ........................................................................ 17
1.2.2.2 In Modern Times.................................................................................................................. 19
1.2.2.2.1 Pastoral Medicine as Forerunner of Pastoral Psychology .................................................... 19
1.2.2.2.2 Pastoral Psychology and Pastoral Counselling: Early Developments .................................. 21
1.2.2.2.3 In the 19th and 20th Centuries ............................................................................................... 22
1.2.2.2.4 Concluding Remarks ............................................................................................................ 24
1.2.2.3 Notable Catholic Contributions ........................................................................................... 25
1.2.2.4 Friction between Psychology and the Catholic Church ....................................................... 26
1.2.3 Pastoral Psychology: Developments in America ................................................................. 27
1.2.3.1 Anton T. Boisen ................................................................................................................... 28
1.2.3.1.1 The Hospital Connection ..................................................................................................... 29
1.2.3.1.2 Integration of Religion and Psychology ............................................................................... 31
1.2.3.1.3 Boisen’s Method .................................................................................................................. 32
1.2.3.1.4 Paramount Human Need for Love ....................................................................................... 32
1.2.3.1.5 Boisen’s Theology ............................................................................................................... 32
1.2.3.1.5 A Keen Listener .................................................................................................................. 33
1.2.3.2 Seward Hiltner ..................................................................................................................... 33
1.2.3.2.1 A Born Counsellor ............................................................................................................... 34
1.2.3.2.2 Contribution to Ecumenism ................................................................................................. 34
1.2.3.3 Catholic Contributions ......................................................................................................... 35
1.2.3.4. Period after World War II and the Influence of Carl Rogers ............................................... 35
1.2.3.5 American Association of Pastoral Counsellors (AAPC) ...................................................... 37
1.2.3.6 Association for Clinical Pastoral Education ........................................................................ 37
1.2.3.7 Influence and Impact on Other Parts of the World .............................................................. 37
1.2.4 International Council on Pastoral Care and Counselling - ICPCC....................................... 39
1.2.5 Salient Features of Pastoral Counselling Movement ........................................................... 40
1.2.5.1 Ecumenical Nature of Pastoral Psychology/ Pastoral Counselling ..................................... 41
1.2.5.2 Attempt at Integration of Theology and Psychology .......................................................... 41
1.2.5.3 Lay Participation ................................................................................................................. 41
1.2.5.4 Hospital (Chaplaincy) Connection ...................................................................................... 41
1.2.5.5 Diaconal Nature of Pastoral Counselling ............................................................................ 42
1.2.6 Criticism against Pastoral Counselling ................................................................................ 42
1.2.6.1 Neglect of Theology? .......................................................................................................... 42
1.2.6.2 East-West Difference? ........................................................................................................ 43
1.2.7 Current Status of Pastoral Psychology and Pastoral Counselling ........................................ 44
1.2.8 Openness on Catholic Side .................................................................................................. 44
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1.3 Pastoral Counselling: Introduction, Definition and Scope ............................................. 46
1.3.1 Etymology ............................................................................................................................ 46
1.3.2 Biblical Foundation of Pastoral Ministry ............................................................................. 48
1.3.3 Faith Resources in Counselling ............................................................................................ 50
1.3.4 Jesus as Model Counsellor ................................................................................................... 50
1.3.4.1 Therapeutic Nature of Jesus ................................................................................................. 51
1.3.4.2 Jesus’ Knowledge of Human Beings ................................................................................... 52
1.3.4.3 Person of Jesus .................................................................................................................... 52
1.3.4.4 Some Examples of Jesus’ Healing Encounter ..................................................................... 53
1.3.4.4.1 Jesus and the Samaritan Woman (Jn 4:1-42) ...................................................................... 53
1.3.4.4.2 Walk to Emmaus with the Disciples (Lk 24:13-35) ............................................................ 55
1.3.4.4.3 Parables of Jesus as Counselling Sessions .......................................................................... 55
1.3.5 Paradox of Pastoral Counselling ......................................................................................... 57
1.3.6 Essentials and Goals of Counselling in a Christian Context ................................................ 58
1.3.6.1 Secular Goals ....................................................................................................................... 59
1.3.6.2 Non-Secular Goals of Pastoral Counselling ......................................................................... 60
1.3.6.2.1 Spiritual and Emotional Growth ......................................................................................... 60
1.3.6.2.2 Imparting a Sense of Belonging .......................................................................................... 61
1.3.6.2.3 Discernment ........................................................................................................................ 62
1.3.6.2.4 Edification ........................................................................................................................... 62
1.3.6.2.5 Diakonia/Service ................................................................................................................ 63
1.3.7 Different Schools of Psychology Commonly Used in Pastoral Counselling ....................... 63
1.3.7.1 Psychoanalysis, Depth Psychology and Cognitive Schools ................................................ 64
1.3.7.2 Behaviourist School ............................................................................................................ 64
1.3.7.3 Humanistic School .............................................................................................................. 65
1.3.8 Different Counselling Positions ........................................................................................... 67
1.4 Psychology and the Church ............................................................................................... 69
1.4.1 Relationship between Psychology and Christianity ............................................................. 70
1.4.2 Biblical Perspective on Human Beings ................................................................................ 73
1.4.3 Need for the Study and Application of Psychology ............................................................. 74
1.4.4 Valid Use of Psychology ..................................................................................................... 75
1.4.5 Psychological Themes in the Bible ...................................................................................... 76
1.4.6 Psychological Dimension of Human Existence ................................................................... 78
1.5 Challenges in the Application of Psychology in Ministry .............................................. 79
1.5.1 Spiritual and Religious Issues in Counselling and Psychotherapy ....................................... 81
1.5.2 Counselling and Therapy with Religious Clients ................................................................. 82
1.5.3. Extreme Views to be Avoided ............................................................................................. 83
1.5.4 Is Christian Religious Psychotherapy Possible? .................................................................. 83
1.5.5 Limitations of Psychology ................................................................................................... 84
1.6 The Context of India and the Need for a Specific Pastoral Counselling
Approach for India ........................................................................................................... 85
Concluding Thoughts ........................................................................................................... 87

CHAPTER 2

FRANCIS DE SALES: A PASTOR AFTER THE HEART OF JESUS

Introduction ......................................................................................................................... 89
Part I
2.1 Life and Times of Francis de Sales ................................................................................... 90
2.1.1 Early Life and Influences .................................................................................................... 90
2.1.1.1 Political and Religious Situation ......................................................................................... 91
2.1.1.2 Childhood in a Healthy Family ........................................................................................... 92
2.1.1.3 His Mother and Her Influence ............................................................................................ 93
2.1.2 Secular Education ............................................................................................................... 94
2.1.2.1 Annecy College ................................................................................................................... 94
2.1.2.2 Studies in Paris .................................................................................................................... 97
2.1.2.2.1 A Fervent Student in Paris .................................................................................................. 98

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2.1.2.2.2 Life in Paris at that Time ................................................................................................... 100
2.1.2.2.3 Encounter with Humanism ................................................................................................ 100
2.1.2.2.4 Francis’ Attitude towards Humanism ............................................................................... 101
2.1.2.2.5 Growth in Spiritual Life .................................................................................................... 102
2.1.2.2.6 Crisis in Paris .................................................................................................................... 102
2.1.2.2.6.1 Overcoming the Crisis ...................................................................................................... 105
2.1.2.2.6.2 Learning from the Crisis in Paris ....................................................................................... 107
2.1.2.3 Doctoral Studies in Padua ................................................................................................. 107
2.1.3 Difficult Path to Priesthood ............................................................................................... 108
2.1.3.1 God’s Timely Intervention ................................................................................................ 109
2.1.3.2 A Dream Fulfilled ............................................................................................................. 110

Part II
2.2 Pastoral Spirit of Francis de Sales as Provost, Missionary and Bishop ..................... 111
2.2.1 Francis de Sales as Provost ............................................................................................... 111
2.2.1.1 A Passionate Preacher ....................................................................................................... 112
2.2.1.2 A Compassionate Confessor ............................................................................................. 112
2.2.1.2.1 Francis’ Therapeutic Skills in Dealing with People .......................................................... 114
2.2.1.2.2 His Empathy ..................................................................................................................... 115
2.2.1.2.3 His Listening Heart ........................................................................................................... 115
2.2.1.3 Formator of the Laity ........................................................................................................ 116
2.2.1.4 Man of Prayer, Interiority and Study ................................................................................ 118
2.3 Francis de Sales as a Missionary ....................................................................................... 120
2.3.1 The Chablais Mission ....................................................................................................... 120
2.3.1.1 The Chablais: ‘The Lost Territory’ ................................................................................... 121
2.3.1.2 Venturing into a Dangerous Mission ................................................................................ 121
2.3.1.3 Beginning the Mission with the ‘Remnant of Chablais’ ................................................... 122
2.3.1.4 His Attitude towards Protestants ....................................................................................... 125
2.3.1.5 A Reflection ...................................................................................................................... 125
2.3.2 His Approach to Mission .................................................................................................. 125
2.3.2.1 Active Missionary with Deep-Rooted Spirituality ............................................................ 126
2.3.2.2 Constant Personal Renewal .............................................................................................. 126
2.3.2.3 Encounter, Dialogue and Debates with Protestants ........................................................... 127
2.3.2.3.1 Prominent Re-conversion to Catholicism ......................................................................... 127
2.3.2.3.2 Meeting with Theodore de Beze ....................................................................................... 128
2.3.2.4 Popular Piety and Devotions ............................................................................................. 129
2.3.2.4.1 Forty-Hours Devotion ....................................................................................................... 129
2.3.2.4.2 Francis de Sales and Forty Hours ..................................................................................... 129
2.3.2.4.3 Forty Hours Devotion and Renewal of Faith .................................................................... 130
2.2.2.4.4 Reflection .......................................................................................................................... 131
2.3.2.5 Preacher: Power of the Spoken Word ............................................................................... 132
2.3.2.5.1 Francis’ Style of Preaching ............................................................................................... 132
2.3.2.5.2 His Objectives in Preaching .............................................................................................. 133
2.3.2.5.3 Personal Contact as Prelude and Postlude to Preaching .................................................... 134
2.3.2.5.4 ‘Preaching as a Bishop’s Principal Duty’ ......................................................................... 135
2.3.2.5.5 Preaching in Paris ............................................................................................................. 136
2.3.2.6 Writer: Power of the Written Word .................................................................................. 137
2.3.2.6.1 Creative Use of the Pen ..................................................................................................... 137
2.3.2.6.2 Writing for a Sacred Purpose ............................................................................................ 138
2.3.2.6.3 His Style and Language .................................................................................................... 139
2.3.2.7 The Power of Personal Touch ........................................................................................... 140
2.3.2.7.1 Francis: A Person with a Healing Touch .......................................................................... 141
2.3.2.7.2 Pastor among His Folk ..................................................................................................... 142
2.4 Two Important Meetings ................................................................................................ 143
2.4.1 Francis in Rome: Meeting with the Pope and the Examination ....................................... 143
2.4.2 Francis in Paris: Meeting with the King ........................................................................... 144
2.5 Rise to Fame in Paris as Preacher and Spiritual Guide ..................................................... 145
Concluding Remarks ......................................................................................................... 146

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 CHAPTER 3

SPIRITUAL DIRECTION IN SALESIAN TRADITION

Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 147

3.1 Spiritual Direction in the Tradition of the Church ...................................................... 148
3.1.1 What is Spiritual Direction? .............................................................................................. 148
3.1.1.1 Some Contemporary Definitions ...................................................................................... 149
3.1.1.2 Spiritual Direction and Pastoral Counselling .................................................................... 150
3.1.2 A Short History of Spiritual Direction in the Catholic Church ......................................... 151
3.1.3 Spiritual Direction Today .................................................................................................. 153
3.1.3.1 Spiritual Direction as a Vocation ...................................................................................... 154
3.1.3.2 The Demand for Spiritual Direction Today ...................................................................... 155
3.1.3.3 Need for an Integrated and Eclectic Approach ................................................................. 155
3.1.4 The Situation in India ........................................................................................................ 156
3.2 Francis de Sales as Spiritual Director ........................................................................... 157
3.2.1 Some Examples of His Long-Standing Guidance ............................................................. 160
3.2.1.1 Madame de Charmoisy ..................................................................................................... 161
3.2.1.1.1. Her Life: A Life Full of Ups and Downs .......................................................................... 161
3.2.1.1.2 Her Personality ................................................................................................................. 162
3.2.1.1.3 Francis Takes up the Guidance of Madame de Charmoisy ............................................... 163
3.2.1.1.3.1 Building up a Relationship on Trust .................................................................................. 163
3.2.1.1.3.2. Appreciating and Encouraging Her .................................................................................... 165
3.2.1.1.3.3 Leading Her to Self-Acceptance ...................................................................................... 166
3.2.1.1.3.4. Leading Her to God and Intimacy with Him...................................................................... 168
3.2.1.1.3.5 Help in Coping with Loneliness and Depression .............................................................. 169
3.2.1.1.3.6 Helping Her to Cope with Bereavement ........................................................................... 171
3.2.1.1.3.7 Constant Accompaniment and Genuineness in Relationship ............................................ 172
3.2.1.1.3.8 Leading Her to Detachment and the Final Goal ................................................................ 174
3.2.1.2 Madame de Brulart and Francis de Sales .......................................................................... 176
3.2.1.2.1 Person-Oriented Approach ................................................................................................ 177
3.2.1.2.2 Genuineness, Empathy and Acceptance ........................................................................... 180
3.2.1.2.2 ‘Be Your Real Self’ .......................................................................................................... 183
3.2.1.2.3 Encouraging and Supporting Her with Positive Strokes ................................................... 184
3.2.1.2.4. ‘Be Realistic’ .................................................................................................................... 185
3.2.1.2.5 ‘Use Your Emotions Constructively’ ................................................................................ 187
3.2.1.2.6 Patient Acceptance of Others ............................................................................................ 189
3.2.1.2.7 Constant Accompaniment and Support ............................................................................. 191
3.2.1.3 Francis de Sales and Madam de Chantal ........................................................................... 193
3.2.1.3.1 The Person of Jane Françoise de Chantal ......................................................................... 193
3.2.1.3.2 The First Encounter ........................................................................................................... 195
3.2.1.3.3 Germination of a Life-long Friendship ............................................................................. 195
3.2.1.3.4. The Process of Discernment ............................................................................................. 196
3.2.1.3.5 Helping Jane to Grow in Individuality and Inner Freedom ............................................... 198
3.2.1.3.5.1 Love as the Basis of All Actions ....................................................................................... 198
3.2.1.3.5.2 Dealing with Scrupulosity and Temptations ..................................................................... 199
3.2.1.3.5.3 Helping Jane Grow in Detachment ................................................................................... 201
3.2.1.3.6 Assistance in Coping with Dryness in Spiritual Life ........................................................ 202
3.2.1.3.7 Friendship and Mutual Guidance ...................................................................................... 205
3.2.2 Some Other Examples ....................................................................................................... 207
3.2.2.1 Bishop Jean-Pierre Camus ................................................................................................ 208
3.2.2.2 Antoine Favre ................................................................................................................... 209
3.3 Salesian Method of Spiritual Direction ......................................................................... 210
3.3.1 Clarifying the Term ‘Salesian’ .......................................................................................... 210
3.3.2 Defining Salesian Method of Spiritual Direction .............................................................. 211
3.3.3 Sources of Salesian Spiritual Direction ............................................................................. 212
3.3.4 Humanism of St Francis de Sales ...................................................................................... 213
3.3.4.1 Christian Humanism ......................................................................................................... 214
3.3.4.2 Know Thyself: Attaining Knowledge of Oneself ............................................................. 215

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3.3.4.3 Human Being: Image of God and Crown of Creation ....................................................... 216
3.3.4.4 Levels of a Human Being .................................................................................................. 217
3.4 Salient Features of Salesian Spiritual Direction ........................................................... 218
3.4.1 Necessity of a Spiritual Guide ........................................................................................... 218
3.4.2 Discernment and Primacy of God’s Will .......................................................................... 220
3.4.3 Grounded on the Supremacy of Love and Personal Freedom ........................................... 222
3.4.4 Person-Oriented Approach ................................................................................................ 222
3.4.4.1 Deep Understanding of Human Nature ............................................................................. 223
3.4.4.2 Taking into Account the Life-Situation of the Directee .................................................... 224
3.4.4.3 Respecting the Uniqueness of Every Person ..................................................................... 226
3.4.4.4 Individual Direction .......................................................................................................... 227
3.4.5. Importance of Relationship and Friendship in Spiritual Direction .................................... 228
3.4.5.1 To Be Is to Be Related ...................................................................................................... 229
3.4.5.2 Relationship that Helps and Heals .................................................................................... 230
3.4.6 The Importance of Little Virtues ....................................................................................... 231
3.4.7 High on Optimism ............................................................................................................. 233
3.4.8 Mystical Dimension of Christian Living ........................................................................... 236
Concluding Remarks ......................................................................................................... 238

CHAPTER 4

CARL ROGERS AND THE PERSON-CENTRED APPROACH

Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 240

Part I

4.1 Carl Rogers: Biography, Influences and his Developing of the Person-Centred
Approach ......................................................................................................................... 240
4.1.1 Family, Childhood and Youth ........................................................................................... 242
4.1.1.1 Avid Reader ...................................................................................................................... 243
4.1.1.2 Strict Upbringing in a ‘Fundamentalist’ Religious Family .............................................. 243
4.1.1.3 Desire for Farming ............................................................................................................ 244
4.1.1.4 Desire to be a Missionary .................................................................................................. 244
4.1.1.5 Carl and Helen Eliott ........................................................................................................ 246
4.1.1.6 Studies in New York: 1924 – 1928 ................................................................................. 246
4.1.1.7 Moving over from Theology to Psychology ..................................................................... 247
4.1.2. Rogers into Academic and Scientific World ..................................................................... 248
4.1.2.1 Rochester: Laying the Foundation for His own Therapy ................................................. 248
4.1.2.1.1 Disenchantment with the Existing Methods ...................................................................... 248
4.1.2.1.2 The Fundamental Motive: Desire to Help ......................................................................... 248
4.1.2.1.3 From child- Therapy to Adult-Therapy ............................................................................. 249
4.1.2.1.4 Developing the Concept of Actualizing Tendency ........................................................... 250
4.1.2.1.5 Influence of Rankian Relationship Therapy ..................................................................... 251
4.1.2.1.6 Academic and Personal Life ............................................................................................. 251
4.1.2.2 In Ohio .............................................................................................................................. 251
4.1.2.2.1 Birth of A New Therapy ................................................................................................... 252
4.1.2.2.2 Academic Fame ................................................................................................................ 253
4.1.2.2.3 With the Armed Forces ..................................................................................................... 254
4.1.2.3 Chicago Years ................................................................................................................... 254
4.1.2.3.1 From Non-Directive to Client-Centred ............................................................................. 255
4.1.2.3.2 Personal Crisis - 1949 ..................................................................................................... 256
4.1.2.3.3 Further Development of Person-Centred Therapy ............................................................ 257
4.1.2.3.3.1 Unconditional Positive Regard (UPR) ............................................................................. 257
4.1.2.3.3.2 Congruence ....................................................................................................................... 258
4.1.2.3.3.3 Developing the Six Conditions ......................................................................................... 258
4.1.2.3.4 Academic Honours ............................................................................................................ 259
4.1.2.3.5 Personal Life – A Troubled Phase .................................................................................... 260
4.1.2.3.6 Carl Rogers – A Man of Integration and Synthesis .......................................................... 260

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4.1.2.3.7 Dialogues .......................................................................................................................... 261
4.1.2.4 Wisconsin Years: 1957-63 ............................................................................................... 262
4.1.2.4.1 Disappointment in Wisconsin ........................................................................................... 262
4.1.2.4.2 Rogerian Listening ............................................................................................................ 263
4.1.2.4.3 Overseas Trips .................................................................................................................. 263
4.1.2.4.4 ‘On Becoming a Person’ ................................................................................................... 264
4.1.2.4.5 Widening of Person-Centred Approach ( PCA) ................................................................ 264
4.1.2.5 In California ...................................................................................................................... 264
4.1.2.5.1 Western Behavioural Science Institute (WBSI) ................................................................ 265
4.1.2.5.2 Centre for Studies of Person (CSP) ................................................................................... 265
4.1.2.5.3 Personal and Family Troubles ........................................................................................... 265
4.1.2.5.4 Critical Remarks ............................................................................................................... 266
4.1.2.5.5 Two ‘Failed Projects’ and the Conflict with the Catholic Church .................................... 267
4.1.2.5.6 Academic Dynamism ....................................................................................................... 269
4.1.2.5.7 The Person of Rogers: Attracted to the Young ................................................................. 270
4.1.2.5.8 Duty, Love, Selfishness, Intimacy and Sex ...................................................................... 270
4.1.2.5.9 Helen’s Death ................................................................................................................... 272
4.1.2.5.10 ‘Spiritual’ Journey ? .......................................................................................................... 275
4.1.2.5.11 Spread of Person - Centred Approach ............................................................................... 277
4.1.2.5.12 Further Development of PCA outside USA ..................................................................... 278
4.1.2.5.13 Working Towards Peace ................................................................................................... 278
4.1.2.5.14 Final Years ........................................................................................................................ 279
Concluding Reflection ...................................................................................................... 280

Part II
4.2 Person-Centred Therapy in Action ............................................................................... 281
4.2.1 Basic Concepts in PCA ..................................................................................................... 282
4.2.1.1 Client, not Patient .............................................................................................................. 282
4.2.1.2 Non-Directiveness ............................................................................................................. 282
4.2.1.2.1 Power to the Client ............................................................................................................ 283
4.2.1.2.2 Is Non-Directive Approach Possible? ............................................................................... 284
4.2.1.3 Stance against Absolutism ............................................................................................... 285
4.2.1.4 Importance of Subjective Experience ............................................................................... 286
4.2.1.5 Actualizing Tendency ....................................................................................................... 287
4.2.1.5.1 What is the Actualizing Tendency? .................................................................................. 288
4.2.1.5.2 Movement Towards Autonomy and Independence ........................................................... 289
4.2.1.5.3 Actualizing Tendency is Generative ................................................................................. 289
4.2.1.5.4 Universal Formative Tendency ......................................................................................... 290
4.2.1.5.5 Actualizing Tendency is Biological not Moral ................................................................. 290
4.2.1.5.6 Criticism of Actualizing Tendency .................................................................................... 291
4.2.1.6 Self-Actualization ............................................................................................................. 292
4.2.1.6.1 ‘To Be the Self that One is’ ............................................................................................. 293
4.2.1.6.2 Fully Functioning Person ................................................................................................. 294
4.2.1.7 Experience ........................................................................................................................ 295
4.2.1.8 Organismic Valuing Process ............................................................................................. 296
4.2.1.9 Nature of the Individual .................................................................................................... 296
4.2.1.9.1 Positive Outlook ................................................................................................................ 296
4.2.1.9.2 Man is a Man, not a Beast ................................................................................................. 297
4.2.1.9.3 Focus on the Positive ........................................................................................................ 298
4.2.1.9.4 The Art of Dealing with Humans Matters ......................................................................... 299
4.2.1.10 It is the Relationship that Heals ........................................................................................ 300
4.2.2 Rogers’ Theory of Personality .......................................................................................... 301
4.2.2.1 Self- Concept .................................................................................................................... 302
4.2.2.1.1 Introjected Values ............................................................................................................. 302
4.2.2.1.2 Rigid Self –Concept causes Distress ................................................................................. 303
4.2.2.2 The Need for Self- Regard ................................................................................................ 303
4.2.2.3 Discrepancy in Behaviour ................................................................................................. 304
4.2.2.4 Threat and Defence ........................................................................................................... 305
4.2.2.5 Breakdown and Disorganisation ....................................................................................... 305
4.2.2.6 Process of Reintegration ................................................................................................... 305
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4.2.3 The Person Centred Therapeutic Relationship .................................................................. 306
4.2.3.1 Conditions of Therapeutic Relationship ............................................................................ 307
4.2.3.1.1 Psychological Contact ....................................................................................................... 309
4.2.3.1.1.1 Minimum Essential Relationship ...................................................................................... 309
4.2.3.1.1.2 Contact and Pre-Therapy .................................................................................................. 310
4.2.3.1.1.3 Hindrances to Contact ....................................................................................................... 311
4.2.3.1.2 Client Incongruence .......................................................................................................... 311
4.2.3.1.2.1 Incongruence Leads to Dysfunctionality .......................................................................... 312
4.2.3.1.2.2 Causes of Distress ............................................................................................................. 312
4.2.3.1.3 Empathy ............................................................................................................................ 314
4.2.3.1.3.1 The Concept of Empathy .................................................................................................. 314
4.2.3.1.3.2 Empathic Listening and Reflection of Feelings ................................................................ 316
4.2.3.1.3.3 Empathy as a Process ........................................................................................................ 319
4.2.3.1.3.4 Effects of Empathy ........................................................................................................... 320
4.2.3.1.4 Unconditional Positive Regard (UPR) .............................................................................. 321
4.2.3.1.4.1 Development of UPR ........................................................................................................ 322
4.2.3.1.4.2 Love and UPR ................................................................................................................... 324
4.2.3.1.4.3 The Role UPR in PCT ....................................................................................................... 324
4.2.3.1.4.4 UPR – The Curative Factor in PCT .................................................................................. 325
4.2.3.1.4.5 Two Dimensions of UPR .................................................................................................. 326
4.2.3.1.5 Congruence ....................................................................................................................... 327
4.2.3.1.5.1 The Revolutionary Idea of Congruence ............................................................................ 328
4.2.3.1.5.2 Congruence, Awareness and Communication .................................................................. 329
4.2.3.1.5.3 Limits of Congruence ....................................................................................................... 330
4.2.3.1.5.4 The Role of Congruence ................................................................................................... 331
4.2.3.1.5.5 Concluding Reflection ...................................................................................................... 333
4.2.3.1.6 Client Perception ............................................................................................................... 334
4.2.3.2 The Status of the Conditions ............................................................................................ 336
4.2.4 The Process of Therapy and Its Outcomes ........................................................................ 337
4.2.4.1 How Does Therapeutic Change Take Place in PCT ? ....................................................... 338
4.2.4.2 The Process of Therapy .................................................................................................... 339
4.2.4.3 The Changes That Take Place as a Result of Therapy ...................................................... 340
4.2.5 Criticism of PCT ............................................................................................................... 340
4.2.5.1 Tendency to Self-actualise - Does it Exist? ...................................................................... 341
4.2.5.2 Naïve and Seriously Lacking ............................................................................................ 342
4.2.5.3 Is Non-Directive Approach Possible? .............................................................................. 343
4.2.5.4 Over-simplistic Psychopathology ..................................................................................... 344
4.2.5.5 Over-optimism Regarding Human Nature? ...................................................................... 344
4.2.5.6 Are the Conditions ‘Necessary’ and ‘Sufficient’ ? .......................................................... 345
4.2.5.7 PCA: A 20 Century North American White Male Perspective? ....................................... 346
4.2.5.8 PCT Lacks Depth and Rigour ........................................................................................... 347
4.2.5.9 Rogers: an Advocate of the Spirit of 1960’s and 70’s ? ................................................... 347
Concluding Remarks ........................................................................................................ 348

CHAPTER 5

PERSON-ORIENTED AND PERSON-CENTRED: LOOKING FOR A COMBINED

APPROACH

Introduction ....................................................................................................................... 350

5.1 Is an Integration Possible? ............................................................................................. 352
5.2 Francis de Sales and Carl Rogers: A Comparison of Persons ................................... 352
5.2.1 Upbringing ........................................................................................................................ 353
5.2.2 Personal Traits .................................................................................................................. 354
5.2.3 Prolific Writing ................................................................................................................. 356
5.2.4 Masters of Empathic Listening ......................................................................................... 356
5.2.5 Skilful Integration and Synthesis ...................................................................................... 358

ix
5.2.6 Personal Touch, Spontaneity, Gentleness and Openness .................................................. 358
5.2.7 Differences in Person ........................................................................................................ 359
5.3 Looking for a Common Ground .................................................................................... 360
5.3.1 Humanistic Anthropology ................................................................................................. 361
5.3.2 Primacy of Love ................................................................................................................ 364
5.3.3 Importance of Relationship ............................................................................................... 369
5.3.3.1 Human Life is Relational .................................................................................................. 369
5.3.3.2 Quality of Relationship ..................................................................................................... 369
5.3.3.3 Relationship that Heals ..................................................................................................... 370
5.3.3.4 Relationship for Peace and Mutual Co-Existence ............................................................. 370
5.3.4 Focus on the Person .......................................................................................................... 371
5.3.5 Mystical Dimension .......................................................................................................... 373
5.4 Some Major Difference ................................................................................................... 376
5.4.1 Anthropological Difference .............................................................................................. 377
5.4.2 Divine Role and the Following of God’s Will .................................................................. 379
5.4.3 Directive Elements in Salesian Guidance ......................................................................... 381
5.4.4 The Use of the Scripture ................................................................................................... 381
5.5 An Integration is Possible: The Factors that Contribute ............................................ 382
5.5.1 The Positive Idea Human Beings ...................................................................................... 384
5.5.2 Therapeutic Conditions & Personal Qualities ................................................................... 386
5.5.3 The Need of a Healing Relationship ................................................................................. 389
5.5.4 The Role of Love .............................................................................................................. 391
5.5.5 The Spiritual and Mystical Dimension ............................................................................. 394
5.5.6 Person-Oriented and Person-Centred ................................................................................ 396
Concluding Remarks ......................................................................................................... 399

GENERAL CONCLUSION ......................................................................................401

Appendix - Survey Results .................................................................................................................. 409

Abbreviations ......................................................................................................................................... 428
Selected Bibliography ............................................................................................................................ 429
Abstract (English) ................................................................................................................................. 446
Abstract (German) ................................................................................................................................ 448
Curriculum Vitae ................................................................................................................................... 450

x
Foreword

Joy, gratitude and relief are my predominant sentiments as I finish this work. I thank God
Almighty for the gift of life as well as the love with which He guides me through the years. I
express my sincere thanks to my family for their love, support and prayers that have always
stood me in good stead.

My thanks are due to all MSFS Provincials of the SW India Province in the last seven years who
granted me necessary permission to take up this study, supported and encouraged me during the
course of this research.

I am indebted to the Chorherren-Stift Klosterneuburg, Austria, which served as my ‘home-away-

from-home’ during my stay in Vienna. I am absolutely indebted to Rev. Abbot Primate Bernhard
Backovsky, Dechant Beno Anderlitschka and all members of his community for their
camaraderie, unstinted support and encouragement.

Without the consistent support of Prof Dr. Johann Pock, my research guide, this project would
not have been possible. I thank him for his guidance, patience, encouragement and for his
personal and academic accompaniment. His keen interest in the subject matter proved a constant
boost during my study years.

I express my thanks to Prof. Marianne Schlosser and Prof. Antony Kolencherry who offered me
valuable guidance regarding the subject matter, especially in the chapters on spirituality. My
special thanks to Dr Karl Heinz Ladenhauf, pastoral psychologist, trainer, and founder of the
Austrian Society for Pastoral Psychology, for his meticulous reading of the text and offering
helpful tips and necessary corrections.

I thank all the OSFS in Austria, Germany, and in the USA who supported this study through
their encouragement and helpful suggestions besides granting me access to their libraries. I thank
Dayanand Edappally who read through, corrected and made the manuscript readable. I remember
all the participants in the survey who shared with me their frank opinions, remarks and
suggestions; so too all my friends and colleagues at the University of Vienna and all the
professors and staff there who supported me in my studies in various ways. I cannot forget my
spiritual friends, the power of whose prayerful support I often experienced in my difficult times.

I whole-heartedly dedicate this work to all my good friends and well-wishers in Europe in
gratitude for their love, friendship and support which made my stay, work and life here an
unforgettable and meaningful experience.

xi
“We must act on the minds of others as far as possible as the angels do, graciously and without coercion.”1
– St. Francis de Sales to Jane de Chantal on 14 October 1604.

“I find that when I am closest to my inner, intuitive self, when I am somehow in touch with the unknown in
me, when perhaps I am in a slightly altered state of consciousness, then whatever I do seem to be full of
healing. Then simply my presence is releasing and helpful to the other.”2 – Carl R. Rogers in A Way of Being.

INTRODUCTION

Much has been written in recent times about spiritual direction and pastoral counselling.
The vast amount of literature available on the subject surprises researchers. This
phenomenon reveals a basic truth: the topic is absolutely relevant even today. Secondly,
the fact that so much research is being carried out in the field shows there is need for more.
Over the years large numbers of priests and lay people alike have been entering the field of
spiritual direction. And it is good, too. Spiritual direction is not the monopolistic charism
of the clergy or the religious. Pope Francis teaches that ‘it is a charism of the lay people.’3

In spite of so much stuff written and spoken about spiritual direction, no doubt even today
it is difficult to find a good spiritual director. Pope Francis, fully aware of this reality, says,
“It is not easy to accompany. It is not easy to find a confessor, a spiritual father. It is not
easy to find a man with rectitude of intentions, in order that this spiritual direction, this
confession not be a nice chat among friends but without depth.”4

The Church has been carrying out this ministry of guiding and directing persons for almost
two millennia. She has always felt the need to respond adequately to the new challenges
while remaining faithful to her hallowed traditions. Since the development of counselling
and psychotherapy, in spite of initial hesitation, the Church has been trying to integrate it
into her ministry. Pastoral counselling developed as a result of such an attempt.

1
Francis de SALES, Selected Letters, tr. Elisabeth STOPP, Stella Niagra : DeSales Resource Centre, 2011. p.
68. « Il nous faut le plus qu’il est possible agir dans les espritz comme les Anges font, par des mouvemens
gracieux et sans violence. » Oeuvres de Saint François de Sales (AE), Vol. XII, p. 361.
2
Carl R. ROGERS, A Way of Being, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1980 (1995 ed.), p.129. Emphasis in the
original.
3
Address by Pope Francis to Consecrated Men and Women of the Diocese of Rome, in Rome on 16 May
2015. Available online:
https://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/speeches/2015/may/documents/papa-
francesco_20150516_religiosi-roma.html (15.1. 2016).
4
Ibid.
1
Situating this Study in Context

This dissertation makes an attempt to combine the spiritual tradition of the Church,
especially that of Salesian spirituality, with the developments in the field of psychology
and psychotherapy, of the person-centred approach (PCA) of Carl Rogers. Hardly any
literature on this specifically combined approach, especially written in a manner that suits
the pastoral context of India, is currently available. Nevertheless, there is no denying the
fact that some articles written in English and in German in the recent past about spiritual
direction in the Salesian tradition can be found. A few piecemeal approaches have also
been attempted through short articles to compare Salesian spirituality with different
therapy forms like Logotherapy and the psychoanalytical approach of Carl Jung. One of
the major contributions to this topic in our time in the German-speaking area was a degree
thesis (Diplomarbeit) by Günter Gresse at the Theological Faculty of the University of
Paderborn, Germany, in 1985.5 I have been aware of these works and have taken into
account these developments while working on this dissertation.

Two recently published studies on Salesian spirituality done in India are authored by
Thomas Perumalil6 and Devasia Manalel.7 Perumalil basically deals with topics like
perfection and growth in spiritual life. Manalel, who has dealt extensively with spiritual
direction in Salesian tradition, has done it from the point of view of anthropology,
methodology, and the like. It is indeed a serious work in the realm of spiritual direction but
has a totally different perspective from that of this work. I am firmly convinced that the
present situation of India requires, in many cases, an integration of spirituality and
psychotherapy; hence the need for pastoral counselling. No serious attempt has so far been
made to compare or integrate Salesian spiritual direction with counselling/psychotherapy,
simultaneously taking into account the special social and pastoral situation of India.

My approach in this work is totally different from the above-mentioned studies. This work
has an entirely different aim. First of all, I approach the topic from the point of view of
practical theology. Secondly, the main intention of this work is to explore the possibility of
combining the Salesian way of spiritual direction with the person-centred approach (PCA)

5
See Günter GRESSE, Salesianische Seelenführung und moderne Gesprächspsychologie: Ein Vergleich.
Seine Bedeutung für die Personale Begegnung im alltäglichen Miteinander, Paderborn: 1985, (Diplomarbeit
an der Theologischen Fakultät Paderborn).
6
See Thomas PERUMALIL, Perfection: A Salesian Perspective, Bangalore: Indian Institute of Spirituality,
1998.
7
See Devasia MANALEL, Spiritual Direction: A Methodology, Bangalore: SFS Publications, (2nd ed.),
2008.
2
of Carl Rogers to develop a strategy for pastoral counselling. In my opinion, pastoral
counselling is an acute need in India and these two approaches should be brought together
to formulate a new strategy.

India has had a long tradition of spiritual direction. The gurukula system8 which was
prevalent in ancient India is an example. Moreover, one comes across spiritual guides
(gurus) in all religious denominations who are inspired by ancient Indian traditions. Many
seekers from the West have found spiritual solace in India. Spiritual direction, therefore, is
nothing new to India. Currently there is a renewed demand for spiritual direction and a
pressing need for counselling in the country. An integration of spirituality and counselling
and vice versa might serve the purpose as much in India as in the West. This need is much
greater in India, in view of the fact that the people in India receive very little mental health
care unlike in the West and other developed countries.

The campaign to attribute a spiritual dimension to psychotherapy and to incorporate

spiritual interventions and practices into its practical realm has become a felt need in recent
times especially in the West. The growing stock of literature in this field is a clear
indication of the same. Many psychotherapists now are keen to dig into the spiritual roots
of many psychological issues. This particular need is greater in the Indian context although
precious little is being done about it. A successful strategy for pastoral counselling in the
Indian context requires a sound spiritual basis. At the same time it should lay itself open to
new insights from psychology and related social sciences. What is needed, in my opinion,
is an integrated and eclectic approach. Pope Francis appeals for more intensive training and
use of human sciences, including psychology, without being submerged under its
onslaught: “And this can be done only by a wise man, a wise woman. But also formed!
Today you cannot go only with good will: today the world is very complex and human
science also helps us, without falling into psychologism, but it helps us to see the path.”9

Research Question

This research revolves around the fundamental question, how can we develop a method of
pastoral counselling suited to the context of India and based on the strong foundations of
Salesian spirituality and the methods of Carl Rogers? Is it possible or desirable to bring

8
The gurukula system was a typical Indian educational setup in ancient times where the disciples stayed with
the guru (teacher/master) and was individually trained, guided and formed by him.
9
Pope Francis; from his Address in Rome on 16 May 2015. (mentioned above).
3
them together? What are the risks involved in bringing spirituality and psychology under
one umbrella? What elements can be safely taken from both of them, which areas should
be cautiously handled, and what elements should be totally eliminated? What has been the
attitude of the Church towards psychology and psychotherapy in the past – and at present?
What lessons can one learn from the lives and methods of Francis de Sales and Carl
Rogers?

Why Salesian Spirituality? It is because of my familiarity with it and my belief that

Salesian spirituality could offer a relevant way of spiritual direction. And as for Carl
Rogers, the author’s enchantment with the psychotherapist began during work on his B Ph
(Bachelor of Philosophy) thesis nearly two decades ago. Besides, the pastoral counselling
movement from the beginning has been closely associated with the person-centred
approach (PCA), although later it branched out and received affiliation from different
schools of therapy like psychoanalysis, logo therapy, Jungian therapy, systemic therapy,
etc. PCA displays transparency and openness to diversity, an eclectic approach and in the
past few decades a judicious receptivity to spiritual realities. What, however, drew me at
the beginning was the apparent similarity between Salesian spirituality and PCA based on
their common humanistic touch and their emphasis on human qualities.

Sources and Methods

This study, basically hermeneutic in nature, is based on the writings of Francis de Sales
and Carl Rogers and on numerous secondary studies on the topic. The main method
applied in this work is that of hermeneutics – study and interpretation of literature in the
field of Salesian spirituality and that of the person-centred approach. I have generally
relied on English and German translations of the works of Francis de Sales, but at the same
time, frequently referred to the original in French for greater clarity and originality. The
study also involved references to a large mass of secondary literature in Salesian
spirituality, PCA, spiritual direction and pastoral counselling. The research also brought
me into intense discussions with a number of experts from both fields who skilfully guided
me with their invaluable suggestions. The study is partly supported by an empirical survey
although not based on its results.

The author has extensively drawn from the letters of St Francis de Sales, which remain
excellent extant examples of his spiritual direction. True, the biographers of Francis de
Sales speak of his way of spiritual direction, but their brief descriptions provide limited
4
enlightenment on the subject. The letters of Francis de Sales, on the other hand, allow one
to experience a profound insight into the way he directed souls. Written in a uniquely
personal style, they exude love and care and unfailingly infuse in the addressee courage
and optimism. His pleasantly forceful manner of writing, the gentle persuasiveness that
shines through his words, without ever violating personal freedom, the utter trust and
confidence in God’s providence and the constant assurance of accompaniment etc. make
his letters extremely special. They are also full of practical spiritual wisdom and
psychological insights, coming as they are from an insightful master craftsman.

Personal Interest

From a personal point of view, this study has also been inspired by the mission entrusted to
me by my priestly vocation. Bishop Joseph Rey, co-founder of the Missionaries of St
Francis de Sales (MSFS), commissioned the venerable Father Peter Marie Mermier,
founder of the MSFS, thus: “Yours is a triple task: study St Francis de Sales; imitate his
virtues, form your method of guiding people on his: full of gentleness to sinners.”10 So it is
the bounden duty of every MSFS to study Francis de Sales and to form a method of
guiding people based on that of the Saint and the particular context.

The MSFS have a strong presence in India with nearly a thousand priests, more than a
hundred educational institutions and almost two dozen pastoral centres which bring them
into close contact with thousands of people on a daily basis. In the recent past it has been
discussed time and again at different province levels how to train more personnel for the
counselling ministry. The MSFS have unequivocally decided to engage actively in this
ministry. The many pastoral centres they have opened, where pastoral counselling and
spiritual direction are freely offered, are a clear indication of the execution of this decision.
The background of these deliberations also partially influenced my decision to take up this
study.

A Pastoral Response

There are also several others who follow the Salesian11 tradition in India. They include
religious congregations, and associations, both secular and clerical, who follow the
spirituality of St Francis de Sales. Many are engaged in priestly and religious formation,

10
As quoted in the Constitutions of the Missionaries of St Francis de Sales (MSFS), No. 9. Emphasis mine.
11
What is meant by ‘Salesian’ here is: connected with or following the spirituality of St Francis de Sales
(Sales →Salesian). In this work it does not refer to the Salesians of Don Bosco (SDB).
5
spiritual direction, preaching, pastoral ministry and counselling. There is a felt need to
respond to contemporary challenges in the Salesian way. To develop a strategy to confront
these challenges was a compelling need among different Salesian congregations. This
study can, therefore, be viewed as a pastoral response to the challenges the Church in India
faces today.

Another serious challenge raised by recent changes in society is the need for spiritual
guidance and counselling, especially at the personal and family levels. The present
situation of India obliges the Church to engage actively in the ministry of counselling and
guidance.12 Unfortunately, however, the inability of pastors to deal with the psychological
needs and mental anguish of the faithful has created a vacuum in the Indian pastoral
scenario. That many people avail themselves of the limited facilities available is a matter
of satisfaction. But is this sufficient? It is perceived as a challenge to the Church. How to
respond concretely to this challenge? Many have no answer. In my opinion, Francis de
Sales and Rogers could point the way.

The way the pastors deal with the people entrusted to their care also needs scrutiny. I have
often come across people who complain about priests’ inability to deal with human beings
in a humane manner. The Indian laity do not appreciate [they never really did; only
tolerated in the past!] the authoritarian, bulldozing, clericalized approach of their pastors.
Many priests, however, are not prepared to shed their antiquated ways of pastoral care.
This is a common complaint often aired in India: priests are more often than not
authoritarian, rigid, and lack basic human qualities to deal with the faithful and their
problems. What they expect is to find priests who are equipped to deal with the faithful in a
more humane way, with respect and empathy. The spirit of St Francis de Sales and of Carl
Rogers can be a lodestar in the manner of dealing with human beings.

It is hoped that this study will contribute to the field of Salesian spirituality, spiritual
direction, pastoral counselling and guidance in general. I also trust it will promote further
research in these fields, which I believe is a pastoral necessity for a more effective Church
in India.

12
See The Statement of Indian Theological Association (ITA) issued on 31 July, 2015. Available online:
http://www.itanet.in/ITA%20Statements2015.html (25.1.16). See especially part IV: Pastoral Response to
Contemporary Challenges and Part V: Specific Recommendations, (Nos. 41-54).

6
 CHAPTER 1

Pastoral Counselling as Continuation of the Healing

Ministry of Jesus: Background, History and Importance

Introduction

Pastoral ministry is the activity of the Church in fulfilment of the command of Jesus to
proclaim the Gospel and to make God known and loved in the whole world. The Church
received this command from Jesus himself who founded the Church to continue his
ministry in the world.1 It involves bringing the message of joy, hope and consolation to
humanity; in its joys, hopes and sorrows the Church is inextricably linked.2

Although in Protestant circles the pastoral ministry (Pastoral) is often interchangeably

used with pastoral care (Seelsorge3), in Catholic theology a difference is often made
between pastoral ministry and pastoral care.4 The pastoral ministry of the Church takes
different forms and shapes in responding to the needs of the times, but at all times she
remains faithful to the original command of Jesus. The Church fulfils her mission, among
others, through direct preaching, teaching, celebration of the sacraments, forming
communities of believers and being at the service of all peoples. In this she imitates Jesus
who brought God’s salvation to the world, not only through his words, but also his deeds,
signs and wonders and, above all, through his suffering, death and resurrection. Through
her ministry the Church helps human beings in their efforts to achieve fuller development
of their persons.5 Pastoral ministry takes place not only in the Church or in an established
religious context, but the care of souls can take place even in the most ordinary situations
of human life. It takes different shapes and forms according to existential situations here
and now. It must, moreover, be admitted that the context of pastoral care has become more
complex than ever before.6

1
Cf. Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC), Nos. 1-3.
2
Cf. Gaudium et Spes (GS), The Pastoral Constitution of Vatican II. Nos 1-3.
3
The German word Seelsorge is extremely difficult to translate. It is such an all-embracing term with
different meanings. In this work I have translated this word as the following (depending on the context):
pastoral ministry, ministry, pastoral care, pastoral service.
4
Cf. Joseph MÜLLER, Pastoral in Lexikon für Theologie und Kirche, (LThK) Walter KASPER (Ed.), Band
7, Freiburg: Herder, 1998, p. 1434.
5
Cf. GS, Nos. 41, 43.
6
Cf. Karl Heinz LADENHAUF / Rainer BUCHER, ‘Räume des Aufatmens. Welche Seelsorge brauchen
Menschen heute?’ in Rainer BUCHER (Ed.), Die Provokation der Krise. Zwölf Fragen und Antworten zur
Lage der Kirche, Würzburg: Echter, 2004, (154-176), pp. 154- 156.
7
1.1 Foundation of Pastoral Ministry

The primary goal of pastoral theology is to fulfil the mandate Jesus handed to the Church.
This mandate is to be fulfilled in the concrete life situations of the Church and the society
and in their particular cultural contexts.7 Pastoral ministry is the ‘core business’
(Kerngeschäft) of the Church.8 The pastoral service of the Church is firmly based on the
ministry of Jesus, Son of God and Saviour of humankind. The Church continues this
ministry of Jesus especially through the Liturgy and her pastoral ministry.9 God actively
seeks reconciliation with His creation through Jesus Christ. Like a shepherd He searches
for and goes after the lost one.10 His characteristics are tenderness, love, mercy, caring, and
compassion. The condescension and the searching nature of God are seen in the person of
Jesus. The Church has the responsibility to care for all the followers of Christ and also for
the whole of humanity.11

The pastoral ministry should be linked to the liturgy which, in turn, should lead to proper
pastoral activity. Both are mutually linked and complement each other.12 The Church’s
ministry cannot be reduced to liturgical celebrations alone. Without fruitful pastoral praxis,
the liturgy becomes dry, meaningless and ritualistic. Jesus, as shepherd, makes a sacrifice
of himself for his sheep. Jesus commissioned his twelve apostles to be shepherds and to
continue his ministry. The Church is obliged to continue this ministry of Jesus and to fulfil
his command: “Give a shepherd’s care to the flock of God that is entrusted to you: watch
over it, not simply as a duty, but gladly, as God wants.”13 Every baptised Christian is called
to be a minister in his/her14 environment to continue the ministry of Jesus, each according
to his or her calling.

Over the years, even the very concept of pastoral care has assumed a different meaning.
Pastoral psychology has contributed a great deal to create this shift in focus and approach.
It has helped create a broad concept of pastoral care which is not necessarily focused on a

7
Cf. Paul M. ZULEHNER, Pastoraltheologie. Band 1. Fundamental pastoral, Düsseldorf: Patmos Verlag,
1989, pp. 33-34.
8
Cf. LADENHAUF / BUCHER, Räume des Aufatmens. p. 157.
9
Cf. Sacrosanctum Concilium (SC), The Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy, Vatican II, Nos. 5-13.
10
Cf. Eze 34.11-16, Ps 23, Mt 18: 12-14, Jn 10:1-11.
11
Cf. GS, Nos. 1-3.
12
Cf. SC, No. 10. See also Instruction on the Proper Implementation of the Constitution on the Sacred
Liturgy (S.C.R. Inter Oecumenici), issued on 26 September 1964, Nos. 4-8.
13
1 Pet 5:2. The New Jerusalem Bible (NJB, Pocket Edition), Mumbai: St Pauls, 1998.
14
I have generally used the masculine gender to refer to persons in order to avoid the clumsy reading of the
text. It does not reflect any gender prejudice whatsoever.
8
priest or done only by men.15 Today the term ‘pastoral ministry’ has indeed expanded so
broadly that a definition is difficult as it might sound restrictive.

1.1.1 Ministry of Jesus: Foundation of the Ministry of the Church

What is the basis of the ministry of the Church? It is none other than the ministry of Jesus
and his command to proclaim the Gospel to the ends of the earth and to do as he had done.
Jesus set a wonderful example of his own ministry. He went about preaching the Kingdom
of God to all people, especially to the poor. He urged people to conversion. He showed
through his words and all the more through his deeds what the Heavenly Father is like and
the nature of God’s Kingdom. He set an example of love and service by washing the feet of
his disciples. He brought people healing and forgiveness by curing them physically and
spiritually, and instituted the Church to continue his ministry here on earth.

Jesus carried out his ministry without looking for any reward. In the same way, “Christian
ministers are called to give such a self-giving service without expecting an immediate
reward.”16 Every Christian secures his life when he loses it for Christ,17 who considered it
his ministry to uplift humanity, to restore to all human beings their worth and dignity as
children of God. He showed a preference for the poor, a point which has been highlighted
by the life and teachings of Pope Francis. From his biography:

My people are poor and I am one of them,’ he has said more than once,
explaining his decision to live in an apartment and cook his own supper. He
has always advised his priests to show mercy and apostolic courage and to
keep their doors open to everyone. The worst thing that could happen to the
Church, he has said on various occasions, “is what de Lubac called spiritual
worldliness,” which means, “being self-centred.” And when he speaks of
social justice, he calls people first of all to pick up the Catechism, to
rediscover the Ten Commandments and the Beatitudes.18

Christians are called to service which involves sacrifice and self-emptying. In the opinion
of well-known Viennese pastoral theologian Paul M. Zulehner, the ministry of the Church
today should have the following objectives as primary goals: working towards peace

15
Cf. LADENHAUF / BUCHER, Räume des Aufatmens. p. 159.
16
Ezamo MURRY, An Introduction to Pastoral Care and Counseling, New Delhi: ISPCK, 2009, p. 5.
17
Cf. Mt 19:19.
18
From the biography of Pope Francis, from the Vatican Homepage:
http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/francesco/biography/documents/papa-francesco-biografia-
bergoglio_en.html (15.1.2016).
9
(shalom) and liberation, giving hope, standing up for life, bringing healing, and the
rediscovery of the ‘people of God.’19

Jesus as a king and servant-God, tried to establish the Kingdom of God (Jn 18: 33-37). As
a priest he offered himself up for his people as a mediator between God and human beings.
As a prophet, Jesus proclaimed God’s word to his people. Jesus came to serve and not to
be served. This truth was frequently repeated by him (Mt 20:26-28, Mk 9:35, 10: 42-45).
As servant of God, Jesus considers it his mission to bring wholeness to the lives of human
beings. In his teaching, preaching and through his whole ministry he tries to reconcile men
and women to himself and to the Father. His suffering was for this purpose. It is clearly
shown in Jesus’ Nazareth Manifesto. He considers it his duty to bring healing and
liberation to the poor through the Good News (Lk 4: 18-19. Cf. Isa 61:1-3).20

The Church, too, has this duty to bring about bodily, psychological and spiritual healing
because she bases her ministry on that of Jesus. She has to place herself on the side of the
suffering people in word and deed, in her option and in her empathy for them. This is an
unmistakable and clear biblical demand.21

1.1.2 Contemporary World and its Needs

Through the centuries the Church has proclaimed the message of the Gospel and
ministered to the spiritual and temporal needs of her members and non-members. The
Church has the responsibility to cater to the needs of the time. She has to read the signs of
the times: “At all times the Church carries the responsibility of reading the signs of the
time and of interpreting it in the light of the Gospel, if it is to carry out its task.”22 It means
the ministry of the Church has to take into account the concrete needs of the people in the
context in which they live. Pastoral ministry has a diaconal character. It is following Jesus
by acting in his spirit and his message of the Kingdom of God. The Church has to do it
today in the post-modern context. What has Jesus got to tell the people living in today’s
postmodern world?23

The times keep changing and so do the needs of the people. The needs of the people – both
spiritual and material- differ from time to time, from one culture to another. Therefore, if
19
Cf. ZULEHNER, Fundamentalpastoral, pp. 64-99.
20
Cf. Ibid., pp.19-21
21
Cf. LADENHAUF / BUCHER, Räume des Aufatmens, p. 160.
22
GS, No. 4.
23
Cf. LADENHAUF / BUCHER, Räume des Aufatmen, p. 162.
10
she has to be truly faithful to her mission of proclaiming the Gospel and working for the
establishment of the Kingdom of God, she has to take into account people’s joys, sorrows,
and the needs of the time.24

The Church has always stood by her faithful in their joys and sorrows. She has
strengthened them to face their difficulties, offered them courage in times of trials,
consolation in bereavement and loss, and spiritual guidance in times of disorientation. In
the early centuries the Church stood firmly behind the believers when they had to face
persecution, apostasy and material and spiritual deprivation. Gradually there arose different
types of pastoral care to cater to the different categories and groups of people. Thus, today
we hear of pastoral care of the sick, the mentally challenged, taking care of the poor and
the marginalized, youth ministry, caring for refugees and migrants, championing life and
human dignity, individual care of souls, pastoral counselling, and much more. All these are
different forms of pastoral ministry. Over the years, in the Catholic Church in the field of
pastoral care, priestly monopoly has given way to active and well-trained lay people who
engage themselves in different pastoral activities.25 Experienced pastoral theologians argue
that a clericalized, priest-centred and ritual-oriented Church is passé.26

1.1.3 Responding to the Needs of the Time

Every generation of Christians has the obligation to serve the Lord, and not follow the
spirit of the age (Zeitgeist). But at the same time, as noted earlier, the Christians are called
to serve the Lord in (our) their own times, responding to the challenges of the times and
bringing his message to the present age and making known his love and mercy to the world
in the context of today. Therefore, the practice of the Church should respond to the needs
of the times. Pastoral Theology, therefore, deals with the basic ministry and actions of the
Church in specific contexts. The Church should constantly ask herself if her ministry is
relevant to the times.27 To present Jesus in the realities of our context and our times is one
of the main goals of the pastoral ministry. It also means presenting Jesus in the individual

24
Cf. GS, No.1
25
Cf. LADENHAUF / BUCHER, Räume des Aufatmens, pp. 161-162.
26
See in this regard view-points of two important pastoral theologians in the German-speaking area. 1.
ZULEHNER, Zulehner zum Laienapostolat: “Priesterkirche” ist passe. (15.1.16)
https://kathpress.at/goto/meldung/1315688/zulehner-zum-laienapostolat-priesterkirche-ist-pass 2. Gisbert
GRESHAKE, Freiburger Theologe Greshake beklagt neuen Klerikalismus, http://www.kath.net/news/27158
27
Cf. Paul M. ZULEHNER mit Johannes HAAS, Andreas HELLER, Maria K. WIDL und Rupert
STADLER Fundamentalpastoral. Kirche zwischen Auftrag und Erwartung, Düsseldorf: Patmos, 1989. p. 3.
11
life of every person. Pastoral ministry should help the people in the world today to ask
relevant and concrete questions regarding their own lives in the light of faith.28

The challenges the world pose today are greatly different than a century ago or, rather, a
decade ago. To respond to the challenges and needs of the present time, the ministers of
the Church have to constantly update them and equip themselves anew. No wonder, many
dioceses today have special teams and target groups for ministry. The Vienna Archdiocese
with a vast variety of pastoral ministries is a classic example of this.29

The top priority of the Church in the first century was preaching the Gospel and taking care
of the poor (Acts 6:1-7). In the Middle Ages the focus shifted to evangelisation of peoples,
education, and training in Christian spirituality. The present-day world presents the Church
with manifold challenges and tasks. Today the world is becoming increasingly secularised,
families are breaking up, and new ways of life and forms of partnerships are on the rise.
Human beings search frantically for their true identity in the messy world of today. The
world looks rudderless in spite of all the progress and development humanity has achieved.
Moreover, the world is witnessing a cultural plurality due to massive migration,
intercontinental movement of refugees, free travel and employment possibilities. The
Church must respond to the cultural changes taking place in an increasingly pluralistic
world.30

1.2 Pastoral Psychology: The Psychology of Pastoral Care

What is pastoral psychology? What has it to do with the ministry of the Church? How
does pastoral psychology help continue the ministry of Jesus? Pastoral psychology, when
compared to several other theological disciplines, is one of the youngest branches with a
modest past. It is a branch of theology which is still in the process of evolving and
becoming. Pastoral psychology is a field of encounter for dialogue or creative exchange
where learning takes place.31 Pastoral psychologists are convinced that with the help of
psychology, the pastor is able to understand better the crisis-ridden modern man who is
struggling to come to terms with himself: “Only when the pastor understands something of

28
Cf. LADENHAUF / BUCHER, Räume des Aufatmens, pp. 165-167.
29
Vienna Archdiocese has specialized ministries for different cultural and ethnic groups (Categoriale-
seelsorge). There are more than 25 Catholic ethnic and cultural groups in the Archdiocese.
30
Cf. GS, Part II, Chapter II. The entire chapter deals with this topic.
31
Cf. Isidor BAUMGARTNER (Hsg.), Handbuch der Pastoralpsychologie, Regensburg: Friedrich Pustet,
1990. In Vorwort, (17-20), p. 17.
12
the heart and soul of the person, from the crises, conflicts, fears and also joys and hopes of
the person, can he really be faithful to his vocation to be a pastor.”32

The use of social sciences like psychology and sociology for pastoral ministry is not
something totally new in the history of the Church. The Church allows the use of social
sciences when they enhance her ministry and as long as they do not go against her
teachings. Gaudium et Spes states: “ In pastoral care, sufficient use must be made not only
of theological principles, but also of the findings of the secular sciences, especially of
psychology and sociology, so that the faithful may be brought to a more adequate and
mature life of faith.”33 Psychologist and author Robert Kugelmann sees a new opening in
the documents of Vatican II: “For psychology, the documents of the Vatican Council cast
it and the other human sciences in a more favourable light.”34

It is clearly a new opening on the part of the Church which is becoming more open to this
science of human behaviour. A dialogue with Psychology is unavoidable, taking into
account the situation today. This human science is required to help people come to
themselves, realize their situation and go beyond themselves.35 Every good human
development is a work of God and should be used for the ministry of the Church. It is not
unusual today to see many members of the Church, including priests and nuns, working as
counsellors and therapists.

What should be the relationship between theology and psychology? It is not fair to make
psychology a handmaid of theology, as many theologians would like to. Both are
independent sciences, and the approach should be one of dialogue.36 At the same time, a
dialogue with psychology does not mean that theology blindly accepts all the
anthropological and philosophical ideas of psychology which are at variance with Christian
theology. A dialogue calls for acknowledging and accepting the differences between the
two sciences and at the same time seeing critically the different views of the other. When
one sees the other as a maid and oneself as master, there is no dialogue, exchange, or

32
BAUMGARTNER, Handbuch der Pastoralpsychologie, p. 18. Translation mine. Here I translate the
German term Seelsorger as Pastor although it loses some of its relevance and meaning.
33
GS, No. 62.
34
Robert KUGELMANN, Psychology and Catholicism. Contested Boundaries, Cambridge University Press,
(e-book, Kindle Edition), 2011, p. 64. [Note that the page numbers in some e-books such as Kindle Book,
iBook, etc. vary depending on the instrument one uses. So this content may have another page number in
another gadget].
35
Cf. Isidor BAUMGARTNER, Handbuch der Pastoralpsychologie, p. 18.
36
Cf. Heribert WAHL, Pastoralpsychologie-Teilgebiet und Grunddimension Praktischer Theologie in
Handbuch der Pastoralpsychologie, pp. 41-61. Here pp. 50-53
13
mutual learning possible.37 Psychology cannot just be looked upon as a mere source of
techniques and ‘dubious’ application models, but it can also at times be an ‘outside
prophet’ for theology and pastoral work.38 However, care must be exercised while
incorporating psychology into ministry. Most schools of psychology have a particular
understanding of human beings which is at variance with the Christian understanding of
man and his relationship with God.39

Psychology challenges us about exclusively adhering to traditional and outdated methods

of pastoral work. Isidor Baumgartner poses some relevant questions. How far is pastoral
theology as well as practical theology really concerned with the ‘care of souls’ when it
fails to take note of the people and their needs or fails to make them capable of loving?
Why is it that the confessionals of the Church are getting emptied and at the same time
there is a wild rush to the therapist’s couch? Has healing and wholeness totally disappeared
from confessionals or from the dialogues with the pastors? Do the faithful need
psychologists for the care and healing of their souls?40As Freud wrote to his friend, a Swiss
pastor, “what we are doing is the care of the souls in the best sense of the word.” 41 Has the
Church really neglected the real care of the souls in the present times? Or has the Church
not been able to understand the signs of the time and respond to the needs of the time?

Healing was an important aspect of Jesus’ ministry. He wanted his disciples to continue
this ministry: “He sent them out to proclaim the Kingdom of God and to heal.”42 Pastoral
psychology is to be seen as a place of learning (Lernort) for healing pastoral activities
(heilendes pastoralen Handeln). And as such, it is not just a branch of practical theology
but a fundamental dimension of theology itself which calls to mind the duty of theology to
labour for the care of souls.43

It is also to be noted that the healing dimension of pastoral ministry is not to be restricted
to pastoral counselling. Pastoral psychology also tries to bring out its healing power in
group activities (eg., group dynamics), group work, proclamation and also in liturgy. Such

37
Cf. WAHL, Pastoralpsychologie-Teilgebiet und Grunddimension Praktischer Theologie, pp. 50-53.
38
Cf. BAUMGARTNER, Handbuch der Pastoralpsychologie, p. 18.
39
Cf. Heinz BRUNNER, Menschenbilder in Psychologie und Psychotherapie in Handbuch der
Pastoralpsychologie, pp. 63-85.
40
Cf. BAUMGARTNER, Handbuch der Pastoralpsychologie, p. 19.
41
As cited by BAUMGARTNER in Handbuch der Pastoralpsychologie, p. 18.
42
Lk 9:2.
43
Cf. BAUMGARTNER in Handbuch der Pastoralpsychologie, p. 19. The expression pastoral psychology
as the basic element (German - Grunddimension) of practical theology is credited to Heribert Wahl.
Reference to this expression and to him has been made several times in this work. I translate Grunddimension
as basic element or basic dimension.
14
a ministry of healing, be it in charitable service (diaconia), preaching or in liturgical form,
is central to practical theology. To the above-mentioned aspects pastoral psychology pays
more attention than any other branch of practical theology. Pastoral psychology gives
practical theology a new identity, competence and self-assurance.44

1.2.1 Pastoral Psychology as the Basic Element of Practical Theology

What is the status of pastoral psychology within practical theology? Is it an adjunct to

practical theology? Or does it belong to the core of practical theology? Heribert Wahl
argues that pastoral psychology should be a basic element (Grunddimension) of pastoral
theology. It is a context where one can learn the healing power of the pastoral ministry.
Therefore, it is not only a branch of pastoral theology but a basic dimension of it. Pastoral
psychology has to bring out the legacy of the healing power of theology.45

According to Michael Klessman, pastoral psychology has three main functions: a) It serves
to add a new dimension to theological knowledge. b) It serves to have knowledge of
human beings. c) It helps us to have knowledge of our own selves.46 Klessman considers
pastoral psychology to be theology and psychology combined at the same time. It is
theology in concrete practice. Pastoral psychology helps to have and to communicate
religious experiences in pastoral counselling, therapy and in religious rituals.47

1.2.2 Development of Pastoral Psychology

The application of psychological insights and methods in the pastoral ministry is not
something completely new. Directly or indirectly, knowingly or unknowingly, the Church
has had recourse to psychological insights. One finds examples for this from the earliest
times.48 The whole development of pastoral psychology can be divided into two historical
stages – the early history and the modern history.

44
Cf. BAUMGARTNER, Handbuch der Pastoralpsychologie, p. 19.
45
Cf. WAHL, Handbuch der Pastoralpsychologie, pp. 41-59. Here pp. 49-52.
46
Cf. Michael KLESSMANN, Pastoralpsychologie. Ein Lehrbuch, Neukirchen-Vluyn: Neukirchner Verlag,
2004, pp. 26-34.
47
Cf. Ibid.
48
Cf. POMPEY, Zur Geschichte der Pastoralpsychologie in Handbuch der Pastoralpsychologie p. 24.
15
1.2.2.1 From the Earliest Times to the 18th Century
One notices that in the earliest Christian communities special attention was paid to people
who had biological and psychological needs.49 Special needs of certain groups were also
taken into account. Such is the case with the re-marriage of widows mentioned in 1 Cor. 7:
8-9. Care was taken not to offend the sensitivities of others in the community. The diaconal
dimension of pastoral ministry was emphasized at all times in the ministry of the Church.
Special attention was paid to those who deserved and needed it. A preferential option for
the needy and suffering was part of the ministry of the Church from the beginning.50

It must, however, be admitted that there have been reservations regarding the admission of
psychology into theology and ministry, especially in the Catholic Church. Some have
strong reservations about accepting psychological concepts, insights, and values into the
ministry of the Church because they believe the adoption of ideas from psychology tends
to negate the Kingdom of God and create a ‘humanistic Kingdom of God’. On the other
hand, many believe it to have been part of the ministry of the Church from the beginning.51

Anyone who looks into the history of the Church cannot neglect the fact that even in the
earliest writings of the Church one sees the elements of empathy, congruence and
unconditional acceptance, conditions necessary for a counselling relationship. In the
Fathers of the Church, especially in the Letters of Ambrose, Epistles of Barnabas and that
of St Clement of Rome these elements can be found.52

1.2.2.1.1 Desert Fathers

The Desert Fathers occupy a prominent place when we consider this history. With the
Tolerance Edict of Milan in 313, the persecution of Christians ended, and Christianity
became the state religion, and other religions were prohibited. From the beginning of
Christianity there were people who led an ascetic life of prayer, penance and works of
charity with a certain detachment from the world. The Edict of Milan gradually diminished
the ideal of Christian martyrdom because there was no more need for it but there was a
yearning for a bloodless martyrdom. As Christianity gradually became identified with
political power and its structure, these people sought a radical following of the Lord and

49
Cf. Acts 6:1-6.
50
Cf. POMPEY, Zur Geschichte der Pastoralpsychologie, p. 23.
51
Cf. David LYALL, Counselling in the Pastoral and Spiritual Context, Buckingham: Open University
Press, 1995, p. 2.
52
Cf. Ibid., p. 3.
16
knowledge of the holy mysteries away from the world and its attractions and pomp.53 That
was also the beginning of religious life through a radical following of the Lord.54

These monks or Desert Fathers and Mothers, as they are called, were sought after by
people who looked for spiritual guidance. They were looked upon as holy people who
undertook the journey to find their real selves. They were believed to have fought and won
the battle against themselves in the desert and thought to be in a position to help others. It
was believed that their capabilities and skills were achieved through the long process of
self-discovery and self-mastery. They were, in a way, psychologists of the time who could
analyse the thoughts and deeds of the people who sought their help and suggest remedies.55
As early as the fourth century, they had developed a method of spiritual direction - a
method of helping people to deal with the problems of their spiritual life, which were quite
similar to the modern methods of person-centred counselling.56

Clearly some form of ‘psychological pastoral care’ – such as encouraging and supporting
the depressed, consoling the grieving, animating the disheartened, etc. – was part of the
ministry of the Church from the earliest times. These forms of ministry were similar to
today’s pastoral counselling. If one looks at the earliest literature, four modes of pastoral
care can be found in them – sustaining, reconciling, healing, and guiding. These elements
were an integral part of the ministry of the Church from the beginning.57

1.2.2.1.2 Fathers of the Church and the Middle Ages

The patristic theologians, as learned people of their time, were also familiar with the
prevalent ‘psychological’ knowledge and insights. In dealing with people and guiding
them, especially of healing and liberating people possessed of evil spirits, they took
recourse to the knowledge of the soul and psyche of the person. They discussed many of
the issues that pastoral psychology today deals with. Tertullian, Cyprian, John Chrysostom,
and later Augustine dealt with issues like the freedom of choice, the power of the will, the
extent and limits of human power, how to overcome the tendency to evil inclinations, and
the like. The letters of the Fathers like Clemens of Rome, Cyprian, Ambrose of Milan and

53
Cf. BÄUMER Regina / Michael PLATTIG, Aufmerksamkeit ist das natürliche Gebet der Seele. Geistliche
Begleitung in der Zeit der Wüstenväter und der personzentrierte Ansatz nach Carl R. Rogers- eine
Seelenverwandtschaft?!, Würzburg: Echter, 2012, pp. 11-12.
54
Cf. Jose KUMBLOLICKAL et al., Religious Life: A Prophetic Vision in I Want Mission: MSFS - Mystics
of God’s Love for Prophetic Ministries Today, Rome: MSFS Casa Generalizia, 2011, pp. 22-31.
55
Cf. Anselm GRÜN, Geistliche Begleitung bei den Wüstenvätern, Münsterschwarzach: Vier-Türme, 1991,
pp. 9-10; 16-17.
56
Cf. BÄUMER / PLATTIG, Aufmerksamkeit ist das natürliche Gebet der Seele. pp. 50-64.
57
Cf. LYALL, Counselling in the Pastoral and Spiritual Context, p. 3.
17
John Chrysostom till Gregory the Great, although they are other-world-oriented, bring out
skills of personal communication and guidance. Eusebius deserves special mention for his
psychological insights and literature about human development.58

Fathers of the Church like Cyprian, Origen, Tertullian and Gregory of Nyssa show in their
writings what inner attitudes and bodily composure are most suited for prayer. They knew
how the body could influence the mind and consequently one’s concentration in prayer.59

In the Middle Ages in matters concerning faith and Christian life one finds the application
of psychological knowledge and wisdom of day-to-day life. In the works of learned
theologians like Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventure one can find many psychological
insights.60 They made many theological-psychological contributions in their writings and
preaching. One also finds many psychological and person-oriented approaches in the
writing of Hrabanus Maurus, Hildegard of Bingen and Petrus Hispanus.61 In fact,
Thomistic philosophy, theology and anthropology have laid a systematic and scientific
foundation for modern psychology. The Catholic Church relied on Thomistic foundations
to respond to the challenges posed by the modern world.62

Two stalwarts in the late Middle Ages were St Ignatius of Loyola and St Francis de Sales.
In the retreats and spiritual exercises of Ignatius of Loyola in the 16th century we learn
about the art of self-evaluation, individual guidance and conquering one’s own self. St
Francis de Sales was well-known for his person-oriented spiritual direction.63 Thousands
came to him for confession and spiritual guidance. In the writings of St Francis de Sales
one can find many deep psychological insights intended to help Christians in their spiritual
and temporal life.64

The Letters of St Francis de Sales, especially his letters of spiritual direction, the special
object of my study for this research, show the depth of his insights into human nature, his
understanding of human psyche and the special importance of empathy and personal
relationship. Francis de Sales had such a deep psychological insight into the nature of

58
Cf. POMPEY, Zur Geschichte der Pastoralpsychologie, p. 24.
59
Cf. Marianne SCHLOSSER, Der Leib sei die Ikone der Seele. Gesten und Haltungen des Gebetes bei den
Vätern in Geistvoll, No. 2/2010, Vienna: Pastoralamt Erzdiözese Wien, 2010, pp. 8-12.
60
Cf. Ermano PAVESI, Pastoralpsychologie. Segen oder Fluch? in Vobiscum, 3.1, Schellenberg
(Liechtensteinberg): Publikationsorgan des Erzbistums Vaduz 2001, pp. 35-44.
61
Cf. POMPEY, Zur Geschichte der Pastoralpsychologie, p. 24.
62
Cf. KUGELMANN, Psychology and Catholicism. pp.23-24. [In this book Kugelmann deals in detail with
scholastic and neo-scholastic psychology. See chapters 2 and 3].
63
This topic – person-oriented approach – will be discussed in detail in the later parts of this work.
64
Cf. POMPEY, Zur Geschichte der Pastoralpsychologie, p. 9.
18
human persons that he was able to guide each one individually and personally as needed.65
More about St Francis de Sales will be dealt with later in this work.

One finds a more systematic and concrete application of psychology in the pastoral
ministry of the Church only in the modern times. The modern times - with its openness and
pluralism and, above all, with the development of psychology as an established and
independent science and the emerging new pastoral situations - called for greater openness
on the part of the Church and the development of pastoral psychological research and
training.66

Moral theology is said to be the direct forerunner of pastoral psychology. Many of the
questions with which moral theology dealt were pastoral-psychological in nature. Moral
theology deals a lot with human behaviour, freedom of the will, influence of
circumstances, extent of human responsibility and rightness and wrongness of human
actions and similar topics. In this sense, moral theology is deeply connected with pastoral
psychology. At the centre of all moral theological questions and research is the human
being and his behaviour - many of them psychological in nature.67

1.2.2.2 In Modern Times

This part focuses on the development of pastoral psychology in German-speaking areas.
Development in America is dealt with separately in the later part of this section. Not only
pastoral psychology, but also pastoral theology and practical theology (Praktische
Theologie) were not independent subjects until the first half of the 19th century.

1.2.2.2.1 Pastoral Medicine as Forerunner of Pastoral Psychology

As already mentioned, the development of pastoral psychology and pastoral counselling is
inseparably connected with the care of the sick. Pastoral medicine further promoted the
growth of pastoral psychology. Pastoral medicine supplied pastoral psychology with
necessary background knowledge. A famous contributor in this area was the evangelical
pastor J.C.F. Baehrens. In his research on the body-mind interaction, he already laid the
foundation for the consideration of psycho-somatic elements in the field of pastoral
psychology. Also, we cannot overlook another important figure, H.E. Paulinsky, who
brought out detailed instructions for priests and pastors regarding absurdness, craziness,

65
Cf. Franz WEHRL, Schwerepunkte Salesianisher Seelenführung in Salesianische Studien, Band 29,
Eichstätt: Franz von Sales Verlag, 1996, p. 21
66
Cf. POMPEY, Zur Geschichte der Pastoralpsychologie, p. 25.
67
Cf. Ibid.
19
irrational behaviour, melancholy and such common forms of disorders and mental illness.
In his instruction, he explains that many of these disorders could be prevented or healed
through a good and effective approach of the priest. His manual was mainly aimed at
priests in villages and remote areas where access to medical care and doctors was not easy
in those times. In this sense one could say pastoral medicine was perhaps the oldest
discipline of practical theology.68 Pompey believes perhaps it was where we could find the
earliest application of psychology – the oldest applied psychology!69

F.C. Menzler, the so-called founder of pastoral medicine, brings out in his book ‘The
Influence of Medical Science on Practical Theology - A Contribution to Pastoral
Medicine’ (Ulm, 1794) for the first time moral-psychological and pastoral-psychological
treatment of pastoral aspects. The book deals with many topics that are basically
psychological in nature. Four psychological areas, such as study of character,
developmental psychology, motivational psychology, and social psychology are dealt with
in this book. Here one finds that the then prevalent psychological knowledge and insights
were used for pastoral purposes. He tried to combine these two sciences - practical
theology and psychology - which were still in their early stages of development. In 1809,
A. M. Vering published a book, Versuch einer Pastoral-Medicine70which also contained
psychological inputs and knowledge useful for pastoral ministry. Topics dealt with include
the influence of the body on thinking, that of age on man’s temperament, of the season on
the moods of a person, and the disorder of the psyche. A. M. Vering was a well-known
scholar and physician and held lectures on pastoral medicine in Münster. He published
another major work in this direction, Psychischen Heilkunde71 in three volumes. Th.
Schreger, M. J. Bluff, and M. Macher are the other known authors who carried out more
research in pastoral medicine and paved the way for the establishment of an independent
pastoral psychology in the first half of the 19th century.72

Interestingly, pastoral medicine dealt with more psychological questions than other
medical sciences of the time. In the late 19th century two other well-known names in the
field were Anselm Ricker, author of Pastoral-Psychiatrie zum Gebrauche für Seelsorger,73
published in Vienna in 1888, and Ignaz Familler, author of Pastoralpsychiatrie (Freiburg,

68
Cf. Adolf SLABY, Pastoralmedizin in LThK, Band 7, Freiburg: Herder, 1998, p. 1442.
69
Cf. POMPEY, Zur Geschichte der Pastoralpsychologie, p.30.
70
Roughly translated, Attempt at a Pastoral Medicine.
71
Roughly translated, Psychic Medicine.
72
Cf. POMPEY, Zur Geschichte der Pastoralpsychologie, p.31.
73
Means pastoral-psychiatry for the use of pastors.
20
1898). Pastoral medicine as a science was basically an ecumenical enterprise. The
developments were the result of an ecumenical exchange of ideas which were presented to
the Evangelical and Catholic faculties.74

1.2.2.2.2 Pastoral Psychology and Pastoral Counselling: Early Developments

Pastoral psychology as an independent science can be traced back to Germany, especially
to Würzburg. As early as 1773 in the new theology syllabus of Würzburg, it was stated,
“instead of filling candidates with dry ontology, the focus should be to make them familiar
with psychology and the knowledge of souls.”75 The goal of this training was to make them
more aware of themselves and of their feelings and emotions and to help them become real
pastors. The goal also included getting along with all classes and sorts of people and not to
neglect anybody.76 In 1779, A. J. Rosshirt, a pastoral-cum-moral theologian from
Würzburg, made an attempt to connect moral theology with psychology. The first big and
note-worthy work on pastoral theology in the German- speaking world came from F. Ch.
Pittroff. It was published in 1783 in Prague and had a part dealing with the dialogue of the
pastor in hospitals and his ministry with the sick, the dying, and the condemned. Already at
that time theologians were convinced of the need for the personal training of pastors,
enabling them to have a helpful relationship with the sick. The knowledge many
theologians possessed was even better than the psychological knowledge prevalent at that
time.77

Surprisingly, the history of the development of pastoral psychology was similar also in
America. The development of pastoral care in America had also begun with pastoral care
in the hospitals. Both movements were characterised by the concrete diaconal dimension of
the pastoral ministry. More about the developments in America and its influence in the
whole world will be treated in the later part of this chapter.

Another note-worthy practical theologian who contributed to the development of pastoral

care was F. A. Schram. His book, System der Pastorallehre zum allgemeinen Gebrauche
der Schulen published in 1788, contains material for training personnel to care for people
pastorally in the different stages of life. The first volume lays stress on the development of
suitable qualities required of pastors. It speaks of the qualities, dispositions of the heart and
behaviour required for the office of the shepherd. In the second volume he explains the

74
Cf. POMPEY, Zur Geschichte der Pastoralpsychologie, p. 32.
75
As quoted by POMPEY in Zur Geschichte der Pastoralpsychologie, p. 26. [Translation mine].
76
Cf. Ibid.
77
Cf. Ibid., p. 28.
21
pastoral wisdom (German, Pastoralklugheit) required for pastoral dialogue with people in
critical situations like sickness, bereavement or imprisonment. One of the primary goals of
pastoral training, according to him, should be forming the personality of the pastor suited
to this ministry.78

In subsequent years pastoral psychology (let us say, pastoral counselling) gradually

established itself according to the psychological knowledge of the time. One of the leading
figures of this systematisation and structuring was Johann Micahel Sailer, one of the
pioneers of pastoral theology in Germany, who later became the Bishop of Regensburg. In
his lectures, published in various editions, one can read about the general rules and
dispositions required for a pastoral counselling relationship. Some chapters contain
important insights regarding conversations at the confessional and for counselling the sick.
Like F. A. Schram, J. M. Sailer also emphasizes helpful pastoral care in the development
of a well-rounded personality. A person’s suitability and the acquisition of certain qualities
necessary for pastoral counselling cannot be overlooked.79

1.2.2.2.3 In the 19th and 20th Centuries

In the beginning of the 19th century, the writings of P. M. Schenkl and D. Gollowitz
contributed to the further development of this topic. Gollowitz’s Anleitung zur
Pastoraltheologie (Introduction to Pastoral Theology) distinguishes according to method
and content, four types of pastoral conversation/dialogue: teaching, instructional, punitive
and consoling. Viennese pastoral theologian Andreas Reichberger in his
80
Pastoralanweisung zum akademichen Gebrauche (1812), provides note-worthy pastoral
psychological reflections. He narrates in this book the interior and exterior stance of the
faithful (parishioners). In order to deal with the interior, one needs to know how the
exterior functions. Knowledge of both interior and exterior is necessary to efficiently deal
with human beings.81

From the second half of the 19th century onwards in the Catholic Church a discontinuity
occurred regarding the training and equipping of pastors for pastoral counselling. One of
those who revived a new interest in this field was a pastoral theologian from Freiburg, C.
Krieg, who with his work Wissenschaft der speziellen Seelenführung82 (Freiburg, 1904),

78
Cf. POMPEY, Zur Geschichte der Pastoralpsychologie, p. 28.
79
Cf. Ibid., p. 29.
80
Means roughly, pastoral instructions for academic use.
81
Cf. POMPEY, Zur Geschichte der Pastoralpsychologie p. 29.
82
Roughly translated, The Art/Science of Special Spiritual Guidance.
22
awakened anew interest in pastoral psychological themes. Decades later another Freiburg
theologian, Constantin Noppel, focused on individual care of souls in the second part of his
book Aedificatio corporis Christi. A real systematic discussion about the interaction
between psychology and pastoral sciences, which made constructive use of psychological
know-how and skills for the care of souls, took place only in the 1890s.83

Scientific research in the field of pastoral psychology gained momentum in Germany with
the establishment of Gesellschaft für Religionspsychologie84 in 1914. It was an attempt to
make the pastoral psychological endeavour empirical and more scientific in line with
developments in the field of psychology.85 Pompey is of the opinion, although the
empirical-experimental direction of pastoral psychology brought in many insights and
findings for pastoral sciences, that they were not directly useful to the pastoral ministry as
such. There was a lack of systematic integration and implementation of the findings in
pastoral praxis.86

In the meantime, many of the Protestant practical theologians in Germany who were at the
evangelical faculties at the universities trained themselves in psychoanalysis and did more
research to integrate depth-psychology with theology. This increasing acceptance of
psychology in pastoral ministry and its growth at university faculties led to the
establishment of the society Arzt und Seelsorger in 1949 in Stuttgart and in 1972 the
establishment of Deutsche Gesellschaft für Pastoralpsychologie (DGfP) to which later
Catholics also joined. DGfP today is an umbrella organization in Germany for all pastoral
psychologists, irrespective of differences based on denomination and school of
psychotherapy they follow. DGfP originally had four sections: psychoanalytic, group-
dynamics, clinical pastoral care and communications and behavioural psychology.87

The monitum88 of Pope John XXIII in 196189 threw cold water on the efforts on the
Catholic side to integrate psychoanalysis with ministry.90 The efforts on the Protestant side

83
Cf. POMPEY, Zur Geschichte der Pastoralpsychologie, pp.33-34.
84
Means Society for Religious Psychology
85
Cf. POMPEY, Zur Geschichte der Pastoralpsychologie, 35.
86
Cf. Ibid.
87
Cf. Ibid., p. 37.
88
A monitum is an official warning of the Catholic Church, issued by the Congregation for the Doctrine of
Faith, (then known as Congregation of the Holy Office). For the full text of the above-mentioned monitum
issued on 15.July 1961, see Suprema Sacra Congregatio S. Officii, AAS 53, 1961, p. 571.
89
Robert KUGELMANN, Psychology and Catholicism, p. 298 (refer to explanation on footnote 65 in
chapter 7 of the book). The monitum forbade priests practising or having recourse to psychoanalysis without
prior permission of the competent ecclesiastical authority.
23
to integrate ministry with depth-psychology went on unhindered. In 1988 Walter Rebell, an
evangelical NT specialist, published a book in Munich titled Handbuch Psychologisches
Grundwissen für Theologen.91 Another important work around this period was Einführung
in die Pastoralpsychologie, from Joachim Scharfenberg which was published in 1985.92

One could easily conclude that the points emphasized by F. A. Schram and J. M. Sailer
and other early pastoral theologians and pastoral psychologists are relevant even today. No
pastoral counselling can be effective without the requisite personal qualities on the part of
the counsellor. A century later, Carl Rogers, the great pioneer in the field of personal
counselling, would tell that a counsellor should possess the following qualities without
which no counselling can be successful. Rogers emphasized that congruence,
unconditional positive regard, and empathy are necessary conditions in a therapeutic
relationship. He calls them ‘the conditions which facilitate psychological growth’. He
argues that in the absence of these basic qualities in the counsellor no change is possible in
the client.93

Similar qualities are demanded by the Catholic Church of her priests. In order to take care
of the flock entrusted to his care a priest is to cultivate those qualities and virtues that help
in his ministry. The Church demands that a priest should acquire those human qualities and
virtues that make the relationship with his flock human, gentle and enriching.
Presbyterorum Ordinis states, “In pursuit of this aim, priests will be helped by cultivating
those virtues which are rightly held in high esteem in human relations. Such qualities are
goodness of heart, sincerity, strength and constancy of mind, careful attention to justice,
courtesy…” 94

1.2.2.2.4 Concluding Remarks

Looking back at the 17th, 18th and 19th centuries, we can say that pastoral psychology,
especially in the German-speaking world, had a gradual development and evolution from
moral theology, pastoral medicine, pastoral anthropology, and pastoral psychiatry. They
helped pastors and theologians with psychological insights. None of these were, however,
independent sciences. All these branches existed under the broad banner of pastoral
90
Cf. Timothy COSTELLO, Forming a Priestly Identity, Rome: Editrice PontificiaUniversitaGreogoriana,
2002, pp. 258-259.
91
Roughly translated, The Handbook of Basic Psychological Knowledge for Theologians.
92
Cf. Isidor BAUMGARTNER, Pastoralpsychologie: Einführung in die Praxis heilender Seelsorge,
Düsseldorf: Patmos, 1997, pp. ii- iv.
93
Cf. Carl R. ROGERS, On Becoming a Person. A Therapist’s View of Psychotherapy, (1995 Edition), New
York: Houghton Miffllin, pp. 60-63.
94
Presbyterorum Ordinis (PO), Decree on the Ministry and Life of Priests, 7 December, 1965, No. 3.
24
theology.95 As explained earlier, pastoral medicine and pastoral psychology can perhaps
claim for themselves the status of the oldest forms of applied psychology. Much before the
emergence of different forms of psychotherapy, pastoral psychology had developed its own
methods of healing and caring for the soul.96

It is to be noted, however, that this interaction happened not in the particular context of
pastoral sciences but in connection with the general context of the debate, or rather,
controversies between psychology and fundamental theology. The development and
establishment of psychology as an independent science in the late 19th century under the
influence of Wilhelm Wundt who established a psychology laboratory in Leipzig in 1879
had a definitive influence on pastoral psychology. Other major developments that affected
pastoral psychology and pastoral counselling were the movement of psychology in the
direction of an empirical science, the increasing influence of psychoanalysis and depth
psychology, and that of non-medical psychiatric therapy.97

1.2.2.3 Notable Catholic Contributions

It is to be noted that developments in the field of pastoral psychology were mainly a joint
effort on the side of the Protestants although on the Catholic side individual efforts were
made by a few individuals. One of the leading Catholic figures in this filed was Johann
Micahel Sailer, Bishop of Regensburg.

The deliberate acceptance of empirical psychology in Catholic theology circles was an off-
shoot of the 19th century revival of Scholasticism and Thomism as a Catholic response to
the challenge of modernism. One of the leading figures of the movement was the Belgian
Cardinal Desire-Joseph Mercier (1851-1926).98 Belgium was the first centre of
experimental psychology within a Catholic setting. He could well be called the father of
Catholic psychology. He helped establish a psychology laboratory which later produced
well-known psychologists like A. Thiery and A.M. V. Denberg. Mercier’s famous book
Origins of Contemporary Psychology was a pathfinder.99

Around this time, a Franciscan monk, Augustino Gemelli, a leading theologian and
scholar, established a university and a psychology laboratory in Milan. The university was

95
Cf. POMPEY, Zur Geschichte der Pastoralpsychologie, pp. 32-33.
96
Cf. Ibid., p. 33.
97
Cf. Ibid.
98
Cf. KUGELMANN, Psychology and Catholicism. pp. 2, 38-40 & 71.
99
Cf. Ibid., pp. 55-62. [In this book the author deals in detail with the revival of neo-scholasticism to
counter the apparent threat faced by modernism and the purely empirical and scientific psychology].
25
one of the leading institutes of its kind in Italy. His research was focused on the
psychology of the work- place. Other leading Christian psychologists in the following
decades were J. Froebes, a Jesuit in Holland, and his student J. Lindwosky, professor in
Cologne and Prague.100 Willibald Demal, a Benedictine monk from Vienna, brought out a
book in 1949, ‘Praktische Pastoralpsycholgie’ Interestingly, one finds here the influence
of psychoanalytical methods and also ideas similar to those of non-directive counselling.101

1.2.2.4 Friction between Psychology and the Catholic Church

The friction between theology and psychology became sourer with the growth and spread
of psychoanalytical schools. Regarding their coming into existence, one could say that
their goals were similar to those of the pastoral care of the Church - to alleviate the
sufferings of human beings and to heal troubled souls.102 But the psychoanalytical schools
were highly critical of religion and theology. Well-known among them are Sigmund Freud,
father of psychoanalysis, C.G. Jung and Alfred Adler. Many psychotherapists, especially
psychoanalysts, were not well-accepted by the Church because of their anti-religious
attitude. Psychoanalysis was confronting the Church with major threats on several fronts:

Both philosophically and practically, psychoanalysis challenged Church

positions. In place of neo-scholastic stress on the rationality of human soul
and freedom of will, psychoanalysis uncovered unconscious motivation of
precisely the kind - the sexual - that Catholic theology worried about. On the
side of praxis, psychoanalysis seemed to threaten Catholic cura animarum,
the cure of souls, in particular, the sacrament of confession. The analyst
appeared as a secular confessor who would not absolve sin but who seemed
to dissolve it into neurotic irrational symptoms. Such were the fears. With
his writings on religion Freud threw down the gauntlet. … Freud argued for
irrational roots of religious beliefs and practices in the vicissitudes of human
desire, and for science and reason to replace religion.103

Many Catholics, influenced by psychoanalysis, began to take it positively. Although they

rejected its ideological and philosophical foundations, they believed it could be
accommodated into Catholic ministry. For those who were more pragmatic and practical-
minded, it came in handy for pastoral ministry.104

There came a major setback to this interaction between theology and psychoanalysis – an
in fact, all forms of psychotherapy – when Pope John XXIII prohibited through the

100
Cf. POMPEY, Zur Geschichte der Pastoralpsychologie, pp. 34-35.
101
Cf. Ibid., p. 39.
102
Cf. Lothar RIEDEL (Hrsg.) Couch oder Kirche. Psychotherapie und Religion – zwei mögliche Wege auf
der Suche nach Sinn, (Beiträge der Basler Psychotherapietage 2001), Riehen, CH: Perspetiva, 2001, pp. 7-8.
103
KUGELMANN, Psychology and Catholicism, p.165.
104
Cf. Ibid., pp. 165-169.
26
monitum of 15 July 1961, the practice of psychoanalysis in the pastoral ministry and for
pastors. It also prohibited priests and religious from going to psychoanalysis. It was
because the Sacred Congregation saw a great danger in the views held by psychoanalysis
regarding the sixth commandment and matters of imputability and personal responsibility
for one’s actions. The psychoanalytical approach, in the opinion of the Sacred
Congregation, downplayed the dimension of imputability in human actions and ignored the
moral standards regarding the sixth commandment of God.105

The fears of the Church were not totally unfounded. The events before and after the
monitum proved it. In Cuernavaca, Mexico, as many as 40 of 60 monks who took
psychoanalysis left the Benedictine monastery of St Mary from 1962 to 1966.106 The
Belgian Prior of the monastery was quoted as saying that they had been put through
psychoanalysis sessions against the directives of the Vatican as stated in the monitum.107
The Vatican intervened and the Prior was suspended and held accountable. This was not an
isolated case. There were other cases of religious and priests leaving their vocation after
psychoanalysis. This has also been accepted by psychoanalysts themselves.108

1.2.3 Pastoral Psychology: Developments in America

Pastoral counselling in the USA emerged as part of the pastoral care of the sick. Anton
Theophilus Boisen was the founder of such a movement. He was in the beginning ably
supported by Richard Cabot. Later on it was led by pastoral theologians like Paul Johnson,
Seward Hiltner, Caroll A. Wise, Wyne E. Oates, and Rollo May.109 One must admit it was
basically a Protestant undertaking. This caused a new way of guidance and direction of
souls to emerge in the ecclesiastical circles which tried to combine the principles and
methods of psychology with theology and spirituality. It gave way to an approach focused
on the person and his needs and ushered in a new era of caring for souls which replaced the
old one-way traffic characterised by authoritarianism.110

105
Cf. John J. LYNCH, Notes on Moral Theology in Theological Studies, 1962, Vol. 23. 2, (233-265), p. 233.
106
Cf. COSTELLO, Forming a Priestly Identity, pp. 258-260.
107
See the newspaper article: Prior had Monks Psychoanalysed in Catholic Herald, UK, 23.12. 1966, p. 3.
108
Cf. Hanna WOLFF, Jesus als Therapeut. Jesu Menschenhandlung als Modell moderner Psychotherapie,
Radius: Stuttgart, 1978, pp. 26-27.
109
Cf. E. Brooks HOLIFIELD, A History of Pastoral Care in America. From Salvation to Self-Realization,
Nashville: Abingdon Press, pp. 231-258. This book gives a detailed account of the development of pastoral
counselling in America. It, however, deals only with Protestant history.
110
Cf. MURRY, An Introduction to Pastoral Care and Counseling, p. 151.
27
These pioneers were heavily influenced by psychology which was then slowly taking a
definitive shape as a science in America and Europe. They wanted a better approach to
diagnosing and dealing with human problems. They believed that psychology would
provide a better understanding of human nature and ways of solving problems. They
utilized the methods brought out by different branches of psychology such as the
psychoanalytic school, behavioural school and humanistic school.111 Two distinct strands
were clearly visible in the American scenario from the beginning: (a) clinical pastoral
education, and (b) pastoral counselling (as autonomous professional disciplines, influenced
by Carl Rogers and other humanistic psychologists).

Two of the better-known and prolific authors towards the end of the 19th century and the
beginning of the 20th century, who were deeply interested in the psychological
phenomenon of religion, were E. D. Starboeck and William James. William James’ epoch-
making books like ‘Will to Believe’ (1987) and ‘Varieties of Religious Experience: A Study
in Human Nature’ (1902) created great interest in religion from a psychological
perspective.

1.2.3.1 Anton T. Boisen

Anton Theophilus Boisen could be called father of the pastoral counselling movement in
the USA. He is the pioneer-founder of the Clinical Pastoral Education (CPE) Movement.
He was the first clergyman to supervise theology students in pastoral care and
counselling.112

Clinical pastoral education, one of the earliest and leading branches of pastoral counselling
in the USA, owes its origin to Anton T. Boisen. He led a multi-faceted life as language
teacher, forester, Presbyterian minister, hospital chaplain, theologian, and finally as
initiator and supervisor of training programmes in pastoral counselling for theological
students. Through his efforts many Protestant Churches adopted clinical training for
theology students. He wanted to overhaul the then system of theological formation because
he believed it failed to use scientific methods in the study of religious experience.113

111
Cf. MURRY, An Introduction to Pastoral Care and Counseling, p.151.
112
Cf. Christopher E. De BONO, An Exploration and Adaptation of Anton T Boisen’s Notion of the
Psychiatric Chaplain in Responding to the Current Issues in Chaplaincy, PhD thesis at the University of St.
Michael’s College and the Pastoral Department of the Toronto School of Theology, 2012, p. 52; hereafter
referred to as Anton T Boisen’s Notion of the Psychiatric Chaplain.
113
Cf. HOLIFIELD, A History of Pastoral Care in America. From Salvation to Self-Realization, pp. 244-
248.
28
1.2.3.1.1 The Hospital Connection
The origin of pastoral counselling as we understand today can be traced back to the work
done by Anton Boisen in hospitals. He himself suffered from mental illness. He had five
major episodes of schizophrenia. He learnt tremendously from his own experience of
illness, isolation, frustration and failure. In his autobiographical book ‘The Exploration of
the Inner World’ (1936) he reveals his insights into the pastoral and psychological care of
people. His ideas were well ahead of his time.114 He stated on many occasions that he was
interested in an empirical enquiry into the ‘theology of sin and salvation.’115

His programme of pastoral counselling began with a summer programme for four students
in 1925. Later Boisen conducted training for theology students in a hospital in order to
prepare them for ministry. His famous dictum was to see every person as a ‘living human
document.’116 Being aware of the inadequacies of ministerial education, he started training
more students of theology in counselling. He trained them to supplement their classroom
learning with in-depth study of the persons. He challenged them to think theologically and
psychologically in their encounter with persons. His tendency to see human beings as
‘living human documents’ has been highly appreciated and severely criticised as well.117

The new method and approach of Boisen caused some of his supporters to leave him.118 In
1926, he envisaged his method of training for the future:

Theological training for the future will be a continuous affair, with the parish
as the laboratory and a person with need the main concern, and the seminary
a ‘clearing house’ of theological tradition and formation and the supervision
of methods. The attention will be shifted from the past to the present; from
book to the raw material of life.119

He found a strong supporter for his programmes in Dr William Y. Bryan, superintendent at

Worcester State University. Bryan, along with his friend and colleague Richard C. Cabot,
contributed in large measure to establishing pastoral counselling as a subject. 1n 1930,
Boisen suffered a mental break-down, following which Dr Richard Cabot withdraw his
support to Boisen, doubting his ability to function. This conflict was instrumental in the

114
Cf. Lucy BERGMAN, Anton Boisen Revisited in Journal of Religion and Health, Vol. 18.3, 1979. pp.
213-229.
115
Cf. Robert LEAS, in The Biography of Anton Theophilus Boisen, in the Home page of Association of
Clinical Pastoral Education Inc. (30.12.15).
https://www.acpe.edu/pdf/History/The%20Biography%20of%20Anton%20Theophilus%20Boisen.pdf
116
Cf. De BONO, Anton T Boisen’s Notion of the Psychiatric Chaplain, pp. 130-135.
117
Cf. LYALL, Counselling in the Pastoral and Spiritual Context, p. 11.
118
Cf. De BONO, Anton T Boisen’s Notion of the Psychiatric Chaplain, pp. 38-39.
119
LEAS, in The Biography of Anton Theophilus Boisen.
29
division of the field of pastoral counselling into two strands with different focuses in
approach. On the one side, Boisen and his friends took the more clinical line and
established the organisation Council for Training Theological Students. In 1932, Anton
Boisen moved to Chicago and worked as chaplain in a hospital and began teaching at
Chicago Theological Seminary.

On the other side, Dr Richard Cabot along with Philip Guiles opted for more counselling
and in a direction more pastoral than clinical. This group greatly emphasised pastoral skills
and established the organisation Institute of Pastoral Care (IPC). After three decades of
separation Boisen and Cabot came together once again in 1967 as one organisation:
Association for Clinical Pastoral Education (CPE). The functions of CPE were basically
limited to hospitals, prisons, and offering basic courses.120

Boisen had always dreamed of ‘breaking a hole in the wall between religion and
medicine’. He believed that patients would necessarily try for a synthesis, for
reconciliation, and cure. This attempt at synthesis, reconciliation, and cure, he believed, are
mediated through symbols.121 So he undertook the exploration of the inner world. He
insisted that the weak and the imperfect also had a role to play in assisting the strong and
the perfect. He believed in a so-called ‘family of four’ made up of the weak and the strong,
the imperfect and the perfect.122

Boisen focused on the person in trouble and examined his situation, surroundings, causes
of the sickness which led to his present situation, etc. He was also extremely interested in
conducting research into religious experiences connected with mental illness, an interest
that sprang from his own experience of mental breakdown. He wanted to know the history
(his-story) of the person to see how a healing was possible. This goes well with his attitude
of seeing a human being as a ‘living human document’. Although he was deeply
influenced by the psychological developments of the time, it was not his intention to
‘psychologise’ theology or pastoral studies. He wrote in 1944: “We are not trying to
introduce anything new into theological curriculum beyond a new approach to some
ancient problems. We are trying rather to call attention to the central task of the Church,
120
Cf. LYALL, Counselling in the Pastoral and Spiritual Context, p. 11 (See also the Homepage of ACPE
for more details: https://www.acpe.edu/ACPE/About_ACPE/Our_History.aspx)
121
Cf. Robert Charles POWELL, Religion in Crisis And Custom: Formation and Transformation – Discover
And Recovery – of Spirit and Soul, keynote honouring Anton Theophilus Boisen, Virginia Beach, at the 9 th
Plenary Meeting of the College of Pastoral Supervisors and Psychotherapy on 18 March, 1999.
http://www.metro.inter.edu/facultad/esthumanisticos/coleccion_anton_boisen/case_study/Religion%20in%20
Crisis%20and%20Custom.pdf (15.1.16).
122
Cf. Ibid.
30
that of saving souls, and to the central problem of theology - that of sin and salvation.
What is new is the attempt to begin with the study of living human documents rather than
books, and to focus attention upon those who are grappling with the issues of spiritual life
and death.”123

1.2.3.1.2 Integration of Religion and Psychology

As a pastor, professor and supervisor, Boisen tried to combine religious conviction with
research, especially in psychology. He wanted to be practical and empirical in his approach
to the nature of the human condition and its resolution - evil and good, guilt and
forgiveness, sin and salvation. After an episode of schizophrenia, he wrote:

I believe that God was perfectly revealed in the life and teachings of Jesus of
Nazareth. His patience with our shortcomings, his compassion upon our
infirmities, his unfaltering faith in men, even his enemies, and his method of
dealing with them, not through force, but through the power of love,
culminating in his death upon the cross, where he died, the just for the
unjust, the perfect for the imperfect, the strong for the weak…they should be
willing to give their lives, the imperfect for the perfect and the weak for the
strong, that the divine may be freed from its prison house of infirmity and be
able to come into the world in beauty and power….I believe that the family
should consist of four and not of two, of the strong and perfect and of the
guardian angels who in the joy of serving and sharing in the happiness of
those they love will find compensation for the sacrifices that some will
always have to make.124

He was able to look into his own mental illness and religious experience with deep faith.
He recognized from his experience the creative potentialities of crisis periods in one’s life.
It also proved an occasion of religious quickening in his case. He wrote: “Certain types of
mental disorder and certain types of religious experience are, alike attempts at
reorganization….at the peak of a human crisis there is a turning toward healing, toward
reorganization, toward reconnection.”125 From his experience of schizophrenia and his
theological reflections, he said he had “broken an opening in the wall that separated
religion and medicine.”126 Boisen said this experience and his theological reflection on it
helped him to recognize his vocation to ministry.

123
As quoted by LEAS, in The Biography of Anton Theophilus Boisen, in the Home page of Association of
Clinical Pastoral Education Inc.
124
As quoted by LEAS, Ibid.
125
As quoted by LEAS, ibid.
126
Ibid.
31
1.2.3.1.3 Boisen’s Method
He suggested practical clinical experiences for the students of theology. Boisen’s method
of seeing the patient as a ‘written human document’ included garnering sufficient
information about the person. Boisen also set guidelines that needed to be used in this
process of garnering information. This method helped the students to reflect systematically
about the human condition, both psychologically and theologically.127

1.2.3.1.4 Paramount Human Need for Love

Boisen was always convinced of the paramount human need for love – to love and to be
loved. To love and to be loved is the best means of experiencing healing. It is the best form
of therapy. Mental illness is very often the incapacity to love and to be loved. He said:
“The paramount human need is for love and there is a law within which forbids us to be
satisfied with any fellowship save that of the best.”128 His theology was totally
communitarian and contextual.

1.2.3.1.5 Boisen's Theology

Boisen’s idea of theology is practical. In an article titled The Task and Methods of
Theology he defines theology: “Theology may best be regarded as the cooperative attempt
to organize religious experience by scrutinizing religious beliefs and inquiring into the
origin, meaning, and consequences of these beliefs. It is assumed in this definition that
religious experience is the sensation of fellowship raised to its highest level, a bonding
with God and a genuine compassion for the well-being of all humankind.”129

In his book Religion in Crisis and Custom Boisen stated: “As individuals come face to face
with the ultimate realities of life and death, religion and theology tend to come
alive…Theology has always been concerned with the motivating beliefs of people
regarding their origin and destiny and their relationship to the universe. It has dealt with
that which is supreme in the hierarchy of desires and values and with the choices that
favour or impede maximum self-realization.”130
Boisen has found appreciation even in the Catholic circles. Henri Nouwen said of Boisen:
“Although he did not come up with new theological insights, his new clinical approach to

127
Cf. LEAS, in The Biography of Anton Theophilus Boisen.
128
As quoted by LEAS, ibid.
129
As quoted by LEAS, ibid.
130
As quoted by LEAS, ibid.
32
these age-old questions gave it a new and fresh articulation, placing it in a relevant context
and brought Theology back from the ‘brains-level' to the ‘guts-level.”131

1.2.3.1.6 A Keen Listener

Boisen was gifted with the amazing gift of listening. In his opinion, every human being has
a story to tell. Our sense of life comes out through the stories we narrate. Even Christian
theology from the beginning, from the start of Creation, is narrative in nature. In this sense,
we could say, he followed a kind of Narrative Theology. For Boisen, the insight into the
living human document, the depth experiences in the struggles of their mental and spiritual
life, came from listening and telling stories. By listening to the story of the living human
documents, theology develops ideas with confidence. In the light of the focus on narrative
theology and his new and crisp theological methodology, Boisen's contribution has
important theological and psychological significance for pastoral counselling.

1.2.3.2 Seward Hiltner

Seward Hiltner was another great pioneer and a pivotal figure in pastoral counselling in the
US.132 No history of pastoral counselling can sidestep his achievements. He was an
ordained minister of the United Presbyterian Church. He was a professor of Pastoral Care
and Counselling in Chicago and later on in Princeton Theological Seminary. He wrote ten
books and over 500 scholarly articles. His two books, Pastoral Counselling (1949) and
Preface to Pastoral Theology (1958), were trend-setting in the field of pastoral care and
counselling and soon became an integral part of pastoral counselling syllabus. Professional
to the core himself, Hiltner stood strongly for professionalism in pastoral care. Besides
heading many programmes in pastoral training, he served as consultant to several
institutions. He was a pioneer in the field of theology, systematic and scientific pastoral
care and counselling.133

Hiltner was introduced to the clinical approach by Anton T. Boisen. He, however,
attempted on his own, to define clinical approach and bring it into pastoral care. He was
also familiar with the existing systems of psychotherapies. He was more attracted to the
psychodynamic approach as he believed it helped him to have insights into human beings.
Hiltner was a friend of Carl Rogers and was also influenced by his person-centred
approach, especially Roger’s view that the counselee should be the centre of the

131
LEAS, in The Biography of Anton Theophilus Boisen.
132
Cf. Liston O. MILLS, Seward Hiltner’s Contributions to Pastoral Care and Counselling in Pastoral
Psychology Vol. 29.1. Fall 1980, pp. 8-12.
133
Cf. HOLIFIELD, A History of Pastoral Care in America, pp. 340-342.
33
counselling process and that counselling should be person-centred rather than problem-
oriented.134

In the 1950s there was a rapid growth and wide acceptance of clinical pastoral education.
Seward Hiltner was a leading figure in the development and dispersal of this movement.
He gave a new direction and meaning to pastoral theology as the theology of the practice
of ministry. In his major work Pastoral Counselling he tried to bring the personality
sciences -psychology, psychotherapy, etc. - and the religious field into a dialogue.135

1.2.3.2.1 A Born Counsellor

His friends and colleagues aver that Seward Hiltner was always a respected and
respectable person. He radiated love and friendliness. He is one of the pioneers who
influenced the field of pastoral counselling the most. Hiltner was dissatisfied with the then
prevailing method of pastoral care. This disenchantment with the system of pastoral care
led him to Anton T. Boisen through whom Hiltner was attracted to the clinical approach in
pastoral care. His student and later colleague and friend Prof. Liston O. Mills remembers
him as a zealous and committed minister who argued strongly for pastoral effectiveness
and competence in ministry.136 Hiltner described pastoral care as a “subject both broad and
basic in the life of the Church.”137 He considered it his duty to prepare men and women
more adequately for the exacting ministry of Jesus Christ.138

1.2.3.2.2 Contribution to Ecumenism

Hiltner is also remembered for his contribution to ecumenism. Some consider him to be a
pioneer in modern ecumenism. He was engaged in ecumenical activities for 15 years. 139 It
may be worth quoting McCord, his colleague at Princeton, on Hiltner’s idea of ecumenism:
“For him Ecumenism is not so much ‘the noise of solemn assemblies’ as it is assisting the
Churches in working together to solve common problems and to meet human need. It was
in this ecumenical context that he did his pioneering work in gerontology, alcoholism and
human sexuality.”140

134
Cf. Liston O. MILLS, Seward Hiltner’s Contributions to Pastoral Care and Counselling, p. 9.
135
Cf. Walter E. CONN, The Desiring Self: Rooting Pastoral Counselling and Spiritual Direction in Self-
Transcendence, NY: Paulist Press, 1998, pp. 27-28.
136
Cf. MILLS, Seward Hiltner’s Contributions to Pastoral Care and Counselling, pp. 8-12.
137
As quoted by MILLS, ibid., p. 8.
138
Cf. MILLS, ibid.
139
Cf. James I. McCord, Seward Hiltner’s Contributions to the Life of the Churches and to Professional
Theological Education, in Pastoral Psychology, Vol. 29.1, Fall 1980, pp. 13-16.
140
Ibid., p. 14.
34
Liston O. Mills quotes Hiltner to illustrate how the latter understood pastoral counselling
and its objective: “The focus of my concern remains where it has always been, with the
people problem, and most especially with the problems of the troubled people. Any
expertness I have continues to come from my use of a theological perspective along with
psychodynamic insights about people, how they get into their predicament and what we,
especially we of the Church and ordained ministry, may do to help them.”141

Hiltner served as the director of Clinical Pastoral Education from 1935 to 1938. His focus
was on theological reflection about human experience. A theology apart from concrete
human experience was no theology for Hiltner. He was also instrumental in enlisting many
seminaries in the work of the Pastoral Care and Education Movement.

1.2.3.3 Catholic Contributions

In the United States there were also Catholic contributions to psychology and pastoral
counselling. Rev. Thomas V. Moore OSB made systematic research on the internal drives
of the human person. His book The Driving Forces of Human Nature could be considered
a standard study on the inner working of a person. He was keenly interested in studies on
the priesthood and religious life. He was also involved in screening candidates to religious
life to discern their motives and suitability.142

1.2.3.4 Period after World War II and the Influence of Carl Rogers
The pastoral counselling movement gained momentum after World War II, clearly
influenced by Carl Rogers and humanistic psychology. The spread of person-centred
counselling initiated by Rogers gave a new direction to pastoral counselling. Exhortation
and advice were deemed out of fashion and ‘self-realization’ became the ‘in’ word. It was
a clear case of the influence of Carl Rogers. For the next five decades Rogers’ influence on
pastoral counselling would continue. Great emphasis was laid on enhancing one’s growth
and developing one’s potentialities.143 Pastoral counselling was to be taken out of the level
of advice-giving and exhortation to that of a helping relationship. His ideas of non-

141
As quoted by MILLS, Seward Hiltner’s Contributions to Pastoral Care and Counselling, pp. 8-9.
[Emphasis mine]. Hiltner emphasises that without theological perspectives, his psychoanalytic insights are
incomplete.
142
Cf. Frank J. KOBLER, Screening Applicants for Religious Life in Journal of Religion and Health Vol.
3.2, 1964, (161-170), p. 161.
143
Cf. HOLIFIELD, A History of Pastoral Care in America, pp. 259-260.
35
directive counselling, the characteristics of a helping relationship, genuineness,
unconditional positive regard and empathy transformed the field of pastoral counselling.144

Soon Rogers’ ideas became popular across the USA and his methods were soon
incorporated into pastoral care courses in seminaries. The insights of humanistic
psychology gradually crept into pastoral counselling. Counselling was also seen as an
occasion for catharsis. Optimism, trust-worthiness of the counselee, and the freedom to
change were emphasized in the process of counselling. Person-centred counselling and its
ideas were obviously a reaction and response to the deterministic and mechanistic model of
Freudian and Behaviourist schools respectively.145

The therapeutic relationship was understood as a ‘plaster-cast’ framework for healing.

Effective counselling relationship provides a supportive environment and makes healing
possible. Just as a fractured limb or bodily part is enclosed and protected in a plaster-cast
till it is healed, so is a therapeutic relationship in times of trouble and problems that wound
and cripple a person. The pastoral counsellors discovered several advantages in the method
of Carl Rogers. It was a relatively safe method in terms of approach and not much could go
wrong. As for the counsellors, no long period of training was required. It had an optimistic
image of self and personhood. The self was/ is considered capable of growth and
change.146

Although Rogers is viewed as an atheist like most psychologists, in his later work A Way
of Being he shows awareness of the mystical and transcendental dimension of human
life.147 Russel L. Dicks, theologian, considered it a main concern to enable theologians to
encounter people and to engage in pastoral dialogue with them. He believed this to be a
basic capacity to be developed by theology students in preparation for ministry.148 A
further attempt to adopt and adapt the new method of therapy of Rogers was made by
theologian Paul Johnson in his book Psychology of Pastoral Care (New York, 1953). But

144
Cf. LYALL, Counselling in the Pastoral and Spiritual Context, pp.13-14 [More about Rogers’
contributions is dealt with in the second part of this work. Therefore, Rogers is only mentioned here in the
context of the growth of pastoral counselling as a discipline].
145
Cf. Ibid., pp. 14-15.
146
Cf. Ibid., p. 15.
147
Cf. Carl R. ROGERS, A Way of Being, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1980, pp. 80-82, 90-92. [Rogers
acknowledges mystical and transcendental realities many times in this book].
148
Cf. POMPEY, Zur Geschichte der Pastoralpsychologie, p. 37.
36
he modified the passive role of the counsellor as suggested by Rogers and opted for a more
active I-You relationship, a dialogical method.149

Pastoral psychology and pastoral counselling, meanwhile, developed further in two

directions in the US. One was in the direction of clinical pastoral care in hospitals and the
other in the direction of pastoral counselling in the Church and social establishments. Both
schools organized themselves and tried to grow independently. In 1960, the American
School of Pastoral Counsellors came into being, and in 1967 the Clinical Pastoral
Association and was founded.150

1.2.3.5 American Association of Pastoral Counsellors (AAPC)

As the pastoral counselling movement grew quickly, increasing numbers of ministers in
America joined it to get themselves trained as pastoral counsellors. In 1963, the American
Association of Pastoral Counsellors (AAPC) was founded. It was an all-embracing
association. It included people from different denominations, overwhelmingly Protestant,
and different schools of psychology like psychoanalysis, Jungian psychology, transactional
analysis, Gestalt therapy and humanistic psychology. Another major association was the
Association for Clinical Pastoral Education.151

1.2.3.6 Association for Clinical Pastoral Education

The independent existence of different groups did not last long. There took place an
amalgamation of different groups in the field of pastoral counselling and pastoral care in
October 1967. Four groups merged into the Association for Clinical Pastoral Education,
Inc., at a meeting in Kansas City, MO. In 1969, it was recognized by the Federal
Government and is today nationally recognized as an accrediting agency/association in the
field of clinical pastoral education.152

1.2.3.7 Influence and Impact on Other Parts of the World

The developments in America were not without consequences in other parts of the world.
It produced an enormous body of literature and it spread across the world. The works of
American authors became normative as well as formative in the field of pastoral

149
Cf. POMPEY, Zur Geschichte der Pastoralpsychologie, p. 38.
150
Cf. Ibid.
151
Cf. LYALL, Counselling in the Pastoral and Spiritual Context, p. 16.
152
Cf. Home page of ACPE: https://www.acpe.edu/pdf/History/ACPE%20Brief%20History.pdf (15.1.16).
37
counselling. America became the major centre for training in this field and more and more
people began to flock to America for research and training.153

The development of pastoral counselling in the UK has also been deeply influenced by the
developments that took place in the USA. Their histories are similar. It also has a close
hospital connection. As early as 1910, it was thought to have a closer co-operation between
the clergy who care for the sick in hospitals and the doctors. In 1959, the Scottish Pastoral
Association (SPA) was founded. SPA attempted to establish co-operation in the hospital
atmosphere among ministers, doctors, nurses and social workers. SPA also played a crucial
role in the personal and professional development of many ministers. It imparted pastoral
education for students of theology. Unfortunately, SPA had only a brief life span; but its
journal The Contact outlived it and continued as an inter-disciplinary Journal of Pastoral
Studies.154

Another important development in this line was the Institute of Religion and Medicine
(IRM). It was established in 1962. Dr Kennedy Soddy, one of the pioneers, himself stated
that IRM would not be religion-centred like SPA, although it enjoyed the support and
patronage of the Archbishop of Canterbury. IRM also made valuable contributions to
pastoral education and pastoral counselling. It conducted training sessions and
consultations and stood for more application of psychology in pastoral training and
theological formation. In the late 1960s British universities began to offer courses for
developing skills for pastoral care. Diploma and certificate courses were offered in
Manchester, Birmingham, Cardiff and other universities. Alastair V. Campbell introduced
an undergraduate course in Edinburg.155

In the post-modern society, the Churches began to feel more and more the inadequacy of
the pastors to deal with the complex problems of the society and the faithful. The need for
more professionalism in the field was acutely felt.156 Theology students were offered extra
courses and special training during vacation. Due to these developments one could see a
greater openness to secular therapies. There arose a new approach to pastoral care. Dr
Frank Lake, founder of Clinical Theology Association in 1962, and author of Clinical

153
Cf. LYALL, Counselling in the Pastoral and Spiritual Context, p. 16.
154
Cf. Ibid., pp.19-20.
155
Cf. Ibid., pp. 20-21.
156
Cf. Ibid., p. 22.
38
Theology (1966), offered courses and Clinical Theology seminars at the request of bishops.
They were attended by thousands of clergymen and lay people.157

One of the organisations worth mentioning here and which achieved a lot in the area of
pastoral counselling in the UK is the Westminster Pastoral Foundation (WPF). Initially set
up in 1965 by Bill Kyle and later fully established in 1969, it is one of the largest
institutions of its kind in the UK. Over the years it has become more of a secular institute,
independent of any religious affiliation. The institute is today known as WPF Therapy.
Another organization - Association of Pastoral Care and Counselling (APCC) - was
founded in order to provide more professional pastoral care and counselling. APCC later
became a division of the British Association of Counselling (BAC).

A Catholic contribution worth mentioning in the UK is the Dympna Centre founded in

1971 in London by Louis Marteau, a Roman Catholic priest. The Centre was also
ecumenical in nature with many Jews, New Age Christians and members of the Salvation
Army attending. It proved instrumental in the establishment of similar centres elsewhere,
too. Today it is a centre that caters mainly to priests and religious.158

1.2.4 International Council on Pastoral Care and Counselling (ICPCC)

Influenced and impacted by the developments in the US, pastoral counselling became an
international movement. Of all the movements across the world today, ICPCC deserves
special mention. It is the most inter-cultural and truly international movement in the field
of pastoral counselling today.

Increasingly people from other countries and continents made their way to the US for
studies and training; and when they returned to their home countries they tried to establish
pastoral counselling centres in their places and contexts. Many felt the need for interaction
and exchange at the international level. As a result an international council came into
existence in 1979 at the first International Congress of Pastoral Care and Counselling held
in Edinburgh, Scotland. It was indeed a turning point in the history of the pastoral
counselling movement. More than four hundred participants from different countries and
continents of various denominations came together to share their views and ideas and to
plan for the future. It helped the pastoral counselling movement to grow more

157
Cf. LYALL, Counselling in the Pastoral and Spiritual Context, p. 23.
158
Cf. Ibid., p. 24.
39
international, inter-cultural and net-worked. There had been smaller and unofficial
gatherings earlier but the Edinburg Congress of 1979 marked a huge step to make pastoral
counselling known throughout the world. It gave a new impetus to pastoral counselling in
Britain and other countries. It also caused the dispersal of the movement of pastoral
counselling into several other countries.159 The website of ICPCC states its nature and
objectives:

The International Council on Pastoral Care and Counselling is an

organization of women and men desiring to respond to current needs and
situations faced by people and communities in the world, through pastoral
care and counselling. ICPCC exists for education, equipment and
empowerment of persons and groups in the theory and practice of pastoral
care and counselling. The aim is to enhance the scientific as well as the
academic and praxis quality of the field of pastoral care and counselling. The
intention is to promote intercultural and community care; to be engaged in
interdisciplinary and interfaith networking within diverse socio-political
contexts.160

ICPCC today plays a vital role in promoting pastoral counselling throughout the world. It
considers its mission ‘to inform, train, educate and inspire practitioners of pastoral care and
counselling in various contexts in the world.’161 The association is pluri-cultural in nature
and open to learning from different lifestyles. Its mission includes bringing spirituality into
pastoral care and counselling and upholding the spiritual dimension of this ministry. It
supports and facilitates interaction between different counselling organizations. In this
sense, it is extremely ecumenical in nature.162 Although ICPCC is the most net-worked and
international movement that exists today, there are many other regional and local
associations and organisations with similar leitmotifs.

1.2.5 Salient Features of Pastoral Counselling Movement

Looking at the whole history of the movement of pastoral counselling, one can pinpoint
some outstanding characteristics. It has become a totally inter-denominational movement
with branches across the world.

159
Cf. LYALL, Counselling in the Pastoral and Spiritual Context, p. 18.
160
From the Home page of ICPCC. (15.1.2016)
http://www.icpcc.net/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=86&Itemid=294
161
Ibid.
162
Cf. Ibid.
40
1.2.5.1 Ecumenical Nature of Pastoral Psychology/Counselling
As already seen, the pastoral counselling movement has been ecumenical in nature and
outlook. The Protestants and Catholics worked together to achieve the goal of establishing
pastoral counselling as an important aspect of the pastoral ministry. It should be pointed
out that there were different approaches preferred by various denominations; and Catholics
and Protestants showed varied degrees of openness to the findings of psychology. Pastoral
psychology and pastoral counselling have remained a symbol of Christian ecumenism,
although it was spearheaded by the Protestants.163

1.2.5.2 Attempt at Integration of Theology and Psychology

It is amazing to see how the pioneers of pastoral counselling tried to integrate theology and
psychology in their attempt to develop pastoral counselling. It developed at a time when
psychology was establishing itself as an independent discipline in European and American
universities. These pioneers, impressed by the effectiveness and usefulness of this new
social science for pastoral ministry, tried to make use of it for pastoral purposes. It is
important to recall that their main purpose was not the progress of psychology or theology
but the care of souls.

1.2.5.3 Lay Participation

Another important feature of pastoral counselling was the laity’s participation and
leadership. It was a movement initiated and sustained by strong participation of the laity.
Many of the leading figures were not pastors or part of the Church hierarchy. This situation
gave them the necessary freedom of thinking and acting. In the words of David Lyall,
“Increasingly those who were trained by the pastoral counselling centres were lay people,
particularly women. In a sense the clergy did not need accreditation because ordination
gave them licence to practise whatever new skills they were acquiring. But lay people who
had undergone training enjoyed no such benefit.”164

1.2.5.4 Hospital (Chaplaincy) Connection

Be it in Germany, America, or in the UK, pastoral counselling had its roots in the pastoral
care of the sick. It is where they came directly in contact with human sorrows and
sufferings, and it is where the faithful needed the most personally comforting and
understanding nearness and words of a pastor. Not surprisingly, pastoral counselling in its

163
Cf. LYALL, Counselling in the Pastoral and Spiritual Context, p. 25.
164
Ibid., p. 27.
41
initial stages was deeply rooted in the care of the sick in hospitals. Pastoral counselling,
with its focus on diaconal ministry, found the hospital setting ideal for its ministry.

1.2.5.5 Diaconal Nature of Pastoral Counselling

One of the important goals of pastoral counselling was its diaconal dimension. It aimed at
diaconal service to the needy person. To stand by the person in his need, to understand
him, to alleviate his suffering, to help him to ‘better functioning’ were seen as the goals of
pastoral counselling. As Boisen believed, a deeper understanding human nature would
contribute to better service of human beings: “Without true understanding it is impossible
to render effective service, and only as one comes in the attitude of service will the doors
open into the sanctuaries of life.”165 At the same time, the spiritual dimension of the person
was also taken care of. As noted earlier, Seward Hiltner believed that without the
theological basis, the psychological insights would be less effective and meaningless.166

1.2.6 Criticism against Pastoral Counselling

Pastoral counselling has contributed much to the ministry of the Church. It must, however,
be admitted that the growth and spread of the pastoral counselling movement was not
without criticism and rebuff. A bone of contention always was the question: How much of
psychology and what psychology?

1.2.6.1 Neglect of Theology?

As more psychology and counselling came into ministry, it was pointed out that there was
a consequent loss of theological focus. Arguments were put forward against the projected
effectiveness of pastoral counselling. Diminished focus on theology in ministry was
considered a matter of serious concern.167 While the Protestant ministers were free from
hierarchical restrictions to exercise the methods of pastoral counselling in their ministry,
some pastors, especially Catholic, could not exercise it in their ecclesiastical
establishments due to restrictions from the hierarchical structures of the Church.

In the 1970s, Hugh Melinsky criticised that theology was neglected in this process of the
‘psychologisation’ of the pastoral ministry. Moreover, the followers of some schools of
pastoral counselling upheld their approach to be the only form of pastoral care. They

165
Anton T. BOISEN, Problems in Religion and Life: A Manual for Pastors, with Outlines for Co-operative
Study of Personal Experience in Social Situations, Nashville: Abingdon-Cokesbury Press, 1946, p. 5.
166
See 1.2.3.2.2
167
Cf. LYALL, Counselling in the Pastoral and Spiritual Context, p.16.
42
tended to use a selective and narrow use of psychology and theology. He wondered how a
‘happy marriage’ was possible between two totally divergent sciences like theology and
psychology.168

Similar criticism was raised by Robert Lambourne, medical doctor-turned pastoral

counsellor, one of the founders of the Birmingham University diploma course in pastoral
studies. He deplored the ‘total lack of theological thrust’ in the so-called dialogue with
psychoanalysis. His criticism was mainly directed against psychoanalysis and its improper
application without theological basis. He believed that a purely psychological approach
based on the clinical, medical, psychological (psychoanalytical) model as in the USA was
inadequate.169 Pleading for a different basis for pastoral counselling in the UK, he
advocates that it be more contextualised:

My thesis, however, is that the pastoral counselling called for in this country
during the next twenty years cannot be built around a practice and
conceptual framework derived from professional problem-solving and
prevention of breakdown. That practice and conceptual framework is based
upon the clinical, medical and psychoanalytic models of the USA of twenty
years ago, and it has proved inadequate. To copy it, even with many
modifications would be a disaster, because not only is it not what is wanted
but also because it will be an obstacle to what is wanted. An accredited
hierarchical pastoral movement will be professional, problem solving or
problem preventing, standardised and defined. What is required is pastoral
care which is lay, corporate, adventurous, variegated and diffuse.170

It was a clear warning to those who tried to blindly accept psychology and psychological
views without sufficient reflection or at the cost of theology. He cautioned against
irrationally accepting the methods and systems of other countries without taking into
account the local situation and local needs seriously. It is a warning which is valid even
today! A similar view was held by Indian theologian and pastoral counsellor Dayanand D.
Pitamber.171

1.2.6.2 East-West Difference?

Pastoral psychology as well as pastoral counselling, has been criticised for being too
western. It is also to be noted that the method, way of approach, and the level of
acceptance of psychology in pastoral ministry varies from West to East, from country to
country. While the western culture seeks a more professional and psychological approach,
168
Cf. LYALL, Counselling in the Pastoral and Spiritual Context, pp.22-23.
169
Cf. Ibid., p. 27.
170
Robert LAMBOURNE, in Contact, 1971, p. 25. Quoted by David LYALL, Ibid, pp. 27-28.
171
Cf. Dayanand D. PITAMBER, Some Possible Implications of Gandhi’s Satyagraha for Pastoral
Counselling in the Indian Context in Indian Journal of Theology (IJT), Vol. 26.2, (1997), pp. 92-104.
43
in the East, especially in India, people seek a strong Bible-oriented counselling. Pastoral
counselling, they believe, should be more rooted in the Bible and the teachings of the
Church than in Psychology.172

1.2.7 Current Status of Pastoral Counselling and Pastoral Psychology

Pastoral psychology as well as pastoral counselling continues even today to be part of the
practical or pastoral theology in most parts of the world. Pastoral psychology has not yet
evolved as an independent discipline. Unlike in earlier times, pastoral psychology finds
greater acceptance and welcome today. Pompey believes, “Pastoral psychology is today
welcomed by majority of the pastors and theology students as proven by many surveys.
Adequate training and qualification in this regard is more and more desired from the
faithful.”173 Today there is mutual co-operation and networking of pastoral psychologists at
the national and international levels. The Edinburgh Congress in 1979 was a huge start and
a clear manifestation of this readiness.

Pastoral psychology is generally accepted today by most pastors, ministers, Church

authorities and those engaged in pastoral ministry. Many faithful appreciate the pastoral-
psychological approach of a pastor in dealing with them and their problems.

1.2.8 Openness on Catholic Side

Over the years, the Catholic Church has shown increasing openness to psychology and
psychotherapy. In the Catholic Church, which has always been slow to accept new
developments and theories, especially in the field of science and psychology, there is a
more open approach and liberal thinking after Vatican II. The pastoral document Gaudium
et Spes advocates making use of secular sciences, especially sociology and psychology for
pastoral ministry and for a mature living out of our faith. It states:

Furthermore, theologians are now being asked, within the methods and
limits of the science of theology, to seek out more efficient ways – provided
the meaning and understanding of them is safeguarded - of presenting their
teaching to modern man: for the deposit and the truths of faith are one thing,
the manner of expressing them is quite another. In pastoral care sufficient
use should be made, not only of theological principles, but also of the
findings of secular sciences, especially psychology and sociology: in this

172
Cf. PITAMBER, Some Possible Implications of Gandhi’s Satyagraha for Pastoral Counselling in the
Indian Context, p. 93
173
POMPEY, Zur Geschichte der Pastoralpsychologie, p. 39.
44
 way the faithful will be brought to a purer and more mature living of the
faith.174

It is clearly an extraordinary openness on the part of the Church. So long as the Church has
to do with human beings, their psyche, their joys and sufferings175 the Church cannot
neglect this human science which deals with human nature, human personality and
behaviour.

Insofar as the pastoral ministry is also about human beings, their problems, their happiness
and joys and as long as it concerns their psyche and souls, pastoral psychology becomes
essential in the concrete situations of the world today. Isidor Baumgartner believes that the
search for an appropriate way of pastoral care and healing ministry in today’s pastoral
context leads one undoubtedly to psychology and psychotherapy. The knowledge garnered
and established through various means of therapy could bring the pastoral ministry closer
to men and women and give theology and pastoral ministry a new dimension.176

Optatam Totius, the Vatican II decree on the training of priests, also advocates that in the
training of future priests, their spiritual formation should be supplemented with the latest
findings of ‘sound psychology and pedagogy.’ It states, “The standards of Christian
education should be faithfully maintained by the latest findings of sound psychology and
pedagogy. A prudent system of training will, therefore, aim at developing in the students a
proper degree of human maturity.”177

Subsequently in the decree it demands that the priestly candidates should be trained in
addition to fulfilling their spiritual duties, in the direction of souls: “They should receive
precise instruction in the art of directing souls.”178 It further states that the would-be priests
should acquire qualities similar to those of a counsellor today: “In general, those aptitudes
should be cultivated in the students which are most conducive to dialogue amongst men.
They include the willingness to listen to others, and the capacity to open their hearts in a
spirit of charity to the various needs of their fellowmen.”179 In order to be able to do this
effectively, they should be able to use the findings and aids of psychology and other social
sciences. That is stated in the following number: “They should be taught to use correctly

174
GS, No. 62.
175
Cf. GS, No.1.
176
Cf. BAUMGARTNER, Pastoralpsychologie: Einführung in die Praxis heilender Seelsorge, p. ii.
177
Optatam Totius, (OT), Vatican II Decree on the Training of Priests, No. 11.
178
Ibid., No. 19.
179
Ibid.
45
the aids provided by pedagogy, psychology and sociology, in keeping with the regulations
of ecclesiastical authority.”180

The Directory on the Ministry and Life of Priests, issued in 1994 by Pope John Paul II,
calls for a human formation of priests, meaning that they should acquire human qualities
and virtues that help them in their ministry. Regarding human formation, it says:

This formation is extremely important in today's world, as it always has

been. The priest must never forget that he is a man chosen among men to be
at the service of men. To sanctify himself and carry out his priestly mission,
he must present himself with an abundance of human virtues which render
him worthy of esteem by those around him. In particular he must practice
goodness of heart, patience, kindness, strength of soul, love for justice, even-
mindedness, truthfulness to his word, coherence in the duties freely assumed,
etc. It is likewise important that human virtues be reflected in the priest's
social conduct, correctness in the various forms of human relations,
friendships, courtesy, etc.181

1.3 Pastoral Counselling: Introduction, Definition and Scope

After taking a general view of the growth and development of pastoral psychology and the
interaction of psychology with theology, now it is time to turn attention to the special area
of my concern - pastoral counselling. Pastoral counselling is one of the areas where
psychology is so concretely and effectively applied in the pastoral ministry.

1.3.1 Etymology

Originally counselling meant a piece of advice given by informed or experienced persons.

The British Association for Counselling and Psychotherapy (BACP) defines counselling
and psychotherapy broadly thus: “Counselling and psychotherapy are umbrella terms that
cover a range of talking therapies. They are delivered by trained practitioners who work
with people over a short or long term to help them bring about effective change or enhance
their well-being.”182 As the definition shows, the term counselling is today used as an
umbrella term which covers a wide spectrum of therapies.

Counselling in the traditional sense normally included information, education or insight for
practical life. Wisdom Literature from the Old Testament could be understood as counsels

180
OT, No. 20.
181
The Directory on the Ministry and Life of Priests, issued by Pope John Paul II, on 31.01.1994, No. 75.
182
Home page of BACP: http://www.bacp.co.uk/crs/Training/whatiscounselling.php (10.1.2016).
46
for day-to-day living. It is not only in Christianity we find such elements of counselling in
religion. Most religions have the tradition of sages, gurus, rishis and mullahs to help the
faithful. They help in times of crises and troubles. Sometimes help rendered consists in just
listening to them. A person to whom the faithful can open up fully and unreservedly is
found in most religions. It could be a confessor or spiritual director in Christian tradition; a
guru or sage in Hindu tradition; a mullah or religious teacher in Islam. The tradition of
guru (spiritual guide) is well established in India. In the modern world, impersonalized and
secularized, the need for a person who listens and understands has become urgent.183

Pastoral counselling has a special identity of its own. It is based solidly on theological
foundations. It cannot be totally identified with any particular school of psychology or
psychotherapy, but at the same time pastoral counselling tries to be modern, up-to-date and
professional in its approach: “Yet pastoral counselling cannot be, and in fact is not, entirely
synonymous with analytic, behaviouristic or even humanistic psychology. It must have a
distinct philosophical approach to the same problems and properly conceived, it will defy
the derogatory term ‘unprofessional.’”184 Pastoral counselling tries to base itself on the
common ground that theology and psychology together share. In spite of all the
differences, there exist many common grounds for theology and psychology. Natale
opines, “Psychotherapy is a perspective on healing; it tries for change, it tries to offer
something better. Theology also has a perspective on healing. In fact, because it attempts
to explain the healing of all humanity in historical salvific act, Theology may be rightly
considered the epitome of the healing process…”185

In the post-modern world, an authoritarian way of functioning or guiding has no place; nor
does just dishing out pieces of advice help. The role of the counsellor changes according to
situation, tradition and culture. The core of this ministry is to help the counselee to help
himself.186 Pastoral counselling is generally regarded as counselling in the context of
Christian ministry. In Protestant circles, terms like Biblical Counselling and Christian
Counselling are more frequently used than the term ‘pastoral counselling’ which is
preferred in the Catholic context. The Catholic Encyclopaedia for Theology and Church

183
Cf. MURRY, An Introduction to Pastoral Care and Counseling p. 149.
184
Samuel M. NATALE, Pastoral Counselling. Reflections and Concerns, NY: Paulist Press, 1977, p. 15.
185
NATALE, Pastoral Counselling, p. 15.
186
Cf. MURRY, An Introduction to Pastoral Care and Counseling, p. 150.
47
defines pastoral counselling from a client-centred view based on the methods of Carl
Rogers and the efforts of Seward Hiltner.187

Pastoral counselling is an integral part of the pastoral ministry of the Church. Pastoral
counselling is a specific activity, more directed towards an individual with specific needs.
The specific needs may mean he is going through a depression, frustration, bereavement,
loss, sickness, relational problems with God or neighbours.188

In my approach for this work, I see pastoral counselling as the application of psychology,
especially secular counselling psychology and its methods in a Christian, especially
Catholic, pastoral context. It takes for granted that psychological principles and methods
are used. It also presupposes that the context of this counselling is particularly Christian
and pastoral, which presupposes the Christian faith and practices.

1.3.2 Biblical Foundation of Pastoral Ministry

Can pastoral counselling be traced back to the ministry of Jesus? Jesus invited those who
were suffering and in sorrow to come to him. The Church has received the same obligation
to continue this ministry of showing special care and concern for the oppressed, distressed
and persons in pain - physical or psychological. The instruction given by Jesus to his
disciples also includes the care of souls (Mt 10:6ff, Mk 6:8ff, Lk 9:3ff, 10:3ff). This is a
command not only to preach but also to bring wholeness and healing to human lives.
Seward Hiltner speaks of three types of pastoral care: healing, guiding and sustaining.189
Clebsch and Jaekle added one more dimension - reconciling - to this list: healing, guiding,
sustaining and reconciling.190

In the Biblical understanding of counselling, the Holy Spirit is the ever-present guide in
every counselling process. In the Pauline writings we read about the obligation to exhort,
encourage and to help others with patience and tolerance: “And we exhort you, brethren,
admonish the idlers, encourage the faint-hearted, help the weak, be patient with them all”
(1 Thess. 5:14). Pastoral counselling takes the spiritual elements seriously: “Pastoral

187
Cf. Isidor BAUMGARTNER, Pastoral Counceling [sic] in Lexikon für Theologie und Kirche (LThK),
Band 7, Freiburg: Herder, 1998, p. 1434.
188
Cf. MURRY, An Introduction to Pastoral Care and Counseling, p. 151.
189
Cf. Seward HILTNER, Preface to Pastoral Theology, Nashville: Abingdon, 1958, pp. 89-174.
190
Cf. William A. CLEBSCH / Charles R. JAEKLE, Pastoral Care in Historical Perspective, Englewood
Cliffs: Prentice-Hall, 1964, pp. 32-66.
48
counselling by its essence focuses on the spiritual element of the person by use of religious
resources without neglecting its holistic approach in understanding persons.”191

Healing is a work of God. God, who created the world and the humans, protects them and
is constantly at work bringing creation to its final destination. He brings holistic healing to
the groaning creation. Bringing healing to the oppressed was an important ministry of
priests and prophets in the Old Testament. During his ministry on earth, Jesus brought
holistic healing to human beings. He healed not only the body but also the mind and soul
of the person. Jesus’ act of healing was a symbol of bringing salvation to the people. He
was a holistic healer. Pastoral counselling is an aspect and continuation of this ministry of
Jesus.192

Most pastoral counsellors use insights from human sciences. Ezamo Murry says, “The
science of human behaviour is within the milieu of God’s wisdom.”193 In the ministry of
pastoral counselling, scripture and science come together as a useful tool to help a human
being. The most commonly used schools of psychology by pastoral counsellors are
psychoanalysis, client-centred approach, Gestalt therapy, Logotherapy, rational emotive
therapy and systemic therapy. A pastoral counsellor should have the following basic
qualities: rapport with the client, disciplined listening, empathic understanding,
confidentiality and genuineness. Pastoral counselling is an attempt in this direction. It tries
to integrate spirituality, theology and psychology in a holistic manner. It tries to integrate
the good and helpful methods of psychology and social sciences in the concrete ministry of
the Church.194

Renowned pastoral counsellor Howard J. Clinebell states that pastoral counselling is “the
utilisation of a variety of healing (therapeutic) methods to help people handle their
problems and crises more growthfully [sic] and thus experience healing of their
brokenness.”195 Over the years, pastoral counselling has become an integral part of pastoral
ministry and pastoral care. Unlike secular psychotherapies, pastoral counselling cannot
leave the ultimate meaning of life out of its purview. Clebsch & Jaekle aver that, “The
ministry of the cure of souls, or pastoral care, consists of helping acts, done by
representative Christian persons, directed toward the healing, sustaining, guiding, and

191
MURRY, An Introduction to Pastoral Care and Counseling, p. 174.
192
Cf. Ibid., p. 153.
193
Ibid., p. 154.
194
Cf. Ibid., pp. 164-168.
195
Howard J. CLINEBALL, Basic Types of Pastoral Care & Counseling: Resources For The Ministry of
Healing & Growth, Nashville: Abingdon Press, 1989, p. 26.
49
reconciling of troubled persons whose troubles arise in the context of ultimate meanings
and concerns.”196

1.3.3 Faith Resources in Counselling

Pastoral counselling is a specific area within pastoral care and pastoral ministry. It is a
ministry centred on an individual or a group or focused on a specific problem. Pastoral
counsellor is a trained person who understands the dynamics of human growth, human
relations, and has the know-how to help others. Three of his important tasks are healing,
guiding and sustaining.197 For this task he takes recourse to faith resources, too. When used
appropriately, faith resources can be very effective, but an indiscriminate use can do more
harm than good. The counsellor should be prudent and sensible even in the use of scripture
and prayers. A misplaced enthusiasm can do more harm than good. To make artificial and
exploitative use of the scriptures, faith resources and religious rituals are not in keeping
with the spirit of ministry of the Church.198

Murry, speaking basically from an Indian perspective, because of his decades-long

experience in India, argues that the following points should be taken into account in
pastoral counselling: The counsellor should accept the person totally. The counsellor
should never try to manipulate the counselee in any way, psychologically, morally or
religiously. The person should never be coerced into something or forced to take offers.
The personal freedom of the individual has to be respected. The pastoral counsellor should
employ genuine human qualities such as affection, love, trust and acceptance. In pastoral
counselling the counsellor should never enforce his own agenda. Freedom of the person
has to be respected at all levels. God is the source of this freedom, and the counsellor is
there only to help the client within the limits of this freedom.199

1.3.4 Jesus as Model Counsellor

How can an encounter or a conversation bring about healing and change in the lives of
people? One finds many wonderful examples in the life of Jesus. Jesus while encountering
people and having a conversation with people of all categories - his disciples, followers,
officers, sinners and people regarded as outcastes - brings about healing, a new attitude to

196
CLEBSCH / JAEKLE, Pastoral Care in Historical Perspective, p. 4. Italics mine.
197
Cf. MURRY, An Introduction to Pastoral Care and Counseling, p. 164.
198
Cf. Ibid., p. 158.
199
Cf. MURRY, An Introduction to Pastoral Care and Counseling, p. 166.
50
life and change in their lives. His very life and actions were therapeutic in nature. 200 This is
the fundamental duty of pastoral counselling: to bring about this healing and change in the
lives of people by encountering and holding a dialogue with them.

Gary R. Collins, a well-known American Protestant psychologist of today, believes that

Jesus was a wonderful counsellor: “Jesus Christ is the best model we have of an effective
‘wonderful counsellor’ whose personality, knowledge, and skills enabled him to assist
anyone who needed help.”201 What is more amazing is that Jesus used a variety of methods
to help people, depending on the situation and the person. Sometimes he spoke directly, at
other times he was a passive listener, sometimes more client-centred and frequently he also
confronted and challenged people.202

Some Old Testament references to Jesus present him as a counsellor. Isa. 9:6 speaks of the
‘wonderful counsellor’. In various places in the Bible one comes across Jesus as a person
who had deep knowledge of human nature and was imbued or gifted with the qualities of a
psychological helper. The gospels give numerous examples of Jesus leading people to a
deeper understanding of themselves, others and God. He responds to the personal needs of
people. His approach - one could say, in today’s parlance - is person-oriented. The Bible
shows how Jesus, in several encounters and dialogues with people, emphasized the need
for:

- A new look at the reality and the situation (Jn 3:3 - Jesus is somebody who enlightens
others. Here Jesus gives Nicodemus a new insight, a new direction in life).
- Change of attitude and a new philosophy of life (Jn 4: The woman at the well. Jesus as
a real counsellor).
- The need to move away from a life of sin (Jn 8:11 - Woman caught in adultery - ‘go
and sin no more’).

1.3.4.1 Therapeutic Nature of Jesus

The gospels are full of examples of how Jesus used encounter and dialogue as a method to
bring about healing and salvation. Take for example, Jesus and the Samaritan woman at the
well, (Jn 4: 3-42), Jesus and Zacchaeus (Lk 19:1-10), Jesus with the disciples on their way
to Emmaus (Lk 24:13-19). In all these examples Jesus brings them to a new realization of
themselves and a consequent change in their lives. Jesus does it gently, by patient listening,
probing and responding. His empathic approach as well as understanding of their feeling

200
Cf. Hanna WOLF, Jesus als Psychotherapeut. Jesu Menschenhandlung als Modell moderner
Psychotherapie, Stuttgart: Radius, 1989 Edition, pp. 9-14.
201
Gary R. COLLINS, Christian Counseling. A Comprehensive Guide, Nashville: Thomas Nelson, (3rd
Edition), 2007, p. 29.
202
Cf. Ibid., p. 30.
51
helps him to win their hearts. He establishes a genuine relationship through his dialogue.
He helps them to have a new image of God. He is able to give them new hope and
confidence and a new perspective on reality.203

1.3.4.2 Jesus’ Knowledge of Human Beings

Jesus had a thorough understanding of human beings. He could read their thoughts. He was
a man of intense inner perceptivity and intuition. Col 2:3 speaks about the wisdom and
knowledge possessed by Jesus: ‘in whom are hid all the treasures of wisdom and
knowledge.’ John 2: 24-25 speaks of Jesus’ knowledge of human beings and their inner
thoughts and feelings: “But Jesus did not entrust himself to them, because he knew all men
and needed no one to testify about anyone; for he himself knew what was in everyone.”
Jesus’ gut feeling about human beings was correct.

1.3.4.3 Person of Jesus

The very personality of Jesus played a central role in his helping of people. Gary Collins
says, “Basic to Jesus’ style of helping, however, was his personality. In his teaching,
caring, and counselling, he demonstrated those traits, attitudes, and values that made him
effective as a people-helper and that serve as a model for us. Jesus was absolutely honest,
deeply compassionate, and highly sensitive and spiritually mature in all his dealings with
people.”204

In the gospels, on various occasions, Jesus appears like a therapist who heals people. He
encounters people as a dialogue partner or as a narrator of stories and parables. One can
experience Jesus in the gospels as one who challenges us. An encounter with Jesus changes
the partner drastically - his views on his own self and of the other, of God and the
Kingdom of God. Often through his dialogues Jesus brought about a change of self-image
in the person, which is crucial for a successful living.205

Those who are involved in spiritual direction can profit greatly from the method of Jesus.
Jesus did not have a fixed therapy method or style of helping people. He did not belong to
any school of therapy. He dealt with each individual according to his gut feelings and his
intuition. It is difficult to copy his method, but we can draw inspiration from it. Jesus sent
his Spirit upon his disciples, and he asked them to heal the sick and drove out evil spirits.

203
Cf. MURRY, An Introduction to Pastoral Care and Counseling, pp. 176-178.
204
.COLLINS, Christian Counseling, p. 30.
205
Cf. Anselm GRÜN, Jesus als Therapeut. Die heilende Kraft der Gleichnisse, Münsterschwarzach :Vier-
Türme Verlag, 2011, p. 7.
52
A personal encounter with Jesus in our sufferings and psychological problems can bring a
healing touch. A meditation on the words of Jesus can bring about change in our lives.206

1.3.4.4 Some Examples of Jesus’ Healing Encounter

The gospels show us how Jesus encountered people, spent time with them, engaged them
in dialogue, listened to them patiently and helped them change their lives. He brings
liberation to the lives of people who are in moral laxity, physical deprivation, spiritual
emptiness, etc. Jesus always stressed the importance and worth of the person and upheld
human dignity that comes ultimately from God. He also understands human frailty (woman
caught in adultery, Peter who denied him) and helps them to overcome them. Jesus has a
holistic approach to healing. He helps people reconcile with God, with themselves and
with others. Forgiveness is a major element of this reconciliation with God and self.207

1.3.4.4.1 Jesus and the Samaritan Woman: Jn 4:1-42

John 4: 1-42 narrates in detail how Jesus encounters this woman from Samaria at the well
and how he gradually leads her to insight about God, the nature of worship and to a change
of life. Jesus shows in this encounter that he had deep psychological insights into human
nature. In his free encounter with this woman from the Samaritan area Jesus breaks the
barriers of purity and class distinctions. He breaks many Jewish religious and social
taboos.208

His physical need to drink is at the moment greater than all other needs. The doubtful
question of the woman, ‘why do you ask me?’ means much more than the words
apparently mean. It reflects a certain distance, the anxiety and uncertainty of the woman
and even her perplexity at the unusual behaviour of this Jew. But Jesus slowly gains her
trust and takes the conversation to a deeper level. The conversation goes beyond physical
into a spiritual level, over the physical need of Jesus (i.e., his thirst and the need for water)
into the spiritual need of the woman (i.e., her thirst for meaning in life and for eternal
life).209

Jesus had a truly methodical, systematic approach to this woman just like a counsellor. As
the first step, he encounters her in a friendly manner and accepts her. Then he begins to
establish rapport with her which in turn gives her confidence to share her eventful life with

206
Cf. GRÜN, Jesus als Therapeut, p. 8.
207
Cf. MURRY, An Introduction to Pastoral Care and Counseling, p. 177.
208
Cf. David L. McKENNA, The Psychology of Jesus, Texas: Word Books, 1977, p. 128.
209
Cf. McKENNA, The Psychology of Jesus, p. 128.
53
him. Jesus’ disciplined listening and his unconditional loving acceptance causes catharsis
in the woman.210

The woman gradually begins to address Jesus ‘sir’, showing him her respect and
acknowledging his authority. Jesus is not a total stranger anymore. Jesus, like a counsellor,
waits till she gets enough faith and trust in him and gradually probes her personal life.
Jesus is not too curious or ‘pushy’ but he waits for the appropriate moment to broach the
topic of her personal life with a view to helping her and leading her to a new insight and
awareness.211 Jesus makes her responsible for herself, her actions and her life. He helps
her make an evaluation of her life. Her realization ‘you are a prophet’ and her desire to
divert the subject matter to worship of God, shows her discomfort with her own self and
the inner need for a change, which Jesus perceives. Jesus does go further into personal
details. In all his interaction with her, Jesus shows extreme sensitivity to the woman. He
initiates in her the desire to change.212

Jesus also reveals to her the transcendental dimension of human life. He makes known to
her that he is the Messiah whom she has been awaiting for her salvation. Her openness and
receptivity brings her salvation. What we have seen here in this encounter of Jesus with the
woman is worth interpreting in the context of pastoral counselling:

- Jesus accepts her totally as she is with full respect for her individuality;
- He respects her as a human being with dignity and worth;
- He invites her to retrospection but without forcing her in any way;
- He leaves her the choice to accept or to reject.213

These are qualities which are indispensable in the context of pastoral counselling. Further,
if we analyse the text, we can say Jesus acknowledges this woman as a unique and
worthwhile person with potential for growth and wholeness. That is the reason why Jesus
let her go out of herself to begin a new life. Jesus leads her to confess her inner need for
change. He provides insight into her inner life in order to come out with a new future. He
even allows her to have a positive guilt feeling which can bring about a healing in the

210
Cf. MURRY, An Introduction to Pastoral Care and Counseling, p. 176.
211
Cf. McKENNA, The Psychology of Jesus, p. 129.
212
Cf. Ibid., p. 132.
213
Cf. Ibid., pp. 134-135.
54
person.214 In his dealing with her, Jesus becomes the ‘significant other’ (Harry S Sullivan)
in the life of this woman in bringing her out of her mire of disoriented life.215

Jesus also helps the Samaritan woman to achieve self-realization and encourages her to re-
orient her life. She is enabled to have a new approach to life. The unconditional acceptance
provided by Jesus to the woman - with her background with all its shady dimensions and
her life-situation - helps her look into herself. It is important to note that Jesus does not
force her in any way, but only makes her realize what is most important in her life.216

1.3.4.4.2 Walk to Emmaus with the Disciples (Lk 24: 13-35)

Here we see how Jesus encounters two men who are perplexed, disappointed and deep in
sorrow. He does not cut short their talk or walk. Seen from a psychological point of view,
he wants them to talk it over, become more aware of it. Jesus lets them see the situation
from different perspectives and helps them release the tension created by the events. This
talking out leads them to a cathartic process, helping them to vent their pent-up emotion.
Sometimes the expression of painful emotions through words and tears helps one to come
to terms with the situation.217

1.3.4.4.3 Parables of Jesus as Counselling Sessions

In the parables of Jesus reveal the therapeutic quality of his teaching. Jesus was a master
narrator and he used parables regularly to bring home to the people the message of the
Kingdom. Spiritual teachers and psychologists claim that the parables of Jesus have a
great therapeutic power. They give us a change of perspective with regard to our self-
image and our understanding of God. The parables could be considered as counselling or a
kind of conversation therapy. What do they achieve? Anselm Grün gives us a few
examples:

a. Through them, Jesus tries to free the people from their pathological image of God and
distorted and destructive self-image.
b. Through the parables Jesus motivates and encourages the depressed and the
discouraged.
c. They offer us a new perspective on life.218

214
Cf. McKENNA, The Psychology of Jesus, p. 136.
215
Cf. Ibid., p. 137.
216
Cf. MURRY, An Introduction to Pastoral Care and Counseling, p. 180.
217
Cf. Ibid., p. 181.
218
Cf. GRÜN, Jesus als Therapeut, p. 9.
55
Our idea of God has a lot to do with the success or failure of our lives. In his approach,
Jesus tried to change the perspectives of the people from within, without moralising or
patronising. The parables, when properly used, are even today a great help in spiritual
guidance and counselling. The message of Jesus, in the parables in particular, leads one to
a level where one feels accepted and loved by God.219

The therapeutic manner of Jesus is most evident in the healing narratives of the gospels.
Jesus’ dealing with each person was different. He does not use just the same method to
deal with different people. We get insights into ‘the different methods of therapy’ in the
healing narratives.220 They challenge us to come to Jesus with our brokenness. They also
challenge us to encounter people with the power of the Spirit and to lift them up. Through
them Jesus invites all to rid themselves of their pathological image of God - as revengeful,
wicked and eager to punish. Most of the therapy methods function through conversation
and dialogue. It is not uncommon even today that the therapist narrates stories and
anecdotes to the client to point out something to him. The narration of stories was
originally the method of therapy in the olden times. Jesus was indeed a skilled narrator and
orator and people listened to him with rapt attention.221

Parables form the central part of Jesus’ teaching and narrations. These parables were part
of his therapy methods. Through his parables, Jesus prods and moves us to think. The
parables of Jesus intend to create an inner change in the listener. The listener is fascinated
by the words of Jesus and without his knowledge he is led to a higher level - new
knowledge of God and of self and to an inner change. Jesus handles a variety of
psychological themes in the parables – how to overcome fear, guilt, disappointment,
helplessness, etc. These are also themes dealt with in psychotherapy and counselling. The
parables invite the listeners to deal constructively with such important themes that affect
life.222

The Church has for a long time infused a feeling of guilt in the minds of people, which was
not always helpful. What is mostly prevalent today is the other extreme: people deny it
totally. Not to accept or to totally suppress the emotions of regret and guilt is to deny
totally a reality, which is part of human nature. Grün quotes the Munich psychiatrist Albert
Görres who believed that one who does not have a sense of guilt loses something very

219
Take, for example, the parable of the loving father (prodigal son).
220
Cf. GRÜN, Jesus als Therapeut, p.10.
221
Cf. Ibid., p.12.
222
Cf. Ibid., pp. 13-15.
56
integral to human existence and being. The suppressed feeling of guilt itself appears in
different other forms like anger, fear, temper and compulsion.223

Grün, who helped thousands of people with guidance and spiritual direction, gives an
example how one should look at the parables anew and be helped by their therapeutic
value. He says the parable of the cunning servant (Lk 16: 1-8) has helped people in
spiritual direction to overcome guilt feelings. The approach of Jesus is to be friendly with
people and to heal them through this approach. Grün claims the essence of this parable is
to infuse the courage to go ahead boldly in life and have the guts to lead a normal life in
the society associating and socializing with others.224 The Word of God can be a powerful
tool in pastoral counselling. It has the power to move people, to inspire and encourage
them and to lead them to a new life.225

1.3.5 Paradox of Pastoral Counselling

The field of pastoral counselling is indeed paradoxical, more so when a priest assumes the
role of a counsellor. He has to strike a fine balance between the prejudiced role of a priest
as moralizer and that of a permissive therapist. It is quite likely that a conflict of roles can
arise between the two vocations. On the one hand, the (Catholic) priest is bound by
obedience to the Church and her authorities. The teachings of the Church in some way
restrict his freedom. A therapist is generally considered to be a person who enjoys
complete freedom of thought and one who advocates total personal freedom. There can be
many issues of conflict such as divorce, contraception, abortion, euthanasia, etc., where he
may hold a different opinion. Other controversial issues include celibacy, obedience, etc.
Natale, as priest and counsellor knows this dilemma: “Thus the tension between proper
clinical behaviour and priestly responsibility seems to be real indeed, and repeated
instances of such unresolved conflict are apt to be severely discouraging to the pastoral
counsellor. In short, the entire dilemma arises from the fact that those in the pulpit tend to
be identified with morality, while those in the analytical chair are supposed to be on the
side of the id.”226

223
Cf. GRÜN, Jesus als Therapeut, p. 16. (See also Albert GÖRRES, Kennt die Psychologie den Menschen?
München: Piper, 1984, 2nd Edition, p.193)
224
Cf. GRÜN, Jesus als Therapeut, pp. 17-19.
225
For more of this topic see 5. 4. 4 in this dissertation. (Cross reference made to avoid needless repetition).
226
NATALE, Pastoral Counselling, p.13.
57
1.3.6 Essentials and Goals of Counselling in a Christian Context

It is true that counselling in a Christian context can be different than in a secular context,
although the tools and skills employed may more or less be the same. The goals of
counselling may vary when the counsellor and counselee are believers and have a common
basis in faith and morals.

One of the greatest dangers in pastoral counselling is the tendency to moralise and to dish
out solutions, often with reference to the Bible. It should be more of ‘where are you?’ than
‘there you are!’227 This general tendency to be judgemental and moralising poses a great
danger to the whole process of pastoral counselling. It makes pastoral counselling
unscientific, unhelpful and against established professional standards. On the other hand,
there is a need to engage in serious dialogue and not to dish out ready-made solutions,
easily jumping into conclusions and trying immediately to solve problems like an expert.228
Instead, he should help the counselee to delve into his own self, analyse the problem, think
it over from various angles with the help of the counsellor and come out with self-
discovered solutions. This helps the counselee to own up his problems and to resort to his
own resources to solve them. Psychologists call this process in counselling ‘self-
exploration’. This should be ably supported and guided through the ‘probing’ of the
counsellor.229

Trust is another important element in pastoral counselling. It is not easy to get to know
who people really are and what their real problems are. It takes time and trust: “Finding out
where people really are, which usually turns out to be far removed from the problem they
initially presented, takes time, care and commitment. Too many counsellors think they
have immediate biblical answers for everyone; they tend to say, ‘there you are,’ before
they know what the real problem is.”230 There is a need for creating a friendly and health-
inducing atmosphere, helping the person in his self-exploration with probing, finding out
the cause of the problem and searching for his own solutions and way-out. Kirwan says,
“The best way to avoid such mistakes is, in effect to ask, ‘Where are you? I want to

227
Cf. William T. KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling. A Case for Integrating Psychology
and Theology, Michigan: Baker Book House, 1984, pp. 119-121.
228
Cf. Ibid., pp. 119-121.
229
Cf. J. M. FUSTER, Personal Counselling, Mumbai: St Pauls, 2008 Edition, pp. 51, 59. (J. M. FUSTER,
an American Jesuit, the former founder-director of Xavier Institute of Counselling, Mumbai, is one of the
pioneers of counselling in India. He offered many training programmes and courses to promote counselling
in India. For details about his programme see J. M FUSTER, Training Courses in Personal Counselling, in
International Journal for the Advancement of Counselling, Vol. 2.1,1979, pp. 39-51).
230
KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, pp. 120-121.
58
understand what your problem really is.’ It is vital that on every level of interpersonal
action the Christian community adopt a ‘where are you’ rather than a ‘there you are
approach.’ ”231

1.3.6.1 Secular Goals

Pastoral counselling is also a form of counselling. It follows the basic principles and
methods of secular counselling. In this sense, pastoral counselling has also secular goals, in
addition to the spiritual and pastoral goals. In the opinion of Ezamo Murry, the goals of
pastoral counselling include some of the following secular elements:232

a) Reducing undue tension: It can be achieved through catharsis, relaxing and releasing
pent-up inner feelings by sharing with the counsellor. Sometimes free expression of
feelings and thoughts to a trust-worthy person helps one to get over depression and pent-up
feelings. It helps the better functioning of a person.

b) Resolving conflicts: Pastoral counselling helps also to resolve harmful conflicts arising
out of relational problems and uncontrolled hostility. Many people today experience
conflicts at personal, familial and social levels. Pastoral counselling offers great help in
this regard from a spiritual point of view.

c) Self-understanding, self-acceptance and self-actualisation: Better functioning is an

important goal in pastoral counselling. It is possible only through improving the self-
understanding and self-acceptance of the counselee by infusing a new sense of worth and
creating a better self-image in the person. The person should love and accept himself
because God loves and accepts him. The counselee has also to be helped to find self-
fulfilment and achieve self-actualisation. In a pastoral setup the transcendental dimension
of the human being should not be neglected.

d) Informative function: Pastoral counselling also helps to bring out the internal resources
within the person for his fuller development. Another important goal of pastoral
counselling is to provide the counselee with information, clarification and insights so that
he can make a ‘smart’ (specific, measurable, attainable, realistic and timely) choice. It also
includes making known to the counselee the position of the Church on certain matters and
issues and the teaching of the Church.

231
KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, p. 121.
232
Cf. MURRY, An Introduction to Pastoral Care and Counseling, pp. 166-168.
59
1.3.6.2 Non-Secular Goals of Pastoral Counselling
Most pastoral counsellors and authors agree that pastoral counselling has to be
differentiated from secular counselling. Although pastoral counselling uses many
psychological principles, skills and methods of secular counselling, they are obviously also
different. The goals and some essential features distinguish pastoral counselling from
secular counselling.

The goals of pastoral counselling include helping the client to:

a. attend to the religious and spiritual needs and related problems;

b. try to find out the impact of religion on day-to-day life;
c. make use of resources to cope with life, change and bring about healing; and
d. make informed decision on what role religion and spirituality should play in life.233

Kirwan speaks of the following aspects of pastoral counselling which have to be included
in its process in addition to the normal secular counselling goals and methods.

1.3.6.2.1 Spiritual and Emotional Growth

One of the main goals of pastoral counselling is the spiritual and emotional growth of the
counselee. This can be achieved through the ‘therapeutic’ relationship with the counselee,
helping him with discernment and sometimes through constructive confrontation in the
light of faith and through the immediacy of the therapeutic relationships. Kirwan says, “As
the counsellor confronts the client in this way, judiciously discloses doctrinal precepts, and
strives for immediacy in the therapeutic relationship, the client will come to a better self-
understanding and internalize biblical principles which will result in spiritual and
emotional growth.”234

Like in spiritual direction, it is one of the main objectives of pastoral counselling to help a
person to deepen his relationship with God. In the opinion of Kathleen Heasman, “Pastoral
counselling has a further dimension to add, since the counsellor seeks as well to strengthen
the person’s relationship with God… The pastoral counsellor, unlike the social worker,
does not keep his beliefs to himself, but, on the other hand, he does not introduce them
indiscriminately, but only as a part of the counselling process and when the person is ready
to receive them.”235

233
Cf. James M. NELSON, Psychology, Religion and Spirituality, New York: Springer, 2009, p. 501
234
KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, p. 158.
235
Kathleen HEASMAN, An Introduction to Pastoral Counselling, London: Constable & Co, 1969, pp. 56-
57.
60
1.3.6.2.2 Imparting a Sense of Belonging
In Christian counselling, the counsellor should impart to the counselee a sense of
belonging. In a good pastoral counselling, the counsellor should reaffirm the Christian
identity of the counselee with a sense of belonging. The counselee should feel, “I belong to
the counsellor and the counsellor belongs to me.”236 This is a feature that is emphasised
also in a person-centred approach. Through his empathy, genuineness and unconditional
positive regard, the counsellor imparts a sense of belonging to the counselee.237 In the
initial stages of counselling, the counsellor is expected to establish rapport with the
counselee to gain his trust and to impart him this sense of belonging: “The goal of this first
stage of the process is to get the counselee to experience a sense of trust in the counsellor
and eventually, a feeling of belonging to the family of God.”238 This belongingness is even
more seen in spiritual direction.

In the difficult moments of one’s life, one is much relieved to know that one is not alone.
The counsellor, the community and the Church should stand by this person and give
him/her a sense of belonging. It could be expressed as follows: “ When the other is with
me I feel I am not alone, I feel understood, not in some detached way, but because I feel he
knows what it is like to be me. I realize that he wants to see me as I am, not in order to pass
judgement on me, but to help me…” 239

At the creation of human beings, God instilled this sense of belonging into their hearts.
God Himself is in communion. The three persons belong to one another. God has created
human beings as persons who are essentially communion-oriented.240 Dutch theologian
Bavinck says, “The deep human need for a sense of belonging is already clear in the story
of Adam….His nature inclines to the social - he wants company. He must be able to
express himself, reveal himself, and give himself. He must be able to pour out his heart, to
give form to his feelings. He must share his awareness with a being who can understand
him and can feel and live along with him…” 241

What are the factors that could create a sense of belonging? Kirwan considers four factors
essential to create a sense of belonging. They are empathy, genuineness, warmth and
236
KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, p. 121.
237
Cf. Peter F. SCHMID, Personale Begegnung. Der personzentrierte Ansatz in Psychotherapie, Beratung,
Gruppenarbeit und Seelsorge, Würzburg: Echter, 1989, pp. 209-216.
238
KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, p. 121.
239
Milton MAYEROFF, as cited KIRWAN in Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, p. 121.
240
Cf. Peter F. SCHMID, Im Anfang ist Gemeinschaft. Personzentrierte Gruppenarbeit in Seelsorge und
Praktischer Theologie, Stuttgart: Kohlhammer,1998, pp. 36-38. See also pp. 42-43.
241
Herman BAVINCK as cited by KIRWAN in Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, p. 124.
61
concreteness. These attitudes are considered central to the approach of humanistic
psychology. The three pillars of the person-centred approach according to Carl Rogers are:
genuineness, unconditional positive regard and empathy. In subsequent chapters I shall
discuss them at length.

1.3.6.2.3 Discernment
In the Catholic tradition discernment is an important goal of pastoral counselling and
spiritual direction. The counselee tries to discern the will of God through the help of the
counsellor. This practice can be found in the earliest traditions of the Church. In Salesian
tradition discernment is one of the most important elements of spiritual direction.242

1.3.6.2.4 Edification
Edification is the means of bringing home to the counselee Christian values and principles.
This element of pastoral counselling varies greatly from the secular counselling and
therapy, as the latter does not accord great importance to informing the client about values
and principles. In pastoral counselling, when a client has to take a decision, the counsellor
informs him of the pros and cons of the same from a Christian point of view. A Christian
pays heed to the values of the Gospel and Christian principles in his life. Therefore, a
Christian counsellor has to be a learned person who has a strong faith and is familiar with
Christian philosophy, theology and morals. This was one of the conditions243 stressed by St
Francis de Sales in choosing a spiritual director.

According to Kirwan, these are the essential components of Christian edification:

a. Doctrinal self-disclosure: This means revealing Christian truths to the client without
obstructing him and without disturbing the therapeutic flow. It has to be done without
being authoritarian or sermonic.244
b. Confrontation: The purpose of confrontation is not to rebuke or to put the counselee
down, but it is, “the bringing together of growth-defeating discrepancies in the client’s
perceptions, feelings, behaviour, values, attitudes, and communication to compare and
examine them.”245 There are different types of confrontation: didactic, experiential,
strength confrontation, encouragement to action, etc. Every confrontation should be
characterized by empathy, tentativeness and care.246

242
Cf. Richard J. SWEENEY, Discernment in the Spiritual Direction of St. Francis de Sales, in Review of
Religious, Vol. 39.1, 1980, pp.127-141.
243
Cf. John P. CONNOLLY, Basic Principles of Spiritual Direction in Salesian Studies, Vol. 11. 2, (80-92),
Wilmington, Delaware: Salesian Institute, 1964, pp. 88-92.
244
Cf. KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, pp. 150-152.
245
Ibid., p. 153.
246
Cf. Ibid., pp. 152-155.
62
c. Immediacy: It “helps to speed the process and enables the client to deal with
unresolved problems swiftly.”247 There is an inherent danger in immediacy. If not used
prudently and efficiently, it can produce anxiety, and being overly direct can be harmful.

Pastoral counselling and spiritual direction often use self-examination and evaluation of
life. American psychiatrist Kenneth Mark Colby believes re-constructing and re-living
experiences can be a learning experience: “A skilled counsellor repeatedly assists clients to
recollect, reconstruct, and re-experience events that have caused current problems. In
reliving those events as it were, the counselee “undergoes literally hundreds of modifying
learning experiences.”248

1.3.6.2.5 ‘Diakonia’ / Service

Diakonia – love in action - is another important goal and motive of pastoral counselling.
Kirwan proposes this as the final stage of Christian counselling. Christians are called to
serve one another:

After a sense of belonging has given the counselee enough confidence to risk
self-exploration and edification has led to the internalization of biblical
principles, externalization – moving from one’s own self and away from
preoccupation with one’s own needs – can take place. The goal of this stage
of Christian counselling is effective living: the ability to handle the social
and emotional dimensions of life. Self-destructive pattern will no longer hold
sway; new spiritual resources will be discovered and utilized.249

If one looks at the whole process Kirwan suggests for pastoral counselling, it seems to be
structured like this: The first stage of that preparatory exploration helps the counselee to
explore himself, make a general examination of himself and to see himself in the totality of
his being. The next stage seems to be that of correcting his life with the help of biblical
principles and the internalization of the same, and finally living out the biblical values in
his life and in the service of others.

1.3.7 Different Schools of Psychology used in Pastoral Counselling

What are the different schools of psychology used in pastoral counselling? Do counsellors
have a preference for a particular school? What are the different schools found to be more
effective in pastoral counselling? Pastoral counselling makes use of practically every major
branch of psychology depending on the need and the situation. While most counsellors

247
KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, p.157.
248
Kenneth Mark COLBY as cited by Kirwan in Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, p. 158.
(Original in Kenneth Mark COLBY, A Primer for Psychotherapists, 1951, p. 121).
249
KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, p. 158.
63
stick to their own particular schools, a good many make use of an eclectic approach,
making use of methods from different schools.

1.3.7.1 Psychoanalysis, Depth Psychology and Cognitive Schools

Psychoanalysis and depth psychology are based on the methods developed by Sigmund
Freud, Carl Jung, Alfred Adler, Eric Fromm and others. They lay emphasis on one’s
development in childhood and the childhood influences on the later development of the
person and the importance of unconscious drives. They use methods like interpretation of
dreams, catharsis, transference, free association, bringing the unconscious to the conscious
level, etc. in therapy.

It is true that religion and religious life deal with the unconscious too. This fact cannot be
denied. Understanding suppression and repression in the unconscious helps us to come to
terms with our own selves and shadows and to accept them. The Psalmist often asks God
to search his heart to find out its inner state (Ps 139: 23-24). It is sometimes difficult for us
to know what lies deep in our hearts. We need the help of a person or God’s direct
intervention. The Rational Emotive Therapy of Albert Ellis challenges us to check and
rationalise our belief-system.250

1.3.7.2 Behaviourist School

The Behaviourist school deals with how human behaviour is learnt and how modification
can be made to it. It stresses a person’s external, observable behaviour. It is based on the
experiments of Ivan Pavlov and John B. Watson. Behaviourism was developed further by
Bandura and Skinner. Watson is considered the founder of the behaviourist school. The
schools deals primarily with the ‘doing’ dimension of the personality - the therapy form is
called behaviour modification - removal of the patient’s undesirable symptoms and
working towards desirable behaviour. The Behaviourist school deals mainly with what is
directly observable.

Behaviourist school is hugely popular today. However, some aspects of the behaviourist
school come into conflict with Christian principles, especially when it comes to the matter
of human freedom and that of responsibility. A mechanically- or reflex-driven
understanding of human behaviour goes radically against the Christian understanding of
human freedom, responsibility and human dignity. William Glasser, founder of Reality
Therapy, stresses the individual’s current behaviour and his or her responsibility for that

250
Cf. KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, p. 59.
64
behaviour. He believes that only personal responsibility for one’s actions and a new plan of
behaviour will result in positive change, which requires personal freedom, dignity and free
will.251 However, there are also many therapists who make use of the behaviourist
approach to improve human behaviour, because behaviour modification is one of the
important concerns of the behaviourist school. Their methods could be used to deal with
de-addiction, freedom from compulsive behaviour, etc. From a Christian point of view, Jay
Adams speaks of the ‘de-habituation of sinful behaviour patterns.’252

1.3.7.3 Humanistic School

Carl Rogers is one of the founders, main proponent and the primary spokesman of the
humanistic school of psychotherapy. It is also known as ‘the Third Force’, in contrast to
psychoanalysis and behaviourism. Rogers had a great impact on the counselling field.
Pastoral counselling received a boost from the methods of Carl Rogers, especially from his
person-centred approach to counselling.253

Although Rogers is not known to be a believer ever since he became a psychologist, many
authors believe many of his ideas and views are compatible with the Christian
faith/doctrine.254 As the person-centred method of Carl Rogers forms the central part of my
thesis, more about Rogers and his method will be dealt with in detail in subsequent
chapters.

Maslow is another humanist psychologist who brought out the idea of self-actualization,
hierarchy of needs and the characteristics of a self-actualized person. In spite of the many
differences on philosophical and psychological grounds, they are also many views and
principles similar to Christian principles.255 Both Rogers and Maslow stress on the
person’s being, which is similar to the biblical focus on the heart, the inner core of the
person (Prov 4:23, Lk 6:45, Mt 12:34, 15:19, Mk 7:21-23). Nelson tries to present the
different schools of counselling and psychotherapy generally used in pastoral counselling
graphically as follows:256

251
Cf. KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, p. 62.
252
Cf. Jay E. ADAMS, A Theology of Christian Counseling, Grand Rapids, Michigan: Zondervan Publishing
House, pp.160-165.
253
Cf. Peter F. SCHMID, Personale Begegnung, pp. 209-216. The whole book, especially the whole of
Chapter 5, deals with this topic in detail.
254
Cf. KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, p. 60.
255
Cf. Ibid., pp. 60-61.
256
NELSON, Psychology, Religion and Spirituality, p. 488.
65
 Approach Representative Causes of Mode of change
figure pathological
behaviour

Unconscious drives, Transference,

personality Catharsis
Psychodynamic Freud, Adler, Fromm
structures, social
factors

Humanistic Rogers, Maslow Environmental Non-directive

barriers to growth listening and
reflection

Behavioural Watson, Skinner Learning Modification of

Environment environment or
reinforcement

Cognitive Ellis, Beck Dysfunctional beliefs Thought

and thought patterns restructuring

Interpersonal Weissman Grief, Role disputes, Analyse current

Interpersonal skill relationship and
deficits losses, form new
relationships

Although different schools of psychology and psychotherapy have their own contributions
to make, Christian counsellors should be selective in adopting a method or school. They
should base their philosophy and psychology on what is compatible with the gospels and
Christian beliefs, and employ corresponding methods in pastoral counselling. To quote
Kirwan again: “Christian counsellors should pay primary attention to the schools of
counselling that stress inner development through personal relationships, the schools of
therapy stressing the ‘knowing’ and ‘doing’ dimensions of personality do have
contributions to make.”257

The Christian approach to modern counselling theories should be assessed on the basis of
personal relationship because the Bible speaks of healing and new life through relationship

257
KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, p. 60
66
– relationship to God and to other human beings. A second criterion should be growth and
maturation, and, thirdly, on the being of the counsellor.258

1.3.8 Different Counselling Positions

From the Christian point of view, the different counselling positions of the counsellors are
judged in terms of their approach to faith. There are different ways in which a Christian
looks at the different approaches to counselling.

1.3.8.1 Kirwan’s View

The four major counselling approaches proposed by William T. Kirwan, well-known
author in pastoral counselling, are the following:259

1.3.8.1.1 Un-Christian View

This approach totally neglects God, theology and spirituality, and stresses only
psychology. This view is held by a majority of mental health professionals. It is basically
an atheistic approach. It not only neglects God, but also mostly negates God. Many modern
psychotherapists fall under this category.

1.3.8.1.2 Spiritualized View

This is the opposite of the above view. Here everything is seen in terms of God, faith and
scriptures. This approach is also insufficient because it is over-spiritualized, simplistic and
naïve. It tends to neglect the developments in the field of social sciences, including
psychology and to turn a blind eye to research findings.

1.3.8.1.3 Parallel View

This is a neutral view. It does not negate faith or beliefs or religious practices, but at the
same time tolerates no interference in the praxis. They hold the view that both psychology
and theology/faith should remain totally independent of each other.

1.3.8.1.4 Integrated view

This is the approach preferred by most pastoral counsellors. It tries to bring harmoniously
the truths of the Bible and psychology into the practice. This view, however, presupposes
that both the counsellor and the client are open to faith or at least not against it. The
integrated view, just as the term suggests, tries to integrate both psychology and faith.

258
Cf. KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, p. 57.
259
Cf. Ibid., pp. 20-21.
67
Kirwan believes there can be cooperation between psychology and Christianity. Many
psychological findings reveal truths already found in the Bible.260

1.3.8.2 Nelson’s View

James M. Nelson, another American psychologist and author on pastoral counselling, holds
similar views on the different approaches of pastoral counsellors to psychology, or vice
versa. He classifies the different approaches to pastoral counselling as follows:261

1.3.8.2.1 Integrative Approach

This is the method preferred by most Protestant and Catholic pastoral counsellors. In this
method a Christian psychologist tries to combine the knowledge and techniques of
psychology with Christian beliefs and apply them for an integrative approach in
counselling, trying to take the best from both fields.

1.3.8.2.2 Traditional Approach

This approach bases itself on the teachings from the Bible, beliefs and practices of the
Christian tradition, and values them as superior to psychological concepts which are
viewed with suspicion. They rarely use methods which are purely psychological in nature.

1.3.8.2.3 Integrative Approach to Theistic Psychotherapy

One of the famous approaches in the field is the theistic psychotherapy of Richards and
Bergin.262 They reject reductionism, naturalism, and scientism, and accept theism and
transcendence. They hope their system will be helpful while working with people who
have problems such as depression and addiction: “This approach prefers an explicit
minimizing strategy in which the counsellor is explicit about their values but also
respectful of the autonomy of the clients and their beliefs.”263

In this method, the therapist is open to spiritual intervention; but the therapist does not use
spiritual intervention when he feels it is not needed or when he thinks it is not useful or
when the client does not want it. This discernment and assessment is central to theistic
psychotherapy: “Theistic psychotherapy begins by establishing basic rapport, trust and a
working alliance with the client, conducting a religious assessment and setting appropriate

260
Cf. KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, p. 21.
261
Cf. NELSON, Psychology, Religion and Spirituality, p. 501.
262
For details refer to P. Scott RICHARDS / Allen E. BERGIN, A Spiritual Strategy for Counseling and
Psychotherapy, Washington DC: APA, (2nd ed.), 2005. Reference to this book has been made later in this
work.
263
NELSON, Psychology, Religion and Spirituality, p. 501.
68
goals. The core goal of the approach is to ‘help the clients experience and affirm their
eternal spiritual identity and live in harmony with the Spirit of truth’ (…).”264

1.3.8.2.4 Biblical Counselling

Biblical counselling is more radical and traditional in its theological outlook and
counselling methods. Some of the followers of this method are Stantson L. Jones, Richard
E. Butman, David Powlison and Jay E Adams. Ardent followers of this method base their
counselling and guidance strongly on the Bible and biblical principles and tend to neglect
or minimise the use of psychology in counselling. They question many key tenets of
psychology and attribute no great value to them. They see psychology more as a liability
than an asset in helping relationships. They advocate a return to the traditional biblical
model of soul care.265 The pastoral counselling prevalent in India, especially in the
charismatic centres, could fall into this category. Their method of counselling is purely
based on the Bible and the interpretation of Bible verses for the client.

1.4 Psychology and the Church

Decades ago, the Church and psychology treated each other like enemies. The Church was
always sceptical about the psychologists. It was perhaps due to the over-emphasis many
psychologists put on sexuality, sexual drives, the hidden motives of the psyche and their
attitude towards the Church as an agent of repression and suppressor of human freedom.
Freud is a classic example in this regard. It was also partly due to the undue emphasis
many psychologists placed on human potentiality, thereby threatening the need of God or
negating the power of the Sacraments.266

Is a dialogue possible between psychology and religion in spite of the numerous

differences between them? How can these two sciences, whose outlook and approach are
sometimes poles apart, be brought together? How can theology, a sacred science, and
psychology, a purely secular and empirical science, work together? Many theologians and
psychologists argue that there are many similarities and a common ground between
theology and the social sciences. They both can be, to some extent, called ‘applied
anthropology’. In fact, when we look at history, the priest, the healer, the magician and

264
RICHARDS / BERGIN (1997) as quoted by James M. Nelson in Psychology, Religion and Spirituality, p.
501
265
Cf. NELSON, Ibid., p. 502.
266
Cf. KUGELMANN, Psychology and Catholicism, pp.165-169.
69
later the psychotherapist belonged to the same family. Is not psychotherapy - which
sometimes tries to deny its past which is intimately connected to the pastoral praxis of the
Church - a ‘child of pastoral care,’? asks Karl Heinz Ladanhauf, an Austrian pastoral
theologian and pastoral psychologist.267

Natale argues that both sciences have a common goal: to heal human beings. Theology
goes still deeper, because it aims also at redemption:

Psychology is humanity’s attempt to heal humanity, while Theology is an

attempt to bring into focus the way in which we are healed by God. For the
secular psychotherapist, the goal of his effort is to effect behavioural change;
for the priest it is to elucidate the redemptive act. Yet both disciplines and
their followers pursue identical ends: to cure humanity’s alienation; to make
humanity somehow psychologically and existentially whole again.268

One knows from history that many of the extreme views of psychologists like Freud about
religion have proved to be wrong in the course of time. In spite of marxism,
psychoanalysis, secularism and materialism, religion has a positive effect on the lives of
the majority of people on earth even today. In spite of the many denouncements and
predictions about its imminent death, religion continues to exist and influence people. Like
any other science or human enterprise, psychology is in a process of growth and
development, too. It involves learning by trial and error and making mistakes in that
process. Notwithstanding the perspectival differences and the controversy regarding
methods, psychology and psychotherapy can converge with theology, especially practical
theology on diaconal pastoral ministry.269

1.4.1 Relationship between Psychology and Christianity

The Protestant Churches have more freely and readily accepted psychology and
psychological findings than the Catholic Church at the beginning of the development of
psychology. John Calvin made a strong appeal for accepting the truths discovered by the
sciences even if it comes from the wicked. In his Institutes of the Christian Religion
2.2.15-16270 he says:

267
Cf. Karl Heinz LADENHAUF, Praktische Theologie und Humanwissenschaften, in Herbert
HASLINGER (Ed.), Praktische Theologie. Grundlegungen, Mainz: Matthias Grünwald, 1999, pp. 279-291.
Here pp. 279-281. (See especially the part Psychotherapie)
268
NATALE, Pastoral Counselling, p.16.
269
Cf. LADENHAUF, Praktische Theologie und Humanwissenschaften, p. 282.
270
John CALVIN, Institutes of the Christian Religion, Book 2. Chapter 2. Available online:
http://www.ccel.org/ccel/calvin/institutes.i.html (20.1.2016).
70
 Therefore, in reading profane authors, the admirable light of truth displayed
in them should remind us that the human mind, however much fallen and
perverted from its original integrity, is still adorned and invested with
admirable gifts from its Creator. If we reflect that the Spirit of God is the
only fountain of truth, we will be careful, as we would avoid offering insult
to him, not to reject or condemn truth wherever it appears. In despising the
gifts, we insult the Giver….. Therefore, since it is manifest that men whom
the Scriptures term carnal are so acute and clear-sighted in the investigation
of inferior things, their example should teach us how many gifts the Lord has
left in possession of human nature, notwithstanding of its having been
despoiled of the true good… But if the Lord has been pleased to assist us by
the work and ministry of the ungodly in physics, dialectics,
mathematics, and other similar sciences, let us avail ourselves of it, lest, by
neglecting the gifts of God spontaneously offered to us, we be justly
punished for our sloth.

This openness to science and psychology was seen in the Protestant circles much earlier
than in the Catholic. Certain psychological and physical laws are part of our make-up and
cannot be ignored. At the same time, revelation cannot be reduced to reason and
psychological research, and vice versa. ‘God requires obedience to both reason and
revelation.’271 Stanley E. Jones argues for an integration of Christianity and psychology
because they have a lot in common: “Eventually the psychological discipline and the
Christian discipline must coincide. For when psychology becomes truly psychological and
Christianity becomes truly Christian, they must meet and help each other.”272

It is true that the Catholic Church has had an antipathy towards psychologists. The Church
alone was not at fault for this. Kugelmann justifies Church’s initial antipathy: “The
philosophical presuppositions of some prominent psychologists … (were) antithetical to
the Catholic faith. Some psychotherapeutic practices, in how they encouraged patients to
think and act, were called immoral by some Church officials and by some Catholic
psychologists.”273

Over the years there has been a change in the attitude of the Catholic Church towards
psychology and psychological research. Many, however, believe that the Church has not
done enough to integrate the modern developments in the field of psychology and other
social sciences into her ministry. Application of the fruits of these new developments can
bring people betterment and healing. This, however, does not mean that she has to accept
all the weird theories and methods of modern sciences that sometimes go against her faith

271
KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counselling, p. 30.
272
Stanley E. JONES, as quoted by William T. KIRWAN in Biblical Concepts for Christian Counselling,
p.31. (The original appears in Preface in H.W. DARLING, Man in Triumph, Grand Rapids: Zondervan,
1965, p. 8).
273
KUGELMANN, Psychology and Catholicism, pp. 1-2.
71
and practices. It means that she should be open to the use of those methods which do not
go against her faith and morals.274

The Second Vatican Council encourages the study of psychology and other social sciences
during the training of priests. Optatam Totius advocates, “They should also be taught to
use the aids which the disciplines of Pedagogy, Psychology, and Sociology can provide,
according to correct methodology and the norms of ecclesiastical authority.”275

What do theology and psychology have together? Over the years, both have tried to come
over their inimical approach to the help of the human person. In recent times we see more
rapprochements between the two. This is true in the case of pastoral theology. Psychology
and theology can be mutually helpful when they treat each other with mutual respect.
When it is not the case, it can lead to ‘dubious psychology’ in pastoral ministry and
‘problematic theology’ in the field of psychotherapy.276 When we look at human beings as
holistic beings with body, mind and soul and the complex problems faced by them, we
realize that the need for psychology is great. Psychology offers lots of practical help for
day-to-day living which help the pastoral ministry of the Church. Pastoral psychology
today tries to reduce the tension between these two disciplines.277

Isidor Baumgartner and Walter Fürst believe that psychology can surely help theologians
and pastors to understand and appreciate human beings better and to interact smoothly with
them. Many of the human and pastoral problems have psychological basis.278

Some believe that the recent boom in psychotherapy is partly to fill the vacuum created by
the fall of religion and religious structures in the modern world. This could be seen in the
concepts used by various psychologists such as archetype, true and false self, self-
actualisation, identity, identity crisis, etc. These are, to some extent, semi-religious
concepts.279 Kugelmann believes that psychology today tries to present itself as an ethical
science. It promises to help people, solve their problems, stand by them in their sorrows,
etc. In this sense, psychology claims to be diaconal and other-oriented. Psychology tends to
address our whole life-span and how and what we should do. It tends to ‘direct’ and

274
Cf. KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counselling. See especially part I Christianity and
Psychology where the author calls for a healthy integration of Theology and Psychology, although from a
Protestant perspective.
275
Optatam Totius (OT), Vat II Decree on Priestly Training, No. 20.
276
Cf. LADENHAUF, Praktische Theologie und Humanwissenschaften, pp. 290-291.
277
Cf. Michael DIETRICH, Handbuch.Psychologie und Seelsorge, Wuppertal: R.Brockhaus, 2000, p. 26.
278
Cf. Isidor BAUMGARTNER / Walter FÜRST, Leben Retten. Was Seelsorge zukunftsfähig macht,
München: Kösel, 2000, pp. 125-128.
279
Cf. LADENHAUF, Praktische Theologie und Humanwissenschaften, p. 281.
72
‘guide’ our lives. He says ironically, “… and so psychology is an ethical science, ethics
being the discipline that seeks to know how we should live our lives.”280 If this claim of
psychology is true, then the areas of psychology and pastoral ministry are overlapping.

There have been changes in the mutual relationship between religion and
psychology/psychotherapy in recent years, especially in the second half of 20th century and
later. In the late 19th century and early 20th century the relationship was one of exclusion
and mutual suspicion. At this time, the field was actually dominated by psychology. People
like Freud, Skinner, Rogers and others were gladly accepted without questioning. But in
recent times this domination of psychology has given way to a more level-playing field.281
There is an increasing realisation that psychology alone cannot help human beings and
stand by them in their problems. That is the subject matter of a later chapter.

1.4.2 Biblical Perspective on Human Beings

Before I deal with the topic where theology and psychology can work together, it is
important to see if there are common grounds for such a working together. That poses
some questions. Does biblical anthropology in any way match with that of the
psychologists? Are there psychological elements in the Bible? How does the Bible see God
and human beings? Is psychology, as well as psychotherapy, effective at all, as it claims to
be?282

Christians believe in a personal God. God created the world and the human beings.
Nothing in the world comes into existence through sheer chance. God is real, and so is the
world. Christians also believe in what is beyond the observable physical reality. They
believe in God’s goodness and love for each human being. Christian theology upholds
personal freedom and individual responsibility. Christians can and must be open to the
psychological findings of the non-Christian scientists in so far as they do not go against
Christian beliefs and when they are not prejudiced against Christianity. Every scientist has
his own presuppositions. His thinking, working and research are based on his

280
KUGELMANN, Psychology and Catholicism, p.1.
281
Cf. NELSON, Psychology, Religion and Spirituality, p. 508.
282
At this point it is important to draw your attention to a book: James HILLMAN & Michael VENTURA,
We’ve Had a Hundred Years of Psychotherapy – And the World’s Getting Worse, San Francisco: Harper,
1993. It is a very satirical treatment of Psychotherapy, but makes a difficult reading for those who are not
familiar with North American culture.
73
presuppositions.283 Many Christian thinkers and psychologists believe that ultimately all
truth springs from God.284

The human being is presented in the Bible as a holistic being having body, soul, spirit and
mind. Man is subject to spiritual, psychological and physical laws. Every human being, if
we want to understand him well, must be studied as a bio-psycho-spiritual being. This
reality has sometimes been denied by theologians and even Christian counsellors. Some
counsellors and theologians emotionally deny the relevance of psychological laws to the
Christian life. They take an over-spiritualized view, totally neglecting the psychological
aspect of human life.285

1.4.3 Need for the Study and Application of Psychology

Most experienced counsellors are of the opinion that we should avoid extreme positions.
Positions which hold that only psychiatry can help human beings and God and His Word
has nothing to do with psychological healing of man as well the view that ‘ nothing but the
Bible’ can help man in his problems are not helpful and are to be avoided.286

It is to be noted that the Bible does not rule out human knowledge in the process of helping
human beings. Psychological laws and insights are an integral part of the creation order
and are assumed in the Bible. The Bible lays stress on establishing healthy and loving
human relationships, an ingredient to psychological healing. The Bible deals with in detail
- in its own way and in line with the knowledge of the time - how to form a personality,
how to encounter people who are affected by sadness and grief, and what attitudes could
bring us happiness and joy, etc. God’s Word and divine revelation do not regard
psychology as useless, and, therefore, there is a need to have an integrated approach.287

Many are hopeful that a dialogue between theology and psychology will do more good in
the future. Both can help each other to understand human beings better. Neither religion
nor psychology has a perfect understanding of the human being who is a mystery. When

283
Cf. KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, pp. 25-26.
284
Cf. Ibid., p. 26.
285
Cf. Ibid., p. 33.
286
Cf. Ibid., p. 34.
287
Cf. Ibid., pp. 34-35.
74
both theology and psychology come together, a better understanding of the human being is
possible.288

1.4.4 Valid Use of Psychology

What use of psychology in Christian ministry can be considered valid? Is it possible at all
without doing harm to Christian theology? Kirwan argues strongly that it is not against
Christian theology to legitimately use the findings of psychology in pastoral counselling.
Psychology helps pastors and Christian helpers to have a better understanding of human
nature and common disorders like depression, relational disorders, melancholy, etc.
Spiritual people also experience crisis and psychological problems. That one has faith and
leads a spiritual life does not mean that he is free from psychological illnesses. 289 Spiritual
authors and masters speak about the ‘dark night of the soul’ (St John of the Cross),
‘spiritual dryness’ (St Francis de Sales), and similar harrowing experiences. Human
problems cannot just be pushed aside as results of sin, or lack of faith or as God’s
punishment, as many naïve Christian counsellors think.290 The purpose of the study and
use of psychology in ministry should be to enhance the Christian ministry and not to
depreciate it: “Study of psychology can add to our understanding of the human condition
and of the Christian life. Christians need a holistic perspective from which to view
problems. Psychology can give us insights about ourselves and about God’s influence on
our lives, insights that we might not otherwise experience.”291

Science and psychology today help us to understand the human being better than ever
before. Research into the workings of the brain has revealed how various physical factors
can affect and shape the emotional makeup. Many illnesses which were formerly thought
to be spiritual and purely psychological have a genetic background to them. The tendency
of some radical Christians to see all mental illness as caused by faulty relationship with
God is totally unscriptural and unscientific. The proven, established facts of biology and
psychology must not be neglected. Therefore, there is a great need for integration and
openness on the part of those who are engaged in the ministry of helping others. Both the

288
Cf. NELSON, Psychology, Religion and Spirituality, p. 508
289
Cf. T. KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, p. 68.
290
Cf. Ibid., pp. 64- 67.
291
Ibid., p. 67.
75
sciences should, therefore, be reconciled. Such reconciliation expands horizons and opens
up new possibilities.292

Pastoral counselling should never be identified with proselytising or attempt at religious

conversion. It should not be a place of chicanery or cheap ‘faith-healing’. Christian
counsellors should not be proselyters, but should reveal God’s unconditional love and
acceptance in their relationship with others.293 Natale believes a sensible integration
theology and therapy can contribute to the healing ministry of the Church: “Like the
linking of faith and reason, of religion and science, the joining of Theology and Therapy
offers infinite possibilities to humanity for the alleviation of cursed human brokenness and
tragic alienation.”294 To be what God has created us to be, is the principal thrust of the
biblical teaching on human personality. Change of heart, according to the Scripture, is
possible only through relationship with God and with other human beings. A Christian
approach to a specific method should look for these three criteria: (a) focus on personal
relationships, (b) therapeutic results in terms of inner growth and maturation, and (c) the
‘being’ of the counsellor. How they relate to the clients is more important than what they
know or do.295

1.4.5 Psychological Themes in the Bible

A common ground for interaction between theology and psychology can be found in the
numerous psychological topics dealt with in the Bible. Surprisingly, much before the
emergence of psychology as a science, the Bible had dealt with many themes that
psychology deals with today. The Bible contains a great deal of information on the human
personality. Our longing for a sense of meaning and purpose in life and human emotions
like anxiety, anger, guilt and freedom from guilt, depression, are common themes in the
Bible. Bible texts are today frequently used in personal counselling.296 For example,
psychotherapists today realize the value of the Psalms in counselling, especially in
releasing negative emotions.297 The human need for love, trust and relationship is an oft-
repeated theme in the Bible. The first part of the Book of Genesis contains themes like
292
Cf. NATALE, Pastoral Counseling, p. 17.
293
Cf. Ibid., p. 25.
294
Ibid., p. 26.
295
Cf. KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, pp. 69-70.
296
Cf. RICHARDS / BERGIN, A Spiritual Strategy for Counseling and Psychotherapy, 2005, (2nd ed.), pp.
257-262. I have used the 2nd updated Edition of 2005. Therefore, all the references will be to this edition,
unless otherwise noted.
297
Cf. Dominick D. HANKLE, The Therapeutic Implications of the Imprecatory Psalms in the Christian
Counseling Setting, in Journal of Psychology and Theology, Vol. 38.4, 2010, pp. 275-280.
76
loneliness, companionship, love, intimacy, meeting biological and psychological needs,
inner happiness and satisfaction.298 Hankle believes that passages from the Scripture can
give expression to the concrete life experiences of the people: “A therapist can draw on the
scriptures to assist clients in giving voice to emotional difficulties they have
experienced.”299

One of the most important themes in the Bible is relationship.300 God has created human
beings to enter into a relationship with God and with others. Relationship forms, thus, the
core of human existence. Relationship is also a central theme in psychology, especially in
counselling. God has created human beings with emotions, feelings, drives and needs. He
lives not alone but in relationship with other human beings. As Jiddu Krishnamurti said,
‘Nobody can live in isolation. To live is to be related.’301 This psychological dimension of
human beings is in the plan of God; and so is the science that studies this aspect of human
beings. Kirwan warns, however, that by using psychology in pastoral ministry one should
not neglect the spiritual and scriptural dimension of Christian life: “The Bible reflects
psychological realities; it does not ignore psychology. In particular, it is aware of the
importance of interpersonal relationships. In counselling people in mental and emotional
distress, then, it is imperative to couple scriptural truths with psychology.”302

The commandments of God are also relational in nature. The ultimate goal of the
Commandments of God is a loving relationship with God and other human beings. In
Christian understanding, it is ultimately a relationship, the relationship with Christ that
brings about significant change in the person. The transformation of the heart is core to the
Christian understanding of relationship. The heart is changed through a relationship with
Christ.303

The Bible presents the heart as the centre of the human person. The human being is treated
as a bio-psycho-spiritual being in the Bible. Emotions have great importance and are part
and parcel of human existence.304 Therefore, human beings need to learn to handle them in
a healthy and constructive manner. Covering up or suppressing does not help: “By seeing
emotions or feelings as a key aspect of the heart, we see that they are also a key part of
298
Cf. KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, p. 38.
299
Dominick D. HANKLE, The Therapeutic Implications of the Imprecatory Psalms, p. 276.
300
The topic of relationship is treated at length in the later chapters.
301
Jiddu KRISHNAMURTI, Eighth public talk in 1945, Ojai, California. Available online: http://www.jiddu-
krishnamurti.net/en/1945-1948-observer-is-observed/krishnamurti-the-observer-is-the-observed-45-08 (10.1.16)
302
KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, p. 37.
303
Cf. Ibid., p. 53.
304
Cf. Ibid., pp. 46-47.
77
one’s being. As a key to being, they are of vital importance in the life of the Christian.
Regrettably, as stated earlier, emotions have been unjustifiably de-emphasized in the
Evangelical Church.”305 Kirwan is clearly against any de-linking of emotions and feelings
from the human person. He believes, according to the understanding of the Scripture, they
all belong to the person and should not be detached. He is convinced that, “a counsellor
who refuses to work with a client’s feelings will be of little help in such cases.”306

1.4.6 Psychological Dimension of Human Existence

To understand and help human beings we need to have a holistic approach, taking into
account all dimensions of his existence - biological, psychological and spiritual. There are
certain areas of human existence where psychology has its own limitations.

Every human being is also a psychological being. It is also true of a person who believes in
God. Therefore, he comes under the gamut of religion and psychology, too. “Every
member of a religious tradition is an embodied, psychological being who is subjected to
the biological, relational and social forces that are studied by the psychologists. Failure to
recognize this fact and take advantage of the knowledge and critical perspective provided
by psychology would be unfortunate.”307

There are several areas of human life where psychology can be of great help. The research
done on different fields of psychology like human development, importance of childhood
and its influence on later stages of life, human behaviour patterns, development of
character, prejudice and authoritarianism in religious individuals, etc., have qualitatively
affected human life.

Interestingly enough, the Bible contains a great deal of information and insight into the
human personality and man’s psychological functioning. It deals in detail with human acts
like knowing, feeling and doing. Being is the principal thrust of the biblical teaching on
human personality.308

305
KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, p. 51.
306
Ibid., p. 52.
307
NELSON, Psychology, Religion and Spirituality, pp. 507-508.
308
Cf. KIRWAN, p. 57.
78
1.5 Challenges in the Application of Psychology in Ministry

The application of psychology and psychological principles and methods without sound
religious and spiritual basis has its own dangers.309 Many, enamoured by newness and the
initial appeal, have been eager to jump on the bandwagon of pastoral counselling without
sufficient theological and spiritual roots. They are later disenchanted by the lack of depth
in many approaches used in pastoral counselling. Nelson laments, “This new approach to
pastoral care and counselling was pragmatic or skill-oriented, although attempts were made
to retain some type of Christian orientation … Its focus on skills meant that the whole
movement as a whole had no theoretical or conceptual base in either theology or
psychology, although ideas from humanistic and psychoanalysis were quite important.”310

It must be admitted that over the years there has also been a disenchantment with
psychology and its methods. The initial enthusiasm and the fervour seemed to die out by
the end of the 20th century: “Theologians became increasingly uneasy with psychological
models of pastoral care based on self-realization and professionalism, and pastoral
counsellors began to look beyond the humanistic model for inspiration.”311

It is true that many mainstream psychotherapy schools do not accept any divine or spiritual
dimension to it. Their approach is purely secular and empirical. So they leave out God and
the spiritual dimension in counselling even if the client is spiritual-oriented. That does a
major disservice to the client and to his expectations. Proponents of theistic psychotherapy
are well aware of this problem. Richards and Bergin observe, “No mainstream secular
psychotherapy orientation acknowledges the possible existence of God and spiritual
realities, let alone makes faith in God’s loving and healing influence the foundation of its
theory and approach.”312

Famous American bishop, perhaps the most well-known American Catholic, Fulton J.
Sheen was a vehement critic of psychoanalysis. He believed it was destructive and
ineffective and weakened the human will.313 He went even to the extent of saying that the
practice of psychotherapy – at a time when many Catholics were taking it up, including

309
More about the dangers of the application of psychology, the methods of integration and related topics are
dealt with in the fifth chapter of this work. My purpose here is to introduce the theme.
310
NELSON, Psychology, Religion and Spirituality, p. 485.
311
Ibid., p. 486.
312
RICHARDS / BERGIN, A Spiritual Strategy for Counseling and Psychotherapy, p. 154.
313
Cf. KUGELMANN, Psychology and Catholicism, pp. 26,101, 183, 192.
79
priests - could not have even one point in common with Christianity, it was irreligious and
hedonistic.314

Leading Methodist theologian Albert Outler believed psychology should be approached

and applied very critically. In his opinion, psychology is to be treated not only as an ally
but also as a rival– ally, as long as it deals with health, well-being, skills of relationship,
practical wisdom etc.; as a rival because it brings with it a different worldview inconsistent
with Christian theology and worldview.315 Outler argues that the humanistic view
undermined Christian beliefs, and he stood strongly against any alliance between the two.
He also advocated the rejection of scientism. In his own words, “… the effect thus far, in
three centuries of militant secularism, is modern man’s disenchantment, despair and mass
demoralization. Man’s secularized devotion to ‘humanity’ has not turned out to be more
actually humane than his old-fashioned sinful inhumanity to man.”316 Some of the major
issues where Christian belief goes directly against psychology are:

a). Philosophy regarding the meaning and goal of human life: Psychology sees no life
beyond here and now. From a psychological point of view, a good and healthy life is the
ultimate goal of human life.

b). Neglect and negation of God: Many Christian thinkers and theologians reject the
reductionist and naturalistic philosophy of psychology which thinks science is all, nature is
self-contained and self-intelligible and, therefore, God has no place. Albert Outler was
particularly against the humanistic world-view.317

c). Many schools of psychotherapy, especially psychoanalysis, are shaped by

Enlightenment and purely secular values: They advocate that a ‘good life’ here and now is
the only goal of human life. We can achieve it through our own efforts. Most schools of
psychotherapy denounce religion and religious practices as irrational and superstitious.318
In my survey some of these points were strongly reflected, too.319

Some believe that in the present situation there is an imbalance between psychology and
pastoral theology in the field of pastoral psychology. They believe psychology has
dominated the scene and that we should have the courage to bridle psychology and to
disengage it from theology. The boundaries have to be strictly respected. A healthy
development sometimes requires that the two subjects are not too dependent on each other.
Le Ron Schults says, “We cannot hold it all together. We cannot let it fall apart. This

314
Cf. KUGELMANN, Psychology and Catholicism, pp. 193-195.
315
Cf. NELSON, Psychology, Religion and Spirituality, p. 486.
316
Albert OUTLER, Psychotherapy and the Christian message, New York: Harper & Brothers, 1954, p. 254.
317
Cf. NELSON, p. 486.
318
Cf. Ibid., p. 486.
319
The result of the survey is added at the end of this work. It brings out in detail some of the inherent
dangers of incorporating psychology into pastoral ministry.
80
tension is part of human life. Too often our efforts at integration are driven by an
inordinate desire to hold onto old psychological and political patterns that have held us
together - or by an inordinate fear of their disintegration.”320

Many believe that if pastoral psychology - counselling, in particular - is to be successful, it

has to get rid of the extreme views of individualism, narcissistic hedonism, and
reductionism which have been highlighted by positive psychology and have proved
detrimental to social structures. There is a need to move to a Christian psychology and
spiritual direction within mental health and religious circles. In James M. Nelson’s own
words, “If psychology was to be of help to the pastoral counsellor, its practical wisdom
must be separated from a naturalistic worldview.”321

Will the psychologists do that? Is it not the duty of the pastoral workers to do so? Should
they not be more selective and eclectic in their approach? Other theologians like Don
Browning, a professor at the University of Chicago, and Terry Cooper have criticized the
pragmatic pastoral counselling approach of Clinebell which they believe endanger
Christian theology. They are open to psychology in pastoral care but at the same time want
pastoral care to be modelled after classical authors like Gregory the Great and Luther.
These authors are responsible for initiating a movement towards a Christian Psychology.
They also emphasize the need of spiritual direction within mental health and religious
circles.322

1.5.1 Spiritual and Religious Issues in Counselling and Psychotherapy

Frequently clients do not separate moral or religious issues from psychological ones. But
most therapists are careful not to be affected by spirituality in their interaction with their
clients. Religious issues can thus become a source of conflict or alliance between the
therapist and the client.

When the therapist and the client belong to two different cultures, the former needs to have
a strong multi-cultural sensitivity. Cultural differences can give rise to cultural conflict. In
many countries like India, religion is for most people a key aspect of life. In such cases,
religion can help in exploring and giving valuable information about the client. Religion is

320
Le Ron SHULTS, Disintegrating Psychology and Theology, in Journal of Psychology & Theology, Vol.
40.1 (21-25), 2012, p. 25.
321
NELSON, Psychology, Religion and Spirituality, p. 487.
322
Cf. Ibid., p. 486.
81
potentially a helpful resource, and can affect the outcome of therapy (positively or
negatively). In the case of many, religion encourages positive life-styles, and gives them
hope and support. Some clients even request religious practices or exercises to be included
in the therapy, and many want to discuss religious issues in the therapy. In some cases
religious issues can be central to the problem faced by the person.323

1.5.2 Counselling and Therapy with Religious Clients

While dealing with people who are strongly religious, spiritual and religious issues are
very important. Religious clients, especially women, prefer to have religious counsellors
who share their views. Moreover, they also like religious intervention in counselling.
Whether it is crucial to the outcome is still not clear.324

Sometimes religiosity is seen as lower levels of mental illness by psychologists, rationalists

and atheists. Daniel Dennett, a modern philosopher and cognitive scientist, compares
religion to ‘the common cold without’ which man could live better.325 But this is not the
opinion of the majority. There are many who think that it is important to take the religious
and spiritual dimension of the client seriously. Nelson is of the opinion that a total neglect
of religion in the process of counselling, when the counselee wants it, is neglect on the side
of the counsellor: “This suggests the possibility that a two-tiered approach to spiritual and
religious issues in counselling may be necessary, with an accommodative approach
available for highly religious individuals. An unwillingness to discuss religious and ethical
concerns with this group could be a kind of negligence.”326

In cases in which the counselee desires to have religious and spiritual inputs, care should
be taken to direct the counselee to a pastoral counsellor or to a spiritual guide. In the
context of India, a priest or a pastoral counsellor is the first person a Christian or Catholic
turns to when he has a problem.

Nelson also advocates a more active use of religious exercises and activities, if needed.
When the client desires and consents, such interventions like reading of the scriptures,
prayers, meditation, confession, worship, use of religious imagery, etc., they could be used
according to the discretion of the counsellor. But one should keep in mind that explicit
323
Cf. RICHARDS / BERGIN, A Spiritual Strategy for Counseling and Psychotherapy, pp. 5-8.
324
Cf. NELSON, Psychology, Religion and Spirituality, p. 494.
325
BBC Interview with Daniel DENNET on 28.3.2013. http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-radio-and-tv-
21947207 (22.01.2016).
326
NELSON, Psychology, Religion and Spirituality, p. 494.
82
religious strategies should be used only with extreme prudence and to a minimum because
of the ethical issues involved. Some believe that Jungian therapy provides the possibility
for working with people who are spiritual but not religious because it involves or deals
with many spiritual issues. Nelson believes that cognitive behavioural therapy is also
congruent with a religious approach because it stresses the importance of belief and is
practice-oriented.327

1.5.3 Extreme Views to be Avoided

One of the major problems regarding the dialogue between theology and psychology is the
extreme view held by both sciences. Psychology sometimes promotes extremely
individualistic and narcissistic views at the expense of the society. Religion, on the other
hand, sometimes totally neglects individual and his legitimate needs in preference to the
society and its needs. Psychology has also often been criticised for over-emphasising the
identity of the person at the expense of relationality. A balanced approach is needed:
“Religious traditions offer great resources for the solution of many modern problems, and
psychology can offer assistance in this endeavour. The human person is both an individual
person and a relational being. Thus we need to avoid the extremes of an individualism that
ignores the necessity of social relationships and a collectivism that ignores the uniqueness
of the individual.”328 This is a generally accepted position in dialogue.

Science and religion can benefit from the ideas and methods of post-modernism provided
they avoid extremes. The importance of the individual and community will have to be
explored by religion and psychology.329

1.5.4 Is Christian Religious Psychotherapy Possible?

Some psychotherapists, who are deeply Christian, have in recent decades searched for the
possibility of a form of psychotherapy that is deeply Christian-rooted. Is it possible to have
a specifically Christian and religious psychotherapy? Most secular approaches trivialize the
problem of human brokenness. The reality of sin is one that has been neglected by almost
all psychologists. This is neglecting one aspect of human existence. The exclusive and
narcissistic approach does not lead a person to God or his fellow humans. Therefore, there

327
Cf. NELSON, Psychology, Religion and Spirituality, p. 498.
328
Ibid., p. 511.
329
Cf. Ibid.
83
is a need to combine psychology with Christian religion. Efforts have been made to create
a Christian psychology. One of them worth mentioning is the Society of Christian
Psychology in the US which publishes the journal Christian Psychology.330

Theistic therapists have made more or less successful attempts in this direction. Theistic
therapy sessions are based on positive values, and God is seen as an available resource for
healing, growth and progress. If needed and desired by the client, they use explicit spiritual
techniques such as prayer, theological discussions and forgiveness. Consultation with
religious leaders is also considered healthy and appropriate.331

In order to function effectively, the therapist should also be prudent enough to take into
account the situation of each individual client and the cultural traditions. It is difficult to
generalise as to what is effective for all people and all cultural groups. Richards & Bergin
advocate familiarising oneself with the local values and traditions: “There may be some
therapeutic religious practices that are unique to individual religious traditions. We hope
that therapists who have an expertise in specific traditions will identify and apply in
therapy those religious and spiritual practices that have the greatest therapeutic value for
clients from those traditions.”332

1.5.5 Limitations of Psychology

All counselling theories are centred on their own philosophical presuppositions which lie at
the root of their thinking and acting. Each theory has its own philosophical presuppositions
regarding the nature of the human person and the meaning of life. The nature of
behavioural change is shaped, controlled and determined by this worldview. It is also true
of every human being. Every human being is influenced by his own worldview and
presuppositions. In the same way, each psychologist takes a view that suits his worldview
and philosophy.333

Psychology has its own limitations in matters concerning the deeper aspects of life such as
the goal, purpose and meaning of life. Matters like values or morals cannot be sufficiently
dealt with by psychology. The study of human nature and behaviour need not necessarily

330
This society is an association of Christian psychologists and psychotherapists. Its journal called Christian
Psychology (formerly Edification) focuses on psychological and philosophical issues from a Christian
standpoint. www.christianpsych.org
331
Cf. RICHARDS / BERGIN, A Spiritual Strategy for Counseling and Psychotherapy, pp. 251-279.
332
Ibid., p. 279.
333
Cf. KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, pp. 22-23.
84
give it a positive meaning. Many prominent psychologists have had a negative approach to
life and negated the spiritual dimension of human life. That, however, does not mean that
their methods were wrong or that the Christians should abstain from using their methods
and discard their findings.334

1.6 Context of India and the Need for a Specific Pastoral Counselling
Approach for India

The Indian pastoral context is unlike any other in the world. The religious, social and
cultural situation of India is totally different from that of Western or African countries.

In the context of India, a priest is often the first person a believer approaches when he has a
personal problem or one in the family. He goes especially to those priests who, they
believe, have a special charisma or, at least, are willing to listen to them patiently. Often
the faithful who have problems are recommended to the parish priest for dialogue and
counselling by their friends and relatives. People open themselves up to a priest with faith
and trust because they think he is trustworthy and a person of God. In reality, he plays the
role that a counsellor or psychotherapist plays in the western world.

Indian society suffers from many mental health problems such as depression, suicide
tendency, subject abuse etc, although this prevalence is often neglected by society.335
There is a desperate need for counselling in in India. Indian psychologists have felt this
need in the recent times more urgently:

With the world around changing so fast, families in India are caught up
amongst many developments for which they were not prepared. The
difference in the pace of life, in values and in the capacity to adapt differs
between the parents and their children but it remained unattended. As a
result there is a great need for some kind of interventional help. Especially
now, with growing epidemics of physical and mental illnesses, there is much
more need for this. Even the government is looking out for models of

334
Cf. KIRWAN, Biblical Concepts for Christian Counseling, pp. 63-64.
335
For details refer to some of the studies done by National Institute of Mental Health and Neuro-Sciences
(NIMHANS), Bengaluru. For example, Meghana SINGHAL / M. MANJULA / K. John VIJAY SAGAR,
Development of a school-based program for adolescents at risk for depression in India: Results from a pilot
study, in Asian Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 10 (2014), pp. 56-61. See also, Jocelyn LIM CHUA, Tales of
Decline: Reading Social Pathology into Individual Suicide in South India, in Culture, Medicine and
Psychiatry (2012) 36, pp. 204-224. (This article refers specifically to the high suicide rate in Kerala, the
nation’s so-called suicide capital.
85
 intervention and the counsellors need to wake up and equip themselves if
they want to impact the country in a very significant way. 336

People have a negative attitude towards mental illness. Moreover, many think it is
scandalous and shameful to be mentally sick, and as a result most people tend to deny and
hide it from the public. They are afraid of the social stigma that is associated with mental
illness and personality disorders. People in the rural areas are the worst affected.337

There is an acute shortage of mental health personnel in India. As a result, very few people
seek professional help. This scenario is exploited by many untrained counsellors,
visionaries, charismatic preachers and lay counsellors. Some studies have come to the
conclusion that stress and isolation are the major causes of suicide in India.338 In such a
situation, with some training, a priest can play a constructive role. It is not any
extraordinary skills that the priest requires nor do people expect high levels of
professionalism from him. However, they expect to receive certain relief and consolation
when they have a dialogue with a priest. They expect to be listened to and understood.
They look up to a priest as someone with whom they can share everything in confidence.

Surprisingly, in many parishes and retreat centres (especially in Kerala) there are people
who claim to be counsellors without any training or background knowledge of counselling
and still having enough clients! The role of a priest in this regard is enormous. The field of
pastoral counselling has not been sufficiently attended to by the Church in India. As a
result there are many pseudo-counsellors going around, who claim to have visions and
revelations, doing much harm to ordinary naive people. I do not intend to judge them, but
one tends to ask oneself: how many of them are genuine and how many bogus?

Pastoral psychology offers a ray of great hope in this field. Pastoral psychology, pastoral
counselling to be specific, offers basic training in counselling skills and equips one to
encounter and bring healing to people. As Heribert Wahl remarked, pastoral psychology
becomes an integral dimension of pastoral theology and pastoral ministry in the above-
mentioned context.

336
Radhika SOUNDARARAJAN / Aruna BALACHANDRA. Urgent need for indigenous models of
counselling in Counselling: Theory Research and Practice, Nov Rattan SHARMA / Ashok K KALIA /
Akbar HUSAIN (Eds.), New Delhi: Global Vison, 2008, (205 – 211), here p. 209. See also (in the same
book) Mala SHARMA / Surila AGARWAL, Need for Counselling, pp. 23-35.
337
Cf. Archana VERMA / Alok KUMAR, Neurocysticercosis Presenting as Acute Psychosis: A Rare Case
Report from Rural India, in Asian Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 6, (2013), pp. 611-613.
338
Cf. S. D. Manoranjitham / A. P. Rajkumar / K..S Jacob, et al, Risk factors for suicide in rural south India,
in The British Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 196, (2010), pp. 26-30.
86
In India, too, pastoral psychology is in its infancy. People in India today are experiencing
more brokenness in their lives than ever before. Due to the uncontrollable rate of
modernisation, industrialisation and economic development, the traditional values and the
slow and quiet life-style that an average Indian had, are giving way to a fast-paced, wealth-
and comfort-oriented - and as a result a more stressful - lifestyle. This trend is reflected in
the Church, too. The youth and the families are the most affected. The Church has a
responsibility to help her flock. Unfortunately, there are few institutes that give training in
this field. Many are running after relaxation techniques, yoga, meditation and such
‘spiritual methods’ offered by gospel preachers, ‘Christian healers,’ sanyasis, avataras
(incarnation of God), godmen, god-women and gurus, many of whom are bent on
exploiting the innocence of the simple, uneducated and gullible people.339

Concluding Thoughts

In this introductory part of this dissertation, we have seen that the ministry to suffering
humanity - in whatever form - comforting human beings, standing by them in their
sufferings and trying to alleviate them, was an integral part of the ministry of the Church.
The ministers of the Church have always had recourse to the best available knowledge and
methods of the time for this ministry. The confessional was one of the most important
‘places of therapy’ for centuries. Until the modern times, the Church was the most
important intellectual and cultural centre, and this advantage was put to good use of this
ministry. With the advance of natural sciences and social sciences, new means and
techniques of helping human beings and solving their problems emerged. The development
of psychology as an established science contributed in large measure to it. After a long
period of resistance the Church finally opened herself to psychology.

Psychological insights do not entirely belong to modern psychology, as their practitioners

today tend to claim. One finds numerous psychological insights in works of Christian
literature, be it in the Confessions of St Augustine, or the Retreat of St Ignatius, or in the
works of St Francis de Sales.340 Therefore, there is a need to extract these elements in a
systematic and scientific manner for the pastoral ministry of the Church.

339
Many Hindus believe many of the so-called godmen, for example Satya Sai Baba, are real incarnations of
God. In Hindu tradition, incarnation is said to take place from time to time.
340
Cf. BAUMGARTNER / FÜRST, Leben Retten. Was Seelsorge zukunftsfähig macht, p. 131.
87
My attempt in this dissertation is to focus on the method of St Francis de Sales and to
compare it with the Rogerian method of counselling. When, however, we apply
psychology in our ministry we should not forget that psychology has its own limitations
and shortcomings and that the purpose and meaning of human existence can never be fully
explained at the purely theoretical or empirical level of psychology. Vital questions of
human existence lie beyond psychology where only theology can provide answers.341 In
applying psychological insights and methods, one must be careful not to blindly copy
western practices of counselling and psychotherapy in the context of India. The
counselling and psychotherapy methods currently used in the West are the typical features
of and results of the social developments and modernisation in the West342 which is not
always the case with the Indian social realities.

Tracing the history of pastoral psychology and pastoral counselling makes it clear that the
application of psychological insights was in use in the ministry of the Church from the
beginning. It is nothing new, as some think. The focus of the Church, however, was on the
diaconal and healing dimension of this ministry rather than on its professional dimension.
In the present time, to be effective, it requires this professional dimension, too. At the same
time, the spiritual dimension of this ministry should not be lost sight of. Training to be
personally suitable and the development of necessary qualities are called for.

One can never underestimate the importance of empathy, unconditional positive regard and
genuineness in a human relationship. This has been highlighted by the person-centred
approach (PCA). These ‘relationship attitudes’ play a vital role in the dealings of a pastor
or priest with his people. Most of these qualities can be learnt by training and improved by
practice. The teachings of the Church encourage priests – and everyone in ministry - to
strive for that goal.

341
Cf. DIETRICH, Handbuch. Psychologie und Seelsorge, p.30.
342
Cf. LADENHAUF, Praktische Theologie und Humanwissenschaften, pp. 280-281.
88
 CHAPTER 2

Francis de Sales: A Pastor after the Heart of Jesus

Introduction

Francis de Sales is known in the Church as a saint, spiritual director, writer, mystic, Doctor
of the Church, and as a model of pastors. He remains one of the most-read spiritual authors
to date. He is also one of the best-known spiritual directors in the history of the Catholic
Church, acknowledged even by Popes as the ‘wisest guide of souls.’1

His spiritual direction has to be understood in the total context of his life and pastoral
ministry. Francis de Sales had a pastoral heart after the heart of Jesus. As priest, bishop and
spiritual guide, he became all to all. What is less known in the Church, however, is his
missionary spirit. Francis de Sales was also an effective missionary. His missionary spirit
inspires the Church even today.

This chapter has two major divisions. The first part deals with the times of Francis de
Sales, his family, background, education and what influence they had on him. While
dealing with the approach and method of spiritual direction which Francis de Sales
followed, it is important to see it in the whole perspective of his times and his pastoral
ministry. Knowing what influences shaped his life and thinking and what kind of a pastor
he was helps one to get a better idea of this great pastor and his pastoral spirit. No man can
be fully understood apart from his background and the influences that shaped his life.
Therefore, effort has been made to look into the background that shaped his life from
childhood to his later life. This part also discusses topics like his education, spiritual and
psychological growth, and his vocation to the priesthood.

The second part deals mainly with his pastoral spirit. His pastoral guidance and spiritual
direction cannot be seen outside of his whole pastoral ministry. In fact, it was an integral
part of his pastoral ministry as priest and bishop. It should be taken into account that
Francis de Sales was a product of his time; and, as such, he was influenced by the times

1
Cf. Pope Pius IX, Dives in Misericordia Deus, Apostolic Letter to the Universal Church proclaiming St
Francis de Sales a Doctor of the Church, 16 Nov 1877, translated by Daniel G. GAMBET. Here the Pope
also refers to his predecessors Popes Clement IX and Benedict XIV and to what they said on St Francis de
Sales. Available online at the home page of the Salesian Center for Faith and Culture, managed by the
Oblates of St Francis de Sales: http://web1.desales.edu/assets/salesian/PDF/PiusIX-Dives.pdf. (7.1.2016).
This home page functions as an online resource library for Salesian spirituality and contains many works of
Francis de Sales, translations and numerous articles on Salesian spirituality: www.web1.desales.edu.
89
and, in turn, he also influenced his times and the ages to come. His knowledge, his
thinking and his approach were far ahead of his time.

PART I

2.1 Life and Times of Francis de Sales

Francis de Sales was born and lived in a turbulent time – politically, economically and
religiously. Politically, Savoy was an independent dukedom, but often occupied by France.
The Savoyards were proud of their independent identity and expressed it publicly. This can
also be seen often in the writings of Francis de Sales. There was political turmoil all over
Europe on the lines of religious affiliation. The Savoyards remained firm Catholics.

E. J. Lajeunie gives us one of the best and the most authoritative biographies of Francis de
Sales. He treats his life basically in three parts: the formation of the saint, his priestly and
missionary activity, and his apostolate as bishop. Lajeunie states at the outset that his
biography is the result of meticulous research. It is mostly based on dispositions at the
remissorial proceedings for his canonisation and other reliable sources. 2 I see his life from
the point of view of practical theology, spirituality and psychology, these being my main
concerns in this dissertation.

2.1.1 Early Life and Influences

Psychologists and sociologists argue that a human person is partly a product of his genetic
endowment and partly of his environment. It is partially true in the case of Francis de
Sales. The young Francis was formed by his family and its environment.

The father of Francis de Sales, Monsieur Boisy (François de Boisy) and his brother Louis
de Sales lived together in their castle. Francis was born on 21 August 1567. He was the

2
Cf. E. J. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales. The Man, the Thinker, His Influence. Translated by Rory O’
SULLIVAN, Vol.1, Bangalore: SFS Publications, 1986, in Foreword, pp. XII-XIV. This is considered to be
the most authoritative and reliable biography of St Francis de Sales. It consists of two volumes. Hereafter
referred to as Lajeunie. For the biography part of Francis de Sales, I depend mostly on E. J. Lajeunie. In
tracing the life and spirit of this saint, I have relied basically on Lajeuine. References have been made to
various other biographers, too. They include Andre Ravier, (English and German versions), Antony
Mookenthottam, Dirk Koster, Michael Müller, and a few others.

90
first of thirteen children.3 Many of the siblings did not survive. His mother was only
sixteen at the time of his birth.4 She was a devout woman and even before his birth she had
consecrated her first-born to the Lord in the presence of the Holy Shroud of Turin. Francis
de Sales also had a special devotion to the Shroud of Turin.5 His mother wanted to bring
him up in faith and good Catholic traditions. As he was born premature, in the seventh
month of pregnancy, he was a delicate baby at birth. Perhaps it was because of his delicate
health, he was baptised immediately after birth on 28 August in the parish of Thorens. His
delicate health was a concern for the whole family.

At the time of the birth of Francis de Sales, the family enjoyed high reputation and nobility
in the Savoyard society. The family was called the ‘Lords of Sales’ because they had
certain administrative and political jurisdiction over the district of Thorens. The Sales were
the immediate vassals of Lord Campey. The family had risen to higher nobility due to their
own efforts, hard work and diligence, especially of his father Monsieur de Boisy.6

2.1.1.1 Political and Religious Situation

As mentioned earlier, it was indeed a time of political and religious turmoil. It was the time
of the Protestant Reformation which was spreading in France, Savoy, and all over Europe.
Francis I, King of France, and Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, were locked in a bitter
rivalry. Francis de Sales had to constantly experience this reality of rivalry between the
king and the emperor. Europe, and the whole world, to some extent, was being re-shaped
on the lines of religious affiliation. Charles III, brother-in-law of the emperor, was the
Duke of Savoy, and the king of France was afraid that he would ally with the emperor, and
out of this fear he occupied parts of Savoy and blocked the Alpine passages. Only small
parts of the independent dukedom were left with the duke under his control. On these
accounts, the relationship between the duke and the king was unfriendly. Francis I, father
of Francis,7 was sent by Viscount de Martigues8 to fight as a sergeant alongside the troops

3
Cf. Anne HOFFMANN, Mit der Kraft des Lächelns: Aus dem Leben von Franz von Sales, München: Don
Bosco Medien GmbH, 2006, p. 8.
4
Regarding the age of Frances de Sionnaz at the birth of Francis de Sales, there is some lack of clarity among
the authors. Lajeunie believes she was only fourteen when Francis was born (See E. J. LAJEUNIE, Saint
Francis de Sales Vol. 1, p. 14). But Andre RAVIER believes the marriage took place in 1566 when Francis’
mother was fourteen. (See Andre RAVIER, Francis De Sales: Sage & Saint, tr. by Joseph D. BOWLER, San
Francisco: Ignatius Press, 1988, pp. 15-16). What seems to be true is that she was a very young woman at the
time of Francis’ birth. It was not unusual in those times for such young women to get married and to have
children.
5
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 15.
6
Cf. Ibid., pp. 4-5.
7
Both the father and the son were called Francis, not a totally uncommon practice in those days.
91
of Francis I, King of France. He had even established contact with the court of the King.
As part of the nobility, he was highly respected and held in esteem. When Emperor Charles
V invaded France in 1543, he fought for France against the emperor. He was considered a
fine horseman and a nobleman in every sense. In 1546, when peace returned to France
after the Treaty of Andres, Francis’ father returned to Savoy. He wanted that his son also
follow his footsteps and reach even higher positions in political circles.9

His stay and work in France had influenced Monsieur Boisy; however, he always kept his
identity as a French-speaking Savoyard.10 Although the Savoyards were French-speaking,
they were not French nationals in those days. They zealously kept their separate identity as
Savoyards. The new duke, Emmanuel Philbert, beat the French in 1557 and won back
many districts of Savoy which were lost to France earlier. In 1559, through a treaty, he
established peace with France. After his return to Savoy, Monsieur Boisy remained in the
service of Viscount de Luxemburg – the Martigues. He became the administrator of the
whole estate. He was also a negotiator for the Duke of Savoy.11

2.1.1.2 Childhood in a Healthy Family

His father was a strict but kind and generous person. The de Sales family used to give daily
alms to the poor. The children of noble families in those times were brought up in strict
conditions. The young Francis was not spared lashes or other methods of punishment
common in those days. The motherly tenderness and the fatherly strictness helped in the
formation of Francis.12 He learnt his kindness from his parents, especially his mother. He
had a heart for the poor from his childhood, and this noble quality remained with him till
the end of his life. He learnt in his early years in the family a love for human beings and a
strong sense of justice.13 Lajeunie says, “From childhood he was determined never to
exploit the weaker; this universal love for people will be one more facet added to his
reputation as a saint; his parents were the original influence.”14

8
Francis worked sometime as procurator and deputy to the Viscount de Martigues. Martigues is in southern
France. A viscount had certain administrative and judicial powers. This work brought Francis to France,
although he was a Savoyard.
9
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, pp. 7-8.
10
Cf. Ibid., p. 8.
11
Cf. Ibid., p. 9.
12
Cf. Andre RAVIER, Francis de Sales: Sage & Saint, tr. by Joseph D. BOWLER, San Francisco: Ignatius
Press, 1988, pp. 17-19.
13
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, pp. 19-22.
14
Ibid., p. 23.
92
The respect and love for human beings that he learnt at home had a profound influence on
Francis. He learnt a humanism which sees all human beings positively, respects them,
treats them kindly and helps them concretely in their needs. His humanism was not a
purely idealistic trait. This idea of humanism was to hold sway over his whole life. Francis
de Sales was from childhood a very thoughtful person; he was noticed for being calm and
attentive. He seemed to have had a precocious awakening of his interior life. This habit of
reflecting helped him to have a personal approach to God and religion.15

2.1.1.3 His Mother and Her Influence

Of all the persons who influenced his life, his mother was the most important. He received
his first Christian formation from her. She was also his first ‘formator’ in spiritual matters.
Francis, in turn, had a tender love for his mother. His first phrase is believed to be, “God
and my mother love me so much.”16 Madam de Boisy was much attached to Holy Mass
and went to attend it often and received Communion regularly - something which Francis
de Sales also cherished throughout his life. He also had an intense devotion to the Holy
Eucharist, which he said is the ‘sun of all spiritual exercises.’17 She taught her first-born all
the basic prayers even before he started attending school. She was inclined to over-protect
him. She tried to keep him away from impertinent servants, bad company and violent
activities and games. Monsieur de Boisy, his father, was at times annoyed at the
exaggerated piety of his mother. He believed too much of ‘feminine piety’ would not help
his son to be a man of the world.

Madam de Boisy was a person who tried to integrate faith and life. Saint Jane de Chantal,
the spiritual daughter and friend of Francis de Sales, said of her:

She was one of the most estimable women of her time known to me; her soul
was noble and generous, pure, innocent, and simple. She was the true mother
and tender guardian of the poor; modest, humble, and kindly to all, calm and
gentle in her household; ruling her family wisely, and taking care to bring
them up in the fear of God; frequently approaching the divine sacraments of
holy confession and Communion; and, out of the devotion and reverence
which she bore to her blessed son, she became his spiritual daughter.18

15
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 20.
16
Ibid., p. 23.
17
Francis de SALES, Introduction to the Devout Life, tr. & ed. by Antony MOOKENTHOTTAM, Armind
NAZARETH & Antony KOLENCHERRY, (4th ed.), Bangalore: SFS Publications, 2005, Part II, Chapter 14,
p. 112 (Hereafter abbreviated as IDL in this work. When page numbers from IDL are cited, it is from this
edition).
18
Jane de CHANTAL, The Depositions of Jane de Chantal in the Cause of the Canonisation of St Francis de
Sales, (published as part of the Library of St Francis de Sales, this volume contains two parts. Part I - The
93
She was in many respects a model for Francis. Inspired by the holy example of his mother
and through the influence of his own interior life from early on, Francis’ vocation to the
priesthood was taking shape. He wanted to give himself to the service of God. He even
wanted to receive tonsure but that was denied to him by his father, because in line with the
customs and prevalent tradition, the eldest son was seen as the heir apparent to the family
estate and the successor of the father.19

2.1.2 Secular Education

When he was six years old, along with his three cousins - Amed, Louis, Gaspard de Sales -
he was sent to school at La Roche. They stayed in the house of the school master,
Monsieur Domax, and under the direction of Pierre Batailleur, a learned man from Annecy.
There were other friends and relatives at the school. He had a thirst for learning. While
other children played, he was more interested in reading. From 1573 to 1575 they
completed their primary schooling. In the school he was seen as a charming, docile and
affable boy.

2.1.2.1 Annecy College

After the primary school, he and his cousins were sent to the Annecy High School, and
later to Annecy College.20 Although M. de Boisy wanted to send his son to Paris for further
education, the Duke of Savoy had forbidden anyone to study outside his dukedom because
of the “venom of heresy” that was spreading in France.21 So anyone who wanted to study
outside the dukedom had to obtain an exemption.22 The Annecy College was run by the
Dominicans and their influence in the college was strong. His teachers found Francis as a
young boy, ‘impelled by a great desire to learn,’ meticulous and hard working.23

As it was customary in those times, he learnt grammar, French and Latin, which were part
of the normal school curriculum. Here Francis came into contact with the splendour of
well-chosen words and learnt to use the language efficiently. He honed his skills further to

Mystical Explanation of the Canticle of Canticles by St Francis de Sales, and Part II – The Depositions).
London: Burns & Oates Limited, 1098, p.56. Hereafter known as Depositions.
19
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 40.
20
One should note that the system of schooling in those days was totally different from what it is today.
Although we use terms like Primary School, High School and College to refer to the school system, they are
to be understood differently. We are not to compare them with the present system of schooling or university.
21
We have already seen that in spite of the spread of Protestantism in neighbouring France and Switzerland,
Savoy remained staunchly Catholic.
22
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 26.
23
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Ibid., p. 28.
94
use refined French, which he had learned from his early childhood in the school. French
had been adopted as the language for official documents. It was also used for preaching in
the church, although Latin was the language of liturgical services. Francis knew the
importance of the language and he was keen to learn it well. It became extremely useful for
Francis later on in his preaching and writing.

During his stay in Annecy, he established his first contacts with humanism and humanists
in Savoy. French Humanism was spreading across France, and Savoy was not spared of its
influence. Many of the prominent figures of the Savoy circle of humanism were either
related to or friends of the Sales family. The de Sales family was also part of it. French
Renaissance as well as French humanism was alive in the de Sales family, too. Francis’
father, Monsieur de Boisy was also aware to what extent secularism could be embraced.
He was firmly rooted in his faith. It has been said that the Calvinists wanted to win him
over. But his proverbial response was to ask how he could belong to a religion younger
than himself by twelve years.24

Francis, although taken up with humanism, was at the same time aware of the danger
inherent in it. He realized from a young age that humanism also had the power to lead one
in the wrong direction. The allurement of worldly humanism had its dangers. He knew how
it could lead to indifferentism and pose danger to his faith. This risk was prevalent and
people were already puffed up with pride about their little knowledge of humanism.25 He
was convinced that the spirit of secular humanism had to be tempered by faith and virtues.
Human beings are not perfect, and no humanism can negate the reality of sin and human
weakness. That would be illusory. Francis was well aware of the evil and imperfection
present in himself and in all human beings. Later on, in Paris he would come closer to this
frightening reality. He had his own weaknesses to fight, such as quick temper, his tendency
to have scruples and the many imperfections that the environment exposed him to.
Lajeunie says:

Francis certainly had no illusions. He knew his outbursts, his ‘fiery’

temperament, and was discovering the weakness and emptiness which lies in
the depths of the human heart. He also had to endure the fatigue which
makes us abandon ‘the race half-way there.’ And he says that he fell into
‘unavoidable sins and imperfections that company’ brings us. He would say
to himself: you are inclined to evil; the company of evil people will lead you

24
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 34.
25
Cf. Ibid., pp. 30- 35.
95
 astray. In the long run what will the empty knowledge of this world bring
you? ...26

How these fears would become painfully true during his studies in Paris! He also
understood that something so pure as love could also have inherent dangers in it: “Quite
early in life Francis experienced the ambiguity of love. When he was only eleven, he said
to himself, ‘Francis, you are inclined towards evil; evil company will be your ruin.’
Confronted with the allurement of worldly humanism, he had taken a defensive position.”27
Francis completed his studies in Annecy in 1578 and was ready to enter university now.

The early life of Francis de Sales highlights some points for consideration:
 the importance of family and a good upbringing;
 Francis’ approach to integration;
 careful but open approach to secular values and their inculcation into the Church; and
 how discernment and prudence are absolutely needed.
Consideration of his childhood reveals the importance of family in the life of a person.
Psychologists are of the view that healthy childhood and good upbringing are important for
the growth of a person.28 In the Catholic tradition, family is the first school where the child
is educated in faith and morals and where he/she learns to love God and the other.29
Francis received a good education in his childhood which laid a solid foundation for his
life and future, helping him to finish his studies with a double doctorate.

Francis tried from his childhood to integrate his learning into his life. He was impressed by
humanism, but did not want to take it as it is. On the other hand, he tried to integrate it with
faith and tradition. Even as a young man, Francis was aware of the dangers of extremism –
extreme humanism which drives man far from God, extreme spirituality which drives man
from God and fellow human beings and which seeks refuge in rituals and flight from the
world, extreme activism which drives one away from God and spiritual roots to work,
success and achievement at any cost. His approach was one of integration. He was strongly
against blindly accepting worldly values even though it sometimes appealed to the
emotions and the intellect.

26
LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 41.
27
Ibid., p. 32.
28
Cf. Joseph GOLDSTEIN / Anna FREUD / Albert J. SOLNIT, Beyond the Best Interests of the Child, New
York: The Free Press, 1979, pp. 3-27.
29
Cf. Catechism of the Catholic Church (CCC), Nos. 2201-2213, especially 2201-2206.
96
Francis knew that it is God who shapes each individual. To be open to God’s grace
working in every person is the most important element in spiritual growth. That is what
made Francis de Sales a great saint.

2.1.2.2 Studies in Paris

On his return from Annecy, his father wanted to send him to the College of Navarre in
Paris. It was the college where the nobility and the princes studied. From a religious point
of view, however, it was not an ideal place for Francis. He preferred to study at the College
of Clermont, a college run by the Jesuits, known for discipline, humanism and religious
spirit. He had to resort to his mother once again to present his wish to the father and the
latter yielded to his wishes.30

In September 1578, he came along with his cousins to Paris for higher studies. A diocesan
priest, Fr Deage, accompanied them. He was to stay with them, help them and act as a
guardian and private tutor to them. He was also a kind of spiritual director to them. Fr
Deage was a demanding taskmaster. He was difficult to deal with but at the same time
whole-hearted and loyal. He wanted the best for his students.31 Some biographers mention
that in addition to caring for the boys, Fr Deage was to pursue his doctoral studies in
Theology at the University of Sorbonne in Paris.32

On the way to Paris, they saw all along desecrated churches, ransacked pilgrimage centres,
statues and relics pulled down. The ravages of war and the aftermath of it on the Catholic
Church were clearly visible. Francis was deeply affected by the sight of this vandalism.

Francis’ study as well as stay in Paris was to have a great impact on his life –
academically, intellectually and, above all, spiritually. Now he was out of the protective
environment of his family and his homeland Savoy. He was in a big city full of attractions,
intellectual and sensual offers and at the same time of big churches, monasteries and
ecclesiastical institutions. It was altogether a new experience for Francis.

30
Cf. Antony MOOKENTHOTTAM, Saint Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, (2nd ed.), Bangalore:
SFS Publications, 2003, p. 33.
31
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, pp. 42-43.
32
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, Saint Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, p. 33.
97
It was a time of tension between the ‘Catholic League’ under the leadership of Spain and
the Protestants - the Huguenots and Malcontents - in France. King Henry33 exercised
certain control over all the educational institutions in the country, even on those that were
privately owned and managed. The king wanted only French citizens to be posted in all
educational institutions, although, in fact, there were very few from outside France.34

Clermont College, a well-known college in Paris, was run by the Jesuits. It was known for
its ‘silence, piety and discipline’. It was the bastion of ‘papism.’35 The College was
founded in 1560 and ever since had remained faithful to the Roman Catholic Church. The
Jesuits had always sided with the Roman Church. The king had his own apprehensions. He
was afraid that they were siding with the Catholic king of Spain and there was a pervasive
atmosphere of suspicion between the Catholic Church and the king. Sometimes, the
Catholics were seen as spies of the Spanish king.36

What was the attitude of Francis towards the animosities prevalent between the groups at
that time? How did he react? Francis strongly disliked this atmosphere of violence and
suspicion. Later on, in his ministry, too, he avoided violence, even when he was provoked
to the limits. He kept himself away from the frenzy of ‘the League’, too. He was a man of
moderation, a characteristic that would colour his whole life. He concentrated on what he
was to do, unaffected by the political turmoil of the time – to focus on his studies and
spiritual growth.

2.1.2.2.1 A Fervent Student in Paris

As already mentioned, the studies and his stay in Paris were to have a great impact on the
life of Francis de Sales. What did he actually study in Paris? In the first three years, i.e.,
1578 to 1581, he did courses on grammar which was followed by courses in humanity,
rhetoric and Greek. At the end of these studies, probably a Degree was conferred on him
which allowed him to study further. His life as a student was characterised by order,
methodical approach and depth.37

33
King Henry III ruled France from 1574 to 1589. Though he was a Catholic, he took a neutral stand on
religious matters. He was hunted by the Catholics and Protestants during the Wars of Religion and was
murdered by a fanatic Catholic in 1589.
34
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 47.
35
Cf. Ibid., p. 46.
36
Cf. Ibid., p. 47.
37
Cf. RAVIER, Francis de Sales: Sage & Saint, pp. 27-30.
98
The ancient languages of Greek and Latin and their literature were part of the curriculum
in those days. Rhetoric too was an important element of college education. Rhetoric
included finding arguments, exposing one’s views orally and in writing. In short, mastery
over language and its efficient application through oral and written forms was integral to
education at that time.38

From 1584 to January 1588 his studies probably included courses in philosophy,
mathematics, cosmology, natural history and a deeper study of ancient languages like
Latin, Greek and Hebrew.39 Francis would later admit that he learnt Latin well but his
knowledge of Greek was wanting. French was not much emphasized in the college. It was
only tolerated. The main purpose of learning French was for translation. Francis, however,
focused on French. He took up an intense study of French, his mother tongue and
vernacular language. Francis made himself familiar with French authors like Montaigne,
Claude de Seyssel, and poets like Du Peron, Desportes and Ronsard. He had realized the
importance of the vernacular language for Catholic apostolate.40 Later, Victor de Saint-
Genis would speak of Francis de Sales’ style: “He blends Amyot’s gravity, Montaigne’s
natural unexpected gifts, and Ronsard’s oddities with his own personal attractive
shrewdness.”41

The College had well-known teachers for philosophy. They included Jerome Dandini and
Francis Suarez. During these classes he learned to think critically and to evaluate. His
studies concluded with a higher degree equivalent to a Master’s degree today which would
enable him later in Padua to enrol for a Doctorate in Law.42

Francis’ education in Paris was not limited to intellectual pursuits alone. He also learned
skills required for the nobility. So Francis learned horse riding, fencing, dancing, etc. He
had to learn these skills out of obedience to his father who wanted his first-born to be a
full-fledged gentleman fit for the noble society. Apart from all these, he also learned
theology purely out of personal interest. He attended the theological classes at Sorbonne.43
He had always cherished a great desire for the priesthood. As there was a lot of academic
freedom regarding the choice of subjects, he chose subjects according to his liking and his

38
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, pp. 48-49.
39
Cf. Ibid., pp. 48-49.
40
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, pp. 52-53.
41
As quoted by LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 53.
42
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales : A Formative Biography, p. 34.
43
Cf. Dirk KOSTER, Francis de Sales, Noorden, (The Netherlands): Bert Post, 2000, p. 25.
99
future vision. During this period he also came into contact with Christian mystics like
Catherine of Siena.

2.1.2.2.2 Life in Paris at that Time

Dirk Koster, another important biographer of Francis de Sales, describes the situation in
Paris in those days: ‘Paris was the frivolous heart of fashion and gallantry.’44 Koster
narrates further, “The students can [sic] choose their own quarter and each college had its
own exclusive circle. The Italians drank their fiery wine, fought duels, and abducted girls.
The Germans got drunk on beer in their own bars. They all spoke their own language. The
common language was Latin, not French. Most students belonged to the aristocracy and
entered the college hall accompanied by their personal tutor, as a sign of nobility.”45

Francis kept himself away from all these worldly attractions and enticements. He was not
attracted to this kind of student life.46 There may not have been much time left for Francis
for other activities during his student life in Paris.

2.1.2.2.3 Encounter with Humanism

The atmosphere at Clermont College was characterised by an air of freedom. The Jesuits
were liberal in their approach. They allowed students to come into contact with the liberal
spirit of the time - with humanism and French Renaissance. This liberal spirit, however,
should not be taken for laxity or total absence of control. They were at the same time strict
and faithful to the Catholic faith and traditions.

In Paris, Francis got more opportunities to come in closer and deeper contact with
humanism. The Jesuits who ran the College were open to humanism and they made
immense efforts to Christianise the humanism of the Renaissance. Protagonists of this
movement included known Jesuit humanists like Jacques Simond and Bernadin Castori.
Humanism created its own problems for the Jesuits, too. It created a new concept of the
world and man. By promoting the ancient literary tradition, the Jesuits had indirectly
promoted humanism. In this situation, a deeper influence of humanism on Francis was
unavoidable.47

44
KOSTER, Francis de Sales, p. 24.
45
Cf. Ibid., p. 25.
46
Cf. Ibid.
47
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 54.
100
There was an apparent paradox. Perhaps it was with the intention of helping the students to
choose and to learn the best that the Jesuits at Clermont preferred the ancient authors to the
Fathers of the Church, because they believed that the former group was rhetorically and
linguistically superior to the latter. The Jesuits at the same time wanted to battle the
humanism that was incompatible with the Christian religion. It was indeed a difficult
challenge.48

In the opinion of the humanists, the ideal life was life according to nature. Life according
to nature often sounded like a life without grace. Such a philosophical approach was also
supported by Montaigne. The young people were split between the two worlds: the world
of the classroom - the classical world of literature, humanism, freedom, and that of the
chapel - sermons, catechism, pious exercises. Religious instructions were meagre and
superfluous. It created a dichotomy of values for the young people who were enjoying the
freedom of the college away from the controlled atmosphere of their families. It surely
affected many students. The young Francis also experienced this dichotomy and feeling of
being torn apart.49

2.1.2.2.4 Francis’ Attitude towards Humanism

In 1583, just before Lent, Francis experienced a crisis within himself, caused through
pagan humanism. Francis was, in the first place, highly critical of pagan humanism. He felt
that it was clouding his judgement. He tried to overcome it by intensifying his study of the
Fathers of the Church. He realized soon that he was more inclined to the humanism found
in the Scriptures and in the Fathers. His main effort was to try to integrate humanism and
theology. Therefore, he wanted to develop a humanism which was in line with the gospels.
He was already laying the foundation for his Christian humanism, which was to later
influence the field of spirituality and spiritual guidance in the Catholic Church.50 Although
he was familiar with classical authors like Aristotle, Plato, Cicero and others, he preferred
the Christian authors to them. Lajeunie says, “If Francis persisted in his studies of
humanities, it was not because he loved ‘the affected refinements of rhetoricians,’ but to
better express ‘truths transmitted by fishermen.’”51 Francis did not have any attachment to
any school of thought. He preferred a critical and eclectic approach to blind acceptance of
any philosophical school.

48
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, pp. 54-55.
49
Cf. Ibid., p. 56.
50
Cf. Ibid., p. 57.
51
Ibid., p. 59.
101
A person who had a strong influence on Francis was Jean Maldonat, a great humanist,
Latinist, theologian and exegete. He was one of his professors at Clermont. Maldonat
impressed Francis deeply because he could perfectly combine humanism and theology. His
integrated approach was well appreciated and it turned out to be for young Francis a
guiding light. He loved to take his approach.52 His ultimate goal was a Christian humanism
based on the gospels and the Fathers of the Church. In order to understand the Christian
position he delved deeper into Christian tradition. He engaged himself actively with St
Thomas Aquinas and Catherine of Siena. He was intent on developing a Christian
humanism.

2.1.2.2.5 Growth in Spiritual Life

Another important development which Francis experienced in Paris was growth in spiritual
life. In the midst of the world, surrounded by intellectualism, sensuality and all sorts of
corruption, he tried to be spiritually rooted. His personal devotion to the Blessed Virgin
became more intense. He became regular in his spiritual exercises - Communion, regular
confession, etc. Although, on the one side, he was confronted with secular humanism, on
the other, he tried to be more faithful to his spiritual life. Francis gradually built up a
disciplined spiritual life based on regular spiritual exercises. During his studies in Paris, he
was specially touched by the lectures on the Canticle of Canticles by Gilbert Genabrard.
He was indeed carried away by his new and creative interpretation of the Canticle of
Canticles.53

Francis was pious by nature. It was something he had inherited from his mother. It had
also its drawbacks. His piety at times touched the boundaries of scrupulosity. At that stage
it was a piety which was greatly oriented to sweetness and consolations. Lajeunie opines,
“This youthful piety was genuine, but it was a stylized piety. The devotion was authentic,
but it was a Baroque devotion, a devotion of extraordinary sweetness.”54 Such a piety
would soon be tested and rectified.

2.1.2.2.6 Crisis in Paris

Life has its own crises in every stage of growth. Soon in his life Francis was to experience
one of the major crises in his life. Biographers trace it back to many causes. The worldly
life of the students in Paris, the loose moral life of the noble youth which he witnessed all

52
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, pp. 60-61.
53
Ibid., p. 62.
54
Ibid., p. 64.
102
around, his young age and his attractive features and the unedifying life of the nobility,
and added to all that, his own scrupulosity contributed its own share to it.55

As a young man, Francis was blessed with attractive features. He was a handsome young
intelligent man with excellent features. His peers freely courted girls without any scruples,
and it was an accepted practice of the nobility then. Francis kept himself away, keeping
himself from all possible dangers. But there was an inner conflict within him. He was torn
between the flesh and the spirit and between his personal convictions and peer behaviour.56

All that he saw in the courts scandalized him. His ideals were on one side and the reality of
humanness on the other. Loose life in the court characterised by dancing, courting and all
the accompanying vices was not strange to the young nobility in Paris in those times.
Francis used pious means to combat these evil inclinations. He was literally confronted
with the ‘attractiveness of the corrupt world.’57

At the deeper level of his spiritual life, Francis confronted a spiritual dilemma. Now being
exposed to the world and all the dogmas of Lutherism, he was also shaken. He was
influenced by the doctrine of predestination of Luther which was spreading at that time.
Slowly in Francis grew a feeling that he was predestined to perdition. He was overcome by
his imagination and the fear of being predestined to hell. Lajeunie narrates this situation
clearly:

As part of court society, and with the attractiveness of vice which he tried to
conquer, Francis could see himself as no different from others. The attraction
seemed to prove that he was on the royal road to perdition. His imagination
got the upper hand. He believed that he was predestined to hell by God’s
infallible judgement. ‘He fell prey to great temptation, says Saint Chantal,
and to extreme distress of mind. He felt absolutely sure that he was damned,
and that there was no salvation for him, and this paralysed him.’ This
anguish lasted for six weeks, from December 1586 to January 1587.58

It was not a mere transitory feeling. Most human beings often experience temporary crises
in life. It was not such a crisis. It had paralysed his functioning. It caused him mental and
spiritual agony:

The trial was intense. ‘His ill-founded convictions never ceased.’ The horror
that he felt was ‘not so much that of the torments of hell as of being for all

55
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 65.
56
Cf. Ibid., p. 65.
57
Cf. Ibid., p. 66.
58
Ibid., p. 68.
103
 eternity the enemy of God,’ says President Amelot, his confidant. ‘His mind
was so damaged that he nearly fell ill. The more he resisted the temptation
and tried to hold on to divine mercy, the more fixed idea penetrated his soul.’
… He was becoming the victim of an obsession, very much part of his moral
crisis.59

Most biographers almost agree on the details of the crisis, although they may present it
variously. Koster also presents it in a similar fashion, but more succinctly:

Francis led a semi-monastic and austere life in Paris. The question of

predestination as propagated by Luther and his followers was a lingering
question in his mind. He was not unaffected by the same. This question
deeply disturbed him. … During his stay in Paris, he was suddenly
overcome by the crushing thought: I belong to be damned! I will enter
eternal night! …The tension was unbearable. He became so restless,
overcome by stress and depression. It lasted a few weeks. Finally in the
Dominican Church, in the chapel of the Black Virgin, he made a prayer of
total surrender and prayed the Memorare and he was instantly healed. He
also made a vow of chastity and dedicated himself completely to God.60

Another biographer, Michael de la Bedoyere, also has a similar opinion of the crisis
Francis de Sales experienced in Paris. In his opinion, life in Paris was the entry of Francis
into the world. He experienced the world from an unprotected atmosphere. He was a
serious young man and the new world was open to him with its temptations and sins. He
also came to know of immoral priests in Paris who led shameful and infamous lives. They
were totally ignorant and debauched. Later on, as Provost, he would tell his priests that
‘knowledge is the eighth sacrament’ for a priest. As a 19-year-old student with high ideals
and deep piety, he experienced a spiritual and moral anguish.61

Such was the crisis he experienced in Paris. Almost all the biographers sketch in detail his
crisis in Paris and treat it seriously as it has had such an effect on his later life. Later on, in
his spiritual direction, he was able to help people who had had severe crises in life through
his own experience. Writing to Baron de Chantal on her crisis in life, Francis de Sales
mentions the mental agony he experienced due to anxiety and scrupulosity. He writes to
her, “You do not feel firm, constant or resolute. There is something in me, you say, that has
never been satisfied, but I don’t know what it is…. Meanwhile, I wonder whether the

59
LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 68.
60
KOSTER, Francis de Sales, pp. 26-27.
61
Cf. Michael de la BEDOYERE, Francis de Sales, London: Collins, 1960, pp. 12- 27.
104
blockage is caused by too many desires thronging in your mind. I have suffered from this
illness.”62

This experience of severe crisis lasted from December 1586 to January 1587. What could
have been the causes? Lajeunie believes the following could be the reasons.
Psychologically speaking, Francis had cherished a superhuman ideal. His scrupulosity and
over-enthusiasm made him an easy prey to a temptation of this sort. Moreover, he had a
natural tendency to anxiety. He feared that the company around him would lead him astray.
He was also overtaken by the theological pessimism that his lack of perfection would lead
him to perdition. It is also likely that he falsely understood the doctrine of pre-destination
in those young years. Consequently, he had an overwhelming feeling that he was destined
for hell. It would still take him time to fully understand the theological truths and
boundless mercy of God and to place all his faith and trust in the Lord. Lajeunie also
mentions that the bad company around him in his student circle could have caused in
Francis this depression and mental agony and the fear of being predestined to hell.
Moreover, from his childhood, Francis had a tendency to be scrupulous.63 It was an
experience of the ‘Dark Night’ for him.

2.1.2.2.6.1 Overcoming the Crisis

It is edifying and interesting to note how he overcame this severe crisis. There was no
personal counselling or psychotherapy or personal management programmes in those days.
Almost all the biographers report that he overcame this crisis solely through prayer and his
total abandonment to the will of God. He knelt before the statue of Our Lady and made a
heroic act of total surrender to God in the chapel of Our Lady in the church of the
Dominicans. He opened his heart to God. He committed his soul and all his intentions to
Divine Providence. Finally he recited the Memorare and was instantly healed. Lajeunie
hands over to us his prayer of total surrender to God that he made in this church:

62
Francis de SALES, Selected Letters, translated with an Introduction by Elisabeth STOPP, Second Edition,
Stella Niagra, New York: De Sales Resource Centre, 2011, p. 78. Emphasis mine. One finds the original in
the Annecy Edition of the works of St Francis de Sales known as Oeuvres de Saint François de Sales. évêque
de Genève et Docteure de l’Eglise, Edition complété. 27 volumes. Here Vol. XII: Lettres - Volume II, p. 380.
The complete Annecy Edition consists of 26 + 1 (index) volumes. The whole series has been prepared by the
Visitation Nuns in Annecy from 1892- 1937. Hereafter referred to as AE (This quote is part of the letter
written by Francis de Sales to Baronne de Chantal on 21 November 1604, at Annecy. It is not quite sure
which experience he is referring to here, probably to his scrupulosity that caused his crisis in Paris. It is
undoubtedly true that his crisis in Paris was one of the most influential and moulding experiences he had ever
had).
63
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 68.
105
 Whatever may happen, O God, you who hold all things in your hand, whose
ways are justice and truth, whatsoever you may have decreed concerning me
in the eternal secret of your predestination and reprobation, you whose
judgements are unfathomable, you who are ever Just Judge and Merciful
Father, I will love you always, O Lord, at least in this life! At least in this
life will I love you, if it is not given me to love you in eternity!64

Lajeunie speaks of the positive result of this trial and the effect of his total, heroic and
humbling surrender: “Pure love was born in his heart; the sickness was gone. Still such
self-denial did not drive out hope. In fact, a more purified hope was also brought to life, a
hope that relied on the goodness of God, not on the goodness of man to God. It is one of
the most profound aspects of the Salesian mentality. His optimism is not based on the
worthiness of human nature, even when sanctified by grace.”65 Like other biographers,
Bedoyere also records that Francis overcame his crisis through his intense prayer and total
submission to the will of God.66 It was a crucial experience in his life that shaped the rest
of his life. Jane de Chantal also describes in her Testimony the crisis and how he
overcomes it:

Our Blessed Founder told me once, in order to console me in some trouble,

that when he was a student at Paris, he fell into a state of great temptation
and extreme agony of mind. It seemed to him certain that he was reprobate,
and that for him there was no hope of salvation, thoughts which
overwhelmed him with anguish, especially when he remembered that the lost
cannot possibly love God, or see our Blessed Lady…. One day, however,
when it pleased Divine Providence to deliver him... Kneeling down before
one of Our Lady’s altars, he noticed a prayer pasted on to a board,
beginning: Remember, most gracious Virgin Mary, that never was it known
that anyone who fled to thy protection...; he said it all through, then rose
from his knees, and at that very instant felt himself perfectly and entirely
cured, and it seemed to him that his disease fell at his feet like the scales of a
leper.67

Many people experience such moments in life that change the rest of their lives. For
example, Buddha experienced enlightenment meditating under a tree. For St Paul, it was a
fall from a horse and a consequent meeting with the Lord. Ignatius of Loyola experienced
it in the reading of the Bible. Life remains never the same after such experiences. For
Francis this crisis was the turning point in his life.

64
LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 71.
65
Ibid., p. 72.
66
Cf. BEDOYERE, Francis de Sales, pp. 26-27.
67
Jane de CHANTAL, St Francis de Sales. A Testimony by St. Chantal, tr. & ed. by Elisabeth STOPP,
Maryland: Faber and Faber, 1967, pp. 59-60. (Hereafter referred to as Testimony). Italics in the original.
106
Francis was now a free man, full of enthusiasm. His devotion was not any more centred on
himself. He was inspired by his masters St Augustine and St Thomas Aquinas. He began a
total renewal in his life. He began to avoid more and more the possibilities of bad company
and worldly parties, dances, theatre, etc. His devotion to Our Lady became more intense.
He promised to pray the Rosary and the Memorare daily.

2.1.2.2.6.2 Learning from the Crisis in Paris

Looking closely at the events concerning the crisis in Paris, one realizes that it was not
only a spiritual crisis but also a moral and psychological one. It lasted a few weeks. That it
lasted a few weeks reveals that it was not a passing emotion or a temporary feeling. He
experienced such an intense pain, agony, desperation and misery that it paralysed him for
weeks. He resorted to intense prayer and surrender to overcome this crisis. Finally, he was
healed through prayer and surrender.

Francis also made use of this crisis experience. He learnt a lot for his future life and for his
ministry of guiding and directing people later on. As mentioned earlier, he referred to this
experience in his letter to Jane de Chantal.68 He learnt, above all, to deal gently with
himself in crises and never to lose hope. Being gentle with oneself and recollected is
important in a crisis. In order to make use of our inner resources, one has to be gentle with
oneself in crisis situations. This piece of advice will often be repeated by Francis de Sales
in his spiritual letters and conferences. In Salesian tradition, it is important to avoid the
occasions of sin rather than struggle to come out of them.

2.1.2.3 Doctoral Studies in Padua

After the crisis and strengthened and ennobled by it, he continued his studies in Paris. In
1588, he completed his studies and returned to Savoy. His studies in Paris would enable
him to pursue his doctoral studies later in Padua. Back home in Savoy, his mother wanted
him to stay at home, but his father dreamed of a great career for his elder son. His father
had a dream of making him an official in the court. After a short stay at home, he was sent
to Padua in November 1588 for further studies in Law. He studied civil and ecclesiastical
law. His younger brother Gallois was also sent with him. His faithful and time-tested tutor
Deage accompanied him once again, this time to Padua.69

68
See 2.1.2.2.6 (Refer to this part in this work for details; done to avoid needless repetition).
69
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 75.
107
On 26 December 1588, he enrolled at the University of Padua as a French-speaking
Savoyard. The study in Padua lasted nearly four years, from 1588 to 1591. During this
period he also studied Theology. One of the first things he did in Padua was to look for a
spiritual director. He found a Jesuit priest, Fr Anthony Possevin. Fr Possevin was a writer,
orator, theologian and an ecclesiastical diplomat. Possevin was for Francis a great friend
and guide. He opened his heart to him. He helped Francis greatly in his discernment. He
also confirmed him in his vocation to the priesthood.70

In January 1591, he fell seriously ill with fever and dysentery and was at the point of death.
He was declared “lost” by the doctors. He received the Viaticum and extreme unction as
there was no hope of healing.71 Jane de Chantal tells in her Testimony that Francis, upon
being asked where his body should be buried, replied his body should be given to the
surgeon for the purpose of dissection. But to everyone’s happiness and surprise, he was
miraculously healed.72

Francis was always an intelligent and hard-working person. These qualities remained with
him till his death. On 5 September 1591, he completed his studies with great success and
received his Doctorate. He was greatly appreciated by all the professors. After the
completion of his studies he went on a pilgrimage to Loretto and some other towns in Italy.
February 1592 saw him return to Savoy. Francis had, from his childhood days, cherished
the desire to become a priest. He had not yet made it known to his father. Now Francis was
a Doctor in Civil Law and Ecclesiastical Law. He was fully eligible for priesthood. His
father was now almost seventy. Would it be a heavy shock for him if he revealed his desire
to him? Will he be able to bear it? Francis was not sure.73

2.1.3 Difficult Path to Priesthood

Francis was now back from Padua in his house in La Thuille, at the southern tip of the
Annecy Lake. It was time for him to get settled in life. His father dreamed of good
alliances for him. But Francis felt in himself the growing desire to belong to the Church.

70
Cf. RAVIER, Francis de Sales: Sage and Saint, p. 36.
71
Cf. Ibid., p. 41.
72
Cf. CHANTAL, Testimony p. 62. For a different translation, see also The Library of St Francis de Sales -
Part 1: The Mystical Explanation of the Canticle of Canticles (by St Francis de Sales) Part II: The
Depositions of St Jane Frances de Chantal in the Cause of the Canonisation of St Francis de Sales, translated
by Henry Benedict MACKEY, London: Burns & Oats Ltd, 1908, pp.199-200. Hereafter known as
Depositions. This translation is much older and the language is coloured by old style and grammar.
73
Cf. RAVIER, Francis de Sales: Sage and Saint, pp. 47-48.
108
During his years in Paris and Padua this desire had not dwindled but only intensified. He
had decided to consecrate his life to God. Francis did not know how to make it known to
his father. His father was still dreaming of a big career for his son and expected him to take
over the family soon.74

In order to please his father, Francis enrolled himself as an advocate at the Bar of
Chambery. He temporarily yielded to the wishes of his father to avoid a direct
confrontation. Francis preferred to wait and win over his father gradually through love and
patience. Patience and gentleness were always central to his approach. At the same time he
was firm in his desire to become a priest and did not want to be in any way side-tracked.75

His father was getting old and wanted to leave the whole estate to his elder son to
administer. Things went even that far that his father arranged a meeting with a lady in
order to fix an alliance for him. Out of respect for his father, Francis agreed to meet her but
he had decided firmly to abide by the vow of chastity he had made in Paris after his crisis.
He saw it as his duty to obey his father. At the same time, he confided everything to his
spiritual father. The marriage had already been agreed by the families, but the agreement
was broken due to lack of interest on Francis’ side.76

Nothing could divert Francis from his resolution to become a priest - not even the beauty
and charm of a young woman, nor wealth and prestige nor glory and honour. There arose a
golden chance for Francis to pursue his desire to become a priest. The Provost of Geneva
Cathedral, a Doctor of Law, died on 14 October 1592, and Bishop Granier suggested that
this office be occupied by Francis, who was well-qualified for the post. It was a highly
respectable office and the Bishop felt that having Francis - now Doctor in Civil and Canon
Law - in this post would be a great support for him. Francis also hoped it would be a
golden chance to win over his father.

2.1.3.1 God’s Timely Intervention

On the one side, preparations for making him Provost were underway. On the other,
yielding to the desire of his father, he had enrolled himself at the Bar in Chambery. While
returning from Chambery, after enrolling himself at the Bar, a mysterious event took place
which was interpreted by Francis as a sign from God. While leaving Chambery, he fell

74
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, pp. 126-127.
75
Cf. RAVIER, Francis de Sales: Sage and Saint, p. 49.
76
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, pp. 127-128. (See also RAVIER, pp. 48-49).
109
down from the horse and the scabbard got detached from his belt and formed a cross.
Francis saw this as a divine intervention.77 He interpreted this incident as God’s call to
leave the work at the Bar and to enter the priesthood.

Meanwhile, a letter conferring Senatorship on Francis in Turin was brought by Baron

d’Hermance. This was a special favour done to Francis, who was not even thirty, because
such high posts were reserved only for senior and experienced lawyers. The Duke was
convinced of the exceptional qualities of Francis. It complicated the situation for Francis.
His father would have preferred such a political post to an ecclesiastical one for his son. He
had always dreamed of such a high post for his son. It was also one of his goals behind
getting Francis highly educated. Francis now felt that he could not hide it anymore from
his father and that he had to reveal his intentions to him.78

2.1.3.2 A Dream Fulfilled

The procedure for the Provostship was in progress in Rome. The papal bull arrived in
Annecy on May 7, 1593. Francis knew that he had come to a stage where he had to make
up his mind. He won the support of his mother who promised to stand by him. Louis de
Sales, cousin of Francis de Sales, also pressurised Francis’ father into yielding to the
wishes of his son. Finally, he allowed Francis to follow his vocation to the priesthood.
Andre Ravier narrates the situation: “Mme de Boisy courageously supported her son’s
request. M. de Boisy grew silent; he wept, and finally said to Francis: ‘Do then, by God’s
command, what you say inspires you to do.’ And he added – with the generosity of his
faith: ‘I give you my blessing in His name.’ He then shut himself in his study.”79

The following day, 10 May 1593, Francis received cassock in the church of La Thuille. On
May 12, he took charge as Provost and went to meet Bishop Msgr. Claude de Granier.
Francis renounced his rights as the eldest son and the title of the Lord of Villarogot. From
now on, he would be just Francis de Sales. On 19 May, on the first day of his retreat in
preparation for ordination, he received tonsure. In June 1593, he received the minor orders,
on 18 September 1593, Francis was ordained deacon and three months later on 18
December 1593 ordained priest by Bishop de Granier in the cathedral of Annecy. He

77
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 134.
78
Cf. Ibid., pp. 135-136.
79
RAVIER, Francis de Sales: Sage and Saint, p. 52.
110
celebrated his first Mass on 21 December. After Christmas he was installed as Provost, to
which he had already been named.80

PART II

2.2 Pastoral Spirit of Francis de Sales as Priest, Missionary and

Bishop

Francis de Sales was a passionate pastor. His life was characterised by missionary zeal,
compassionate approach to his people, and devotion to the Church. This part deals with
some of the basic characteristics of his pastoral spirit.

2.2.1 Francis de Sales as Provost

The diocese of Geneva was ruled by princely bishops. In the heyday of the Reformation,
the reformers chased the bishop and his chapter and confiscated their properties. So they
took refuge in Annecy, hoping to return to Geneva someday - a hope which remains
unfulfilled even to this day. The Duke of Savoy could never take control of Geneva city
and restore Catholicism and as result it remained for ever the stronghold of Calvinism.

Soon after taking charge as Provost, Francis addressed his canons proposing a re-conquest
of Geneva. But how, everyone wondered. The Provost was clear how to do that:

We must bring down the walls of Geneva with charity; we must invade by
charity; we must invade Geneva with charity; we must recover Geneva with
charity… I do not propose to you iron or that powder whose odor and stench
reminds us of infernal furnace… Let your camp be the camp of God. It is by
hunger and thirst, endured not by our adversaries but by ourselves, that we
must repulse the enemy…81

Such was the plan he had of re-conquering Geneva. His method was not one of violence
and war, but of love and charity. This attitude, the power of love, charity and gentleness
can be seen in every act of Francis, especially in his ministry as a priest and bishop, in his
guidance and every act throughout his life. The way to win back those who left the portals
of the Church was one of love and charity. He insisted also on genuine witness to Christian
80
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 139.
81
RAVIER, Francis de Sales: Sage and Saint, p. 57. (iron or that powder means weapons and gun powder).
111
life. As a priest, Francis devoted himself to the spiritual renewal of Annecy. The spiritual
needs of the people were the highest priority for Francis as a pastor. He visited the sick, the
poor and the imprisoned.82

2.2.1.1 A Passionate Preacher

Francis was also a passionate preacher. Even before his priestly ordination, as a sub-
deacon he had held preaching sessions.83 He was appointed by his Bishop as “general
preacher”. He preached on all major feast days. He was fully convinced of the need to
preach from the heart. He was aware of the poor condition of preaching in those times and
believed that it badly needed a renewal. Preaching was a big spectacle in those days. In
many cases, there was hardly any true preaching. People came to the preaching not because
they understood it or the preaching touched their lives. They went to the preaching out of
curiosity to see the preacher and his mannerisms. The Word of God was not the focus of
the preaching, but that of the preacher. It was a show of punditry which had nothing to do
with the lives of the people. Whenever he had an opportunity to preach, Francis ‘mounted
the pulpit’.84 More about his preaching will be dealt with later in the chapter under the
topic ‘his approach to mission.’85

2.2.1.2 A Compassionate Confessor

The young Provost was the most sought-after confessor. He was a confessor with
enormous listening capacity and the power to convert the hearts of the penitents. His
patient listening was with a purpose: to help the penitent to get rid of the weight of his
heart due to sin and to gather enough strength to begin again. 86 The Provost took the
ministry of reconciling sinners earnestly. He knew how important it was to reconcile
sinners to God and to humanity. Therefore, he made it easy for the penitents to make their
confession. He made them welcome, prepared a proper place and treated them with
extreme gentleness and warmth. He had his confessional at the very entrance of the
cathedral of Annecy in order to facilitate easy access for the people. 87 Jane de Chantal in
her testimony describes what kind of a confessor Francis de Sales was:

82
Cf. RAVIER, Francis de Sales: Sage and Saint, pp. 58-59.
83
Cf. Ibid., p. 55.
84
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 165. (See also CHANTAL, Depositions, pp.166-172).
85
See 2.3.2
86
Cf. François CORRIGNAN, The Spirituality of Francis de Sales: a Way of Life, tr. by Joseph D.
BOWLER / Lewis S. FIORELLI, Bangalore: Indian Institute of Spirituality, 1992, p. 30.
87
Cf. RAVIER, Francis de Sales: Sage and Saint, p. 58.
112
 I declare that our Blessed Founder was altogether beyond compare in his
charity and zeal as a confessor. He gave himself completely and unstintingly
to this holy work, and the only limit or measure he set himself was the need
of those who turned to him; he used to leave everything else for that, unless
he was busy about something still more important for God’s glory, because
he realized how very much this sacrament can help souls. Every Sunday and
feast-day crowds of people used to come to him - men and women of high
rank, ordinary citizens, soldiers, servant girls, peasants, beggars, people who
were ill, full of sores, stinking of squalid diseases – he welcomed them all
with the same love and kindness. He never turned anyone away, however
objectionable.88

The confessional is such a wonderful place where the priest can show God’s forgiving love
concretely to a penitent. Humanistic psychologists have proved that human qualities play a
great role in the process of helping a person. Person-centred therapy as proposed by Carl
Rogers states that empathy, unconditional positive regard and genuineness can cause
change in a person.89 Long before Carl Rogers, Francis de Sales knew the importance of
these human qualities in ministry, especially in his ministry of reconciliation and of
spiritual direction.

Jane de Chantal hands down to us how kind he was to the penitents and how admirably he
could empathise with them. “He gave penitents plenty of time to explain themselves fully
and say everything they wanted; he never hurried people. Besides being available on the
days mentioned, he used to leave everything when a call came, whatever the day or
time….And to encourage his penitents and make them less shy, he used to say to them:
‘Don’t make any difference between your heart and mine; I’m yours, our souls are one and
equal’.”90

Those who were poor and objectionable received special care from him. Jane de Chantal,
who knew his heart, testifies further: “I firmly believe that he received such people with
even greater charity in his heart and gave them an even warmer welcome than those who
were well off and attractive; and he used to say that this was where one could really show

88
CHANTAL, Testimony, p. 127.
89
Cf. Carl R. ROGERS, On Becoming a Person: A Therapist’s View of Psychotherapy, New York:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 1995. See Chapter 3: The Characteristics of a Helping Relationship, pp.39-57.
A summarised and precise treatment of these essential conditions for counselling can also be seen in The
Basic Conditions of the Facilitative Therapeutic Relationship by Carl R. Rogers in The Handbook of Person-
Centred Psychotherapy and Counselling, Mick COOPER, Maureen O’HARA, Peter F. SCHMID and Gill
WYATT (eds.), Houndmills, Hampshire: Palgrave MacMillan, 2007, pp. 1-5. More about this topic can be
found in the subsequent chapters, i.e., IV and V, of this dissertation.
90
CHANTAL, Testimony, p. 127.
113
one’s love. He had time for children too, and made them feel so much at home that they
were pleased to come back to him.”91

This description of Jane de Chantal shows not only his nature at the confessional but also
his attitude and approach to people in general. The attitudes and qualities which he
painfully developed since his childhood stood him in good stead as a confessor. His
empathy with the penitents, his capacity to go down to their level, his gentleness towards
sinners, his listening skills and his almost supernatural capacity to understand human
nature helped him become an excellent and most sought-after confessor of his time.92

2.2.1.2.1 Francis’ Therapeutic Skills in Dealing with People

Seen from today’s perspective, one could say that Francis de Sales was a ‘therapist.’ His
method and approach were far ahead of his time. He was so therapeutic in his method and
approach although counselling and psychotherapy were unknown in his days. Francis de
Sales had the rare skill of directing souls which attracted many to him. He was so empathic
and trustworthy that people completely trusted him and opened their hearts to him. “Only
God knows how many souls His Divine Majesty drew to Himself through the agency of
the Blessed, for people thought there was no one like him for kindness, for love of God and
skilful direction; that is why they flocked to him from every quarter. When it got around
that he was passing through some town, or going to stay in the country with friends, he
always had to hear general confessions; and as he said, people used to save up their most
secret problems of conscience for him, things they found hard to tell anyone else.”93

How therapeutic Francis de Sales was! How could people ever reject such a priest at the
confessional? People flock even today – even in the Western world - to a confessor who
they find empathic, understanding and merciful, and who helps them to renew their lives.
They want to get rid of the heaviness in their hearts and seek help.94 Has the Catholic
Church in the present age lost this ministry to psychiatrists and psychotherapists? One
could perhaps say that the failure of this ministry today is partially due to lack of
knowledge and experience people have about this liberating sacrament and partially due to
lack of trained and rightly-motivated priests who are able to perform this ministry well.
Doesn’t Francis de Sales give us a direction in this regard? Practising psychiatrists and

91
CHANTAL, Testimony, p. 127.
92
Cf. RAVIER, Francis de Sales: Sage and Saint, p. 58.
93
CHANTAL, Testimony, p. 129.
94
Cf. Hinrich BUES, Pater Bernhard: Nur die Liebe heilt!. Erzählungen über das Wirken Gottes in meinem
Leben, Heiligenkreuz, Austria: Be & Be Verlag, 2015, p. 182.
114
psychotherapists suggest that in spite of the differences, there are many similarities
between psychotherapy and confession. Both help the person to accept the reality and to
begin anew.95

2.2.1.2.2 His Empathy

Francis as a confessor had such an empathy which helped people of all ages and ranks to
feel at home with him. He was available to all people – rich and poor, educated and
uneducated, men and women, well-dressed noblemen and shabbily-dressed peasants. Many
biographers speak of his exceptional skills for guiding souls and moving penitents. He
made it a point to be available for confession very often. Sometimes he remained from
dawn to noon at the confessional. Lajeunie gives us a graphic description of his ministry at
the confessional:

As soon as he was a priest, with his Bishop’s authorisation, he had a

confessional erected in the cathedral near the main entrance… on feast days
he sometimes remained there from sunrise until noon, a throng of people
around him; he was there for them only: men and women, “young and old,
poor and rich, noblemen and commoners, strong and weak, healthy and
sick”; if he had any preference, it was not for “fine people in lace”, but for
the sick, the peasants, the uneducated, the dirty etc. “He often lent his
handkerchief to poor penitents weeping from sorrow for their sins.” A lowly
woman, blind from birth, would come to confession; as soon as he saw her
“feeling her way along her own” he would rise and help her to the armrest in
his confessional. She had such a delicate conscience that the saint,
confessing her, admitted he envied her. Similarly, he would take the arm of a
poor cripple, half paralysed, and help him “into a comfortable position”, and
then listen to him “with incredible patience.96

2.2.1.2.3 His Listening Heart

Francis de Sales also had great conversational skills which helped him in the ministry of
reconciliation. He knew how to listen, what to listen to, and what to talk, how to talk and
how to instruct them without bossing over them or moralising. “Everyone was loud in
their praises of his conversational powers, and all who knew this great servant of God
considered his talk extraordinarily agreeable and pleasant… various people of standing,
who knew him and had been his travelling companions, could not praise him highly
enough for his saintly, instructive and most delightful conversations.”97

95
See the report on Psychotherapie & Beichte Fachtagung der Religiosität in Psychiatrie und Psychotherapie
Institut (RPP) 16. 10. 2010, Heiligenkreuz Austira. Details on homepage : http://rpp2010.org/ and
http://rpp2010.org/Pressespiegel More related topics and downloadable materials available at : http://rpp-
institut.org/ (14.1.16)
96
LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, pp. 162-163.
97
CHANTAL, Testimony, p. 139.
115
What helped Francis to be so effective in dealing with his folk? What was the secret of his
success? Francis’ long years of study helped him enormously in his ministry. His
familiarity with literature and humanism gave a special human touch to his ministry. His
knowledge of Civil and Canon Laws was a great asset to his ministry. 98 He put into
practice what he asked his priests to do, namely, to acquire knowledge and to use it in daily
ministry and life. He had asked his priests to see knowledge as the eighth sacrament for a
priest. He exhorted his priests: “My very dear Brothers, I implore you to attempt seriously to
study, because knowledge, to a priest, is the eighth sacrament of the hierarchy of the Church.
[Without it] a greater misfortune happens to the priest than when the Ark [of the Covenant] is
found in the hands of men who were not Levites.”99

The ideal that he cherished of a priest was that the priest is a man of God, man of the
Church and man of the people. He avoided extremes and tried to combine his spiritual life
and priestly activities harmoniously. To listen to the faithful with understanding, empathy,
patience and love is, according to Francis de Sales, an important aspect of a priest’s
ministry.

2.2.1.3 Formator of the Laity

As priest and later as bishop, Francis de Sales was totally engaged in the formation and
guidance of the laity. As seen already, he had a preference for the poor and the
downtrodden. But the elite were not neglected, either. The elite in those days were so
dispersed and dismantled and, therefore, it was difficult to undertake something with them.
In September 1593, he founded the Confraternity of the Holy Cross to organise the laity:

The confraternity was no pious gathering of women chanting litanies. It was

a meeting of the elite in an offensive mood; the Bishop was at its head and
among its founders…. It was open to lay people on the warpath against
“heresy” and “free thinking”. The Provost’s parents were among the first to
become members. “A great number of people”, of “every social rank”
joined, Michael Favre tells us, with very great piety… Rolland testified to
numerous conversions of sinners.100

98
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, pp. 88-89.
99
Francis de SALES, Exhortation to Clerics: That They Should Apply Themselves to Study, tr. by Thomas F.
DAILEY, http://web1.desales.edu/assets/salesian/PDF/ExortationstoClerics.pdf (14.1.16)
See AE, Vol. XXIII, pp. 303-305. « Pour cela, mes très chers Frères, je vous conjure de vaquer sérieusement
a l’estude, car la science, a un prestre, c’est le huitiesme Sacrement de la hiérarchie de l’Eglise et son plus
grand malheur est arrivé de ce que l’Arche s’est trouvee en d’autres mains que celles des Levites. [Cf. 1 Sam
4:3-11]. » pp. 303-304.
http://web1.desales.edu/assets/salesian/PDF/ExortationstoClerics.pdf (14.1.16)
100
LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 171. Rolland was the faithful servant of Francis de Sales.
116
What did they do? What was their mission? They were actually trying to live out the faith
in most concrete ways and also to attract others to it, being lamps lit on the hill-top.101 The
confraternity tried to galvanize the lukewarm Catholics into action:

The confraternity vigorously began its offensive against lukewarm Catholics,

for its first objective was to “reform” consciences; it constituted the first
battalion of “the devout” dreamed of by the saint… on those solemn days,
and on the second Sunday of each month, these new crusaders prayed all
day, each one in turn, an hour before the Blessed Sacrament exposed. Many
people received Communion that day and were invited to do so at the masses
celebrated every Sunday for the confraternity. Hence the well-known trend
towards frequent Communion and ‘devotion.’ The confreres, moreover,
promised to love one another, to give an example by visiting the sick,
prisoners, and showing interest in the poor; assisting those awaiting capital
punishment and burying them; bringing to the prior’s notice the needy and
the poor. The idea was, in a word, to erect a bastion against egoism,
indifference and ritual routine.102

Francis de Sales tried to organise the laity to renew themselves in faith. It is interesting to
note that he tried to make use of pious associations to revive the faith at a time when such
associations were practically on the decline or were dormant. He was firmly convinced that
the faith must also take external expressions or else it would die a natural death. To this
end, he moderately supported and encouraged popular devotion. This thinking is clearly
evident in his organisation of Forty Hours adoration.103

Francis also strongly supported frequent Communion for lay people - something
uncommon in those times. Within a year of his ordination he was much loved and known.
He took many initiatives, which other priests did not. His personal qualities made him
loved and appreciated. Francis became a prominent figure in the diocese. It was a great
achievement of his that he could draw around him the intellectual youth of the day through
his preaching and personal approach:

His personal qualities had turned him into a leader. He was the orator in
demand: he was listened to, invited to speak, called to the provinces… He
was no braggart; he was in possession of the art of oratory, but also spoke
with his heart and his learning, his knowledge of theology was vast, deep,
solid, clear; added to which, his perceptive psychology helped him aim his
arrows unerringly…on another level, Francis de Sales was drawing around
him the intellectual youth of the day…This was the theology of a pastor, an

101
Cf. Mt 5:14.
102
LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 171.
103
Cf. Francis MOGET, Church & Laity during the Time of St Francis de Sales: A Historical Survey, in St
Francis De Sales and Laity, Antony KOLENCHERRY (Ed.) Bangalore: SFS, 1987, pp. 57-70.
117
 apostle, a practical down-to-earth, straightforward theology that appealed to
the courage of youth.104

This young, zealous provost was not spared of jealousy and misunderstandings. His fellow
priests worked against him. Some people, especially his own priestly colleagues, were not
happy at his success. Since as provost he worked closely with the Bishop, he had many
enemies, too. As a result, there were attempts to drive a wedge between him and the
Bishop. He was misrepresented to the Bishop as ambitious and as a hypocrite who wanted
to take over the diocese and reform the clergy. Many of the diocesan clergy stood strongly
against any change or any reform of the clergy. The Bishop was hurt and disappointed at
the malicious campaign. Francis also felt hurt at the happenings. The Bishop, however,
trusted Francis entirely and appreciated well his efforts.105 “The provost was pained but not
disturbed; truth, he thought, is like a beard: The more it is cut, the better it grows. He
waited peacefully for the moment of truth.”106

Francis was a pastor with a strong sense of justice. His knowledge of law and justice would
surely have influenced him. He stood strongly against any form of injustice and
exploitation. He helped widows and other helpless persons to their justice.107

2. 2.1.4 Man of Prayer, Interiority and Study

In spite of his busy schedule, Francis was a man of prayer, reflection and deep interiority.
His daily life was rooted in prayer. He was extremely careful not to be lost in activism. He
knew well from childhood the primacy of spiritual life. He remained always faithful to his
daily prayers and meditation. His active life was deeply founded on an intense spiritual
life.108

In this regard, it is fitting to turn to Lajeunie, what he has garnered from different
testimonies, especially at the canonization. It gives us a glimpse of his spiritual and
intellectual life: “He never wasted time; he knew its worth perfectly, how to make the most
of it. Order, method, and constant labour, were his secret from his early days. ‘He would
rise at daybreak, retire very late, rarely before 11:00; sometimes he was obliged to work

104
LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 175.
105
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, pp. 91-92.
106
LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 176.
107
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, p. 89.
108
Cf. Ibid., p. 90.
118
until an hour after midnight.’… He seemed ‘untiring’ at his work, especially for things that
came under his responsibility. ‘He was never idle.’”109

Even as a young priest, Francis was assiduous. He knew the value of time and dedicated
all his free time to study and further learning:

As soon as he had time to himself, it was to study, meditate and pray. Since
his return from Padua, he had given up law to apply himself only to
theology… he meditated on scripture unceasingly in the old Vulgate, in the
Greek of the Septuagint which he consulted for difficult or doubtful
passages. For the Psalms, he used the Hebrew in Genebrard, and read
Chrysostom and Augustine, Jerome for Saint Matthew; Ambrose for Saint
Luke; …he continually studied the two great luminaries of theology, St
Thomas in his Summa and Saint Bonaventure in his Commentaire de
Sentences… He always had on his table the Acts of the Council of Trent…
the Apostle seeks nourishment before giving nourishment.110

Lajeunie continues to show us how faithful Francis was to his spiritual life in spite of all
his daily activities. One of the things Francis always cherished doing was his meditation. It
is something that he also recommended to all who sought his help. For him meditation was
an occasion to unite himself with God. Meditation has become an unavoidable ingredient
in the daily routine of many today. But much before meditation became a trend or fashion
as it is today, Francis knew its worth and practised it frequently:

Besides study, he was faithful to meditation. He was happy to belong to God

(XII, 311). He meditated daily, Sundays sometimes exempted, as he rose
before daybreak if he foresaw the pressure of work… for that period of the
day belonged to God and should not be curtailed. … This is worth
examining. He assuredly belonged to everybody, but his plans had to be
harmonized with the law of prayer, it is worthy of note. He told Quoex “very
privately” that whatever he had to do he never omitted “partly or wholly” his
daily devotions...One evening in Allinges castle he will be grieved at being
unable to say Compline for want of a candle. Later, as bishop, and
overburdened with work, in order to avoid troubling his servants, he will
pretend to retire and after their departure, he will rise “noiselessly” to finish
his prayers…Among these devout exercises was the rosary that he had
vowed to say every day. His love for the Virgin, especially after visiting
Loretto, was dear to his heart… Prayer at any price; that was the foundation
on which the young prelate based his actions right from the very beginning
of his apostolate.111

His study and spiritual reading included the Scripture, the Fathers of the Church, the great
Doctors like St Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventura, Bellarmine, etc. As noted earlier, he was an

109
G. PILLIOD as quoted by LAJEUNIE in Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, pp. 152-153.
110
LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 153.
111
LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, pp. 153-155.
119
ardent lover and follower of the Fathers of the Church, and he quoted them often in his
preaching and writings. Loyalty to the Church and the tradition of the Church was central
to his life. All his writings and preaching were totally in line with the teachings of the
Church.

Concluding Remarks

Francis de Sales as a priest and provost was imbued with the pastoral spirit. He brought a
new life into the ministry of penance and reconciliation. We could say that he was a
confessor as well as a counsellor. Through his personal qualities and the effective use of
his pastoral skills he could move the hearts of the people.

It is so inspiring to see that the busy provost was also an avid learner. Knowledge, for him,
was the eighth sacrament.112 Francis always had a quest for knowledge, but it was not
merely for the sake of knowledge, but knowledge for ministry. He advocated and practised
it in his life that a priest should never stop learning. Updating oneself in knowledge and
skills is important not only in the secular world, but also in the ministry of the Church.113

2.3 Francis de Sales as a Missionary

Francis de Sales is most known as an author, founder and spiritual director. A less known
side of his life is that of his mission work. He worked as a missionary to bring Catholicism
back to the whole region of the Chablais which had gone over to Protestantism during the
Reformation.

2.3.1 The Chablais Mission

Francis de Sales spent four years as a missionary in the Chablais. He did not venture into a
foreign land where Christianity was unknown or sail across the seas to do missionary
work. His field of mission was his own diocese. The Chablais was part of the diocese of

112
Cf. Francis de SALES, Exhortation to Clerics: That They Should Apply Themselves to Study.
113
Cf. Hermann STENGER (Ed.), Eignung für die Berufe der Kirche. Klärung- Beratung- Begleitung,
Freiburg: Herder, 1988. (Roughly translated, Qualifying for Ministry in the Church. Clarification-Guidance-
Accompaniment). More reference to this book will be made later in this work.
120
Geneva. After his successful missionary work there he earned the title ‘The Apostle of the
Chablais.’114 What was the situation of Catholicism there? How did Francis work there?

2.3.1.1 The Chablais: ‘The Lost Territory’

The Chablais which lies about 15 miles from the Lake of Geneva (Lake Leman) was
occupied by the Protestants. The whole district was influenced by the Calvinists in Geneva,
the hotbed of Calvinism, and turned Protestant. Savoy and the Duke remained strongly
Catholic during the Protestant Reformation. In1589, the Bishop sent 50 priests to re-
establish the parishes and to start Catholic worship. The reaction of the Protestants was
violent. In 1591, all the priests were banished and the churches burnt down.115

2.3.1.2 Venturing into a Dangerous Mission

In 1594, Bishop de Granier wanted to send priests once again to the Chablais to try to
establish the Catholic Church. The Bishop called for a synod to ask for more volunteers.
The response was disappointing - nobody came forward! The recent atrocities committed
by the Protestants in this area – the terrifying invasion, chasing away of priests, total
desecration and destruction of churches and presbyteries - were still fresh in their minds.
Nobody was willing to go there again because there was a serious threat to their lives. The
risk was too perilous. Although he was the Provost, next to the Bishop in authority and
rank, Francis de Sales took up the mission in September 1594 with his cousin Louis de
Sales.116 Many, including his father, dissuaded him from going. He said to his son, “My
poor child, to try to convert the Chablais in the present circumstances would be sheer
madness.”117 He said to his father “This is a laborious task, it is true, and there is no
denying it, but why are we wearing theses cassocks if we do not want the
responsibility?”118

On 14 September 1594, Francis and his cousin Louis landed in the Chablais and took their
residence in the castle of Les Allinges. Thonon was the headquarters of the Chablais but
the whole area had turned so Calvinistic and hostile to the Catholic faith that it was
difficult for the missionaries to stay in Thonon. The castle was situated on a small hill and
was protected by soldiers. The missionaries went daily to Thonon and returned by evening.

114
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, pp. 320-321, 339-340. See also RAVIER, p. 91.
115
Cf. RAVIER, Francis de Sales: Sage and Saint, pp. 61-63.
116
Cf. Ibid., pp. 63-64.
117
As quoted by LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 183.
118
As quoted by MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, p. 98.
121
Francis and Louis were met with great hostility as they landed in the mission. The
hardships that the young missionaries had to endure were almost unbearable. The winter
was harsh, and without proper chapels or presbyteries the young priests were exposed to
untold miseries. On a winter night, in the bitter cold, Francis had to spend the night in a
derelict chapel. On another winter night he had to tie himself to a chestnut tree the whole
night in order to save himself from wolves.119

2.3.1.3 Beginning the Mission with the ‘Remnant of Chablais’

There were a few Catholics who had remained faithful to the Church. They were scattered
over a large area. Due to the hostile situation they never came out in the open. The primary
task of the missionaries now was to establish contact with them and to bring them together.
Gradually they were able to find some of their faithful. It was important to instruct them in
faith. Due to long years of neglect and lack of pastoral care, they were Catholics only in
name. They began working with a small group of Catholics and instructed them. During
his first preaching on Sunday, September 18, four days after landing in the Chablais,
Francis stated that God’s people needed pastors sent by God Himself.120

The Protestants reacted angrily and showered abuses on the ‘Roman priest.’ Louis, his
cousin and companion in the mission, was frightened. Undeterred by the hostilities and
threats from the Protestants, Francis went on preaching every Sunday to the small
congregation of six or seven who gathered in the Church.

In the beginning Francis used a rather attacking style of preaching, directed against the
Protestants. But he slowly turned from his style of preaching to an edifying one. He
preferred to take a conciliatory tone and presented himself as a peace-loving orator.121 He
slowly understood the power and value of gentleness which can move more hearts than
aggression or invectiveness in speech. This lesson was to remain with him till the end of
his life.

The Protestants decided in their assembly to chase out the ‘papists’, to force them to pack
up and retire. Francis came to hear of it. The young priests, however, were not willing to
give up. Writing to Louis Favre, Francis makes his mind clear, “... but this will never
happen… We are absolutely determined to work without ceasing in any way, to leave no

119
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 227.
120
Cf. Ibid., p. 188.
121
Cf. Ibid., pp. 189-190.
122
stone unturned, to implore, to reprove with as much patience and science as God will give
us.”122 What an inspiration for pastors even today faced with manifold difficulties!

The opponents spread calumnies against him as a magician and sorcerer. They tried to
alienate people from him. People were forbidden to meet him and talk to him. So Francis
had to take new initiatives to communicate his message. He began to write short notices
explaining the Catholic faith and left them at the doors of houses. Francis wrote a series of
meditations on the articles of the Creed defending the Church and explaining the Catholic
faith, and he slid them under the doors of the houses. This gesture was well appreciated
and there was a high demand for them. This action lasted for a year from January 1595 to
January 1596. After his death, these notices were published as a book, The
Controversies.123 Centuries later, in 1877 declaring St. Francis de Sales a Doctor of the Church,
Pope Pius IX stated that this book is “a full and complete demonstration of the Catholic
124
religion.” For this ‘journalistic and mass media enterprise’ of Francis de Sales, Pope Pius
XI declared him patron of journalists and writers in 1923.125

In October 1596, Francis had to visit the Nuncio and the Duke in Turin. The latter had
promised financial help and support. The Duke sent him back with a load of promises but,
in fact, Francis received no help, except tax exemption for some poor families which he
had begged for. Not even the debts that he incurred for the mission were reimbursed. In
spite of the disappointments, Francis continued with his missionary activities in the
Chablais. There was a steady growth in the number of Catholics. After two years of hard
work he was able to win over enough people and to renew the first church - St. Hippolytus
- in Thonon and to celebrate Mass for Christmas in 1596. He could move the hearts of the
people through his preaching. He celebrated three Masses on this day.126

Francis preached on every possible occasion. People flocked to his sermons out of
curiosity and interest for the person, although they were forbidden to do so. So Francis had
to go to the people. On a market day, Francis preached for two hours about the Catholic
122
As quoted by LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 190. Emphasis as in the original.
123
The Controversies (Les Controverses) forms the first volume of the Annecy Edition of the Complete
Works of St Francis de Sales, Oeuvres de Saint François de Sales. évêque de Genève et Docteure de l’Eglise,
Edition complété, (AE). The Controversies (sometimes also known as The Catholic Controversies) is the first
‘book’ by Francis de Sales. He was not yet thirty as he completed writing these pamphlets directed at the
Calvinists, aimed at defending the Catholic Church and trying to get the Calvinists back to their original
faith.
124
Pope Pius IX, Dives in misericordia Deus.
125
Cf. Pope Pius XI, Rerum Omnium Perturbationem, Encyclical of Pope Pius XI on St Francis de Sales on
26.01.1923.
126
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, pp. 133-136.
123
faith in a public place.127 His preaching was the most important instrument for re-
converting the Chablais. He taught catechism to those who were interested, explaining the
faith in the simplest way. On Ash Wednesday, 1597, he celebrated the Ash Wednesday
liturgy and imposed ash on the people. The Protestants mocked him and called him a
sorcerer and magician. The Friday following the Ash Wednesday, the Protestants tried to
attack him. He had to hide himself in a house to escape.128

In 1597, he re-opened the parishes of Les Allinges and Cervens. More prominent people
returned to the Catholic fold. Still more parishes were ready to come back. Now burdened
with more work, Francis and Louis had to look for more collaborators. With the arrival of
much-awaited collaborators - Frs Esprit de Beaumes, Cherubin, and Antoine de Tournon,
all Capuchins of the Lyons Convent and some other priests - Francis and Louis diversified
their activities. Although the new colleagues brought a great deal of relief to Francis and
Louis, they had a different style of functioning. They were not so gentle, simple, pleasant
or persuasive like Francis. They preferred to deliver fiery sermons and consequently often
landed in trouble.129

Added to the hostility of the people and the shortage of funds, there was another major
threat. There was a great fear of an impending attack on Savoy by King Henry IV. Francis’
father was against his son working under such dangerous conditions and he put pressure on
the bishop to call him back.130 Problems were mounting on the financial side, too. Francis
had no money to sustain himself or the mission. Although he expected help from the
Bishop, nothing came. The bishop himself was poor, and Francis was aware of it. Although
the Duke promised to help, he allotted no funds due to political compulsions.131

This was one of the most trying times for Francis de Sales in his entire life. During this
period, he prepared himself spiritually - prayed, fasted and did penance, more than his
body could bear. On the one side, he faced disappointment and a sense of helplessness and,
on the other, lack of money, support and the persuasion to leave the mission from his
family, relatives and friends.132

127
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, p.126.
128
Cf. Ibid., pp.142-143.
129
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1 pp. 268-270.
130
Cf. Ibid., pp. 191-192.
131
Cf. Ibid., pp. 205 ff.
132
Cf. Introduction to the Devout Life (IDL), in Biography of St Francis de Sales, p. 5.
124
2.3.1.4 His Attitude towards Protestants
Francis’ way of dealing with the Protestants is noteworthy. He did not have any ill feeling
or malice towards them. Instead, he tried to reach out to them. He wanted to enter into a
dialogue with them and discuss questions of faith with them. ‘He was an enemy of their
error, but a friend of their persons.’133 There are many examples which show how his
gentleness and friendly nature had a positive influence upon his enemies.

2.3.1.5 A Reflection
The mission in the Chablais sadly reminds one of the present situation in some parts of
Europe, where sometimes in the huge cathedrals and churches just a dozen or so people
come for the Sunday Mass and where people are often totally indifferent to the Church and
religious matters. In spite of the disappointing scenario, can the Church do something to
improve the situation? Is there any ray of hope in this hopeless condition? Does not the
approach and missionary enterprise of Francis de Sales inspire the Church even today?

It is perhaps important for the Church to consider the means and methods Francis used to
win over the Protestants. His convincing arguments, thought-provoking points on faith,
could bring about the conversion of people. Besides being a good preacher, writer and
orator, Francis was also personal in his approach to the people. Even his enemies could not
resist his personal and person-oriented approach. He was also shrewd in establishing
contacts with important and influential people which, in turn, convinced ordinary people to
follow suit. Francis was also a pastor who went after his people. Since the people did not
come to him, he made use of all methods to go after them like the Good Shepherd who
goes after the lost sheep. As Pope Francis says, the shepherds should have the ‘odour of the
sheep.’134 Francis de Sales used his vast knowledge for preaching, writing, arguing and
presenting the true faith.

2.3.2 His Approach to Mission

What did Francis do to make his missionary work in the Chablais a huge success? How
could he get relapsed Catholics back to the Church? A study of his approach could also be
relevant for the present time.

133
MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, p. 143.
134
Cf. Pope Francis’ homily on Chrism Mass on 28.03.2013.
125
2.3.2.1 Active Missionary with Deep-Rooted Spirituality
Francis was, no doubt, an active missionary. Without engaging in tireless action such a
work would not have been possible. But that was not the only reason for his success. His
work was firmly sustained by his deep spirituality. Ravier speaks of his method:

Slowly, patiently, Francis worked: his hope was in God. He prayed, fasted
and mortified himself. His daily Mass, celebrated at what a price, we know,
was his great source of courage. He treated with respect and charity those
Protestants who kept away from him, and above all he took them seriously.
For them he studied, wrote, and preached because it was the Gospel, the
Scriptures, and the Church that he had to present in all their purity so as to
make them accessible. By speech, undoubtedly, but especially by his entire
life and faith, the priest had to reveal to his separated brothers the spirit and
the heart of Jesus Christ.135

Even though he was fully engaged in activities, his life was deeply rooted in God. He knew
well that without basing his life in spirituality, his efforts would not bear fruit. Even if they
did, they were not the fruits desired by him and they were to be at his own personal and
spiritual expense.

2.3.2.2 Constant Personal Renewal

The main means of personal renewal for him was his intense devotion to the Holy
Eucharist and the sacrament of penance. Daily celebration of the Eucharist was of the
greatest importance for Francis. In spite of all the difficulties – sometimes he had to crawl
across the river Dranse on a plank in winter - and adverse weather, he celebrated the Holy
Mass. This devotion impressed others, even the Calvinists.136 Every month he visited his
spiritual director for confession and guidance. He highlights frequent confession as an
essential means of spiritual progress.137 Lajeunie speaks of ‘The Triple Bond’ that
sustained his life in the most difficult of times in the Chablais - prayer, alms and fasting.
“Faced with the toughness of the impenetrable mass to convert, he resolved to resort to
spiritual weapons: “Prayer-alms-fasting,” he said, “are the three strands that make the rope
too strong to be broken by the enemy.”138

135
RAVIER, Francis de Sales: Sage and Saint, pp. 76-77.
136
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, p. 129.
137
Cf. Francis MOGET, Church & Laity during the Time of St Francis de Sales: A Historical Survey in
Antony KOLENCHERRY (Ed.), St Francis de Sales and Laity, Bangalore: SFS, 1987, pp. 57-70. Here p. 69.
138
LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 197.
126
The difficulties, disappointments and failures did not put Francis down. He remained
patient, hopeful and optimistic and continued his work - an important attitude in personal
growth and in guiding people.139

2.3.2.3 Encounter, Dialogue and Debates with Protestants

How did Francis deal with the Protestants? The Catholic Church in those days knew
nothing of ecumenism or ecumenical dialogue. France was a hotbed of rivalry between the
Catholics and Protestants in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. There was no friendly
attitude between the groups. One should understand that Francis was a product of his time
and the thinking of the Church influenced him. Like other Catholics, he believed that the
Protestants were pagans and needed to be converted to Catholicism in order to be saved.

Francis was aware that most Protestant pastors knew very little of their faith. Francis, on
the other hand, was well-versed in Catholic theology through his education. On every
aspect of faith he could successfully debate with others. Francis called the Protestants to
public debates to discuss the faith. Very often the Protestants would not respond. They
could neither stand up to his eloquence nor present their new-found faith adequately. That
caused many people to lose faith in the Protestant ministers and to return to the Catholic
Church. Francis explained to them clearly, convincingly and in simple terms the Catholic
faith.140

2.3.2.3.1 Prominent Re-conversions to Catholicism

As a result of Francis’ personal encounters and the contacts he established and through his
preaching and his amiable nature, some prominent persons could be won back to the
Catholic fold. This served as a catalyst for others who were still undecided and created a
domino effect. Pierre Poncet, a well-known lawyer in the region, was one of them.141
Another prominent conversion was that of Antoine de Saint-Michel, the brother-in-law of
Baron d’Hermance, also known as D’Avully in 1596. This prominent convert, a Lord by
title, played an important role in the mission of Francis in the Chablais. The conversion of
Lord Avully made a deep impact on the Protestants and Catholics alike. Avully was a
learned and extremely headstrong Calvinist. He returned to the Catholic faith on 19
February 1596 in Thonon and made a public abjuration in Turin in the presence of the

139
Cf. Martin E.P. SELIGMAN, Learned Optimism. How to Change Your Mind and Your Life, New York:
Vintage Books, 2006, pp. 254-258.
140
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, pp.126-128.
141
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 204.
127
Nuncio. This conversion was a milestone in the progress of Francis’ mission in the
Chablais. It shook the faith of the people in Calvinism.142

Lord Avully was instrumental in obtaining necessary political support for the mission. He
came to the conferences of Francis and had had many personal dialogues with him for over
a year before he chose to become a Catholic. He stated publicly that nobody had ever
convinced him like the provost de Sales. His public conversion shocked the ministers in
Geneva.143

The Protestants were further shocked when Francis held a public dispute with Antoine de
La Faye, the apparent successor to Beze, but who could not stand up to the arguments of
Francis de Sales, and he ‘got angry and broke off the dispute.’144 This event provided a
great impetus to conversions in Thonon. A growing number of people wanted to know
more about Catholicism. Most of them had known about Catholicism only from the
Protestant ministers. It gave Francis a new opportunity to present Catholicism and to refute
Protestantism. People came to know that many Protestant ministers could not defend their
new-found religious beliefs before Francis. People began to doubt the authenticity of the
Protestant religion.145

Receiving the Protestants back to the Catholic fold was an enormous task for Francis. It
entailed taking care of their spiritual needs, being available to them and clearing their
doubts and reservations. On 23 April 1597, he wrote to Nuncio Riccardi: “These brothers,
these new Catholics, have exhausted me by their general confessions, but I have
experienced a tremendous consolation seeing them so pious.”146

2.3.2.3.2 Meeting with Theodore de Beze

At the request of Pope Clement VIII, Francis met Theodore de Beze, head of the Calvinists
in Geneva and successor to Calvin three times, in 1597. Beze had shown signs of mildness
in his approach to Catholicism. In the Catholic circles it was considered perhaps a sign for
unity. King Henry IV and the Pope were aware of this change of heart of the “Patriarch of
Geneva”.147

142
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, p. 122.
143
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, pp. 230-232.
144
Ibid., p. 233.
145
Cf. Ibid., pp. 232 -235.
146
As quoted by RAVIER, Francis de Sales: Sage & Saint, p. 84.
147
Cf. RAVIER, Ibid., pp. 82-83.
128
Earlier attempts to meet Beze privately were not successful. Finally, the first encounter
took place on 3 April 1597. It was a cordial meeting, although those who had knowledge of
the meeting, said that Beze lost his temper once on a certain issue. 148 There were two more
meetings between the two. The second meeting took place on 3 July and it too was cordial.
For the first meeting Francis was accompanied by Louis de Sales and for the second by
Antoine Favre and two others. The details of the third meeting are not known except that
Francis made known to Beze the offer of the Pope to pay him a pension in case he
converted. It was meant to look after himself because the converts were not eligible to any
pension in those times. The apparent intention to bring Beze back to the Catholic faith
could not be achieved.149

2.3.2.4 Popular Piety and Devotions

One of the most important popular faith events that Francis undertook to bring people back
to the Catholic fold was the use of popular piety and devotions. Notable among them was
the ‘Forty Hours’ devotion.

2.3.2.4.1 Forty Hours Devotion

What was the so-called Forty Hours devotion? Originally it was meant to be a spiritual
festival - "Oratio sine intermissione" (uninterrupted prayer) for the revival of faith. The
Forty Hours devotion was not something Francis invented. It is traced back to Milan in the
1530s, and was approved by Pope Paul III.150 This devotion spread quickly all over
Europe. Forty Hours was popularised by Philip Neri, Ignatius of Loyola and Charles
Borromeo. All these three saints were held in high esteem by Francis de Sales.151 Being a
product of Jesuit education, Francis was familiar with it – at least theoretically, and must
have heard of its efficacy from the Jesuits. He must also have been aware of this devotion
taking hold in different parts of Europe at that time.

2.3.2.4.2 Francis de Sales and Forty Hours

True, the Forty Hours devotion was not something that Francis de Sales had invented. He,
however, modified it to suit his particular situation. In the Chablais, the Forty Hours was a
celebration of faith with adoration, procession, veneration of the cross, preaching, music,
bonfire, and enacting biblical scenes. It could be described as a kind of popular mission, a

148
Cf. RAVIER, Francis de Sales: Sage & Saint, pp. 83- 85.
149
Cf. RAVIER, Ibid., pp. 86- 87.
150
See Forty Hours Devotion in Catholic Encyclopaedia: http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/06151a.htm.
(07.1.16).
151
See What is Forty Hours Devotion? in www.oblates.org/.../fortyhours devotion/fortyhours (10.1.16).
129
public demonstration of faith and religious fervour combined with popular celebrations.
The Eucharistic celebration and a procession with the Blessed Sacrament were central to
the celebration. There was altogether a festive atmosphere and the people were filled with
religious fervour. There were numerous lights, bonfires, music and singing. Biblical scenes
were enacted. It was a spiritual and temporal celebration.152

The success of the Forty Hours in the Chablais was mainly due to the creative and
innovative approach of Francis. Instead of making it a purely spiritual celebration, he made
it an occasion for him to have access to the people, who would not otherwise turn to him.
The public witness of faith and open-air conversion by prominent people moved many
others to return to the Catholic Church. Moreover, many understood and experienced first-
hand that the Catholic faith was not as dry and monotonous as the Protestants had made it
out to be. Forty Hours attracted a huge number of people and it turned out to be a great
success. Many people began to leave Calvinism and return to the Catholic faith.153

2.3.2.4.3 Forty Hours Devotion and Renewal of Faith

Forty Hours in the parish of Annemasse aroused popular enthusiasm and strengthened the
faith. As a result, more conversions followed. He introduced Forty Hours also in other
parishes. When Forty Hours was held in Thonon in 1598, it was also attended by the
Bishop. For the first time after the Reformation, Confirmation and Holy Orders were
administered there. It also included the Eucharistic procession, one of the central elements
of the whole celebration. Francis carried the Blessed Sacrament. On this occasion many
people publicly abjured Calvinism. These celebrations were successful, effective and
popular.154 For the second phase of the Forty Hours, even more guests were present. They
included, in addition to the bishop, the duke and the papal delegate, Cardinal de Medici.
The Cardinal was given a grand welcome in the town hall. The Bishop narrated the
activities of Francis and the whole developments in the mission to the papal delegate. The
duke introduced Francis as the ‘Apostle of the Chablais’ in the following words: “My
Lord, he whom I am representing to you is the Apostle of the Chablais; you see here a man
blessed by God and sent from heaven to us. Inflamed by great zeal for the salvation of

152
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, p. 146.
153
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, pp. 287-289. (See also MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis
de Sales: A Formative Biography, pp. 146-149).
154
Cf. RAVIER, Francis de Sales: Sage & Saint, pp. 90-95.
130
souls, he came into this province with the utmost courage and not without great peril to his
life, to spread the word of God, and plant the cross of our Lord.”155

The Protestant pastor Pierre Petit made his abjuration before the papal delegate, the duke
and the bishop. The duke encouraged the people of the Chablais to return to the faith. Thus
Forty Hours here turned out to be a grand success. Since Forty Hours was introduced in the
Chablais, fifty-six parishes returned to the faith. Every parish and every head of family
returned to the Catholic Church. It was a great achievement, and Francis was greatly
appreciated for taking initiatives that brought the faithful back to the Church.156 On 15
November 1603, Francis wrote to Pope Clement VIII: “…formerly we could hardly count
hundred Catholics in all the parishes together. Now hardly so many heretics could be
found.”157

2.3.2.4.4 Reflection
A pastoral reflection on his ministry in the Chablais could be profitable even for the
present times. Francis was absolutely effective in responding to the needs of the time. He
found out what was needed to bring the relapsed back to the Catholic fold, and he carried it
out with all determination. His personal approach, his way of dealing with the Protestants,
his knowledge and wisdom, his effective preaching and popular devotions and, above all,
his personal witness through his holy life bore abundant fruit. All the popular devotions he
employed and supported were strongly backed by his preaching and the full support of the
hierarchy of the Church. In his nearly five years of ministry (1594-1598) he re-converted
nearly the whole region back to Catholicism. This discernment of the right method for
evangelization, the zeal to follow it up and, above all, to support it with one’s own
authentic and holy life is the need of the time today. The Church is faced with a similar
situation in the present times – loss of faith, scandals in the Church, shrinking Catholic
population, total indifference to faith, all-pervading secularism, etc. How does she respond

155
RAVIER, Francis de Sales: Sage & Saint, p. 91. Emphasis mine.
156
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, pp.149-151.
157
Francis de SALES, Letter to Pope Clement VIII in Oeuvres de Saint François de Sales, AE, Tome XII :
LETTRES – Vol II, pp. 228-239 ; here pp. 238-239. For the German version, see Deutsche Ausgabe der
Werke des Hl Franz von Sales (DA), Band. 8, Briefe IV: Korrespondenz im Überblick, translated, selected,
introduced and edited by Franz REISINGER, (2nd ed.), Eichstätt: Franz Sales Verlag, 1999, pp. 89-93; here p.
92. The original letter to Pope Clement VIII was written in Latin. It reads as follows : Itaque, ut rem magnum
paucis dicam, ante duodecim annos in sexaginta quator parrochiis urbis Genevae vicinioribus, murisque
illius, ut ita dicam adjacentibus haeresis publice docebatur, ac ita universa occupabat ut nullus Catholicae
religioni locus superesset. Nunc autem totidem iisdemque locis Ecclesia Catholica extendit palmites suos, ac
ita viget ut nullus haeresi locus sit relictus; cumque antea ne centumquidem viri in tot parrochiis Catholici
apparerent, nunc ne centum quidem haeretici videantur, sed quique Catholicae fidei sacra flunt
celebranturque, adhibitis unicuique parrochiae propriis curionibus) AE, XII, pp. 237-238.
131
to the present situation? What can the Church do today to bring people back to her fold?
What is relevant for today – preaching, popular devotions or the use of the modern media?
Can the Church ever neglect the importance of individual witness and personal holiness?
Every Catholic needs to think about it today in the face of the difficulties faced by the
Church.

2.3.2.5 Preacher: Power of the Spoken Word

One of the great assets that Francis de Sales possessed was his style of preaching. As
priest, provost, missionary and bishop, he was a passionate preacher. As seen already,
Francis had begun to preach even before his priestly ordination. His skill and his style
steadily improved. He became a much-wanted preacher in Savoy and the whole of France.
He was invited to many places to preach and everywhere people flocked to listen to his
preaching.

2.3.2.5.1 Francis’ Style of Preaching

Francis was a preacher par excellence. What made his preaching so successful? His
preaching won hearts because he was preaching from the heart. He explained the Catholic
faith in a simple, easily understandable way to the people. He had the rare combination of
simplicity, clarity and depth. It is good to listen to Francis himself: “Our words must set
aflame, not by shouts and unrestrained gestures, but by inward affection. They must issue
from our heart rather than from our mouth. We must speak well, but heart speaks to heart,
and the tongue speaks only to men’s ears.”158

Francis’ style of preaching did not remain the same all the time. He modified and improved
it from time to time. We see a gradual change in his preaching style during the different
stages of his ministry. As a missionary in the Chablais, he focused more on the defence of
the Church, the Creed and instruction in faith. He strongly defended the Catholic faith and

158
Francis de SALES, On the Preacher and Preaching, translated and with an introduction and notes by
John K. Ryan, Washington: Henry Regenery Company, 1964, p. 64. This was originally a long letter written
by Francis de Sales to Cardinal Andre Fremyout on 5 October 1604, in reply to his request to give him
guidelines on preaching. It was officially published for the first time in 1626 in the first collection of his
letters. This letter appears in AE, XII, pp. 299-325. « Le souverain artifice c’est de n’avoir point d’artifice. Il
faut que nos paroles soyent enflammees, non pas par des cris et actions desmesurees, mais par l'affection
intérieure; il faut qu’elles sortent du coeur plus que de la bouche. On a beau dire, mais le coeur parle au
coeur, et la langue ne parle qu’aux oreilles ». p. 321. For the German version, see DA, 12, pp. 29-49. „Unsere
Worte müssen entflammt sein, nicht durch Schreie und maßlose Aktionen, sondern von innerem Feuer; sie
müssen mehr von Herzen kommen als aus dem Mund. Man hat gut reden, aber das Herz spricht zum Herzen,
die Zunge spricht nur zu den Ohren.“ p. 46.
132
refuted the errors spread by the Protestants on the Eucharist and other sacraments. His
preaching was also theologically based.159

Francis de Sales believed in the power of the spoken word. He said, “Words are alive on
your lips, on paper they are dead.”160 He confronted the Protestant ministers and
challenged them to discussions. In his preaching and discussions, Francis focused on the
Scripture and simplified it, which the Protestants often could not do.161 As bishop, his
preaching became more fatherly, based more on the love of God and the human response
to it. It also dealt with themes like the call to holiness, preparing for various holy seasons,
etc.162

2.3.2.5.2. His Objectives in Preaching

What should be the objectives of preaching, in the opinion of Francis de Sales? Should
preaching be used to show off one’s knowledge? Or should it be used to fill people with
fear of hell, punishment and eternal damnation? His understanding of preaching differed
greatly from the popular notion of preaching prevalent at that time. For Francis, some of
the main goals of preaching should be the following:

- To defend the faith and Catholic doctrines against Protestant onslaught. This has to
be seen in the context of the Reformation when the Catholic faith and teachings were
vehemently attacked by the Protestants. In order to defend the faith, Francis says, the
preacher should use solid arguments to establish the faith and to refute Protestant claims.
- To explain the faith in simple and correct manner to ordinary people. Preaching
should not be meant only for the learned and the intellectuals. More than for the learned,
the simple people need preaching, and it should be done in a manner, style and language
understandable to them.
- Another objective of preaching should be the communication of God’ love for
humanity. The preacher should try to bring out the intensity, depth and the extent of God’s
love. The deep awareness of God’s love for humanity and our love for Him should induce
a change of heart in the listener.
- Finally, the ultimate goal of preaching should be the conversion of heart in the
listener.163
Lajeunie comments on his style of preaching: “Here we see a ray of the classical style
breaking through in his text. From these beginnings, Francis de Sales, with his touching
account, speaking from heart to heart with his straightforward art, his radiant clear

159
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 169.
160
As quoted by LAJEUNIE, Ibid., p. 199.
161
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 200.
162
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 2, pp. 54-56.
163
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, pp. 166-170. [One should, however, take into
consideration that this opinion of Francis de Sales given here is mainly influenced by his missionary work in
the Chablais].
133
thinking, suffused with the warmth of his love, awakened in his little corner of Savoy a
militant fervour which we must watch as it spread over the countryside.”164

2.3.2.5.3 Personal Contact as Prelude and Postlude to Preaching

When Francis was in the Chablais, he used his personal contact and his loving approach to
attract people to his preaching. Francis used gentle persuasion as his method to move
people. He established contacts with a few elite, educated, relapsed Catholics. They came
to listen to his preaching. Francis believed that they were capable of spreading the message
effectively.

In the beginning, he preached rather aggressively and enthusiastically, attacking the

Protestants and trying to disprove them. Gradually he changed his style and became milder
in his use of language and focused more on using persuasive language. He focused himself
on the Catholic faith and the explanation and validity of the same. His persuasive use of
language is also equally noticeable in his letters.165 Although he boldly defended the
Catholic faith and courageously espoused the position of the Church, he avoided offending
others. So, gradually even the Protestants began flocking to his sermons. Through his
preaching he tried to remove their prejudices against Catholic priests (‘papist priests’). He
understood that preaching was the best tool to clear their doubts and misunderstanding and
to explain the faith in the simplest way through comparisons and practical application in
the language of the ordinary man.166

His Lenten sermons in Paris in 1602 had made a great impact on the people there. The
King wanted to hear him, and at his request Francis preached before him.167 He was
instantly acknowledged as a good preacher. In the following years also he preached in
Savoy and many different parts of France.168 His preaching moved hearts, and people
wanted to place themselves under his direction. Many people who listened to his preaching

164
LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p.170.
165
Cf. Elisabeth STOPP, in the ‘Introduction’ to the book, St Francis de Sales: Selected Letters, (2nd ed.),
Stella Niagra: De Sales Resource Center, 2011, p.19. Stopp speaks of Francis’ persuasive style here: “He
wrote trenchantly, confidently, neatly rounding off the clear statement of the profoundest truths with all
energy needed for polemics, but always charitably, already showing that secret gift of persuasion which
characterizes all his later work and most especially his letters.” p. 19.
166
Cf. Benedict MACKEY, St Francis de Sales as Preacher: A Study, translated from French by Thomas F.
DAILEY, Bangalore: Indian Institute of Spirituality, 1993, p. 29.
167
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p. 432.
168
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 2, pp. 416-417, 495-497.
134
were moved by it and sought his guidance. His Lenten sermons in Dijon in 1604 had
impressed many, and some of them would later seek his spiritual guidance.169

2.3.2.5.4 ‘Preaching as a Bishop’s Principal Duty’

Francis de Sales believed it was the duty of all ordained ministers to preach, each
according to his capacity and knowledge. He was convinced that a bishop is duty-bound to
preach. He said, “To preach is a bishop’s principal duty.”170 Lajeunie speaks of his
preaching as bishop: “The bishop returned from these apostolic journeys confirmed in his
idea that evangelical perfection is accessible to the people, that no one is excluded, that it
should be preached to all, but clearly, simply, with love and by example.”171

Many priests today are afraid to preach. They believe they do not have enough knowledge
to preach. In the opinion of Francis, it is enough to have sufficient knowledge of the
doctrine. Extraordinary knowledge is not required. One cannot have all the knowledge in
the world and one cannot be familiar with all the doctrines. However, one should have
ordinary knowledge of what one is preaching. One should have the courage and guts to
begin. No one should aspire to be a great preacher overnight. One becomes a preacher by
preaching.172 It is not necessary to have all the knowledge or to know all the doctrine, but
at the same time one should be humble enough to leave out the subjects one is ignorant of
or incapable of dealing with.173

In the opinion of Francis de Sales, the real success of preaching is not to make a big show,
as many thought in those days. It lies somewhere else. “When people leave the church after
a sermon they should not be saying: what a fine preacher! What a wonderful memory!
What a clever man! What a beautiful choice of words! On the contrary, their comments
should be, how sorry I should be for my sins! How good God is, how just! And so on. The
only real proof of the preacher’s success a person can give, after being greatly impressed
by a sermon, is the practical tribute of a better life - so that they may have life, and have it
more abundantly.”174

169
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, pp. 462-463.
170
SALES, On the Preacher and Preaching, p. 23.
171
LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, pp. 496-497.
172
Cf. SALES, On the Preacher and Preaching, p. 24.
173
Cf. Ibid.
174
As quoted by Vincent KERNS, Pulpit and Pew. A Study in Salesian Preaching, Visakhapatnam: SFS
Publications, 1976, p. 40. (See also LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, pp. 164-170).
135
2.3.2.5.5 Preaching in Paris
In 1618, when he was in Paris with Cardinal Maurice at the behest of the duke for a
diplomatic mission with King Louis XIII of France, he was asked by the Oratorians to
preach on the feast of St Martin in their church. Francis took up the offer. He had already
established himself as a preacher. The king, queen, the court, bishops, scholars and other
prominent persons in the city came to hear him preach in the church of the Oratory.
Vincent de Paul was among them. He was impressed by his preaching and he expressed it,
too: “The servant of God’s fervor shone forth in his intimate familiar talks. Those who
listened to him appeared to hang on his lips. He knew how to adapt to the capacities of
each and every one and regarded himself as under an obligation to all… as I thought this
over my mind, I felt such admiration, that I felt to see in him the man who the best ever
represented the Son of God living on earth.”175

Vincent de Paul was much edified and struck by the kindness and goodness of the Bishop
of Geneva. He says, “… we felt him overflowing with love for God and men; this love was
felt in the hearts of those listening to him and they all spoke of ‘their intense joy’ … I kept
saying to myself: How great is God’s goodness! O Lord, how good you are! God, how
good you are, since Bishop Francis de Sales, your creature, is himself so filled with
love.”176

Through his preaching he was also able to convert some Protestants. More than his
preaching and oratorical skills, what moved the hearts of the people was his character and
saintliness. Some called him a saint. A number of people prized his things as relics. People
could see that Francis de Sales imitated Christ so closely in his life. During his stay in Paris
he also held conferences for the clergy which were successful and were of great
importance for the renewal of the clergy. Although it was meant for the clergy in the parish
ministry, many others like abbots, religious and doctors were present.177

Francis made abundant use of examples, similes, comparisons and imagery in his writing.
He also advocated the use of comparisons, similes and imagery in preaching. He said
comparisons “have an inestimable efficacy to enlighten the understanding and move the

175
As quoted by LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. II, p. 415.
176
As quoted by LAJEUNIE, Ibid.
177
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Ibid., p. 417.
136
will.”178 This special quality of Francis de Sales is rightly appreciated and acknowledged in
the Church. Pope Pius XI remarked on the preaching of Francis de Sales:

In fact, St. Francis preached so well that his sermons were but "an exposition
of the grace and power which dwelt within his own soul." His sermons, since
they were largely made up of the teachings of the Bible and of the Fathers,
became not only a source of sound doctrine but were agreeable and
persuasive to his hearers as well by reason of the sweetness of the love
which filled his heart. It is not surprising then that such a great number of
heretics returned to the Church because of his work and that, following the
guidance of such a teacher, so many of the faithful have, during the last three
hundred years, attained a truly high degree of perfection.179

2.3.2.6 Writer: Power of the Written Word

Why did Pope Pius XI in 1923 declare St Francis de Sales patron of journalists and media
workers? What earned Francis this title? He lived at a time when there was no mass media
as we understand it today. It is because he used the written or print medium to
communicate the Gospel and to defend the Church. He is one of the shining examples of
persons who made use of the mass media for the ministry of the Church. His creativity and
ingenuity helped Francis to respond to the needs and difficulties in life.

2.3.2.6.1 Creative Use of the Pen

It is said ‘Necessity is the mother of invention.’ A zealous and creative person always finds
ways to reach his goal. In spite of all his efforts and loving approach, sometimes it was not
possible for Francis to get people to listen to his preaching. This situation forced him to use
his creative power in thinking and writing. He had already mastered French during his long
years of studies. He was also adept at making use of his knowledge of French in preaching
and writing. Through his study of humanism and French authors he had mastered the
effective use of the language.

When the people were forbidden by the Protestant authorities to meet Francis or to talk to
him, he could not sit idle in such a situation. So he had to act. Zeal for the mission and his
love for the people moved him to try out new ways of communicating with them. Herbert
Winklehner describes the situation in his article: “Yet all his efforts met with no success
since the majority of the people hesitated to listen to him speak, let alone listen to him
preach. So the idea came to him to use the newly invented printing press and the popular

178
SALES, On the Preacher and Preaching, p. 50.
179
Pope Pius XI, Rerum Omnium Perturbationem, encyclical of Pope Pius XI on St. Francis de Sales, 26 Jan
1923, No. 32. Through this encyclical Pope Pius XI declared St. Francis de Sales the patron of journalists and
writers.
137
medium of pamphlets to his own purposes. If people will not come to my sermons, thought
Francis, then I have to bring my sermons to the people. The pamphlets helped him do
that.”180 It is contested whether he wrote them personally by hand or got them printed.
Lajeunie believes they were handwritten.181

These short notes explaining the Catholic faith were simple in style, language and manner.
This action proved effective and fruitful. Francis slid their copies under the doors of
houses. He also displayed them as placards in public places. These tracts explained
different aspects of the Catholic creed, proving the authenticity of the Catholic Church,
defence of the Holy Cross, etc. He called them Meditations or Memorial. They were later
published as Controversies.182

In a years’ time he brought out 85 pamphlets which explained the doctrines of the Church
and defended her in the face of virulent attack by the Protestants. Francis was using a novel
method for evangelisation and getting the message across to the people. He was using a
new type of mass media for evangelisation. This is the reason why in 1923 Pope Pius XI
declared St Francis de Sales patron of journalists and media workers.183

2.3.2.6.2 Writing for a Sacred Purpose

One of the main purposes of Francis de Sales in taking up the ‘flyer campaign’ was to
defend the Church and her faith. He used his brilliant style not only to defend the Church
and her doctrine but also to expose the errors of the heretics. His explanation of the true
faith and the defence of the Church done in such an elegant manner attracted the people to
his sermons.184 To quote Pope Pius XI again: “In truth, the many explanations of doctrine
and the arguments which he has marshalled in orderly array, are worthy of all praise. With
these arguments, to which must be added a subtle and polished irony that characterizes his
controversial manner, he easily met his adversaries and defeated all their lies and
fallacies.”185

180
Herbert WINKLEHNER, St Francis de Sales: The Patron of Journalists, translated from German by
Eugene KELLY and edited by Thomas DAILEY, (originally published in the 2003 Volume of the magazine
Das Licht, Eichsätt: Franz Sales Verlag. Published in English by the Salesian Center, Niagara), p. 3.
181
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Francis de Sales, Vol. I, pp. 202-203.
182
Already referred to in this work; for details see the footnotes under section 2.3.1.3.
183
Cf. Pope Pius XI, Rerum Omnium Perturbationem, Nos. 22-23.
184
Cf. WINKLEHNER, St Francis de Sales: The Patron of Journalists, pp. 3-4.
185
Pope Pius XI, Rerum Omnium Perturbationem, No. 24.
138
Pope Pius XI also found in the Controversies a demonstration and defence of the Catholic
faith. He says in his Apostolic Letter, “Controversies, in which unquestionably there is to
be found a full and complete demonstration of the truth of the Catholic religion.”186

2.3.2.6.3 His Style and Language

Francis had a talent for writing. Elisabeth Stopp who made a detailed study of his works,
especially his letters, remarks, “He wrote trenchantly, confidently, neatly rounding off the
clear statement of the profoundest truths with all the energy needed for polemics, but
always charitably, already showing that secret gift of persuasion which characterizes all his
later work and most especially his letters.”187

This view is also supported by Winklehner who argues that Francis’ writing, most
especially his letters, were person-oriented and reader-oriented, taking into account the
situation of each individual person:

Not only does his language fascinate, but also Francis de Sales could almost
effortlessly place himself in the shoes of those he addressed. His style varied
according to who his reader was. The very same topic was handled in totally
different words and examples with a cloistered nun than with the president
of the parliament of Bourges or the scholarly Jesuit, Possevino. But one
thing is for certain - his letters always exhibit a high degree of respect, which
Francis de Sales wanted to express to each individual. The inquiry each one
made, regardless of what it might be, is important to that person and
therefore to him. Thus, he tried to take the matter at hand as seriously as if it
were the most important thing in the world.188

All his works display his powerful but at the same time persuasive use of language,
exuding charity and openness, wonderful use of imageries and examples from day-to-day
life, simplicity of style and elegance. His language was also characterised by pleasantness.
Pope Pius XI says:

Although at times his language appears to be somewhat strong, nevertheless,

as even his opponents admitted, his writings always breathe a spirit of
charity which was ever the controlling motive in every controversy in which
he engaged. This is so true that even when he reproached these erring
children for their apostasy from the Catholic Church, it is evident that he had
no other purpose in mind than to open wide the gates by which they might
return to the Faith. In the Controversies one readily perceives that same
broad-mindedness and magnanimity of soul which permeate the books he
wrote with the purpose of promoting piety. Finally, his style is so elegant, so

186
Pope Pius IX, Apostolic Letter on 16 Nov 1877.
187
Elisabeth STOPP in ‘Introduction’ to St. Francis de Sales: Selected Letters, p. 19. (already quoted in this
work).
188
WINKLEHNER, St Francis de Sales: The Patron of Journalists, pp. 6-7.
139
 polished, so impressive that the heretical ministers were accustomed to warn
their followers against being deceived and won over by the flatteries of the
missionary from Geneva.189

The Pope is full of appreciation for the style of Francis de Sales. Through his dignified
style Francis could move the hearts of people. “He was also accustomed to illustrate his
thoughts by an almost infinite variety of metaphors, examples, and quotations taken for the
most part from the Holy Scriptures, all of which gave the impression that what he wrote
flowed no less from his heart and the depths of his being than from his intellect….He
wrote at all times in a dignified but facile style, varied now and then by a marvellous
acuteness in thought and grace of expression, and by reason of these qualities his writings
have proven themselves quite agreeable reading…”190 Pope Paul VI also praises the style of
Francis de Sales in his writings:

Even more than the art of dialogue, he had a remarkable talent for writing.
The books which he wrote are marked with an authentic wealth of doctrine,
a profundity of thought, a natural beauty adorned with grace! That which he
treats proceeds with measure: he pleases, instructs, moves in the highest
degree. When he writes, the reader has but one fear, as did the listener when
he was preaching; it is that he will finish much too soon. …191

Francis composed the Controversies at a relatively young age and in a situation where he
had no access to a library or to many books of reference. As a young priest he proved that
he had a talent for writing.192 Lajeunie believes that given a choice, Francis would have
preferred writing books to administering his diocese. Writing was a ministry close to the
heart of Francis de Sales.193

2.3.2.7 The Power of Personal Touch

Another important characteristic of Francis’ ministry was his personal touch which he
established and maintained with people. The success of his mission in the Chablais was
also due to the personal contacts he established with people. It might be important to
consider this point as it forms a central part of the Salesian approach to mission and
ministry. To work in a foreign and unfriendly atmosphere was not easy for the young
missionaries Francis and his cousin Louis. To get access to the people, who were forbidden
to meet them, was a daunting task.

189
Pope Pius XI, Rerum Omnium Perturbationem, No. 25.
190
Ibid., Nos. 12, 15.
191
Pope Paul VI, Sabaudiae gemma, Apostolic Letter on the 400th Anniversary of the Birth of St Francis de
Sales on 29 January 1967, translated by Neil KILTY, The Salesian Centre for Faith and Culture.
192
Cf. WINKLEHNER, St Francis de Sales: The Patron of Journalists.
193
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Francis de Sales, Vol. II, p. 445.
140
He tried to establish personal contact with people as the first stage of ministry. Francis,
undeterred by the difficult and hostile atmosphere, went around on foot and lost no chance
to meet with people. He lovingly encountered and got into conversation with them.194 He
walked through the streets and tried to create personal contact with people. It was difficult
for the people to resist Francis. His gentleness and pleasing manners attracted people to
him. They found it difficult to turn away from his compelling personal characteristics like
gentleness, warmth and empathy. Francis knew well the magnetic power of these human
qualities. Those who came to him and got to know him, found him irresistibly personal and
welcoming. Francis also employed these qualities generously in his guidance of souls and
encouraged everyone to acquire them.195

Having established personal contacts, it was easy for Francis to invite them to come to his
preaching and liturgical services. His fervour and interiority radiated warmth. Radiation of
this warmth and gentleness had a purpose – to win their souls. His extreme gentleness
attracted people to him. He was a man for all.196 Lajeunie puts it aptly: “A condition of its
success depended on the spirit that the saint was able to gradually create through his
personal contact; this appears to be the essential point. After their various stormy fits of
anger, the Chablaisians never forgot this Salesian spirit; this spirit would remain in their
memories, a consolation and an enlightenment.”197

2.3.2.7.1 Francis: A Person with a Healing Touch

In considering the personality of Francis de Sales, one of the striking things that comes to
the fore is his healing touch. Looking at his personality, one could say he had all the
qualities required of a personal counsellor or psychotherapist. Francis de Sales, even in an
inimical territory, was a pleasant person to deal with. The person and manners of Francis
were appealing and irresistible. In the person-centred approach of counselling empathy,
congruence and unconditional positive regard are considered pillars of the therapeutic
process. These qualities can be clearly seen in Francis. In his dealings with people, he did
not have any prejudice or pre-judgement. He had no malice towards anyone; he exuded
cheerfulness and positive energy. He was also an extremely welcoming person. His

194
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Francis de Sales, Vol.1, pp. 194-195.
195
Many chapters in Introduction (IDL) are devoted to the acquisition of these qualities. See, for example,
Part 3, Chapters 1-9. (See also Devasia MANALEL, Spiritual Direction: A Methodology, Bangalore: SFS,
2005, pp. 300-305).
196
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p.198.
197
LAJEUNIE, Ibid., p. 194.
141
pleasantness would help people to calm down. Mookenthottam says, “The pleasant,
peaceful and cheerful manners of Francis calmed the people.”198

Even the Protestant ministers, who were opposed to him, were impressed by his gentleness
and manners. He wanted to contact them and discuss with them matters of faith. He was
“an enemy of their error but a friend of their persons.”199 Some of the testimonies about
Francis de Sales throw more light on this topic. Lajeunie quotes one of them: “With his
extreme gentleness and condescension, he encouraged the humblest to address him… and
was approachable for them as for the highest in rank.”200

Another testimony shows how he was one among his people and how he shared their lives.
It tells he was able to identify himself with the people. Lajeunie notes: “He would talk to
anybody, show interest in their work, health, sorrows and joys of all.” He adds, “He was
among them but remained discreet; he knew how to bide his time, never insisted
inconsiderately, nor “made game” of anybody. Thus, day by day, he slowly won over
“those good people’s” affection; he enticed all sorts of persons to talk over points of
religion with him; he began to be “relied upon”; everybody, “noblemen, commoners,
working people” commenced loving him.”201

2.3.2.7.2 Pastor among His Folk

The success of the Chablais mission, as seen already, could also be partially attributed to
the approach of Francis de Sales. His gentle and loving manners and personal approach
played a great role. He endeared himself to the people. His dedicated service there would
earn him the title, the Apostle of the Chablais.202 Francis knew well that without getting to
know the people and having personal contact with them, he could not be effective. In fact,
he was there only for that purpose - to get in touch with them, to care for them, to bring
them back to the Church. To fulfil this great challenge he had to imitate Jesus who went on
foot on the way in Galilee and Judea:

Francis had only one unique model in his apostolate by personal contact:
Jesus travelling the countries of Galilee and Judea; not only did he carry him
in his heart, he kept him in his head; he took inspiration from his gentleness,
his kindness, his forthright speech, his loyalty; so, first and foremost, Francis

198
MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: Formative Biography, p.136.
199
Ibid., p. 143.
200
As quoted by LAJEUNIE, Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p.198.
201
As quoted by LAJEUNIE, Ibid.
202
Cf. RAVIER, Francis de Sales: Sage & Saint, p. 91. (See also LAJEUNIE, Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, pp.
320-321, 339-340).
142
 was the perfect courteous gentleman; his object was to do good even to the
neglect of his advantage. On principle, he usually travelled on foot; walking
enabled him to meet artisans near their shops and peasants on the way to
their fields. Thus, a basic relation from man to man could be established; he
wished to be one man among other men and to offer to all a pleasant and
friendly attitude. Slowly but surely, he will make them love him and thus
breach the wall that his opponents had tried to build around him. His secret
lay in multiplying relations with people after the first established contact.
One sympathetic ear would bring along another and each new friend spread
his influence abroad.203

Such was the way the saint found his way into the hearts of people. The approach, but in a
more intensive way, will be treated later in this work. In the latter part of this work, efforts
will also be made to see the similarities between the approach of Francis de Sales and that
of modern person-centred psychotherapy. Interestingly, one finds many similarities
between the two.

2.4 Two Important Meetings

There are two important meetings in the life of Francis de Sales which changed the course
of his life. One was in Rome and the other in Paris. These two meetings also speak of his
person, his personal attractiveness and how he was appreciated and loved even by the Pope
and the King. Francis won the hearts not only of peasants and ordinary folk but also of
nobles, royals, the highest ecclesiastical authorities in Rome and even of the Pope.

2.4.1 Francis in Rome: Meeting with the Pope and the Examination

In 1597, the health of Bishop de Granier of Geneva deteriorated and he was thinking of
making Francis the co-adjutor bishop. It was also the desire of the Duke. The bishop could
not take up his ad limina visit to Rome and he wanted to send Francis instead as his
representative. In November 1597, when Francis was about to leave for Rome, he fell
seriously ill and could not take up the journey. He left for Rome only in November 1598.
Pope Clement VIII gave him audience after Christmas.204

In Rome, Francis was also examined on 22 March 1599 for nomination to the bishopric. It
was already clear that Bishop de Granier was looking for a successor in Francis. Francis
did outstandingly well in the examination by answering brilliantly all the questions put to

203
LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. 1, p.194.
204
See The biographical sketch of St Francis de Sales in IDL, p. 5.
143
him by the learned men of the day, which included Cardinal Frederic Borromeo, Cardinal
Robert Bellarmine (later Saint and Doctor of the Church) Baronius and Borghese. The
Pope was so overawed by his answers that at the end of the examination he came down and
embraced Francis to show his appreciation and admiration.205

Three days later, on 25 March, he assisted at the Mass of the Pope, which was a special
privilege and a sign of appreciation and acceptance. Lajeunie speaks of a mystical
experience which Francis had during the Mass.206

As things were slowly appearing better, a war broke out between France and Savoy in
August 1600. Savoy was invaded by France. Savoy became a vassal of the King of France.
The bishop and the coadjutor were now subjects of the king. It was a delicate situation for
Francis and the whole diocese. The situation in the Chablais caused great concern to the
Bishop and Francis. Chablais was overrun by the army of King Henry IV. They feared that
Protestantism would return to the Chablais. The commanders stationed there were
predominantly Protestant. But the King promised that Catholicism would be protected. In
spite of the war and atrocities by the soldiers, most of the converts remained faithful.207
After Lent in 1601, Francis returned to the Chablais mission. In spite of war and
occupation, conversion to Catholicism continued in the Chablais.

2.4.2 Francis in Paris: with the King

In 1602, Francis was sent on a diplomatic mission by Bishop Granier to meet King Henry
IV concerning some ecclesiastical matters. Francis’ stay in Paris was a turning point in his
life. He was returning to Paris after fourteen years. He reached Paris on 22 January 1602.
He was astonished by the changes that had taken place in these years. The College of
Clermont, where he had studied, was now closed for good. He met the Nuncio. One of the
main intentions of Francis was to get revenues to re-establish parishes in Gex, a part of the
Geneva diocese. His mission was a failure. He was even accused of treason and taken to
the king. But the king realising his innocence let him go free.208

The king came to know of Francis’ work in Paris and was greatly pleased. Francis
preached before the king on 14 April 1602. He was deeply impressed and wanted to keep

205
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol.1, p. 358.
206
Cf. Ibid., p. 363.
207
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, pp. 162-163.
208
Cf. Ibid., pp. 166-167.
144
Francis in Paris. He even offered to make him the Archbishop of Paris when the see fell
vacant. But Francis was not willing to leave his poor diocese in Geneva. Years later, in
1608 the Archbishopric of Paris was once again offered to Francis who replied that he was
ready to obey the king only if Pope Paul V had wished it.209 The king held Francis in high
esteem. It is said that the king spoke of the coadjutor as “the Phoenix of Bishop” or again
“as a rare bird on this earth.”210

In the opinion of Ravier, there were many common qualities between Francis and the
King: “The two men had certain qualities in common: finesse, wit, good common sense
that went right to the essentials, a ‘round simplicity’ and a certain charm that no one could
resist… only they made different uses of these shared qualities.”211 During his stay there,
he met the king many times, made a profound impression on him and the court but his
mission did not bear the expected fruit. Francis returned from Paris apparently without
success but with plenty of success on several other fronts.

2.5 Rise to Fame in Paris as Preacher and Spiritual Guide

Francis had to remain in Paris for many months, much longer than expected. Although his
diplomatic mission in Paris had failed, he was greatly successful on another front -
preaching. As a preacher, Francis became instantly successful. His preaching converted
many people and helped him to establish contact with influential people.

Francis’ fame as preacher spread instantly. During his stay in Paris he was much sought
after by the people there. Meanwhile, he got the opportunity to interact with a group of
people whom he had pastorally helped. It was a group of learned and saintly people who
met in the house of Madam Acarie, wife of a magistrate. This was a group of intellectuals
with a mystical tendency. Francis associated often with this group. It is also likely that he
helped and guided them in spiritual matters. During this time he also developed friendship
with Madam Acarie. She was a spiritual woman with mystical experiences. She wanted to
take Francis as her spiritual director. Francis wanted to be only her confessor as she
already had a spiritual director. The Acarie circle had a profound influence on Francis. His

209
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, p.178.
210
Cf. RAVIER, Francis de Sales: Sage & Saint, p. 112. (For more details see, pp. 108-116).
211
Ibid.
145
experience in this spiritual circle also proved enrichment for Francis.212 On his return to
Annecy, he received the sad news that Mgr. de Granier had passed away. In November
1602, Francis received the papal bull of his nomination as Bishop and on 8 December
1602, he was consecrated Bishop of Geneva in the church of Thorens. In spite of his busy
life and activities, Francis always led a life of prayer and maintained a spirit of
contemplation. He was firmly convinced that the spiritual basis of life should not be
shattered by the ups and downs of life.

Concluding Remarks

The life and work of Francis de Sales is a great inspiration for missionaries all over the
world. Francis shows through his own work what approaches are needed, what steps could
bring fruit, how to get along in an inimical atmosphere. His missionary spirit has inspired
many founders of religious orders. Fr Peter Marie Mermier, founder of the Missionaries of
St Francis de Sales (MSFS) is one of them. While starting a missionary, religious
congregation, he stated that the missionaries should be imbued with the spirit, approach
and spirituality of St Francis de Sales. The constitutions of the MSFS says: “Our Founder,
Father Peter Mermier, was inspired by the missionary zeal of St Francis de Sales, the great
Apostle of the Chablais and a great master of the spiritual life.”213

If one looks critically at the ministry of the Church today, one notices that an all-pervasive
‘impersonalism’ has crept into her. Ministry, administration of the Church, and care of
souls have frequently become business-like and devoid of compassion or gentleness. Does
it have the power to attract or to appeal to the hearts of the people? There seems to be an
urgent need for the personal formation of the clergy and all who are in pastoral care.
Pastors today need to acquire and develop necessary qualities which help them to be with
and to identify themselves with the faithful. Pastoral ministry in our millennium requires
that pastors sense the “odour of the sheep”214 as Pope Francis says. Some of the qualities
shown by Francis de Sales in his pastoral work are useful, nay, indispensable for ministry
in today’s world.
212
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, pp. 174-176. Regarding Madam
Acarie, she persevered in her intense spiritual life. After the death of her husband, she joined the Carmelite
Order as a lay sister. Her own three daughters entered the same Order. She was also instrumental in bringing
the Discalced Carmelite Order to France.
213
Constitutions of the Missionaries of St Francis de Sales (MSFS - Fransalians), Rome: 2007, No. 5.
214
Pope Francis, Chrism Mass homily on Holy Thursday, 28 March 2013. Benno ELBS, Bishop of Feldkirch
(Austria) has dealt with this topic in detail in his well-known book, Im Stallgeruch der Schafe. Wege
Pastoraler Arbeit im 3 Jahrtausend, (roughly - non-literal - translated, ‘Having the Odour of the Sheep: Ways
of Pastoral Ministry in the Third Millennium’), Vienna: Styria Premium, 2014.
146
 CHAPTER 3

SPIRITUAL DIRECTION IN SALESIAN TRADITION

Introduction

There is no denying that St Francis de Sales is one of the best known spiritual directors in
the history of the Catholic Church. Francis, as a guide and spiritual director, has been an
inspiration to many, even to Popes. In the words of Pope Pius IX:

Our predecessor Clement IX, of holy memory, regarded Francis’ teaching to

be of such value that, before he was Pope, he said that de Sales through his
celebrated writings had fashioned a kind of holy arsenal for the benefit of
souls and, after he became Pope, he approved this antiphon in Francis’
honor: ‘Our Lord filled Saint Francis with the Spirit of understanding, and
Francis supplied an abundance of teaching for God’s people.’ Benedict XIV,
of holy memory, in agreement with his predecessors, hastened to affirm that
the works of the Genevan Prelate had been written with a divinely acquired
knowledge. Relying on the authority of Francis, he resolved many difficult
questions and called Francis ‘the wisest guide of souls.’”1

Pope Benedict XVI said in one of his audiences dedicated to St Francis de Sales, “Yet
above all, St Francis de Sales was a director: from his encounter with a young woman,
Madame de Charmoisy, he was to draw the inspiration to write one of the most widely read
books of the modern age, An Introduction to the Devout Life.”2

As already seen in the previous chapter, Francis de Sales was an exceptional pastor imbued
with the Spirit of Jesus. That chapter also dealt with his person-oriented and salutary way
of working among his folk. This chapter deals specifically with his spiritual direction - the
underlying ideas, his philosophy and understanding of human beings, his method and
approach and the specific characteristics of the Salesian approach. To understand his
method of spiritual direction well, it is important to look at spiritual direction in the
tradition of the Church.

1
Pope Pius IX, Dives in Misericordia Deus. Emphasis mine.
2
Pope Benedict XVI, General Audience on 2 March 2011. An Introduction to the Devout Life (Philothea) is
the most widely read spiritual classic of Francis de Sales. It has been translated into many languages and has
constantly been in the best-seller list of Christian Literature.
147
3.1 Spiritual Direction in the Tradition of the Church

Recent decades have shown a growing interest in spirituality and spiritual direction. The
period has witnessed an integration of spirituality into professional psychology and vice
versa.3 Many books on spiritual direction have been published. Empirical researches have
been done on its efficacy as well as drawbacks. 4 There have been institutes and
associations set up to train people for spiritual direction. One such classical association is
Spiritual Directors International (SDI).5 Numerous journals in this field bear testimony to
this fact.6

3.1.1 What is Spiritual Direction?

Spiritual direction deals with the mystery of the love-relationship between God and man. It
is basically an interpersonal relationship in which one person assists another to develop
and come to greater maturity in the life of the Spirit, that is, the life of faith, hope, and
love. It is an interpersonal relationship with a ‘triangular dimension’ in which a person (the
directee7) assisted by another (the director) tries to discern and follow the will of God. It
has a triangular dimension because three persons are involved – directee, director and the
Spirit (God). The essential method of spiritual direction is conversation. The main tasks of
spiritual direction are outlined as follows: to help the individual discern the will of God, to
have self-knowledge and self-acceptance, to help one to detach from one’s ego and to
follow the will of God.8

Pope Francis in his address to the religious in May 2015 stressed the need for for spiritual
direction. He also emphasized that it a ministry open to the laity. He makes it clear that the

3
Cf. Gary W. MOON, Introduction to Special Issue on Spiritual Direction: Part One, in Journal of
Psychology and Theology, Vol. 30, No. 4, 2002, CA, USA: Biola University, pp. 261-263.
4
Cf. Hermann –JOSEF WAGENER / Klaus KIEßLING, Empirischer Zugang zu Geistlicher Begleitung.
Erste Ergebnissequalitätiver Forschung, (roughly translated, Empirical Approach to Spiritual Direction. The
First Results of a Qualitative Research) in Wege zum Menschen (WzM), No. 60, 2008, Göttingen:
Vadenhoeck & Ruprecht (V&R unipress), pp. 323-333. This empirical study of spiritual directors has
emphasized the need for pastoral psychological insights for spiritual direction.
5
See for details: http://www.sdiworld.org/
6
Cf. Janet K. RUFFING, Recent Literature and Emerging Issues in the Ministry of Spiritual Direction, in
Spiritus: A Journal of Christian Spirituality, Vol. 2, No. 1, Spring 2001, pp. 99-107, published by John
Hopkins University, p. 99.
7
I use the word ‘directee’ in this work to refer to one who receives guidance in spiritual direction, for lack of
a better word. Terms like ‘client,’ or ‘counselee’ have different connotations and may lead to
misunderstanding. Sometimes the word ‘spiritual child’ is used, if the context requires it.
8
Cf. Ephrem NARICULAM, Spiritual Direction and Formation: A Pneumo-Psychic Approach, in Indian
Journal of Spirituality (IJS), Vol. XVI, No. 3, (336-379), 2003, p. 339. IJS is published by Indian Institute of
Spirituality (IIS), Bangalore-10.
148
charism of spiritual direction is not limited to the clergy or the religious. He believes that it
is primarily charism of lay people. men and women, religious and non-religious: “ ‘But it
is a charism of lay people.!’ Spiritual direction is not an exclusive charism of the
presbytery: it’s a charism of the laity! In early monasticism lay people were the great
directors.”9 Pope Francis also reminds the superiors that have the obligation to get
sufficient people trained in this field:

When the superiors see that a man or woman in that congregation or that
province has that charism of a spiritual father, they must try to help them to
be formed, to perform this service. It is not easy. … The superiors have the
responsibility of looking, in the community, in the congregation, in the
province, for those who have this charism, to give this mission and form
them, help them with this. To accompany on the path is to go step by step
with the consecrated brother or sister.10

3.1.1.1 Some Contemporary Definitions

Sandra Schneiders gives a simple, direct and contemporary definition: “Spiritual direction
could be defined as a process carried out in the context of a one-to-one relationship in
which a competent guide helps a fellow Christian to grow in spiritual life by means of
personal encounters that have the directee's spiritual growth as their explicit object.”11

In the words of Poulose Mangai, “The goal of spiritual direction is to help one to find God
in one's life and respond to that presence with one’s whole being. Spiritual direction also
helps one to discover the vocation of one’s life in the plan of God. It deepens one’s
relationship with God and ultimately leads one to find rest in God.”12 Writing specifically
about spiritual direction in the Roman Catholic tradition, Gene Barrette defines spiritual
direction, “… as the help or guidance that a person (directee) seeks and another (director)
gives over a period of time in the process of growing in a relationship with God. This
process unfolds under the continual impulse, inspiration, and action of the Holy Spirit.
Spiritual direction, therefore, involves three persons: the directee, the director and the Holy
Spirit.”13

9
Address of His Holiness Pope Francis to Consecrated Men and Women of the Diocese of Rome, in Rome
on 16 May 2015. https://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/speeches/2015/may/documents/papa-
francesco_20150516_religiosi-roma.html (11.1. 2016)
10
Ibid.
11
Sandra SCHNEIDERS, The Contemporary Ministry of Spiritual Direction, in Kevin G. CULLIGAN (Ed.),
Spiritual Direction: Contemporary Readings, Locust Valley, NY: Living Flame Press, 1983, (41-56), p. 46.
12
Poulose MANGAI, Spiritual Direction: Lights from the Early Church - Part 1, in IJS, Vol. XVI, No. 4,
(422-454), 2003, p. 424.
13
Gene BARRETTE, Spiritual Direction in the Roman Catholic Tradition, in Journal of Psychology and
Theology, 2002, Vol. 30. 4, (290-302), p. 290.
149
He says further that in the Catholic tradition, spiritual direction takes place in the context
of the tradition of the Church and of the sacraments. It is also a relational process which
involves a deeper discernment of the will of God and a greater openness to the Spirit.
“Christian spiritual direction becomes specifically Roman Catholic when done within the
context of the Catholic Church’s understanding of Scripture, is connected to its sacraments,
and is aware of the teaching and guidelines that have protected and fostered a variety of
spiritualities over the centuries of the Church’s history.”14 He also emphasizes the
relational nature of spiritual direction. “Spiritual direction is a relational process in which
the director and directee develop attentiveness to the action of the Holy Spirit in the person
seeking direction.”15

Barry and Connolly’s definition of spiritual direction lays emphasis on the relationship
with God and living out this relationship with all its consequences. Since living out this
relationship is not always easy, a person requires help on his way: “We define Christian
spiritual direction, then, as help given by one believer to another that enables the latter to
pay attention to God’s personal communication to him or her, to respond to this personally
communicating God, to grow in intimacy with this God, and to live out the consequences
of the relationship.”16

God is always present in spiritual direction. He is the third ‘invisible’ person in such a
relationship. The relationship between the director and directee is oriented to and focused
on God. Barry and Connolly also consider the relationship with God the core of spiritual
direction: “For us, spiritual direction is concerned with helping a person directly with his
or her relationship with God. It may well be that in each of the human problems mentioned
earlier the most fundamental issue is that relationship and its underlying questions: ‘Who is
God for me, and who am I for God?’ ”17

3.1.1.2 Spiritual Direction and Pastoral Counselling

There have been numerous instances of misunderstanding and confusion between spiritual
direction and pastoral counselling. Although the two are related, they are not the same.
Spiritual direction has an entirely spiritual character and may or may not use psychological
insights. Pastoral counselling, on the other hand, as the term indicates, tends to apply the

14
BARRETTE, Spiritual Direction in the Roman Catholic Tradition, p. 290.
15
Ibid.
16
William A. BARRY / William J. CONNOLLY, The Practice of Spiritual Direction, (2nd ed.), Harper
Collins e-books (Kindle), 2014, p. 8.
17
BARRY / CONNOLLY, Ibid., p. 5.
150
insights, know-how and methods of psychology and psychotherapy. Some approaches are
more psychological, and others less so. Spiritual direction is to be differentiated from
pastoral counselling and spiritual counselling. Carolyn Gratton makes a difference between
spiritual counselling and spiritual direction:

These guides (with listening hearts) attempt to make connections between an

ultimate direction or ‘flow of all that is’ and the concrete life circumstances
of both themselves and the people who seek them out. If spiritual
counselling is the goal, they focus on the longing human spirit as it struggles
for meaning in its personal life field. If, however, spiritual direction is
sought, they aim further at awakening the heart to participation in the
Mystery’s self-communication within the guidelines laid down by specific
revealed tradition. Thus spiritual direction in any place or time is always
nuanced by cultural differences as well as by potential variety of faith and
form traditions.18

In my approach I see spiritual direction as a relationship that exists between two persons in
a pastoral context - one seeking help and the other helping - with a view to discerning
God’s will and leading a fuller Christian life. The directee who seeks help and the director
who offers to help him and the God-centredness of the whole process are integral elements
of this relationship. In the Catholic context, spiritual direction is concerned with helping
the directee in his/her relationship with God. That is one of the ultimate goals of spiritual
direction.19

3.1.2 A Short History of Spiritual Direction in the Catholic Church

Spiritual direction is not anything new in the history of the Church. It has been an integral
part of the ministry of the Church over the centuries. Authors like Erasto Fernandes and
Carolyn Gratton are of the opinion that the source of spiritual direction can be traced back
to the ministry of Jesus who is presented as a guide, mentor and counsellor in the New
Testament, especially in the Gospel of John.20 One could even consider Jesus as a spiritual
director. No doubt, Jesus, with his deep insight into and a great understanding of human
nature, could help a large number of people. To encounter people, to listen to them with
empathy, to show them concern and love and to help them with his kind words filled with
understanding and consolation was integral to the ministry of Jesus. Jesus’ ministry was

18
Carolyn GRATTON, Spiritual Direction, in Michael DOWNEY (Ed.), The New Dictionary of Catholic
Spirituality, Collegeville, Minnesota: The Liturgical Press, 1993, (911-916), p. 912. Emphasis in the
original.
19
Cf. BARRY / CONNOLLY, The Practice of Spiritual Direction, pp.1-12.
20
Cf. Erasto FERNANDES, Spiritual Direction or Pastoral Counselling or both? in IJS, XIV, No. 4, 2001,
pp. 392-418.
151
God-centred and he led people to God and helped them experience God’s love, kindness,
mercy and healing touch. No one who approached Jesus with an open heart or sought his
help and intervention was ever turned down. Jesus gave a new lease of life and a new
approach to all who approached him with openness. Therefore, it would not be wrong to
say that Jesus, the ‘Wonderful Counsellor’ of God,21 is the best model of spiritual
direction. All other spiritual directors can only be imitators of Jesus. Jesus’ dialogue with
Nicodemus22 at night trying to explain to him the need for being born again is a classic
example of spiritual direction.

Barrette claims that spiritual direction is largely biblical and based on the ministry of Jesus
and the New Testament writings especially the pastoral letters of Paul and the writings of
John.23 This view has been supported by several other authors, too. Christian spiritual
direction takes its origin from the Hebrew Scripture and the ministry of Jesus and the
Apostles. It took diversified forms in the fourth century through the Desert Fathers and
Desert Mothers. From the sixth century, it underwent many changes.24 In the history of the
Church, the first concrete examples of spiritual direction after the time of Jesus can be
traced back to the time of the Desert Fathers and Desert Mothers. Numerous people faced
with the problems of faith, daily life, and personal crisis sought the guidance and advice of
these holy men and women.25 Regina Bäumer and Michael Plattig argue that in the desert
fathers and desert mothers of early Christianity, we find the earliest form of systematic
spiritual direction.26

Of the early Church Fathers, Ambrose, Jerome and Augustine were considered great
spiritual directors.27 From the sixth century to the 13th century, the guidance of souls was
exercised mostly within the Sacrament of Penance; but during this period the Dominicans,

21
Cf. Isa 9: 6.
22
Cf. Jn 3:1-12.
23
Cf. BARRETTE, Spiritual Direction in the Roman Catholic Tradition, p. 291.
24
Cf. GRATTON, Spiritual Direction, p. 912.
25
Cf. Michael PLATTIG, Sag mir ein Wort, wie ich gerettet werden kann. Ursprung und Entwicklung
geistlicher Begleitung- eine ,Grobskizze‘ in, Da kam Jesus hinzu...... ( Lk 24:15). Handreichung für
geistliche Begleitung auf dem Glaubensweg, Bonn: Secretariate der Deutschen Bischofskonference, 2001, (
25-47). Here p. 25.
26
Regina BÄUMER / Michael PLATTIG, Aufmerksamkeit ist das natürliche Gebet der Seele. Geistliche
Begleitung in der Zeit der Wüstenväter und der personzentrierte Ansatz nach Carl R. Rogers – eine
Seelenverwandtschaft?!, Würzburg: Echter Verlag, 2012 Edition. p.10. (There is an in-depth treatment of the
subject matter in the following pages of the book).
27
Cf. MANGAI, Spiritual Direction, in IJS XVI, pp. 394-395.
152
the Rhineland mystics and great saints like Anselm, Catherine of Siena, Bernard of
Clairvaux and Bonaventure practised extra-sacramental direction.28

In the Middle Ages, the role of the spiritual director was often brought into question. St
John of the Cross (1542-1591) stressed that it was the Holy Spirit who moved the hearts of
the people, and the spiritual director was only a signpost or guide who showed the way. He
said this because many spiritual directors, mostly priests, were imposing their own ideas
and views on the directees. He strongly warned them against standing in the way of the
working of the Spirit.29 One could even say that he already practised a form of person-
centred counselling, much before Carl Rogers ever thought of it!

The 17th century, after the Protestant Reformation, saw a revival of interest in spiritual
direction. The faithful, especially the laity, were looking for guidance and practical
suggestions which would help them in their spiritual growth. There were not many who
were competent enough to help them. Feeling the need, there arose some spiritual directors
who wanted to help the faithful in living out a true and authentic Christian life in their own
life situations. Francis de Sales was the foremost among them. Francis, through his unique
style of guiding people in all walks of life, brought about a great renewal in the practice of
spiritual direction. He insisted on freedom of the spirit and took seriously into account the
life situation of the person. For him, spiritual direction was a relationship of two souls
based purely on human uniqueness and freedom.30

Another focal point after the Council of Trent was helping Christians to lead a devout life.
It was indeed a reaction in line with the counter-Reformation. The focal point was to lead a
life pleasing to God. The element of catechising the directee was also taken into account.
These elements can also be seen in the direction of Francis de Sales.31

3.1.3 Spiritual Direction Today

The practice of spiritual direction underwent a period of decline in the 18-19 centuries, in
the sense there was no outstanding literature or guide during this period. There has been a

28
Cf. PLATTIG, Sag mir ein Wort, p. 31.
29
Cf. Ibid.
30
Cf. Alexander T. POCETTO, Freedom to Love: A Close Reading of St Francis de Sales’ Letter of 14
October 1604 to Jane de Chantal, published in Human Encounter in the Salesian Tradition, Rome:
International Commission on Salesian Studies, 2007, pp. 125-144.
31
Cf. PLATTIG, Sag mir ein Wort, p. 33.
153
renewed interest in recent times. The influence of psychology, especially in the last two
centuries, has had its own unique impact on spiritual direction.32

Of late, in recent decades, there has been a renewed interest in spirituality and spiritual
direction. It has gained greater currency not only in Catholic circles, but also in other
denominations and religions. More people from different walks of life are taking up this as
a vocation and as a profession.33

In today’s world, one cannot neglect the influence exercised by modern physical and social
sciences like philosophy, psychology, sociology, etc. They have changed the worldview of
human beings, especially in the last few centuries. There is a need for an integrative
method and approach that incorporates anthropological, sociological and psychological
discoveries and methods. That is the need of the hour.34 People like Adrian Van Kaam,
Brian Thorne and Kaus Kißling, Michael Plattig and many others have tried to integrate
psychology into spirituality to develop a fresh approach to spiritual direction.35 In his
approach to spiritual direction and spiritual self-direction, Van Kaam was mostly inspired
and influenced by the person-centred approach of Carl Rogers.36

Gene Barrette also argues for integrating the findings and insights of psychology and other
social sciences into the ministry of spiritual direction and pastoral ministry, without losing
the centrality of spirituality and God’s word. There has to be an integrative and balanced
approach:

Today anyone working in the field of spiritual guidance and pastoral

ministry is neglectful if he or she ignores the findings of psychology, just as
that same person is neglectful if he or she tries to do the ministry
independent of the centrality of God’s word (...). Spiritual direction does
build on the process of psychological development towards human maturity,
but it takes the process further. The material and goal of psychotherapy is
healthy relationship with self, others, and the world.37

3.1.3.1 Spiritual Direction as a Vocation

Being a spiritual director or directress is not something we can just learn. It involves
possessing a certain charism and charisma given by God and its recognition by the person.

32
Cf. FERNANDES, Spiritual Direction or Pastoral Counselling or Both?, p. 395.
33
Cf. BARRY / CONNOLLY, The Practice of Spiritual Direction. In the Preface.
34
Cf. GRATTON, Spiritual Direction, p. 913.
35
Most of these authors/psychologists mentioned here are in the line of Person-Centred Therapy (PCT).
36
Cf. Mathew PURAYIDOM, Spiritual Self-Direction and Transcendent Formation according to Adrian
Van Kaam, Aluva, India: Greyfriars Publications, 2003, pp. xi-xviii.
37
BARRETTE, Spiritual Direction in the Roman Catholic Tradition, p. 299.
154
Spiritual authors today believe that nobody can claim or boast of his status as a spiritual
director. The reasons for which a spiritual director is approached today are many. It varies
from just a spiritual talk to an intensive spiritual friendship.38 Spiritual direction has to be
seen as a vocation in the Church. It is a special call ‘to stand in the place of the Lord as
both a prod and a source of light’.39

Modern social sciences have obviously affected the way spiritual direction is imparted over
the last few decades. More recent insights into the development of the human being, the
psychosexual dimension of man on spiritual growth, the current insights into the
interrelation of mind, body and spirit, the modern interpersonal skills, etc. offer
tremendous help to spiritual directors. The complexity of the matter also forces the
spiritual director to acknowledge his own boundaries and limits and to accept the fact that
he is called upon to constantly update himself.40 This view has also been confirmed by
empirical research.41

3.1.3.2 The Demand for Spiritual Direction Today

Plattig and Bäumer are of the opinion that there is a great need for spiritual direction today.
An increasing number of people in the modern world, due to stress and disorientation, are
seeking the guidance of a competent spiritual guide. With the emergence of pastoral
psychology, there are opportunities to get trained in this field.42 It is true that many
Catholics are still hesitant to go to a therapist whose approach is purely psychological or
psychotherapeutic. Many prefer to go to someone with a Christian and spiritual orientation,
who can guide them in matters of faith, too. Spiritual direction to an extent also satiates the
(post-)modern man’s thirst for spirituality and his search for meaning.43

3.1.3.3 Need for an Integrated and Eclectic Approach

Over the years, spiritual direction has taken a more Spirit-centred and person-centred turn:
“Rather than being someone who wilfully makes things happen or controls another person,
today’s spiritual director is more likely to allow the Spirit to take the lead.”44 The present

38
Cf. Rudolf PROKSCHI / Marianne SCHLOSSER (Eds.), Sag mir ein Wort. Geistliche Begleitung in den
Traditionen von Ost und West, Würzburg: Echter Verlag, 2007, pp. 9-12.
39
GRATTON, Spiritual Direction, p. 915.
40
Cf. Ibid., pp. 914-915.
41
Cf. Hermann-JOSEF WAGENER / Klaus KIEßLING, Empirischer Zugang zu Geistlicher Begleitung.
Erste Ergebnisse qualitativer Forschung in Wege zum Menschen (WzM), No. 60, (2008), 323-333.
42
Cf. BÄUMER / PLATTIG, Aufmerksamkeit ist das natürliche Gebet der Seele, pp. 222-225.
43
Cf. Ludger-Ägidius SCHULTE, Der Sehnsucht nach Gott ein Gesicht geben. Wozu geistliche Begleitung?
in Vater, sag mir ein Wort, pp. 159-175.
44
GRATTON, Spiritual Direction, p. 915.
155
time is characterised by plurality of cultures and inter-disciplinary approach. This is also
reflected in the field of spiritual direction. Due to the inter-culturality of present-day life
and the use of inter-disciplinary methods, spiritual direction today has become more
intercultural and eclectic.45

Spiritual direction, to be more effective, has to be context-specific, too. This view has been
echoed by Erasto Fernandes in the context of India, and he stresses the need for a
systematic approach to spiritual direction today. “An ever-increasing number of people
who seek spiritual guidance due to the complexity of life, search for meaning in a confused
world, stress of modern life, etc. call for a relevant, meaningful and systematic approach to
spiritual direction.”46

3.1.4 The Situation in India

Spiritual direction is a great need in the Indian pastoral context. In India people are
generally and traditionally spiritual. The tradition of searching for a guru47 in personal life
is common in the Indian tradition. The spiritual orientation of people and deeply-rooted
traditions accord great respect to gurus, priests and the so-called men of God. This makes
spiritual direction a very important ministry in India.

India has one of the lowest rates of psychiatrist presence in the world. There is a great
shortage of trained therapists and counsellors in the field. Most of those who are trained in
India, unfortunately, leave for foreign shores in search of better salaries and working
conditions. There is only one psychiatrist for every 400,000 persons.48 According to a
WHO report on mental health, 11.6% of all mental health cases originate in India. That is
one of the highest in the world.49 Unfortunately, this fact often goes unnoticed and
neglected in a country where mental illness is still a hush-hush subject.

Due to the pressures of modern living, increasing industrialisation and urbanisation, the
people of India are getting over-stressed, depressed and vulnerable to different mental
disorders. Many take recourse to suicide. The southern Indian state of Kerala has the
45
Cf. GRATTON, Spiritual Direction, p. 915.
46
FERNANDES, Spiritual Direction or Pastoral Counselling or Both? p. 397.
47
The Sanskrit term ‘guru’ (also used in almost all Indian languages) means master, teacher, etc. In the
Indian Christian tradition, Jesus is sometimes treated and portrayed as ‘Guru’ (= master, Lord, teacher, the
Wise One).
48
Cf. Sushruth JADHAV, Re-inventing India’s Mental Health Care in UCL Cultural Consultation Service
and International Links. Available online at: https://www.ucl.ac.uk/ccs/international-activities/mental_health_care.pdf
49
Cf. Mental Health Atlas 2011, by World Health Organisation (WHO). See p. 57.
156
dubious distinction of being the suicide capital of India.50 Studies have also revealed some
of the major risk factors for the high rate of suicide in the south [this could apply to whole
India] are psychosocial stress and social isolation rather than psychiatric morbidity. 51 India
faces a unique situation because unlike in the West, where people tend to admit mental
illnesses and mental disturbances and seek help, such illnesses are frowned upon in India.
It is a matter of shame and people tend to hide it, which makes it all the more difficult to
seek help. But the silver lining is that many Christians and families are - unlike in the West
- willing to share their problems with a priest. That makes the role of a pastoral counsellor
or spiritual director vastly important and totally relevant.

The Church has much to do in this context of brokenness and disorientation in the society.
The Catholic Church in India and different religious congregations are also becoming more
aware of their responsibility to help the people in this particular need and to emphasise the
ministry of spiritual direction and pastoral counselling.52

3.2 Francis de Sales as Spiritual Director

St Francis de Sales is undoubtedly one of the best and most read spiritual directors of the
Catholic Church.53 In spite of his busy schedule as Bishop, he spent many hours meeting
people, guiding them and, above all, writing letters of spiritual direction - one of the most
common ways of guiding souls at that time. He also spent considerable time instructing his
priests and giving spiritual conferences to the Sisters of Visitation, whose order he had co-
founded with Jane de Chantal. Francis de Sales had such a deep psychological insight into
the nature of human persons that he was able to guide each one individually and personally
as needed. In the words of Jane de Chantal, who herself was his directee and who knew
him personally for long years:

50
Jocelyn LIM CHUA, Tales of Decline: Reading Social Pathology into Individual Suicide in South India in
Culture, Medicine and Psychiatry, Vol. 36. 2, June 2012, pp. 204-224. Kerala is paradoxically the most
developed state in India with the highest standard of living. The state is often considered a model of
development for other states.
51
Cf. MANORANJITH S. S. / RAJKUMAR A. P. / THANGADURAI P. / Prasad J. / JAYAKARAN R. /
JACOB K. S., Risk factors for suicide in rural south India, in The British Journal of Psychiatry, 2010, Vol.
196. pp. 26-30.
52
See the report in daiji world, a Christian online newspaper from Mangalore, India, on 18.10. 2013. Kerala:
Carmelites Educate Friars in Spiritual Direction.
http://www.daijiworld.com/news/news_disp.asp?n_id=195852 (12.1.16)
53
Cf. Pope Benedict XVI on St Francis de Sales. General Audience on 2 March 2011.
157
 Of all the gifts which our Blessed Founder received from God, that of the
discernment of spirits was one of the most eminent … People from all parts
came to him for enlightenment in difficulties of conscience. I know that
many Prelates, Heads of Religious Houses, Monks, Parish Priests, private
Gentlemen and Lawyers, Princes and Princesses and persons of all ranks,
rich and poor, from different provinces came to him for this purpose. The
number of souls directed by him in the way of Christian perfection is almost
innumerable… When he passed through any town he had such a reception as
no one else ever received. Even the most experienced spiritual Fathers came
to consult him, and sent their penitents to him to be enlightened in the most
difficult points of the spiritual life … The holy Bishop had such penetrating
insight into the souls of men that when he was consulted, either personally or
by letter, on matters of conscience, he discerned with extraordinary delicacy
and clearness the inclinations and secret moving springs of those souls, and
spoke in terms so precise, definite, and intelligible, that he made them
understand with the greatest ease the most intricate and lofty matters relating
to spiritual life. This is very plainly seen in his published Letters. I know this
of my own experience, but others have also told me so.54

Here in this chapter I have tried to bring together some of the most outstanding
characteristics of spiritual direction as followed by St Francis de Sales, with special focus
on his letters of spiritual direction. My focus has also been to explore how Francis de Sales
guided people to see God’s will in their day-to-day lives and how he helps them grow in
holiness in the given circumstances of life.

Taking into account the number of people he directed (guided), the unique methods he
used, the number of letters of spiritual direction he wrote, it is clear that spiritual direction
was an important ministry for him because he believed that it was the primary duty of the
Bishop to lead his people to holiness.55 That he did all this while being the bishop of a vast
diocese in a very difficult time speaks volumes for his achievement.

It was not only ordinary people who sought his guidance. Bishops, priests, abbots,
religious, princes, gentlemen, ordinary people, his own servants and persons of every rank
sought his guidance.56 He was able to orient himself to them and their life-situation to help
them effectively. This personal approach is something special to the Salesian method of
spiritual direction. In a world of impersonality and materialism, characterised by loss of
human worth and personal touch, it is the duty of the spiritual director to speak to the heart
of the directee and to uphold his or her dignity as a child of God.

54
CHANTAL, Depositions, pp. 189-191.
55
Cf. LAJEUNIE, St Francis de Sales, Vol. II, p. 262.
56
Cf. Ibid., pp. 262-263.
158
As Francis de Sales was a busy bishop, it was neither always easy nor possible for him to
find time for personal conversation. In his own words:

As this age is very peculiar, expect that many will say that only members of
religious orders and persons concerned with devotion should give such
special guidance regarding the devout life; that this work requires more
leisure than is at the disposal of a bishop who is entrusted with a diocese as
burdensome as mine; that it is too great a distraction for the mind which
should be used for important matters. My reader, I tell you with St Denis that
guiding people to perfection is the task mainly of bishops...57

Spiritual direction is a task Francis de Sales took to heart. He says in the Preface to
Introduction: “The guidance of persons individually is a difficult task, I admit, but one
which brings comfort as in the case of people gathering crops or picking grapes, who are
happiest when they have plenty of work to do and heavy burdens to carry.”58

In order to help these people – laity, religious and even bishops – who sought his guidance,
Francis wrote personal letters of spiritual direction. Later on, when the pressure of work
made writing personal letters almost impossible, he began writing articles on different
topics meant for many people, and they were circulated. They were meant to help them
lead a spiritual life living in the world but at the same time not being affected and
contaminated by the world. These letters and articles were later on published as ‘An
Introduction’ (Introduction à la vie dévote) as what is now known as ‘An Introduction to
the Devout Life’. It is also known as Philothea in some languages. It was first published in
1608. Ever since, it has remained in the best-seller list of Catholic classics.59

57 Francis de SALES in the Preface to An Introduction to the Devout Life, p. 28. AE, Tome III: Introduction a
la vie dévote, p. 9, (Cet aage est fort bigearre, et je prévois bien que plusieurs diront qu'il n'appartient qu'aux
religieux et gens de dévotion de faire des conduittes si particulières a la pieté ; qu'elles requierent plus de
loysir que n'en peut avoir un Evesque chargé d'un diocese si pesant comme est le mien; que cela distrait trop
l'entendement qui doit estre employé a choses importantes. Mais moy, mon cher Lecteur, je te dis avec le
grand saint Denis qu'il appartient principalement aux Evesques de perfectionner les ames, d'autant que leur
ordre est le supreme entre les hommes ..) The collected works of St Francis de Sales are published in French
as Oeuvres de Saint François de Sales, Évêque de Genève et Docteur de L’Eglise. Edition Complète. It was
prepared by the Visitation Sisters in Annecy and appeared over a period of time from 1892 to 1937 in 26
volumes (plus and Index). They are usually known as Œuvres and often abbreviated as OEA or AE. I use the
abbreviation AE ( Annecy Edition) to refer to Œuvres.
58 Francis de SALES in the ‘Preface’ to IDL, p. 29. See AE, Tome III: Introduction a la vie dévote, p. 10.
«C'est une peyne, je le confesse, de conduire les amesen particulier, mais une peyne qui soulage, pareille a
celle des moissonneurs et vendangeurs, qui ne sont jamais plus contens que d'estre fort embesoignés et
chargés.»
59
Cf. LAJEUNIE, St Francis de Sales, Vol. II, pp. 255- 257. There are different views regarding the letters
that form part of Introduction. Some believe that although majority of the letters were addressed to Madame
Charmoisy, it is a work of compilation and editorial process done by Francis himself.
159
Pope Benedict XVI said about Introduction: “Above all, St Francis de Sales was a director:
from his encounter with a young woman, Madame de Charmoisy, he was to draw the
inspiration to write one of the most widely read books of the modern age, An Introduction
to the Devout Life.”60 He also refers to another masterpiece from Francis de Sales called,
The Love of God (Traite de l’amour de Dieu) and his letters of spiritual direction. He says
further that Francis de Sales had insight into human hearts and human emotions: “In
reading his book on the love of God and especially his many letters of spiritual direction
and friendship, one clearly perceives that St Francis was well acquainted with the human
heart.”61

3.2.1 Some Examples of His Long-Standing Guidance

Examining some of the examples helps one to understand the way Francis de Sales
practised his spiritual direction. Francis had a unique way of guiding people. It was not in
the same way or with the same methods that he guided different people. He guided some
people for a long period of time but some others only for a short while. Some were guided
through personal meetings. This was the case with many of the Visitation Sisters. He also
gave them regular conferences to guide them. Some of his talks are extant even today and
published as Spiritual Conferences.62 Some others, mostly laity, were guided personally
and through letters. Each one was guided according to his or her need and for the period of
time they needed his help.

As already noted, some guidance and direction took long years. With them he established a
sort of therapeutic relationship in order to help them. The relationship with Madame de
Charmoisy, Madame Brulart and Madame de Chantal are examples of this. One gets an
63
idea of this spiritual relationship from the letters written to these women.

60
Pope Benedict XVI, General Audience on 2 March 2011, in the Vatican.
61
Ibid.
62
Cf. Francis de SALES, AE, Tome VI: Les Vrays Entretien Spirituels. An English translation of the same
has been published by SFS Publications, Bangalore: Spiritual Conferences Vol. I (1995) and Vol. II (1998),
both translated by Ivo CARNEIRO.
63
I have often used the English and the German translation of the Letters. For English translation, I have
mostly used the following works: 1. Francis de SALES, Selected Letters, selected, translated and edited by
Elisabeth STOPP, Stella, Niagara, USA: De Sales Resource Center, 2001. 2. Francis de SALES, Thy Will be
Done. Letters of St Francis de Sales, Manchester, New Hampshire (USA): Sophia Institute Press, 1995. 3.
The Library of St Francis de Sales, Vol.1, Letters to Persons in the World, translated by Henry Benedict
Mackey, London: Burns & Oats, Ltd., 1894. 4. Francis de SALES & Jane de CHANTAL, Letters of Spiritual
Direction, tr. by Peronne Marie THIBERT, selected and introduced by Wendy M. WRIGHT and Joseph F.
POWER, New York: Paulist Press, 1988.
160
3.2.1.1 Madame Louise de Charmoisy
Who was Madame de Charmoisy? She was born Louise de Chatel. She hailed from an
aristocratic family in Normandy. As a young girl, she came to Paris as the governess of the
Duchess of Guise. In Paris she got married to the Lord of Charmoisy, a relative of Francis
de Sales. She married him at a young age.64

It is believed and reliably established that the letters of spiritual direction that Francis
wrote to Madame de Charmoisy form the core of ‘An Introduction to the Devout Life.’65At
the request of Father Fournier, a Jesuit, the letters Francis wrote to her were submitted
back to him and he compiled and edited them into a book. The ‘raw material’ for the
spiritual classic An Introduction is thus the letters of guidance Francis de Sales wrote to
her.66

3.2.1.1.1 Her Life: A Life Full of Ups and Downs

Madame de Charmoisy was familiar with court life which exerted positive and negative
influences on her. Unusual for her times, her marriage was a love affair. After marriage the
couple moved to Savoy, the birth place of Lord Charmoisy, where he owned several castles
and lots of property. But her life was not an easy one. Her husband was often away on
tours and the management of the old castles fell entirely on her shoulders which was
indeed burdensome. As a lady hailing from a big city, she had to get used to life in lonely
palaces away from cities. Although occasionally she accompanied her husband to Paris,
she felt lonely and desolate. Adding to her troubles, she fell sick often. Since her husband
was a cousin of Francis de Sales, there existed a close friendship between them and
Francis. The Charmoisy family had stood by Francis and helped him in his difficult
mission in the Chablais. The young wife was also soon taken into this circle of friendship
with Francis de Sales.67

For German, the German Edition of the Complete Works of St Francis de Sales: Deutsche Ausgabe der
Werke des Hl Franz von Sales (referred to as DA in this work) was prepared, edited and published by Franz
REISINGER and published by Franz-Sales- Verlag, Eichstätt, Germany, in 2002. DA contains the translation
of all the books of the Annecy Edition (AE) in 12 volumes. The letters to Charmoisy are in the sixth volume:
Seelenführungsbriefe an Laien. DA-Vol. 6.
64
Cf. Francis de SALES, Briefe II: Seelenführungsbriefe an Laien, DA, Vol. 6, pp. 24-25. In these pages we
find a short biographical sketch of Madame de Charmoisy prepared by the editors.
65
Cf. Francis de SALES, AE, Tome III: Introduction à la Vie Dévote. This book is known as Philothea in
German-speaking areas. For details regarding the origin of An Introduction, see Philothea, DA, Vol.1, pp.19-
22. In these pages the editors describe the development of An Introduction (Philothea) as a book. Another
good description can be found in the Bangalore Edition, 2005, pp. 17-21.
66
Cf. Angela HÄMEL-STIER, Frauen um Franz von Sales, Eichstätt: Franz von Sales Verlag, 1954, p. 29.
67
Cf. Ibid., pp. 31-33.
161
The young couple had three children, two sons and a daughter. One of them, who had
Francis as the godfather, died young. Francis had a special affection and attachment to
him. That he was attached to the family and that he enjoyed the complete trust and
confidence of the family is evident from his letter of 20 May, 1606.68 Francis de Sales and
Madam Charmoisy had a common spiritual friend – Madame de Chantal.69

The life of the Charmoisys soon fell into tough times. Her husband fell out of favour with
the Duke of Nemours, in whose court he had served for a long time, and he was placed
under house arrest in Marclaz for quite some time. During this period Francis stood by
Madame Charmoisy and the family and helped them in all possible ways. Francis wrote
many letters to the Duke of Nemours for the release of Monsieur Charmoisy because he
was convinced of his innocence. Since he was a busy bishop he could not meet the family
often or personally be with them, but he wrote many letters of assurance, guidance and
support. His letters show that they brought them comfort and consolation and that they
often sought his guidance. How consoling it must have been for the family to know that a
bishop stood by them in their difficult times!

3.2.1.1.2 Her Personality

Madame de Charmoisy was a remarkable woman characterised by great courage, clear
thinking, meticulous in the performance of her duties, at the same time full of womanly
goodness, spirit of sacrifice and empathy.70 Her regular correspondence with Francis de
Sales and Madame Chantal must have been a great source of support for her in her busy
life.71 Angela Hämel-Stier remarks in her book: “Her life was full of duties, activities,
sufferings, difficulties and disappointments. She had to accept the royal path of crosses and
self- denial.”72 Madame Charmoisy remained brave and courageous through all these
difficult times and, guided and supported by the great Bishop, she schooled herself in
equanimity, composure and trust in God.73

One knows precious little of her religious life. Karl August de Sales states that she was a
serious, brave and courageous woman gifted with deep intelligence. She was also known to
68
Cf. SALES, Seelenführung Briefe an Laien, DA, Vol. 6, pp. 55-56. (See also AE XIII, pp. 179-181). In
many cases I have tried to give cross references from English, French and German versions to promote easy
reference and further research on the topic. As noted earlier ‘AE’ stand for Annecy Edition and ‘DA’ for
German Edition. They are followed by volume number of the respective edition.
69
Cf. HÄMEL-STIER, Frauen um Franz von Sales, pp. 33-36, 50.
70
Cf. Francis de SALES, Briefe II: Seelenführungsbriefe an Laien, pp. 24-25. (In the Einführung).
71
Cf. RAVIER, Francis de Sales: Sage and Saint, p. 122.
72
HÄMEL-STIER, Frauen um Franz von Sales, p. 39. Translation mine.
73
Cf. Ibid., pp. 51- 53.
162
be extremely conscientious and meticulous, faithfully trying to fulfil household duties and
obligations. She was blessed with discretion, determination and ‘reservation’.74

3.2.1.1.3 Francis Takes up the Guidance of Madame de Charmoisy

Authors are not quite sure as to exactly when she placed herself under the direction of
Francis de Sales. Letters and reports of other people state that Madame Charmoisy
experienced a spiritual conversion in 1604 and she dedicated herself to God. It has been so
reported by Jules Vuy. It is said after listening to the preaching of Bishop Francis she
placed herself under his guidance. It could have been as early as 1604 or later in 1607.75

One thing is clear: Francis stood by her through thick and thin – when her husband fell out
of favour with the Duke, when he was ill and after his death he guided her especially to
come to terms with her changed circumstances. Under his guidance she found direction,
consolation and meaning in life.76

Unfortunately, in the entire works of Francis de Sales ‘Oeuvres’77 there are few letters of
Madame de Charmoisy which point to the fact that as Francis was closely associated with
her and her family, she would have received most of the direction and guidance personally
from him.78 The other reason could be that An Introduction itself is for most part a
‘structured re-working’ of the letters Francis de Sales wrote to Madame de Charmoisy and
others like her who sought his direction.79 However, from the letters and other sources
available we get the following major themes in this long spiritual relationship and spiritual
direction.

3.2.1.1.3.1 Building up a Relationship on Trust

One of the clearest expressions of the deep trust and confidence that existed between them
is seen in the letter written by Francis to Madame Charmoisy on 20 May 160680 from
Annecy. It is one of the earliest extant letters of Francis to her. Even though it is one of the
earliest letters, we find therein elements of total trust and confidence in each other: the
basis of any mutual relationship.
74
Cf. HÄMEL-STIER, Frauen um Franz von Sales, pp. 36-38.
75
Cf. Ibid., pp. 36-37.
76
Cf. SALES, Seelenführungsbriefe an Laien, pp. 24-25.
77
Oeuvres refers to the Annecy Edition (AE) of the works of Francis de Sales.
78
Cf. SALES, Seelenführungsbriefe an Laien, pp. 24-25.
79
Cf. Francis de SALES / Jane de CHANTAL, Letters of Spiritual Direction, tr. by Peronne Marie
THIBERT, selected and introduced by Wendy M. WRIGHT and Joseph F. POWER, New York: Paulist
Press, 1988. In the Introductory part, p. 24.
80
Cf. SALES, Seelenführungsbriefe an Laien, pp. 55-56. ( See also AE Tome XIII: Lettres – Volume III,
pp.179-181).
163
Francis begins the letter by asking for forgiveness in that he had accidentally opened a
letter written to her by her husband but mistakenly brought to him. As soon as Francis
understood that the letter was not meant for him, he forwarded it to her. In this letter he
asks her forgiveness for inadvertently opening her letter. The beginning part of the letter
itself shows the close friendship, openness and trust which existed between them. Francis
says he could have hidden this mistake from her, but trusting that she would understand
him, he openly shares the matter with her. He writes, “My dear daughter, I could have
easily hidden my mistake from you; but I trust your goodness more than my cleverness in
hiding it. Dear loving cousin, trust me further as faithful in everything concerning my
service to you. I am prepared to serve you my lifelong more than any other person on
earth.”81

In this letter Francis insists that she is free to share all her joys and sorrows with him and
he remains always faithful to her. He infuses through this letter such a confidence and trust
in her that she can turn to him in all her needs. In the latter part of the letter, he also
promises her his prayers and remembrance, especially in the most holy Eucharist. This is
something typical of Francis that he promises people prayers and remembrance in the
Eucharist. He takes their intentions and petitions to the altar. His approach in the letter is
typically friendly, affirming love and infusing hope.82

He tells her that he cannot help telling her that she should entrust herself to God in all her
affairs. He feels impelled to give her some exercises (practices) of the heart and soul
because of the love and care he has for her. He advises her against going on foot to St
Claude, taking into account her poor health. It is to be noted that Francis de Sales does not
demand from his directees any type of mortification which they are not capable of or
which brings great harm to their bodies. He always demands moderation in physical
mortifications but at the same time he requires from them mortification of their hearts.

81
SALES, Seelenführung Briefe an Laien, p. 55. Translation mine. By ‘service’ Francis de Sales means,
spiritual guidance. „Ich hätte leicht meinen Irrtum verbergen und von Ihnen unbemerkt halten können; aber
ich vertraue mich lieber Ihrem Wohlwollen an als meiner Geschicklichkeit. Halten Sie mich, meine liebe
Frau Cousine, auch weiterhin für stets ganz treu in allem, was Ihren Dienst betrifft, denn das werde ich mein
ganzes Leben lang sein, mehr als irgendein anderer Mensch auf der Welt.“ « J’eusse bien peu rabiller la
faute et la vous rendre imperceptible; mais j'ayme mieux me confier en vostre bienveuillance qu’en mon
artifice. Et ne laisses pas, je vous supplie, Madame ma chere Cousine, de me croire fort fidelle en tout ce qui
regardera vostre service, car je le seray toute ma vie autant que nul homme du monde. » AE, XIII: Lettres -
Volume III, p.180.
82
Cf. SALES, Seelenführungsbriefe an Laien, p. 56.
164
Mortification has to be done in the heart and in the right spirit. 83 He ends the letter with a
blessing.

3.2.1.1.3.2 Appreciating and Encouraging Her

Francis de Sales always showed a great appreciation for his directees (spiritual children).
This is evident in his letters and conferences. He always highlighted the good in his
directees to show that they are God’s children. God’s love for human beings is deep in our
hearts.84 Therefore, every human being is good and must be appreciated. Francis was never
shy to show this appreciation of human beings, especially of his directees. In all her letters
he addresses her with terms like ‘my dearest and precious sister and cousin’, ‘my dearest
daughter’, etc. He shows her that she is dear to him and expresses it clearly.

Already by 1608, there seems to have matured a deep spiritual friendship between the two.
The letter Francis de Sales writes to her on 21 August 1608 from Saint-Rambert reveals
this deep spiritual relationship. He writes to her that the further away he is from her, the
more inseparably his spirit is united with that of hers.85 He encourages her to be faithful in
her love to Jesus and to be steadfast in her decision to love and serve God. Francis reminds
her of her holy decisions. This letter seems to have been written in a hurry. It is basically a
letter of encouragement and support. This letter also has a reference to Jane de Chantal.
Francis mentions to Madame Charmoisy that he is going to see her dearest sister.86 He also
tells her that he would be sharing with Madame Chantal about the situation of her soul.87

In his letter of 5 April 1607 to Chantal, Francis expresses a deep appreciation of Madame
Charmoisy. He refers to her as being true to God. Francis had showed Madame Charmoisy
deep appreciation, genuineness and acceptance. In a letter to Msgr de Villars, Archbishop
of Vienne, Francis states that Madame Charmoisy has a ‘virtuous and beautiful soul.’88

83
Cf. Ibid. „Glauben Sie mir, wenn Sie sich daran gewöhnen, diese Hingabe nicht nur mit dem Mund,
sondern auch mitdem Herzen ganz tief und aufrichtig zu vollziehen, werden Sie wunderbare Auswirkungen
daraus verspüren.“
84
Cf. Rom 5:5.
85
Cf. SALES, Seelenführungsbriefe an Laien, p. 59. „In dem Maße, als ich mich nach außen hin von Ihnen
entferne, wendet sich mein Geist umso häufiger dem Ihren zu, von dem er unzertrennlich ist.“. « A mesure
que je m’esloigne de vous selon l’exterieur, mon esprit retourne plus fréquemment ses yeux du costé du
vostre, d’avec lequel il est inséparable… » AE, XIV, Lettres –Volume IV, pp.58-59. In this letter he addresses
her ‘Madame ma tres chere cousine’ (p. 58), ‘ma chere cousine, ma fille’ (p. 59) etc. He concludes the letter
with ‘vostre tres fidelle et tres affectionne serviteur.’ (p. 59).
86
Francis writes ‚Ich bin auf dem Weg zu dieser teuren Schwester.‘ (p. 59). (= roughly translated‚ ‘I am on
the way to this precious sister’). This is a reference to Madame Chantal.
87
Cf. Ibid.
88
Cf. HÄMEL-STIER, Frauen um Franz von Sales, pp. 36-38.
165
Since Francis is at the moment pressed for time, he advises her to write to the former
Abbess of the Monastery of St Katherina in Annecy, who could be of great help to her. He
requests her prayers for him on the occasion of completing 41 years. Here we should also
appreciate and at the same time admire the openness, genuineness and freedom with which
Francis deals with his directees.

3.2.1.1.3.3 Leading Her to Self-Acceptance

There can be no spiritual direction when the directee does not accept himself as a person,
as a child of God. It is also one of the goals of counselling to help the person to accept
himself. A person who is always at war with himself cannot make progress. Brian Thorne,
psychotherapist and spiritual guide, says, “Christians believe that at the centre we find God
who is the ground of our being. Intimacy with the centre, therefore, must always be a
relationship of love, a loving self-acceptance born not of complacency or arrogance but
from a sense of the presence of God within.”89

Madame de Charmoisy ardently wanted to lead a devout life. She felt that her life as the
wife of a courtier would stand in her way of perfection. Francis encourages her to accept
her life and her present vocation. He assures her that a devout life can be practised under
any circumstance and in any environment. Her life as the wife of a courtier should in no
way stand in the way of her devotion. Francis wants her to integrate devotion with life.
There is no need to run away from her present life or retire entirely to her castle. In fact,
the whole book An Introduction is based on the assumption that an authentic Christian life
can be lived out in any circumstance of life.90

Francis encouraged her to accept and love her vocation as the wife of a courtier. She was
obliged to go back to the court, although she did not like it. She was totally uneasy about it.
Francis emboldened her to be faithful to the plan of God for her.91

Madam Charmoisy’s testimony at the canonization process bears witness to it. She quoted
the words of Francis de Sales to her that gave her hope and courage, and encouraged her to
have confidence in God, “Take courage, my child. Do not be afraid that you will fall back
because of this. If you are faithful to God, he will never fail you. He will give you enough

89
Brian THORNE, Counselling and Spiritual Accompaniment: Bridging Faith and Person-Centred Therapy,
Wiley: Kindle Edition, 2012, p.19.
90
See the ‘Introductory Part’ in SALES / CHANTAL, Letters of Spiritual Direction, p. 55.
91
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, pp. 219-221.
166
time to make your spiritual exercises, as well as to do everything else that you have to do,
even if He has to stop the sun and the moon.”92

Francis wrote to her on 28 March 161393 from Annecy when her husband fell out of favour
with the Duke in whose court he had worked for a long time, and was placed under house
arrest. For Francis, accepting our lives and yielding to the will of God means also
accepting the ups and downs of life. The vicissitudes of life are a great challenge to faith.
That is where one is most tested. This letter reveals many therapeutic qualities of Francis
de Sales. It clearly shows his genuineness and empathy. He tries to console her and to
stand by her. He tells her to prove her love for the Lord in this difficult time of her life.
Francis wants her to be calm and poised in this troubled time. It does not help to be
agitated and disturbed even though it is a painful situation. He tells her that he will be
extremely relieved if she is at peace at this moment.94

Francis tells her that she should accept the will of God and have faith in Providence that
the internment of her husband will lead to her spiritual good. Even in the most difficult
situations she should not lose hope and try to see the positive side. 95 Francis knows how
difficult her situation is. He tells her although he likes to console her in this situation, he
does not know how to do that. He prays that the Lord himself should be her consolation.96

Here in this letter one can see how open and genuine Francis was with his directees. A
priest or pastor finds himself in similar situations often. This is a situation which people in
the field of guidance, especially priests, are quite familiar with. It is often difficult to find
proper words to console with. One is at a loss, not knowing what to do. What help often
are the personal qualities of the counsellor such as genuineness, openness and empathy.
More about this will be dealt with in subsequent chapters.

For Christians, trials and difficulties have another dimension – the eschatological aspect of
suffering. In suffering, we take part in the suffering of Christ and also become heirs with
him. Francis further refers to Acts 14: 2197 to show that trials and difficulties help us on

92
As quoted by MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, p. 210.
93
Cf. SALES, Seelenführungsbriefe an Laien, pp. 59-60. (See also AE Tome XV: Lettres - Volume V, pp.
365-366).
94
Cf. SALES, Seelenführungsbriefe an Laien, p. 59.
95
Cf. Ibid., p. 60.
96
Cf. Ibid.
97
Acts 14:22 is more appropriate. Here Francis quotes wrongly. Acts 14:22 reads, “They put fresh heart into
the disciples, encouraging them to persevere in the faith saying, ‘We must all experience many hardships
before we enter the Kingdom of God.’” (The New Jerusalem Bible, Indian Edition, 1998).
167
our way to the Kingdom. Towards the end of the letter, Francis encourages her again to
have courage and fortitude and to place her trust in God who will never leave her.
However, it is not a dry hope Francis offers. It is also moving to note that at the end of the
letter Francis promises her to do all within his power to get her husband released.98

3.2.1.1.3.4 Leading Her to God and Intimacy with Him

One of the important roles of the spiritual director is to guide the directee to God and to
help him/her to be more open to God and God’s will in his/her life. In order to achieve this
purpose, the person has to develop an intimate relationship with God. The spiritual director
plays a great role in this regard.99

In the letter dated 20 March 1608 from Rumily, Francis tries to lead her to detach herself
from the world and to attach herself to God. As a wife and mother, she should try to
achieve it while living in the midst of the world and not running away from it. She should
turn her heart and mind to God from time to time, try to live in God’s presence and live
like a mystic in the world, deeply immersed in His presence.

She feels forced to lead an active life due to her vocation. She complains to him that she
does not have long hours for meditation although she would like to have it. He writes to
her, “You are in a place where you don’t have much time for meditation… so God comes
more often to your heart to strengthen you with His presence.”100 Francis replies to her that
he is not surprised that she is getting sick of the world as God allows her to enjoy His
presence. He tells her, “When you have tasted divine things, worldly things can hardly
hold any attraction for you.”101

Francis leads her to further detachment and holy indifference. He tells her we should only
tolerate and bear the vanity of the world but should not get lost in it. We should have our
love and attachment only to the truth. The letter suggests that apparently one of her friends
had died. Francis encourages and emboldens her telling that we should never be afraid of

98
Cf. SALES, Seelenführungsbriefe an Laien, p. 60. „Haben Sie guten Mut, meine liebe Tochter, setzen Sie
Ihr Vertrauen fest auf Ihn, dessen Dienst Sie sich geweiht und hingegeben haben, denn er wird Sie nicht
verlassen. Inzwischen werde ich mich von ganzem Herzen bei allen dafür verwenden, Ihrem Gatten zu
helfen, von denen ich meine, daß sie Einfluß haben und die etwas mir zu Gefallen tun wollen, um ihn
freizubekommen.“
99
Cf. Ludger- Ägidius SCHULTE, Der Sehnsucht nach Gott ein Gesicht geben. Wozu geistliche Begleitung?
In Rudolf PROKSCHI / Marianne SCHLOSSER (Eds.), Vater sag mir ein Wort. Geistliche Gegleitung in
den Traditionen von Ost und West, Würzburg: Echter, 2007, pp. 159-175. See especially pp. 167-169.
100
SALES, Seelenführungsbriefe an Laien, p. 56. Translation mine. (See also AE, Tome XIII: Lettres:
Volume III, pp. 381-383).
101
Ibid., p. 57.
168
death. “It is true, my dear daughter, when we see our friends dying, we should indeed weep
over them and mourn for them a bit because of our sympathy and commiseration, but we
should do so in quiet patience. Let us profit from this passing by preparing ourselves well
for our own.”102 The letter ends with a positive note that the departed one in the last year of
her life was more devout, which should be seen as a sign of God’s kindness to her.

3.2.1.1.3.5 Help in Coping with Loneliness and Depression

The letter of Francis to her around the end of March 1608103 gives an indication that
Madame Charmoisy had to constantly struggle with scrupulosity and depression. Her
venial sins and imperfections seemed to have put her down from time to time and due to
which she fell into depression. She also seemed to have occasionally suffered from
spiritual dryness. Francis had written to her a few days earlier. 104 This letter is written
immediately after that. Francis seems to know her heart and her situation. It is a short letter
to enliven her and to encourage her to continue her ‘fight’ without giving up.

Francis begins the letter saying he feels compelled to write in order to help her to respond
to her situation. He cannot let her remain in the depression she is in. He cannot neglect her.
What we see here is genuine care as well as unconditional support for the directee.

One of the causes of her depression was apparently her sense of imperfection. He tells her
not to be let down by her venial sins and imperfections. Our failures are occasions for us to
humiliate ourselves before God. He tells her that we must hold fast to God, not to
ourselves.105 The tendency to give up prayers and spiritual exercises in times of depression
is great indeed. So he tells her not to give up her spiritual exercises in despair. Here Francis
de Sales acts like a therapist encouraging and inspiring her to go on. It is important in
dealing with people who suffer depression to help them to stay ‘in action.’ Modern

102
SALES, Seelenführungsbriefe an Laien, p. 57.
103
Cf. Ibid., p. 58. (See also AE, XIII, pp. 383-384).
104
Note that the previous letter was written around 20 March 1608.
105
„Demütigen wir uns stark, meine liebe Cousine, meine Tochter; geben wir zu, daß wir sofort verwundet
und durchbohrt wären von allen möglichen Sünden, wäre Gott uns nicht Panzer und Rüstung. Halten wir uns
darum fest an Gott, indem wir unsere Übungen fortsetzen; das sei unsere Hauptsorge und alles andere sei nur
nebensächlich. Im übrigen müssen wir immer Mut haben; und wenn uns eine Erschlaffung oder Schwächung
des Geistes zustößt, dann eilen wir zum Fuß des Kreuzes, stellen wir uns in seine heilige Ausstrahlung und
wir werden zweifellos dadurch gestärkt und wieder aufgerichtet werden.“ Seelenführungsbriefe an Laien, p.
58.
169
psychology tells us that in dealing with depression it is important to have an experiential
approach, and the therapist should take the role of a teacher-guide.106

Francis encourages her that in spite of all her failures and the difficulties she faces, she
should not give up, but should trust in God. Have courage. Don’t lose your courage.
Francis knows her situation and her condition well and he knows that it is quite likely that
in times of weakness and powerlessness (psychologically put, depression), that one gives
up easily. Francis tells her to turn to the Cross for strength and confidence. He promises
her remembrance in the Holy Mass and requests her to do the same for him. He encourages
her to live courageously and cheerfully with Jesus in her heart.107

It is also edifying to see how Francis encourages her with positive strokes. What she
experiences is a typical human struggle with sin and imperfection which most human
beings have in life. But her particular situation and her scrupulosity make it more
complicated and leaves her depressed. In such situations the presence of a spiritual friend
can indeed be very consoling.

The death of her husband exacerbated her physical, spiritual and psychological condition.
It was much more than sadness or sense of loss. In modern psychological terms we could
say she suffered from depression or anxiety disorder. American Psychological Association
(APA) defines:

Depression is more than just sadness. People with depression may

experience a lack of interest and pleasure in daily activities, significant
weight loss or gain, insomnia or excessive sleeping, lack of energy, inability
to concentrate, feelings of worthlessness or excessive guilt and recurrent
thoughts of death or suicide. Depression is the most common mental
disorder. Fortunately, depression is treatable. A combination of therapy and
antidepressant medication can help ensure recovery.108

Depression is even today one of the common disorders pastoral counsellors encounter in
their ministry. Depression often needs empathic and person-oriented handling and extreme
care in dealing with the person. Francis de Sales was able to do that with Madame
Charmoisy. Francis helped her gradually to get over her anxieties and to live in the
presence of God. He assured her that she was not alone in the world. He stood by her and
106
Alvin R. MAHRER, Dealing with Feelings of Depression, in Clinical Strategies for Becoming a Master
Psychotherapist, William T O’DONOHUE / Nicholas A CUMMINGS / Janel L. CUMMINGS (Eds.),
Boston: Elsevier Academic Press, 2006, (167-187), p. 182.
107
SALES, Seelenführungsbriefe an Laien, p. 58.
108
Definition as given by American Psychological Association:
http://www.apa.org/topics/depress/index.aspx, (10.1.2016). Emphasis mine.
170
assured her that the most difficult moments of life would also pass. Thus he could instil
hope and courage in her.

3.2.1.1.3.6 Helping Her to Cope with Bereavement

In 1618, Monsieur Charmoisy was sent by Karl Emmanuel, Duke of Savoy, as envoy to
Switzerland. He was away for a long period, which meant Madame Charmoisy had to be
once again alone and away from her husband. He returned in autumn 1618, and he died
immediately thereafter on 28 October. Due to her illness, she could not be present at his
deathbed. Immediately on hearing of his death, Francis de Sales, who was also away in
Paris, wrote a letter to her from there in November 1618, comforting her and the family.

Francis, at the beginning of the letter, frankly acknowledges complete bewilderment, shock
and speechlessness. He knows well that words do not help in such a situation, but his
nearness, his assurance of prayers, and his promise that he is with her would help. He does
not want to use too many words to console her. He says he does not know what to do. He
cannot but keep thinking of and praying for her: “I do not know what I should say to
you…I cannot but keep thinking of you and praying for you...all the same, I do not know
what I should do or say to you…”109

In many letters of Francis, we see this frankness and openness. We see in him what person-
centred therapists call genuineness. He expresses his feelings freely, shares with them in
the way he feels when he judges it to be appropriate.

He says he is praying for her in this difficult situation. He cannot but keep thinking of her
and praying for her: “My very dear cousin and daughter, I cannot but think of you, my
heart does not want to do anything other than to communicate to your heart, but it does not
know how to do it, as it itself is affected as your heart…my very dear daughter, the Holy
bridegroom of our souls wants that we try to understand all the happenings in our life as
110
the providence of God…” He tells her further in the letter that in the truthfulness that
we owe God, to give her heart to God and to surrender completely to Him. Francis de
Sales admits that he doesn’t know how to console her more.111

109
SALES, Seelenführungsbriefe an Laien, p. 60. Translation from German is mine. (AE, Tome XVIII:
Lettre –Volume VIII, pp. 311-312. « Mon esprit ne peut cesser de penser en vous, ma très chere Cousine, ma
Fille, et ne voudroit faire autre chose que de vous parler en la façon qu'il peut, et ne sçait néanmoins que vous
dire, estant, comme le vostre, encortout estonné … »).
110
SALES, Seelenführungsbriefe an Laien, p. 60.
111
Cf. Ibid., p. 61.
171
He gradually leads her to think of eternity. He tells her to remain faithful to God in this
most difficult moment and not to lose herself in sorrow and grief.112 He concludes the letter
assuring her personally that he is with her. He tells her that he is devoted to her more than
ever before and he is totally united with her in spirit in this difficult time.113

To console a person who has lost his beloved or the most intimate person in life like
spouse or parents is not an easy task. Often words do not help. The difficult situation of
consoling at the death of a loved one is experienced by priests. It is indeed a difficult
situation. What one can do is to be with and to assure the person. People in deeply
religious cultures like in India find comfort in the Scriptures and in religious practices.
Many Christians find hope and consolation in the Bible. The best that one can do is often
to be with the person and to assure him nearness and prayers.

3.2.1.1.3.7 Constant Accompaniment and Genuineness in Relationship

Since her husband’s death, Madame Charmoisy became more independent and on her own.
Now she had to take her life totally into her own hands. When he was alive, she was rather
reserved and unobtrusive, limiting herself to her duties. Now she had to be more active and
come out of her husband’s shadows.

Her son, Henri de Charmoisy, turned out to be a great concern for her. He was now the
biggest worry in her life. He did not possess any qualities of his father or of the family.
Henri was not in any way extraordinarily gifted nor did he show the maturity or
responsibility of his age. In spite of all that, she gave him full freedom in the family and in
all his affairs. Even as a young man, without earning his own income, he travelled freely
around Europe at the expense of the family. His parents thought in vain that it would make
him a more honourable man. Francis helped Madame Charmoisy to find a good educator
and guide in Monsieur Leaval. However, Henri was never dependable. He created further
problems for his mother. Her anxiety, solicitude and concern for him are clearly visible in
her letters to him.114 In her admonition, warning and persuasion to guide her son, she is

112
Cf. SALES, Seelenführungsbriefe an Laien, p. 60.
113
Cf. Ibid., p. 61. „Seien Sie wahrhaft ganz die Seine und der wird, glauben Sie mir, ganz der Ihre sein. Ich
meinerseits kann nicht mehr sagen als sonst, aber wenn ich es sagen dürfte, würde ich sagen, daß ich
unwandelbar mehr denn je, bedingungs- und- rückhaltlos, ganz der Ihre bin.“ (AE, XVIII : Lettres - Volume
VIII, p.312. « Soyes bien toute sienne et, croyes moy, il sera tout vostre. Pour moy, je ne puis pas dire plus
que jamais, maiss'il se pouvoit dire, certes, je dirois qu'inséparablement, plus que jamais, je suis, Tout vostre,
sans condition ni reserve… »).
114
Cf. HÄMEL-STIER, Frauen um Franz von Sales, pp. 56-57.
172
strongly influenced by the ideas reflected in the spiritual classic Introduction, which was
written to her by Francis.115

It is also important to note that in the letter to her on 10 November 1621, Francis writes in
a rather reprimanding manner that her son Henri should be better dressed and should
appear more decent befitting his status as a nobleman. Francis admits that he had written to
her a day before but since he considered it an important matter, he felt it necessary to write.
He writes to her, “My dear cousin, my daughter, I wrote to you day before yesterday. But I
must take you to task a bit because my nephew is dressed neither suiting his rank nor his
office. It not only causes him agony to see his companions better dressed, as is the case,
but this behaviour will be thoroughly criticised by his own friends, some of them have
spoken to me very severely about that. My dear sister, as long as we live in the world, we
should subject ourselves to the laws of the world, if it does not go against the commands of
God.”116

The contents of this letter stand in strong contrast to what Francis de Sales remarked to
Madame de Chantal upon their first meeting in 1604 at Dijon.117 On this occasion, Jane,
newly-widowed and strongly desirous of entering religious life, was presented to Francis
de Sales. Francis noticed that she was finely adorned with jewels and elegant dress. So
Francis really had to ask her whether she was intent on re-marrying or willing to leave the
world to serve God. He told her, if she was planning not to re-marry and intending to
dedicate herself to God, then she should “take the signboard down.”118 Compare the two
situations. On one occasion he demands modesty from a widow who intends to dedicate
herself to God and, on the other, he demands from a man (through his mother) that he be
properly and decently dressed in keeping with his status and job. He believes that if he fails
do so, it affects his image among his friends and consequently he could suffer personal
problems. He demands from the mother, Madame Charmoisy, in this letter that she should
take more care to see that her son is properly dressed in accordance with his status and
role.119

115
Cf. HÄMEL-STIER, Ibid., p.58. As noted earlier, the major part of IDL is believed to be the letters
written by Francis to help her in spiritual growth.
116
SALES, Seelenführungsbriefe an Laien, p. 61. (See also AE, Tome XX: Lettres – Volume X, pp. 172-
173).
117
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Francis de Sales, Vol. II, pp. 276-278.
118
Ibid., p. 277.
119
Cf. SALES, Seelenführungsbriefe an Laien, p. 61.
173
This is also a classic example of how person-oriented Francis de Sales was in his
direction/guidance. Each person should live and act as demanded by his or her status and
role. We cannot have a general rule that applies to all in the same way in the field of
spiritual direction. Each person has to be directed, keeping in mind the directee’s personal
context and life-situation.

Madame Charmoisy tried all methods with her son to get him to the right path – from
gentle persuasion, giving good example and even using strong words. She referred him to
Francis de Sales, too. She also tried to help him through her other friends like President
Favre, Monsieur Boisy, brother of Francis de Sales. But Henri was not willing to mend his
ways.120 Henri married totally against his mother’s will. It was customary in those days to
marry with the consent of the parents. Madame Charmoisy still forgave him and remained
a loving grandmother to his child. In this respect, the life of Madame Charmoisy was
totally filled with the spirit of her friend and spiritual master, Francis de Sales. She tried to
overcome the negative forces by focusing on the positive elements in her life.121

Her situation reminds one of the condition of many mothers today who find it extremely
difficult to bring up and educate children in the modern world in a free and liberal society
and to bring back their children from strayed paths.

3.2.1.1.3.8 Leading Her to Detachment and the Final Goal

Spiritual direction is also concerned with the final goal of the Christian life, i.e., preparing
one for eternal life. Spiritual direction should, as and when needed, help the directee to
prepare to leave this world.122 This can be done in serious cases of illness when the
directee is faced with a sure and imminent death or in the case of very old persons awaiting
their final hour. Unfortunately, few directors are able to do it. In his direction of
Charmoisy, Francis guided her gradually to detach herself from this world.

After the incident of breaking into and burgling her room, Madame Charmoisy spent most
of her time in the castle of Villy or in her house in Annecy. Villy was a remote place and it
provided her much-needed interiority. Meanwhile, her daughter was also married. In 1634
through a new contract she gave her son almost all of her jewels, even the ones inherited

120
Cf. SALES, Seelenführungsbriefe an Laien, p. 61. In this last extant letter to her from 28 February 1622,
Francis promises to do everything he can for her son. (See also AE, XX: Lettres – Volume X, p. 273).
121
Cf. HÄMEL-STIER, Frauen um Franz von Sales, pp. 61-62.
122
Cf. Walter E. CONN, The Desiring Self. Rooting Pastoral Counselling and Spiritual Direction in Self-
Transcendence, New York: Paulist Press, 1998, pp. 71-80.
174
from her husband. She also made him the sole administrator of the properties. In 1643 she
wrote her final will.123

Now onwards she devoted her time and attention to God and to others. She came more
under the direction of Francis de Sales. She spent more time in the Visitation Convent in
search of solitude and devotion. Many of the letters Francis wrote to her with the intention
of guiding her, which were later compiled as An Introduction, must have been written
during this period.

In the beginning of May 1645, she went to the tomb of her husband and that of Francis de
Sales and Jane de Chantal. Later in the same month, on 16 May, she returned to Villy
where she died on 1 June 1645.124

The two important women in the life of Francis de Sales, Madame Charmoisy and
Madame Chantal, were characterised by similar traits – courage, determination, constancy
and enormous practical and worldly sense. The letters of Francis de Sales to Madame
Charmoisy were ‘depersonalized’ for the general public to give shape to An Introduction.
However, the two women were also unique in their own ways. Madame Chantal knew
Francis de Sales only as widow and later as nun. On the other hand, Francis de Sales knew
Madam Charmoisy as the wife of his cousin and courtier, as mother and then widow.
From the letters of Francis to the latter we get the impression that she wanted to give
herself totally to God in the midst of her busy life and sought silence, quietude and
intimacy with God, but that was discouraged by Francis as long as she had duties to fulfil
in the world.125 This is clear also from several parts of An Introduction, where Francis de
Sales firmly states that people in the world, busy with worldly activities, also are called to
holiness, and it is possible for them.

Francis had a person-oriented approach to both these women. Since Madame Charmoisy
was of delicate health, Francis reminded her to take proper care of her health. Without
prejudice to women or women’s character, he had appreciated their physical, psychological
123
Cf. HÄMEL-STIER, Frauen um Franz von Sales, pp. 64-66. For those who like to know more about this
story: things took a turn for the worse when Henri was 25 years old and when he broke into her room in the
Castle of Marclaz in Thonon and ransacked it. He wanted to forcefully take over the administration of the
property. This incident caused a lot of mistrust and distance between the two and affected Madame
Charmoisy spiritually and psychologically. As her life was characterised by courage and forgiveness, she
forgave him again and agreed to be the godmother to his new baby in 1632. On 14 November 1632, she
handed over most of the property to Henri and contented herself with a modest share for her pension and
upkeep. In his life later on the son realized his mistake and asked her for forgiveness.
124
Cf. HÄMEL-STIER, Frauen um Franz von Sales, p. 66.
125
Ibid., pp. 67-69.
175
and moral strength. In a letter to Jane de Chantal he writes, “I love the independent and
strong souls who do not have anything feminine in them because this great tenderness
confuses the heart, unsettles it and distracts from devoted prayer to God.”126 He
appreciated women who could take control of situations, who were resolute and firm when
needed. It was true especially in the case of women like Jane de Chantal who had a leading
role to play. In this letter Francis is speaking of another Sister who is placed under his care
at the request of the Mother, i.e., Jane de Chantal. Francis loves her tenderly, but he
believes that her fickleness, ‘too much of tenderness’ and unsettled nature block her
spiritual growth.

3.2.1.2 Madam de Brulart and Francis de Sales

Madam Brulart, also called Madame de la Presidente Marie Bourgeois Brulart, was the
wife of Nicolas Brulart. He became the President of the Parliament of Burgundy in 1602.
Her friendship with Francis started in early 1604 when she met him in Dijon. Since then
she and her sister, Madame Bourgeois du Puisd’Orbe, an abbess, put themselves under the
direction of Francis de Sales. Madame Brulart was also a close friend of Madame de
Chantal. Madame de Brulart had many children and was active in works of charity.127

Madam Brulart experienced total restlessness in her call. Often she was tormented by the
desire to leave her family and join the convent. Francis knew well that some situations in
her life could not be changed and had to be accepted. She also had to tame down and
moderate her ‘over-enthusiasm’ and discipline her temper. I study some of the famous
letters Francis wrote to her in order to guide her. Here below I narrate some of the features
that characterised Francis’ spiritual guidance of her.

126
SALES, DA, 5, Briefe 1: An Frau von Chantal, p. 364. This, however, must be understood in the context.
‘Does not have anything feminine’ has to be understood in the understanding of women in the 16-17
centuries when they were considered physically and mentally weaker. Francis, on the other hand, believed
that women, especially those in a leading role, should be strong, resolute and firm. Francis de Sales did not
have any prejudice against women. It is clear from his life, writing and teachings. In fact, most of his close
friends were women. What he means to communicate here is that he appreciates the strength and resoluteness
in Jane de Chantal. „Ich möchte Ihnen noch sagen, meine sehr teure Mutter, daß ich gemäß Ihrem Auftrag
unserer Schwester von N. liebevoll geschrieben habe, und ich versichere Ihnen, meine sehr teure Mutter, daß
ich dies von ganzem Herzen getan habe, denn ich liebe diese arme Tochter vollkommenen Herzens. Es ist
Tatsache, daß es wohl kaum jemand auf der Welt gibt, der herzlicher, zärtlicher, und – um es ganz einfach zu
sagen –liebevoller liebt als ich; denn es hat Gott gefallen, mein Herz so zumachen. Dennoch liebe ich die
selbständigen, kraftvollen Seelen, die nicht weibisch sind; denn diese große Rührseligkeit verwirrt das Herz,
beunruhigt es und lenkt es von der liebenden Gebetsverbundenheit mit Gott ab, hindert die völlige Hingabe
und das vollkommene Absterbender Eigenliebe. Was nicht Gott ist, ist nicht für uns. Wie kann das
geschehen, daß ich diese Dinge empfinde, der ich doch – wie Sie wissen, meine sehr teure Mutter – der
liebendste Mensch auf Erden bin?“ (See also AE, Tome XX: Lettres – Volume X, p. 215).
127
See the ‘Index of Correspondents’ at the end of the book, Selected Letters, p. 300. A short biographical
sketch of Madam de Brulart and other correspondents of Francis de Sales prepared by the editor is given
here.
176
3.2.1.2.1 Person-Oriented Approach
The letter of Francis de Sales written on 3rd May 1604 seems to be one of his earliest to
her.128 From the beginning itself of that letter one gets the impression that she had asked
for (too) many suggestions and pieces of advice from Francis. So he writes to her, “I
cannot give you all at once what I promised because I do not have sufficient time to put
together all that I have to tell you on the subject you want me to explain. I will, therefore,
tell it to you in several letters. Besides the convenience to me, you will have the advantage
of having time to ruminate on my advice properly.”129

At the beginning of their relationship, Francis de Sales exudes a few therapeutic qualities:
warmth, openness, congruence and genuineness. These qualities are often so clearly visible
in his letters to Madam Brulart. According to person-centred counselling and therapy
approach, these are fundamental qualities a therapist should have in a therapeutic
relationship.130

At the outset, he appreciates her good intention and supports her with a positive stroke. He
‘reflects’ on what she has already mentioned or what has been implied in her letter to make
her further motivated and more conscious of her own inner desires. He makes her aware of
her own deep desires and her search for meaning and spirituality: “You have a great desire
for Christian perfection. It is the most generous desire you could have: feed it and make it
grow every day. The means of gaining perfection are various according to the variety of
vocations: religious, widows, and married persons must all seek this perfection, but not all
by the same means.”131

What is also clearly visible in his reply to her is the ‘person-oriented’ approach. At the
beginning Francis orients himself to her particular and personal situation. He reminds her
of her married state. Personal vocation and situations have to be taken into account in
spiritual direction. He also takes into account her personal feelings, wishes and desires. He
is not guiding every person in the same way. In the spiritual direction of Francis, one
notices that he adapted himself to the person, his or her situation and the circumstances.
Camus says, “He was like the manna which assimilated itself to the palate of whoever

128
Cf. SALES, Thy Will be Done. Letters of St Francis de Sales, pp. 45-48. (See also AE, Tome XII: Lettres
– Volume II, pp. 267-271; DA, 6. p.79).
129
SALES, Thy Will be Done, p. 45. (See also AE, XII, pp. 267; DA, 6, p.79).
130
Cf. Carl R. ROGERS, The Necessary and Sufficient Conditions of Therapeutic Personality Change in
Journal of Consulting Psychology, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1957, Washington DC, pp. 95-103. For more details on
this topic see 4.2.3.1 of this work.
131
SALES, Thy Will be Done, p. 45.
177
tasted it: he made himself all things to all men that he might gain all for Jesus Christ.”132
Each person has to be guided differently according to their vocation. She is a married
woman and is not called in the same way as the nuns to seek perfection.

He gives her some practical tips that suit her life. They include loving God and showing
this love in concrete acts of charity to neighbours, constant reception of the sacraments,
etc. Francis recommends to her frequent confessions, something which was not common in
those days. He even advocated a General Confession at the beginning of a spiritual
journey.133 He believed regular confession was necessary on the way to holiness.134 At the
same time he is not harsh or rigid: “As to confession, I advise you to frequent it even more,
especially if you fall into some imperfection by which your conscience is troubled, as often
happens at the beginning of the spiritual life. Still, if you have not the opportunity for
confession, contrition and repentance will do.”135 He understands it is not easy for a
housewife to get out of home and run to a confessor every time she has a troubled
conscience. Something which is not quite possible even today!

One must not misunderstand here that Francis de Sales underrates confession. On the
contrary, he strongly advocated frequent confession. But here he is speaking of a troubled
conscience. He even advocates confession when one has a troubled conscience. But if it is
not immediately possible, one has to be satisfied with contrition and repentance.

He also suggests to her daily meditation and reading of spiritual books. Another important
tip he gives her is that of being constantly in the presence of God and turning her mind to
God from time to time through short spontaneous prayers. “Besides this, often make
spontaneous prayers to the Lord, at every moment you can and in all companies, always
seeing God in your heart and your heart in God.”136 This simple technique is for Francis de
Sales very important: to constantly think of God, to repeat short prayers, to raise our heart
and mind to God from time to time. This helps to lead a meditative and contemplative life
in the midst of the world and to be constantly in the presence of God. This is the core of
132
Cf. Jean-Pierre CAMUS, The Spirit of St Francis de Sales. Translated by J. S., E-book (Kindle), Section:
How Blessed Francis Adapted Himself to Times, Places and Circumstances, pp. 93-97. Here p. 94. [This
book is the electronic version of the same title translated by J. S., published by Westmonasterii, Westminster,
1910.]
133
Cf. SALES, IDL, Part I, Chapter 19: How to Make a General Confession, pp.72-73.
134
Cf. SALES, IDL, Part II, Chapter 19: Regular Confession, pp.123-126.
135
SALES, Thy Will be Done, p. 46. One must understand this in context. Francis de Sales does not at all
mean that contrition can replace confession. In cases where there is no possibility of making confession, in
the case of a troubled conscience due to imperfection (not sin) one should at least show real contrition and
repentance.
136
Ibid., p. 47.
178
Salesian mysticism: to be God-oriented, to bear God always in our hearts in the busy
world.137

Another important point Francis recommends is the regular evaluation of ourselves to see
if we are sticking to our decisions and resolutions. It is not enough to have the desire and to
make decisions; it is still more important to stick to them. There is a need to constantly
evaluate ourselves to see our progress, failures and shortcomings. This also helps us to
make necessary changes and modifications, if and when needed. To the famous
philosopher Socrates is attributed the maxim, ‘An unexamined life is not worth living.’
Francis was not aware of SMART goal-setting,138 but he had enough psychological
knowledge and practical wisdom to know the working of the human mind and how to
make use of it in goal-setting.

He strongly encourages her to meditate, but at the same time she should take care of her
physical self. It should not do her any harm. In her effort to be devout, she should not
damage her health. He tells her “… be very careful not to make it either after dinner or
after supper, for that would hurt your health.”139

Francis is also aware that this ‘journey of faith,’ even if the person is full of desire,
enthusiasm and fervour, requires an enormous amount of perseverance, discipline and
endurance. Therefore, he encourages her to be perseverant in her attempts: “And although
it may seem at first against our will, we must not give up on that account; our repugnance
will at last be conquered by habit and good inclination, which will be produced by
repetition of the acts.”140 Is Francis de Sales a behaviourist? Here he seems to be speaking
like a behaviour therapist. Do not our repeated actions help us to develop habits and make
them part of our life? Or is he speaking like a positive psychologist on character
formation?141

137
Cf. Mary GREENAN, Salesian Mysticism: Towards the Ecstasy of Action in Journal of Salesian Studies,
Spring 2004, Vol XII. 2, Berkeley, CA: Institute of Salesian Spirituality, pp. 258-270.
138
SMART is a method of goal-setting in personality development and project management. It is a
mnemonic acronym which stands for: Specific, Measurable, Achievable, Realistic and Time-Bound. (See for
details George T. DORAN, There is a S.M.A.R.T Way to Write Management Goals and Objectives, in
Management Review 70.11, Nov.1981, (AMA Forum), pp. 35-36. Some attribute the SMART concept to
Paul J. Meyer.
139
SALES, Thy Will be Done, p. 46.
140
Ibid., p. 47.
141
Cf. Alexander T. POCETTO, Positive Psychology, Francis de Sales and Character Formation: An
Introduction in Studies in Religion / Sciences Religieuses, published online by Sage Publishers, September
23, 2014, pp. 1-7. Print version: Dec 2014, Vol. 43. 4, (The Canadian Corporation for Studies in Religion-
CCSR), pp. 575-591.
179
He tells her never to fail in her duty to her family by staying long in the church or retiring
to herself often and too long. In her attempt to reach holiness, she should never neglect her
family or her responsibilities. He warns her also against any snobbish behaviour or
tendency to look down on others who are not religious or devout in her opinion. “… take
particular care that your husband, your servants, and your parents do not suffer by your too
long stays in church, by your too great retirement, or by your failing to care for your
household. And do not become, as often happens, manager of others’ affairs, or too
contemptuous of conversations in which the rules of devotion are not quite exactly
observed.”142

She should never make her devotion a nuisance to others. On the contrary, she should
make it lovable to others. He tells her, “You must not only be devout, and love devotion,
but you must make it lovable to everyone. Well, you will render it lovable if you render it
useful and agreeable.”143 He ends the letter with his personal assurance and with a request
for her prayers.

3.2.1.2.2 Genuineness, Empathy and Acceptance

His letter of 13 October 1604144 gives us an insight into how empathically Francis accepted
his directees. Francis begins this letter by expressing his real joy at receiving her letter. He
also hopes his letters give her similar joy. What is visible here are his genuine empathy, the
sincerity in his approach and the simplicity and openness with which he communicates
with people. He expresses freely his feelings to her - what can be expressed to his directee
- and makes her feel free and at home with him.

In this letter he also refers to the anxieties in her mind of which she has mentioned. It is
obvious from this letter that she has sought his help to acquire not only devotion but also
peace of mind. He writes, “You ask how you should set about acquiring devotion and
peace of mind.”145 He emphatically tells her that to have peace of mind, one should be
faithful to one’s state of life. He says that fulfilling God’s will for us is the most important
thing for human beings here on earth. They have no other greater purpose here in this
world.146 It is indeed a difficult task. He says, “Our miserable nature always wants to have

142
SALES, Thy Will be Done, p. 48.
143
Ibid., p. 48.
144
SALES, Selected Letters, pp. 57-61. (See also AE, XII, pp. 345-352; DA, 6, pp. 82-87).
145
Ibid., p. 57.
146
Cf. Ibid.
180
things its own way and not God’s way. As we come to have less self-will we shall find it
easier to obey God’s will.” 147

Another important thing he does is to disabuse her or to remove their naïve and simplistic
ideas that some lives are more pleasant and free of troubles: “You must consider that every
state of life is in some way irksome, bitter and unpleasant; and what is more, except for
those who are wholly resigned to God’s will, people are all inclined to want to change
places with others.”148 What an insight! Instead of finding meaning and happiness in one’s
life, many try to constantly change their vocation. The grass always seems to be greener on
the other side! Sometimes a housewife longs to be a nun, a nun longs to be outside the
cloister, a priest wants to be a social worker, etc. This yearning for another form of life had
been a common problem in those days. Francis de Sales means that one should be careful
enough in discerning and choosing one’s way of life and when one has chosen it, it is not
good to long for another way of life, except for grave reasons. One should accept what one
has chosen, or better said, to that which God has called us and be faithful to it. It is not an
uncommon trend even today.

He explains it with his own example: “If I were not a bishop, maybe knowing what I do
know, I should not want to be one. But seeing that I am already a bishop, I am not only
obliged to do what this hard calling requires of me; over and above that I must do it
joyfully, finding pleasure and happiness in it.”149 This is indeed a piece of insight and
advice that is truly Salesian in nature and could be of use to any person in any vacation.

Francis de Sales believes that any way of life can be successful only if one has the proper
inner dispositions. Whatever one’s way of life, one should be joyful and what one does
should be done joyfully and cheerfully. What is done without joy, enthusiasm or
cheerfulness is only drudgery. Francis tells her that she should take her life with its crosses
- her own crosses, not the crosses of someone else. “We each got to carry our own cross,
not anybody else’s.”150

He has already established initial rapport with her. Francis knew that it was important in
this relationship. If she is to accept his suggestions and guidance, he has to be genuine and
empathic towards her. And now he becomes personal and person-oriented in his approach

147
SALES, Selected Letters, p. 59.
148
Ibid.
149
Ibid.
150
Ibid., p. 60. «Il ne faut pas porter la croix des autres, mais la sienne.» AE, XII, p. 349.
181
to her. He writes to her, “And now, my dear daughter, allow me to speak to you from my
heart, for this is how I feel towards you, you would like me to give you a few practical
points for your guidance.”151 And he gives her some practical guidelines which include
daily meditation, cheerfully carrying out her daily duties, doing God’s will at all times,
frequent short prayers, offering herself up in prayer, etc.152

Moreover, he persuades her to love her vocation as housewife which God has enjoined on
her. God loves it and she should also love her vocation. Constantly doubting one’s
vocation or wanting to change what one cannot or should not is an unhealthy sign: “We
must love all that God loves, and He loves our vocation; so let us love it too and not waste
our energy hankering after a different sort of life, but get on with our own job.”153

This piece of advice has to be seen in the context of people’s thinking in those times that
they could not lead a holy life as ordinary Christians – being a housewife, farmer, lay
person, etc. This false notion is something Francis strongly objected to, and he tried in all
his writings and preaching to clear this misconception. One of the main purposes of writing
An Introduction was to show ordinary people that all are called to holiness, whatever their
state of life is, and at what stage of holiness they may have been. 154 And no one need to or
should try to change their vocation to become holy. Lumen Gentium (LG) says, “They
must, therefore, hold on to and perfect in their lives that sanctification which they have
received from God. It is, therefore, quite clear that all Christians in any state or walk of life
and called to the fullness of Christian life and to the perfection of love and by this holiness
a more human manner of life is fostered also in earthly society.”155

Francis also gives her some good and practical instructions on confession and Holy
Communion. He recommends daily examination of her conscience and life. This is
something he suggests to all his directees. One who is on the path to growth should make
constant examination to assess one’s progress, failures, and to make necessary changes.
One’s life has to be examined often if one has to make progress in spiritual life. Modern
companies make daily evaluations to assess their gain and loss. Frequent evaluation is a
desideratum on the way to progress - be it in the spiritual realm or the material.

151
SALES, Selected Letters, p. 60.
152
Cf. Ibid., pp. 60-61.
153
Ibid., p. 61.
154
Cf. Peter DYCKHOFF, Wege der Freundschaft mit Gott. Geistlich leben nach Franz von Sales, (2nd ed.)
Freiburg: Herder, 2014, pp. 8-9.
155
Lumen Gentium (LG), Vatican II Dogmatic Constitution on the Church, Ch. V, No. 39.
182
He reminds her once again towards the end of the letter that her devotion should not be a
cause of disturbance or annoyance for others in the family. “Remember what I have so
often told you: do honour to our devotion by making it very lovable to everyone who
knows you, especially your own family; live in such a way that everybody speaks well of
your piety.”156 He encourages her to see the positive side of the persons in the family,
especially her husband. “How fortunate you are to have such a reasonable and tolerant
husband! You ought to be grateful to God and thank Him.”157 He closes the letter by
assuring her that she is close to him and is always in his heart.

The strongly personal and person-oriented approach of Francis de Sales is clearly visible in
this letter.

3.2.1.2.2 ‘Be Your Real Self’

In his letter of 10 June 1605158 Francis de Sales encourages Madam de Brulart to be true to
her real self. This is a short letter asking her to persevere in her efforts, to be joyful and to
remain where God has placed her. He begins the letter plainly and openly, “Madam, my
dearest sister, you see me in readiness to write to you, and I know not what to say except to
tell you to walk always joyfully in this heavenly way in which God has placed you…
courageously lead your heart to the execution of the things you know He wants from you,
in spite of all kinds of contradictions that might oppose themselves to this.”159

Francis reminds Madam de Brulart that she should purify her heart daily. He also tells her
to be moderate. When starting a spiritual journey, many are over-eager to achieve too
much and to do too many things at the same time. Madam de Brulart was also affected by
this over-enthusiasm. Francis tells her to be moderate: “Love nothing too much, not even
virtues, which are lost sometimes by passing the bounds of moderation.”160 In the
following world-famous quotation, Francis encourages her to be what she is and to be that
in the best way: “Let us be what we are, and let us be it well, to do honour to the Master
whose work we are.”161

156
SALES, Selected Letters, p. 62.
157
Ibid., p. 62.
158
SALES, Thy will be Done, pp. 21-22. (See also AE, XIII, pp. 53-54; DA, 6, pp. 94-95).
159
Ibid., p. 21.
160
SALES, Thy will be Done, p. 22. «N' aymés rien trop, je vous supplie, non pas mesme les vertus, que l'on
perd quelque fois en les outrepassant.» AE, XIII, p. 53. „Lieben Sie bitte nichts allzusehr, nicht einmal die
Tugenden, die man manchmal einbüßt, wenn man sie übertreibt.“ DA, 6, p. 95.
161
Ibid. This quotation has been translated variously. Here Mackey translated it in this way. As noted earlier,
the publishers of Thy Will be Done have basically taken the translation of Benedict Henry Mackey. The
183
For Francis de Sales, one enjoys freedom, joy and happiness when one tries to be what
God has called one to be. In spiritual life it is not only just a matter of being somehow, but
one should try to be the best one can be. By being the best that one can be, one gives glory
to God. When we long for something else that we are not, it causes self-contradiction,
disharmony, lack of joy and incongruence in our lives.

What Francis de Sales here speaks about being the self that one is, sounds close to what
Carl Rogers explains in his Person-Centred Therapy. He also calls one to maintain the real
self that one is. Trying to be something else causes incongruence and consequently it leads
to imbalance and mental illness. According to Carl Rogers, the way to avoid personal
imbalance and to promote growth is to avoid incongruence by being the person that one
is.162 There are clear similarities between the Salesian and Rogerian approaches.

At the end of the letter, Francis tells her that he shall be pleased to know the subjects of her
meditation and the prayers she makes. This is with a purpose: to assess her progress and to
guide her more personally. He concludes the letter with a wish to keep her heart always at
peace.

3.2.1.2.3 Encouraging and Supporting with Positive Strokes

The letter he writes to her in March 1605163 from La Roche is a classic one. As usual, at
the beginning he expresses his great joy at receiving her letter. He congratulates her on the
progress she makes in her spiritual growth. He affirms, reflects and shares in her feelings
of happiness, contentment and success: “I was extremely happy about your letter of 20
January because it seems to me that in spite of the afflictions you describe to me, you have
advanced in the spiritual life and profited by your trials.”164

Francis also tells her in his frankness that he is busy at the moment and unable to make a
long reply as he might wish to. She is upset about the fact that she finds it difficult to
reveal herself as much as she wants to. Francis consoles her saying that he knows already a
lot about her, her inclinations and the motives of her heart. He has a special gift of

original French is : « Soyons ce que nous sommes, et soyons le bien, pour faire honneur au Maistre ouvrier
duquel nous sommes la besoigne. » AE, XIII, pp. 53-54. In German, it has been translated as „Seien wir
doch, was wir sind, und seien wir es gut, um dem Meister Ehre zu machen, dessen Werk wir sind.“ DA, 6, p.
95.
162
Cf. Carl R. ROGERS, On Becoming a Person. A Therapist’s View of Psychotherapy, (1995 Edition),
Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company; refer to chapter six: What it means to be a person, pp. 107-124.
163
SALES, Selected Letters, pp. 87-90. (See also AE, XIII, pp. 18-22; DA, 6, pp. 89-93).
164
Ibid., p. 87.
184
knowing the hearts of people. This has been stated by many others too.165 Francis tries to
use his knowledge of her to help her: “This is of great advantage to you because you want
to use me for your salvation.”166

Francis lets her know that he understands her situation and the progress she makes and he
is happy about it. He is trying to highlight the positive points in her and helps her to build
up on her strengths and to derive confidence from the simple successes she has been able
to achieve. In spiritual direction and pastoral counselling such small successes are to be
seen and highly priced that the directee remains on the right path with courage and
confidence. Barry and Connolly recommend: “Understanding is usually helpful. One could
merely listen sympathetically and offer what little encouragement one can to another
human being in pain. Sympathetic listening is very helpful to someone who is troubled.”167

3.2.1.2.4. ‘Be Realistic’

One important piece of advice that Francis gives Madam Brulart is that she should be
realistic. She should admit that she is human and that self-will or ego is not easy to
overcome. In Christian life, in the fight against self one should not have unrealistic
expectations which could often disappoint us. She is much upset that her self-will
frequently comes to the forefront. He tells her that it is not easy in this life to get rid of our
self-will. All that we can do is to reduce it or to master control over it slowly and steadily:
“It is impossible for us to escape from self entirely...We have to go on bearing ourselves
till God bears us to heaven.”168

He also tells her that only God can heal us instantly, but that is a rare case. In most cases
God gives us the strength and grace to fight our weaknesses. An instant healing or instant
mastery over self is not, normally speaking, possible for human beings. That can only be
done by God. But all human beings are called to take up this struggle upon themselves to
change and modify themselves little by little, step by step, patiently and confidently. He
gently persuades her, “So we must be patient and not imagine that we can cure ourselves in
a day of all the bad habits we have contracted by being careless about our spiritual health.

165
See Jean-Pierre CAMUS, The Spirit of St Francis de Sales. See the parts on ‘Upon Different Methods of
Direction’ and ‘Advice on Having a Director’. (E-book, Kindle Edition, p. 315.)
166
SALES, Selected Letters, p. 87.
167
BARRY / CONNOLLY, The Practice of Spiritual Direction, p. 5.
168
SALES, Selected Letters, p.87. «Je vous respons qu'il n'est pas possible de nous abandonner du tout nous
mesmes. Pendant que nous sommes icy bas, il faut que nous nous portions tous-jours nous mesmes jusques a
ce que Dieu nous porte au Ciel.» AE, XIII, p. 19.
185
God did, of course, cure some people suddenly, without leaving them any mark of their
former diseases…”169

We must be patient with ourselves. We must try to conquer ourselves little by little and
inch by inch. In his own words, “We must acquire this mastery little by little and inch by
inch, for the saints themselves spent many decades conquering themselves. I entreat you to
be patient with everyone, but first of all with yourself.”170 This is a request which Francis
makes to many people. He wants his directees to take one step at a time and make steady
progress instead of hurrying and reaching nowhere. One sees this idea being repeated in his
letters to different persons.

He tells her that at the moment it is enough if she can place herself in the presence of God.
That is to be seen as a success at this initial stage. One should be happy to achieve small
successes and be proud of them. Francis also makes a point regarding the uniqueness of
individuals and their vocations. There are different kinds of trees. They bear different kinds
of fruit. The taste, smell, colour and shape of the fruits are not the same. Nor do they all
bear fruits in the same season. It is the same with human beings. They are all different
from one another, bear different fruits and at different seasons. What ultimately matters is
one’s faithfulness and readiness to do the will of God.171

In this letter Francis tries repeatedly to encourage her, to help her see the positive side of
things and to be realistic. She seems to be struck by her short setbacks, and Francis thinks
it necessary that she remain adamant in her decision without being affected by the
setbacks. “But don’t lose heart, I entreat you; gradually train your will to follow God’s will
wherever it leads; see that your will is strongly roused as soon as your conscience tells you
... and little by little these feelings of repugnance which run so deep in you will grow less
intense and soon disappear altogether.”172

Repelling others through one’s devotion is something not Francis de Sales would advocate.
He requests her not to be a nuisance to others whom she wants to lead to holiness and to a
life of devotion. Instead, she should try to lead them and attract them by good example and
by her goodness and gentleness:

169
SALES, Selected Letters, p. 87.
170
Ibid., p. 88. «Il faut que, petit a petit et pied a pied, nous nous acquérions cette domination pour la
conqueste de laquelle les Saintz et les Saintes ont employé plusieurs dizaines d’annees. Il faut, s'il vous
plaist, avoir patience avec tout le monde, mais premièrement avec vous mesme.» AE, XIII, p.19.
171
Ibid.
172
Ibid., p. 89.
186
 I beg you to be very careful not to run such risks but to pursue your aims in
this matter gently and kindly, that is to say, without being a nuisance to those
whom you would like to influence toward perfection, and without even
letting them guess your intention; for believe me, that would do more harm
than good. So you must work by your example and by what you say, quite
gently sowing the good seed which might later come up; and without
making it obvious that you want to instruct them or win them over, you must
gradually fill their hearts with holy ideas and considerations. And so you will
do much more real good than in any other way, especially if you pray about
it.173

Francis tells her that she should not, in her over-enthusiasm and eagerness, in any way try
to influence others. She should respect their freedom and individuality even in spiritual
matters but at the same time try to attract them with gentleness, patience and good
examples. She should also have faith in their capacity to grow. An aggressive or obtrusive
approach is not helpful. It sounds similar to the ‘non-directive’ method used in the person-
centred therapy.

3.2.1.2.5 ‘Use Your Emotions Constructively’

In the modern sense of the word, Francis was not a psychologist; nor was psychology
known as a scientific subject in those times. Francis, however, seems to have had many
psychological insights. In his letter to Madam Brulart written in February-March 1606,174
he guides her to make positive use of her desires and feelings. Even the languor and lack of
zest that she often experiences should animate her to action. But at the same time one
should be moderate in showing one’s feelings. One should not be overcome by one’s
feelings. Feelings should not control one; on the other hand, one should control one’s
feelings and use them as catalysts for action.

This counsel of Francis reveals to the reader that she is still disturbed by her imperfections.
She seems to be clinging to too high ideals and wishes. Francis tells her that as long as we
are human beings, there will always be some imperfections in us. He further tells her that
she should make positive use of her desires and feelings: “I see that you are still
languishing with the desire for greater perfection. I praise this kind of languor for it does
not make you languorous, as I know very well; on the contrary, it animates you and spurs
you on to conquest.”175

173
SALES, Selected Letters, p. 90.
174
Cf. Ibid., pp.107-109. (See also AE, XII, pp.148-151; DA, 6, pp. 96-99).
175
Ibid., p. 107.
187
After giving her a positive stroke, he advises her to be realistic in dealing with herself and
her desires. It is also important to note the personal touch Francis employs in writing to
her:

You live, so you tell me, subject to thousands of imperfections. Very true,
my good sister; but don’t you try to make them die in you hour by hour? ...
Have I never told you that we must be patient with everyone and primarily
ourselves? For we are more troublesome to ourselves than anyone else,
because we can distinguish between the old and the new Adam in us, the
interior and exterior man.176

Then he gives her some useful tips for her daily life. She can spend even one hour in
meditation if she wants to. However, he adds that she should not force her imagination. He
also gives her some practical and wise instructions regarding receiving Holy Communion.
She should not be scrupulous about receiving Communion. She is free to work after
receiving Communion. Why do you want to waste your day because you have received
Holy Communion, he asks her. He cautions her that what she should do is to avoid sin at
any cost, and, as far as possible, the pleasures of the senses. Even in this regard, Francis is
rather mild. If it is unavoidable that she should have it, then it is tolerated; but in which
case modesty is called for.177 What a practical, wise and human approach from Francis!

One can see from the letter that both of them have already reached a higher level of
director-directee relationship. She is able to relate more freely with Francis and share even
her day-to-day spiritual concerns with him. We also see how she gains confidence and asks
for more counsel regarding various other matters like Communion, going out, attitude
towards the world, being in the world, etc. Francis wants her to be in the world but not
affected by it. In order to fulfil her vocation as a mother, she has to remain in the world. In
order to be perfect, she does not have to run away from the world: “Perfection, my dear
lady, does not consist in not seeing the world, but in not relishing and savouring it.”178

Francis tells her that their relationship has been characterised by straightforwardness and
simplicity and it should remain so. Francis says he is genuine and he esteems this virtue in
his relationships. He wants total frankness, openness and genuineness between them: “My
dear sister, I should not wish there to be any make-believe in us, not real make-believe.

176
SALES, Selected Letters, p. 107.
177
Cf. Ibid., p. 108. (By ‘pleasures of the senses’ Francis means taking undue pleasure in eating and drinking,
going to dances, games, etc. In IDL he warns people against seeking pleasures and attractions of the world
without modesty and moderation. See IDL, Part 1, Chs. 23 & 24).
178
Ibid.
188
Straightforwardness and simplicity are the virtues proper to us.”179 Francis tells her that she
should not be too much affected by what the world thinks about her and her life. One
should keep one’s personal identity: “In a word, despise the world’s opinion of you and do
not let it upset you in any way.”180

At the end of the letter he deals with a personal matter. He responds to her complaint that
he loved some other persons more than her. Francis tells her that he does not prefer others
to her. But when others need him, he is obliged to help them. Sometimes others need more
help from him than she. He assures her of his love and care. Francis’ response hints at the
feelings of envy and jealousy which she might have had because she thought he loved
others more than her. The final part of the letter seems to have been lost because it does not
have the characteristic leave-taking.

3.2.1.2.6 Patient Acceptance of Others

Accepting human beings as they are - with their weak nature and frailties - is central to the
humanism of Francis de Sales. It, however, does not mean that one accepts all the negative
elements or the evil present in the other. One should be able to see a human person
independent of his fragilities and be able to accept him. Gentleness, empathy and openness
are more powerful tools to win over others than violence, strictness and force.

The letter of Francis dated October 1606181 gives the clear impression that she had
complained about her husband and her father, that they stood in the way of her devotion.
The letter gives an indication that her devotion and pious practices got her into trouble with
her husband and her father. Therefore, Francis attempts to make her appreciate their
viewpoints and to see the situation at home from a positive angle.

Francis tells her that in his opinion she has a good father and an equally good husband.
They are jealous and protective of her, which is indeed a good sign and should not be seen
as interference. They feel violated when she does things on her own without consulting
them even if it is in the name of devotion. “What a good father and what a very good
husband you have got! Alas! They are a little jealous of their authority and dominion over
you, and when you do something without their permission and sanction, it seems to them
that their rights have been in some sense violated. Well, you must allow them this little

179
SALES, Selected Letters, pp. 108-109.
180
Ibid., p. 109.
181
Cf. SALES, Selected Letters, pp. 126-128. (See also AE, XIII, pp. 225-230; DA, 6, pp. 105-109).
189
touch of human nature.”182 He tries to bring home to her that she should not see their
objections in a negative way; on the other hand, they are signs of their love and concern for
her. Moreover, they are human beings and they are also likely to feel violated and insulted
when she does things without their permission.

To accept human weaknesses and frailties is central to the guidance technique of Francis
de Sales. The directee himself should admit his frail human nature and that of others. One
has to accept human beings as they are, not as angels. Human beings are likely to err. This
aspect also has to be taken into account in all our dealings with people. That is what he
means by saying, ‘You must allow them little touches of human nature’.

What he tells her in one part of this letter can be controversial and even shocking if we do
not understand it properly. He says, “We must sometimes leave Our Lord in order to please
others for love of him.”183 Many women in those times thought, in their new-found
earnestness for devotion and holy life, it was important and necessary to spend long hours
in the church even to the neglect of their household duties, their obligations to their
spouses and parents. For many it was also an escape from their families and personal
responsibilities. Francis de Sales makes it crystal clear that it is not sincere devotion or true
holiness. But he presents his teaching only mildly and suggestively. He invites her to think
over the matter to see if there has been any provocation from her side:

No, I cannot stop myself from telling you what I think, my dear daughter; I
know that you will not take offence at anything said to you in a spirit of
sincerity. Perhaps you have given your father and your husband occasion to
take exception to your devotion in some way? I don’t know; maybe you
were too eager and fussy about it, wanting to press and force them into it in
some way? If that is the case, this is surely why they are now making a
stand. We must, if possible, avoid making our devotion a nuisance.184

The letter clearly shows the empathy, sincerity and trust that existed between them. He
frankly tells her, “And it will be a very great consolation to me to know that my advice

182
SALES, Selected Letters, p. 126. Emphasis mine. [Henry Benedict Mackey translates it as “we must allow
them this little bit of human nature.” See, Thy Will be Done, p. 61]. «Mon Dieu, le bon pere que nous avons
et le très bon mari que vous aves! Helas, ilz ont un peu de jalousie de leur empire et domination, qui leur
semble estr’aucunement violé quand on fait quelque chose sans leur authorité et commandement. Que
voules-vous, il leur faut permettre cette petite humanité.» AE, XIII, p. 226. „Mein Gott, welch guten Vater
haben wir doch und welch vorzüglichen Gatten haben Sie! Ach, sie wachen beide ein wenig eifersüchtig über
ihren Machtbereich und ihre Herrschaft, die ihnen irgendwie verletzt dünkt, wenn man etwas ohne ihr
Machtwort und ihren Befehl tut. Was wollen Sie, man muß diese kleine Menschlichkeit verstehen.“ DA, 6,
p.106. What Francis means here is that one should be able to bear with the weaknesses and failures of others
which are due to human nature.
183
Ibid.
184
Ibid., pp. 126-127. Emphasis mine.
190
does not make your heart in any way uneasy.”185 What openness and freedom existed
between them!

There is a clear indication that her frequent going out and her frequent Communion has put
her in confrontation against her husband and father-in-law. It was a common problem in
those days. It may not anymore be the case in Europe today, but similar problems exist in
India even in our day. Often one comes across cases of neglect of household duties by men
and women in the name of piety and devotion. Sometimes the problem is not lack of
devotion but an excess of it.

A spiritual guide in India comes across in his day-to-day ministry many similar cases.
There are people who want to dedicate themselves totally to the Lord; at the same time
they do not want to take care of their families. There are others who make the life of
people around them miserable because of their piety. They are annoying and cause in
others a kind of disregard for the person as well as piety in general. That does a great
disservice to piety. Being pious or spiritual need not necessarily disturb others or go
against once vocation in the world. Which, says Francis de Sales, is contrary to true
devotion.186 In the same letter Francis puts it succinctly: “Sometimes you have to advance
by seeming to retreat.”187

At the end of the letter, Francis appreciates her readiness to make sacrifices and
encourages her: “From what I can see, you really are practising resignation and
indifference now because you cannot serve God according to your own will.”188 He
appreciates the progress she has made until now and he emboldens her to continue on the
good path.

3.2.1.2.7 Constant Accompaniment and Support

Francis de Sales used to keep in touch with his directees in spite of his busy schedule. With
this purpose, he wrote short notes to them when he was on a journey or when he was on his
visitation. They were short and basically letters of assurance to those who needed them or
letters just to remind that he was thinking of the directee and praying for him. Some
psychotherapists have also stressed the value of ‘holding the client’ in thoughts and
prayers. Brian Thorne says, “Regular ‘holding’ of clients – in many ways much akin to

185
SALES, Selected Letters, p. 127.
186
Cf. SALES, IDL, Part 1, Chapter 3, pp. 40-41.
187
SALES, Selected Letters, p. 127.
188
Ibid., p. 128.
191
silent or intercessory prayer – because it is part of a spiritual discipline is likely to have far-
reaching effects in other areas of therapists’ lives and to illumine all their relationships.”189
Francis also made use of these short notes to remind them of their decision and to
encourage them to keep going. They have the function of a reminder and ‘positive stroke’.

The letter he writes to Madam Brulart on 20 July 1607190 from Viuz-en-Sallez seems to be
one such. He has written it to her on the way. He spares some time amidst his busy
programme to help her. He repeats the exhortation not to be overeager for holiness. Her
lack of self-acceptance, over-eagerness and impatience seem to hinder her growth in
devotion. He writes to her, “I cannot refrain from writing to you at every opportunity that
comes my way. Please believe me – do not be overeager; be very careful to serve God
with great gentleness, for this is the right way of setting about His service. Do not want to
do everything, but only something, and no doubt you will do much.” 191 He concludes the
letter exhorting her to be cheerful: “Be of good cheer, let nothing dismay you...”192

People tend to forget. Forgetfulness is a common human weakness. A counsellor or

spiritual director has to remind them from time to time and encourage them through
positive strokes to strive towards their goal. This action of the counsellor or spiritual
director assures the directee and gives him a feeling that the counsellor or director cares for
him and is concerned about his growth.193 This kind of positive strokes are always visible
in the letters of Francis de Sales. From time to time he writes to his directees, sometimes
brief notes to encourage them and to remind them of their decisions.

With the same purpose, a similar letter was written to her in April 1611 from Annecy.194 It
also is a short letter. It is clear that it was not meant to be an independent letter to her.
Actually the main letter was sent to her husband with some serious purpose. Along with
that letter he writes a short letter to her too. He writes here, “I am enclosing a little message
for you simply to greet you with all my heart.”195

Although it is only a short note, it reveals a lot about Francis de Sales. He always kept
good contact with his directees in spite of his busy schedule. He made use of every
189
Brian THORNE, Counselling and Spiritual Accompaniment, p. 215. See also pp. 240, 244.
190
Cf. SALES, Selected Letters, pp. 135-136. (See also AE, XIII, pp. 298-299; DA, 6, pp.112-113).
191
Ibid., p. 135.
192
Ibid., p. 136.
193
Cf. BARRY / CONNOLLY, The Practice of Spiritual Direction, p. 92. See also pp. 5, 59, 72 & 102.
194
Cf. SALES, Selected Letters, p. 191. (See also AE, XV: LETTRES - VOLUME V, pp. 53-54; DA, 6, 127-
128).
195
Ibid.
192
opportunity to meet them, to write to them and to encourage them. This little note must
have surely encouraged her and reassured her of Francis’ love and concern for her. He
reminds her that holy indifference is not lack of energy. It is not apathy or being
unconcerned. It is selfless love of God’s will and total surrender to it.196

3.2.1.3 Francis de Sales and Madame de Chantal

The friendship between Jane de Chantal and Francis de Sales has a special place in the
history of the Church. It is one of the most remarkable and inspiring friendships between
two saints. Together they grew in friendship and holiness; together they founded a major
religious order and brought about a new way of living the gospel – the Salesian way of life.
In the opinion of Henri Nouwen, the friendship that existed between them was
characterised by ‘Jesus-centredness’ and remains an inspiring challenge to the spiritual
friendships of all time.197 The relationship that existed between them was also marked by
openness, directness and spontaneity which offered them both mutual healing and strength.
Henri Nouwen says, “In a time, in which there is so much concern about the right
professional distance within a helping relationship and in which there is preoccupation
with transference and counter-transference, Jane de Chantal and Francis de Sales offer us a
fresh perspective on a healing relationship.”198

3.2.1.3.1 The Person of Jane Françoise de Chantal

Jeanne-Francoise de Chantal was born on 3 June 1572, in a noble family in Dijon. When
she was 18 months old, her mother died after giving birth to Andre Freymyot, her brother,
who later became the Archbishop of Bourges. She was practically raised by her father, and
possessed a certain amount of masculine strength and stern behaviour, while in Francis one
finds extreme kindness and maternal gentleness. She was married to Christophe de Rabutin
Baron de Chantal, an official of the Court. Francoise de Chantal is described as possessing
great beauty and attractive qualities – taller than average, black-haired, round-faced,
having fair complexion and lively eyes. She loved her husband passionately. There was an
intense friendship between them. In the warm months, Baron de Chantal was often away
on war and campaigns and spent winter months with his family. Since he was often away
for long periods, he entrusted the management of his estate to his wife. She possessed
amazing administrative abilities. She looked after the house, supervised the work on the

196
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, p. 224.
197
Cf. Henri J.M. NOUWEN, in ‘Preface’ to Letters of Spiritual Direction, pp. 3-5.
198
Ibid., p. 5.
193
farms and fields and even educated the servants in religion. She was also generous in
giving alms – a quality for which she was well-known.199

All the good times came to a sudden end when her husband was mistakenly shot and killed
during a hunt. Jane was expecting her fourth child. She could not accept this tragic event in
her life. The death of her husband affected her deeply and tragically. She felt like leaving
the world and running away to a desert and spending her life alone with God. What
withheld her from going away from home was the thought of her children.200 She vowed
not to marry again and to live only for God.201

She also began getting visions and having strange spiritual experiences. Her spiritual guide
was of little help to her. She was desperately looking for spiritual assistance. 202 She was
on the search for a holy spiritual director for more than two years. Her father, Monsieur
Freymont, invited her to a spiritual director in his hometown in Dijon who was well-known
among the women of the place. Out of obedience she met him but was convinced that it
was not he whom she was looking for. He placed her under strange practices and
disciplines which strained her spiritually and physically. Instead of finding spiritual solace
and comfort, she experienced further moral uneasiness and psychological anguish under
his direction. He extracted a vow of obedience from her. Jane felt herself entrapped. In
spite of her ‘torture’ she remained faithful to him.203

For the sake of her children, she had to move to Montheleon to her father-in-law. He was
an unkind man. He forced her to stay with him in his castle; if not, he threatened to
disinherit her and her children. Although Jane did not like going to his castle, she had to
yield. The old man was living a rather immoral life with one of his mistresses and her five
children. Madame de Chantal had to lead a subservient life because the servant took the
upper hand in the castle due to her relationship with the old man. Life in the castle of her
father-in-law was for Jane indeed a purgatory. During the winter of 1603-‘04 her father,
President Freymont, invited her to Dijon to listen to the Lenten preaching of Francis de
Sales, the Bishop of Geneva.

199
Cf. Maurice HENRY-COUANNIER, St Francis de Sales and his Friends, tr. Veronica MORROW,
Chicago: Sceptre, 1964, pp.159-163.
200
Cf. Ibid., pp. 166-167.
201
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, p. 238.
202
Cf. HENRY-COUANNIER, St Francis de Sales and his Friends, p. 168.
203
Cf. Ibid., pp.168-169.
194
3.2.1.3.2 The First Encounter
Francis was already on the way to becoming a well-known preacher. Jane had been a
widow now for two years, still grieving at the death of her husband and trying to come to
terms with her life. Bishop Francis was also impressed at how attentive she was at his
sermons. He enquired about her. Archbishop Andre Freymont replied that she was his
sister. With his preaching Francis moved many listeners and conquered the hearts of
people in Dijon. The young Archbishop invited him to a dinner which was also attended by
his sister Jane.

Jane had been a widow for two years now and did not want to marry again. She wanted to
dedicate her total life to God. In spite of her desire not to re-marry and to dedicate her life
to God, Jane had adorned herself with jewels.204 For Francis it was a contradiction. He did
not comprehend her behaviour. So Bishop Francis asked her: “Is it true, madam, that you
do not want to re-marry and want to serve God? … If so, why do you wear those jewels, as
if you wish?”205 Widows of those times who intended to marry a second time wore jewels
and frills. In Lajeunie’s narration of the events, Francis tells her directly and humorously,
“Well… you should take the signboard down.”206 Madam de Chantal got the message. She
did not wear her jewels any more.207

3.2.1.3.3 Germination of a Life-long Friendship

After the first encounter, she immediately recognized a friend and guide in Francis de
Sales and wanted to open her heart to him. Her spiritual guide had been tyrannical and had
forbidden her to make confession to anyone else other than to him. In her present situation
of grief, pain, loss and looking for a new direction, he was not helpful. She had been
searching for a new spiritual guide. She admired Bishop Francis and knew at once that it
was he whom she had been searching for all the time.208 She sought to place herself
immediately under his direction. Bishop Francis liked her very much from the first
meeting. However, he did not want to answer in a hurry. Moreover, she was at that time
under the direction of another priest. He wanted to discern God’s will. It took him some

204
Cf. LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. II, pp. 276-278.
205
As quoted by MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, p. 242.
206
As quoted by LAJEUNIE, Saint Francis de Sales, Vol. II, p. 277. Lajeunie describes it in a more dramatic
manner: “Well!, he replied, you should take the signboard down.”
207
Cf. Ibid.
208
Cf. Ibid., pp. 277-278.
195
time to know God’s will in this matter. After Easter, she made her confession to him, and
Francis accepted her and agreed to guide her.209

Confession, especially a general confession, was the starting point of a spiritual

relationship and guidance in those times. It helped the confessor or the director to get to
know the directee in some depth, especially with a great deal of information regarding the
past life, tendencies, inclinations, desires, weaknesses, etc. It could be compared to the
psychoanalytic/ counselling sessions in modern times, where the client fully opens up his
heart to the psychoanalyst/ counsellor. Francis advocated general confession in An
Introduction at the beginning of a spiritual guidance. He says, “Since I am advising you
about a general renewal of heart and a complete conversion to God by committing yourself
to the devout life, I think I have every reason to advise you to make this general
confession.”210

Francis gradually helped Jane to build up confidence. Francis’ therapeutic qualities like
frankness, authenticity and simplicity helped Jane to open herself to him and to get helped
by him. There developed gradually a deep friendship between Madam Jane de Chantal and
Bishop Francis de Sales.

3.2.1.3.4. The Process of Discernment

Discernment is central to spiritual guidance. In fact, most people seek spiritual direction to
find help to discover God’s will for them.211 Discerning and paying attention to what the
Holy Spirit wants of the directee is essential to Catholic spiritual direction.212 It is the same
in the Salesian way. First of all, a spiritual director must be able to discern for himself
whether he is able to guide the person in question. An impulsive ‘yes’ or ‘no’ is not the
right response. He should also assess his capacity, his time and other requirements for
taking up such a task. For Francis, spiritual direction is an important task, and one should
be careful in choosing the director who should also be cautious and prudent in accepting
the offer.213 In the matter of taking important decisions, Francis was never in a hurry. From
his younger days, Francis took time to arrive at decisions. The good examples include

209
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, p. 242.
210
SALES, IDL, Part 1, Ch. 6, p. 47.
211
Cf. Andre LOUF, Die Gnade kann mehr… Geistliche Begleitung, tr.Christine HOFINGER,
Münsterschwarzach: Vier-Türme-Verlag, 1995, pp. 19-31. (originally published in French as „ La grace peut
Davantag“)
212
Cf. BARRET, Spiritual Direction in the Roman Catholic Tradition, p. 290.
213
Cf. SALES, IDL, Part I, Chapter 4. The chapter deals in detail with the topic of spiritual direction and the
necessity of having a guide.
196
revealing to his father his desire to become a priest, assuming the bishopric and taking up
the direction of many people, including Jane de Chantal.

Jane, on the other hand, was rather impulsive to take Francis as her spiritual guide.
Spiritual direction in many cases involves a long-standing relationship. It was a
commitment for an unspecified period. As a result, it also involved concomitant risks. It
involved the risk of opening up oneself to another, placing total trust in another person and
a certain degree of obedience. For Francis, it was a matter of discerning God’s will and
also finding enough time to guide her. Time and the results show us that the relationship
between Francis and Jane was not based on a passing enthusiasm or whims and fancies. It
involved several months of prayer and discernment.214

In accepting to be her spiritual director, Francis freed her from the tyranny of her former
director. The first thing Francis did was to help her to accept her state of life as a widow,
which she had freely chosen and to begin to appreciate and love it. To make progress in
one’s life, one must accept, appreciate and love the state of life which one has freely
chosen. Theories of psychotherapy, especially the person-centred therapy215 and cognitive
therapy216 are based on self-acceptance and developing a positive outlook on life. They
also emphasise creating self-worth and self-esteem in order to create positive outlook.

One could say that Francis was already in his time psychological and therapeutic in his
approach. He knew well that unless one accepted one’s state of life and appreciated it, one
finds it difficult to be happy. A directee, however, should not forget that when he
understands that he needs to change his state of life due to circumstances or to respond to
the call of God, he must be open to it. Through the acceptance and appreciation of Jane’s
state of life, Francis led her slowly to inner freedom. Another major area where Francis
had to help her related to scruples. Jane was scrupulous by nature. It took her long years to
overcome her scrupulosity.

214
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, p. 244.
215
Cf. Sofia von HUMBOLDT / Isabel LEAL, Person-centred Therapy and Older Adults’ Self-Esteem: A
Pilot Study with Follow-up in Studies in Sociology of Science by Canadian Research and Development
Centre of Sciences and Cultures, Vol. 3, No. 4, 2012, (published by Sage Publishers), pp. 1-10.
216
Cf. Jordan A. CUMMINGS, Adele M.HAYES, et al. The Dynamics of Self-Esteem in Cognitive Therapy
for Avoidant and Obsessive-Compulsive Disorders: An Adaptive Role of Self-Esteem Variability? In
Cognitive Therapy and Research, Vol. 36. 4, August, 2012, (electronic edition, published by Springer), pp.
272-281.
197
3.2.1.3.5 Helping Jane to Grow in Individuality and Inner Freedom
Francis de Sales, being a Christian humanist and champion of the cause of human liberty,
was fully convinced of the need for respecting the directees and allowing them personal
freedom. The friendship and the director-directee relationship between Francis and Jane
was founded on the principle of freedom and individuality. Their personalities, in many
respects, were not alike. Francis and Jane differed from each other in their personal traits
and qualities.217 Accepting the differences from the beginning, Francis based the
relationship on freedom and individuality. Francis’ letter to her on 14 October 1604218
gives one an insight into the freedom and friendship that existed between them and
reveals what Francis means by the liberty of spirit (‘liberté d’esprit’) which had a great
appeal at that time.219

Francis helps Jane to grow in freedom respecting her individuality and uniqueness, helping
her to make love the basis of all her actions. In order to act in freedom, he had to help her
to get over her scrupulosity. She also had to be helped to be free from all attachments to
the world in order to enjoy inner freedom.

3.2.1.3.5.1 Love as the Basis of All Actions

Francis advised Jane that love should be the basis of their relationship and not fear - not
even obedience. It is important that she follow his guidance and accept his instruction and
guidelines. Francis does not, however, want them done in a subservient manner. She
should enjoy enough freedom and liberty of spirit. He does not want her to feel compelled
or forced into doing something that she does not like. Their relationship and friendship
should be based on freedom, independence and maturity. So he tells her, “And if you
happen to omit or forget anything that I told you to do, have no scruples about it, for here
is the general rule of our obedience written in capital letters: LOVE, AND NOT FORCE,
SHOULD INSPIRE ALL YOU DO; LOVE OBEDIENCE MORE THAN YOU FEAR
DISOBEDIENCE.”220

217
Cf. Mary Christine MARTENS, Salesian Spirituality: The Gift of Two Saints, Talk given to Visitation
nuns, St Louis, Missouri, as part of Salesian Studies Programme, 1996-1998 (unpublished material).
218
Cf. SALES, Selected Letters, pp. 62-76. (See also AE, XII, LETTRES –VOLUME II, pp. 352-370; DA,
Band 5, Briefe 1: An Frau von Chantal, pp. 52- 67).
219
Cf. Alexander T. POCETTO, Freedom to Love: A Close Reading of Francis de Sales’ Letter of 14
October 1604 to Jane de Chantal in Human Encounter in the Salesian Tradition, ed. Joseph F
CHORPENNING, Rome: International Commission for Salesian Studies (ICSS), 2007. pp. 125-144.
220
SALES, Selected Letters, p. 67, « … et s’il vous advient delaisser quelque chose de ce que je vous
ordonne, ne vous mettes point en scrupule, car voyci la règle generale de nostre obeissance escritte en grosses
lettres: IL FAUT TOUT FAIRE PAR AMOUR ET RIEN PAR FORCE; IL FAUT PLUS AYMER
198
Francis tells her that freedom of the spirit is “the complete detachment of a Christian heart
following God’s known will.”221 Genuine freedom avoids extremes: inconsistency and lack
of discipline on the one side, and constraint and slavishness, on the other. Real freedom is
freedom from laxity and from slavishness.222

Another important aspect emphasized by Francis in his spiritual direction was valuing the
uniqueness of the person. Francis was convinced that each person is unique in the eyes of
God. Each one is gifted with different talents and graces. Francis knew well that Jane was
very different from him in many aspects. But he did not want her to conform herself to his
ideals of personhood. He wanted each one to be what one is called to be. Be what one is
and be that at its best, is his dictum. This is clearly explained in his Treatise on the Love of
God where he says, “Assuredly, we never see two persons perfectly alike in natural
gifts…To humans grace was not given according to their natural status. However, God’s
loving kindness, rejoicing and, so to say, delighting in the production of graces, made them
different in infinite ways. Hence this variety makes a beautiful mosaic of His redemption
and mercy.”223 He warns that it is not the duty of humans to probe why it is so. It is the
realm of God and divine wisdom: “However, we should not probe into why supreme
Wisdom has given one grace to one rather than to another. No, Theotimus, never indulge in
such curiosity. After all, God has given enough, thus abundantly given the graces
necessary for salvation.”224

3.2.1.3.5.2 Dealing with Scrupulosity and Temptations

Jane needed much encouragement and support to come to terms with her difficult life.
Francis led her through her temptations, trials and difficult times standing by her and
helping her to be herself and to face the challenges of life.

How did Francis ‘diagnose’ her problems? Her problems were scrupulosity, over-
eagerness, anxiety and temperamental nature. To begin with, the Bishop advises her to be
patient; first of all, to be patient with herself. He tells her to practise the virtue that counters

L’OBEISSANCE QUE CRAINDERE LA DESOBEISSANCE.» AE, XII, p. 359. „Dies soll die Grundregel
unseres Gehorsams sein: Ich schreibe sie in großen Buchstaben: ALLES AUS LIEBE TUN UND NICHTS
AUS ZWANG! MEHR DEN GEHORSAM LIEBEN, ALS DEN UNGEHORSAM FÜRCHTEN!“ DA, 5, p.
58.
221
SALES, Selected Letters, p. 70.
222
Cf. Ibid., pp. 71-72.
223
Francis de SALES, Treatise on the Love of God (TLG), complete and unabridged edition, tr. & ed. by
Antony MOOKENTHOTTAM, Armind NAZARETH & Henry Jose KODIKUTHIYIL, Bangalore: SFS,
2012, Book II, Chapter 7, p. 97. (See also AE, Tome IV: Traitte De L’amour De Dieu – Vol. 1, (108-111).
Here, pp.109-110. Abbreviated as TLG. When page number are quoted, they are from this edition of TLG.
224
SALES, TLG, Book II, Chapter 7, p. 97. (See also AE, IV, p. 110).
199
the vice. If one suffers from over-eagerness, then one should focus on patience. If one is
anxious, one should try to have trust in God. In all these, one must be gentle and patient
with oneself. Self-possession is a great source of power which comes only with patience.
Anxiety can overtake us and make us non-functional. He writes in An Introduction:

Anxiety is the greatest evil that can befall us except sin. Sedition and internal
troubles ruin a nation utterly and prevent it from being able to resist a
foreign invasion. Similarly, when we are troubled and restless, we lose our
power to maintain the virtue which we have acquired. We also lose the
means of resisting the temptation of the enemy who then makes every effort
to fish, as they say, in troubled waters.225

The Holy Scripture also exhorts Christians to be patient and gentle in dealing with others.
“And the Lord’s servant must not be quarrelsome but kindly to everyone, an apt teacher,
forbearing, correcting his opponents with gentleness. God may perhaps grant that they will
repent and come to know the truth.”226

Mary Christine Martens, a Visitation nun and an expert in Salesian spirituality, especially
from a feminine point of view, describes Jane’s situation when she and Francis met:

When Francis met Jane, she was inconsolable in her grief for her deceased
husband, rigid in her obedience to the prescriptions of her first director, and
excessive in her practices of fervour. Francis encouraged Jane to relax, to
moderate her eagerness, and to let go of her anxieties. … Jane ‘began to
enter into true peace, that spacious interior freedom only the children of God
know: she found herself attracted to a more heartfelt, intimate kind of
prayer.’ Jane gradually let go of her perfectionism; even her temptations
against faith became stepping stones in the stripping of her self-will.227

Jane also had frequent temptations against faith. To dally with the devil is a dangerous
thing, Francis de Sales reminds her. Francis tells her not to play around with the
temptations. She should not lose her calm and composure in her fight with the enemy
which gives the enemy an advantage over her. In his letter of 28 August 1605,228 he tells
her:

225
SALES, IDL, Part IV, Ch. 11, pp. 282-283. «L'inquietude est le plus grand mal qui arrive en l'ame,
excepté le péché; car, comme les séditions et troubles intérieurs d'une republique la ruinent entièrement et
l'empeschent qu'elle ne puisse resister a l'estranger, ainsy nostre cœur estant troublé et inquiété en soy mesme
perd la force de maintenir les vertus qu'il avoit acquises, et quant et quant le moyen de resister aux tentations
de l'ennemi, lequel fait alhors toutes sortes d'effortz pour pescher, comme l'on dit, en eau trouble.» (See also
AE, Tome III –Introduction A La Vie Dévote, p. 311. See also DA 1, Philothea: Anleitung zum frommen
Leben, pp. 225-226).
226
2 Tim 2: 24-25.
227
MARTENS, Salesian Spirituality: The Gift of Two Saints (unpublished material).
228
Cf. SALES, Selected Letters, pp. 96-98. (See also AE, XIII, pp.87-89; DA, pp. 94-96).
200
 Your temptations have returned, and although you do not enter into
argument with them, they besiege you. You do not answer them, and that is
right; but you think about them too much, you fear them too much, you are
too apprehensive: else they would not do you any harm. You are too
vulnerable to the assault of temptations. You love faith and you do not want
to have a single thought contrary to the faith; as soon as one crops up, you
are upset and scared. You cling too jealously to the purity of your faith, and
you feel that any little thing can spoil it. No, no, dear daughter, let the wind
blow freely, and don’t mistake the rustling of leaves for the clash of
armour.229

After these words of encouragement, Francis shares a wonderful experience from his own
life to corroborate his argument. “Not long ago I was near some beehives and a few bees
came and settled on my face. I wanted to raise my hand and brush them off. No, said a
peasant to me, don’t be afraid, whatever you do, don’t touch them, they will attack you. I
trusted his word and not a single one stung me. Believe me, don’t be afraid of temptations,
and whatever you do, don’t touch them, they will not do you any damage; go on, right past
them, and don’t linger over them.”230 Francis had a wonderful art of using images and
anecdotes. He often used penetrating observations and images from nature to illustrate his
points.231

3.2.1.3.5.3 Helping Jane Grow in Detachment

In order to help Jane de Chantal to grow spiritually, Francis had to help her free herself
from all attachments and to grow in freedom. Her scruples and idiosyncrasies curtailed her
freedom. She was fussy and fastidious in matters like prayer, fasting, choice of gifts, etc.
She also had a strong desire that she should die before Francis. Quite contrary to her
previous director who exacted strict obedience and many stringent religious practices from
her, Francis gives her more freedom, takes into account her physical and mental situation
and is person-oriented and even person-centred. Francis writes back to her on 8 June
1606232 from Annecy:

From all these I gather that you should abstain from long periods of
prayer… from the use of your imagination in a forced, particularized and
long-drawn-out manner; your use of it should be simple and brief, only
serving as a mere bridge from distraction to recollection. And all the same,
apply your understanding to your prayer, for it serves to move the affections,
the affections move us to resolutions, resolutions to practice, and practice
leads us to accomplish the will of God into which our soul should melt and

229
SALES, Selected Letters, pp. 96-97.
230
Ibid., p. 97.
231
Cf. Louis SEMPE, St Francis de Sales, translated into English by the nuns of the Visitation, Milwaukee:
The Bruce Publishing Company, 1933. Refer to Chapter Five: The Friend of Nature, pp. 36-38.
232
Cf. SALES, Selected Letters, pp.111-117. (AE, XIII, pp.181-192; DA, 5, pp.112-120).
201
 be dissolved… I approve of your abstinences on Fridays, but without a vow
or too much constraint… for the most important thing is that a holy liberty
and freedom should reign in us and that we should have no other law or
constraint except that of love; and if love tells us to do some work for our
own people, we may not punish it as though it had done something bad and
force it to make amends as you suggest.233

3.2.1.3.6 Assistance in Coping with Dryness in Spiritual Life

Lack of spiritual consolation or the absence of the pleasant feelings one is used to in the
spiritual exercises is one of the common problems one faces when one tries to enter deeper
into spiritual life. It has been differently described by spiritual authors. Francis de Sales
was well aware of this problem and refers to it as spiritual dryness or spiritual
barrenness.234 In his own words, “When you have consolations, dearest Philothea, act as I
have just directed you. But this fine weather, so pleasant, will not always last. Sometimes it
will happen that the feelings of devotion will be completely removed and taken away from
you. Then you will feel like an arid desert, fruitless and barren, where there is no path or
road to God, nor any water (Ps 63:1) of grace to water it, because the drought there turns
it into a wasteland. Alas, anyone in such a state deserves compassion, especially when this
evil is acute.”235

It has also been described as darkness, dark night, spiritual emptiness, etc. by different
saints and spiritual fathers. It is a kind of total lack of interest and discomfort in spiritual
life, experienced by people who normally lead an intense spiritual life. It is spiritually
being down or dull. It can be total lack of feeling, lack of interest and characterised by
inertia on the side of the devotee. It can mean a feeling of absence of God or a feeling that
God is far away from the person. In this difficult time Francis de Sales wants that she open
up her heart to him. It is difficult to contain all the stress within oneself without sharing
with someone. It is the duty of the spiritual director (counsellor) to elicit it from the
directee and to induce a ‘catharsis’ in the directee.236 For Francis de Sales, an open sharing
without any reservation is important in spiritual direction. He tells her that it does not cause
him any discomfort and he is able to bear it. The directee requires an open, free sharing to

233
Ibid., pp. 113-114. Emphasis mine. « …car il faut par tout que la sainte liberté et franchise regne, et que
nous n’ayons point d’autre loy ni contrainte que celle de l’amour.» AE, XIII, p.184. „Überall soll doch die
heilige Freiheit und Geradheit herrschen. Wir wollen kein anderes Gesetz, kein anderes „Muß“ kennen als
das der Liebe.“ DA, 5, p. 114.
234
Cf. SALES, IDL, Part IV, Ch. 14, p. 294.
235
Ibid., Part IV, Ch. 14, p. 294.
236
American Psychological Association (APA) defines catharsis as the process of expressing strongly felt
but usually repressed emotions. http://www.apa.org/research/action/glossary.aspx?tab=3 (14.1.16).
202
let off the tension and stress within. Francis writes to her on 14 September 1605237 a
moving letter from Annecy:

Just keep on writing to me quite frankly about your difficulties and also
about the good things that come your way; and do not be in the least
distressed, for my heart is equal to all that. Courage, my daughter. Let us
keep on and on making our way through these dark valleys; let us live with
the cross in our arms, humble and patient… so go on your way, my dear
daughter, and forge ahead while the weather is bad and the night is dark.
But, above all, write to me very sincerely; this is the great commandment -
you must be absolutely frank with me, for everything else depends on that.
And shut your eyes to every consideration you might have for my peace of
mind, which, believe me, I shall never lose on your account while I see your
heart firmly set on serving our God; and never, never, please God, shall I see
you in any other frame of mind than this. Therefore, do not be in any sort of
distress. Be brave, my dear daughter; we shall win through with God’s help;
and, believe me, this is a better sort of weather for a journey than if the sun
were glaring down on us. …Be of good cheer! We have no control over any
spiritual light or consolation except what depends on our will, and that is
protected and sheltered by our holy resolutions. While the great seal of
God’s chancery is upon your heart there is nothing to fear.238

Francis reveals here his deep insights about human nature and spiritual problems. He acts
like a therapist to help her in her ‘dark night of the soul’. Francis identifies himself with
her situation by using the plural form ‘we’. Francis, acting not only as a spiritual director
but also as a good friend, tells her that he will remain with her in all her difficulties and
temptations.239 His positive assurance to her, his encouragement and the ‘unconditional
positive regard’ - to use the language of psychotherapy - that Francis offered, helped her
immensely to cope with her life. He tells her the most important thing in such difficult
times is to keep on going and not to give up!

An important aspect of Francis’ guidance is the use of imagery from nature and daily life.
He also draws abundantly from the Bible. He often refers to the Bible, takes examples
from there, quotes the Bible and establishes his arguments with the help of Bible
quotations and the events of salvation history.240 Francis progressively leads her to self-
acceptance. On 6 August 1606241 through a long letter from Cluses he encourages her to
learn to accept herself and her life with all its ups and downs, problems and joys:

237
Cf. SALES, Selected Letters, pp. 98-100. (See also AE, XIII, pp. 98-100; DA, 5, pp. 97-98).
238
Ibid., pp. 99-100. Emphasis mine.
239
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, p. 254.
240
Cf. Anthony R. CERESKO, St Francis de Sales and the Bible, Bangalore: SFS, 2005, pp. 77-109.
241
Cf. SALES, Selected Letters, pp. 119-126. (See also AE, XIII, pp. 201-212; DA, 5, pp. 123-132).
203
 Love your abjection. But what does that mean, you ask, to love your
abjection? For my understanding is darkened and powerless for any good.
Well, my daughter, it is no more than just that. If you stay humble, still,
gentle and confident in this state of darkness and helplessness, if you don’t
get impatient, if you take things calmly, if you don’t let yourself be upset by
all this, but embrace this cross and stay in this darkness willingly (I will not
say happily, but I do say whole-heartedly and firmly), then you will be
loving your abjection. For what else is it than being obscure and helpless?
Love yourself in this state for love of him who wants you to be like this, and
you will be loving your abjection.242

What does it mean to love one’s abjection? Does it mean to wallow in despair and misery?
It means to face oneself, to see oneself without any mask. To accept oneself means to
accept also one’s weaknesses, failures and the fact that one is vulnerable. It means being
what one truly is. This self-acceptance and self-awareness is crucial to having a realistic
appreciation of oneself. One needs to love oneself with and in spite of all one’s
imperfections, limitations and weaknesses. Accepting oneself is part of being authentic and
integrated. Such people can engage themselves fully in the process of becoming – in the
language of psychology, in the process of self-actualisation.243 Later in the same letter
Francis tells her:

Did I not tell you the first time I spoke to you about your soul that you pay
too much attention to what tempts or afflicts you; that you should only
consider it grosso modo;244 that women, and sometimes men too, reflect too
much about their troubles and that this entangles thoughts and fears and
desires, which then so constrict the soul that it cannot free itself. I entreat
you, my daughter, don’t be afraid of God for surely He doesn’t want to hurt
or harm you; love Him very much for He wants to do you a great deal of
good. Carry on quite simply in the shelter of our resolutions and reject your
reflections about your trouble as a cruel temptation. What can I say to stop
the flux of these thoughts in your heart? Do not strive to heal yourself of
them, for such anxious striving makes your heart more sick. Do not struggle
to overcome your temptations, for this effort would strengthen them; simply
despise them and do not dwell on them. Fix your mind on Jesus
crucified….keep firm in your resolutions; stay in the little boat in which I
have launched you; come storm, come tempest, may Jesus reign in you, and
indeed you will not perish. He will be asleep, but in his own good time and
place he will awake so as to restore your calm.245

242
SALES, Selected Letters, p. 121.
243
Lucy DAVIDSON, Integrity in Character Strengths and Virtues: A Handbook and Classification,
Christopher PETERSON & Martin E.P. SELIGMAN (Eds.) New York: Oxford University Press, 2004, pp.
249-271, here p. 254. This book is a useful handbook on character and strengths and virtues from a positive
psychological perspective.
244
Grosso modo (Latin) means approximately, roughly, circa, etc. Here Francis means that she should not
take it too earnestly.
245
SALES, Selected Letters, pp. 124-125.
204
Through his constant encouragement, support and reassurance, Francis was able to lead her
slowly out of her dryness. He encouraged her to persevere and to focus herself on God in
the most difficult times. These difficult experiences in life made Jane a strong person.

3.2.1.3.7 Friendship and Mutual Guidance

One of the most remarkable features of Francis’ guidance of Jane was the deep and
intimate spiritual friendship that existed between them. In the Salesian tradition, friendship
is connected with spiritual guidance. The directee is seen also as a friend. Antony
Mookenthottam, a senior Salesian scholar, translator of Salesian literature, and well-known
spiritual director in India, says: “Francis de Sales made friendship an essential dimension
of his way of spiritual guidance. Once he accepted a person as his spiritual directee, he
took the initiative to form a deep spiritual friendship. This is evident from his letters to his
directees. Friendship takes away all fear, builds up confidence and makes it easy for the
directee to share. He describes the qualities of this friendship: In short, this friendship
should be strong and gentle, entirely holy, entirely sacred, entirely divine and entirely
spiritual.”246 Without doubt, there existed between Francis and Jane a rare friendship. Soon
Jane herself was able to guide many of her own nuns. Helped and taught by her deep
friendship with Francis de Sales, she established herself as an able spiritual guide for her
own nuns and several others.247

A perfect and holy friendship existed between Francis and Jane. Francis took sufficient
time to discern that it was really the will of God. There was a sharing of daily life
including deep mystical experiences between them. In his letters to her, he expresses his
appreciation, love and friendship with her.248 Francis de Sales cherished friendship and
understood the vital role it plays in our life. He wrote to Monsieur Celse-Benigne de
Chantal249 on 8 December 1610, on the importance of having good friends: “It is extremely
important for you to make some like-mined friends so that you can be strengthened and

246
MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, p. 274.
247
Cf. Patricia RANFT, A Woman’s Way. The Forgotten History of Women Spiritual Directors, Houndmills,
UK: Palgrave, 2001. Special references are made to Jane in the following pages: 111-113, 119, 141, and 146.
248
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, p. 275.
249
Cf. SALES, Selected Letters, pp. 186-190. (See also AE, TOME XIV: Lettres – Volume IV, pp. 376-381;
DA, 6, pp.196-200). Monsieur Celse-Benigne de Chantal was the only son of Jane de Chantal. Who the
original addressee of the letter was is disputed. Elisabeth Stopp believes this letter was written to him. (See
pp. 186, 301-302). But the editors of the German Edition (DA) do not believe so. (See DA, 6. p. 400,
explanation to footnote 17). Editors of the Annecy Edition, Oeuvres (AE) also admit that the addressee is
contested. (See AE, XIV, p. 376). But one thing is clear: it was written to a young man who was soon going
to enter the court and be exposed to the dangers of court life.
205
fortified in one another, for it is eminently true that the society of disciplined people is of
inestimable value in helping us to keep our own souls disciplined.”250

In the letters between Francis and Jane, one finds deep expressions of mutual love and
friendship. There was a give-and-take in their relationship. It was a mutual relationship
based on freedom and respect. Both the director and the directee profited from such a
relationship.251 They consoled each other and took joy in each other’s letters. In August
1606252 he writes to her, “How your letters console me, my good daughter, and how
vividly you show me your heart whole and entire, and your confidence in me, a trust so
pure that I cannot help believing it to be the work of God’s own hand.”253

This friendship turned out to be so close that he even shared his personal trials and
successes with her. He expressed the joy and happiness he felt when he received her
letters. He also appreciated her frankness and openness with him. He even shared with her
the spiritual joy that he experienced.254

Mookenthottam opines, “We must always keep in mind a very important fact when we
reflect on the friendship of these two saints: Theirs was a holistic friendship which was
deeply human, tender, spiritual and mystical. Sharing extended from the most trivial,
unimportant thing that happened in daily life to the most sublime experience of God at the
summit of mystical life.”255 It was a totally God-centred friendship based on their common
passion for God and aimed at purity and perfection. Moreover, in the later stages of this
friendship one sees Francis leading her to disinterestedness and total detachment.

Seeing the ministry of spiritual direction of Francis from the point of view of practical
theology, one can only wonder at the numerous therapeutic and interpersonal qualities that
he possessed and utilized for his ministry.256 It is also the need of the time. Priests/pastors
live in similar situations today. The faithful expect from a priest certain qualities like

250
SALES, Selected Letters, p. 188.
251
Cf. Patricia RANFT, A Woman’s Way, p. 112. Here Ranft claims there existed a mutual director-directee
relationship between Francis and Jane. In her opinion, Jane and Francis influenced and ‘directed’ mutually.
252
Cf. SALES, Selected Letters, pp. 117-118. (See also AE, XIII, pp.199-201; DA, 6, pp. 121-122).
253
Ibid. « Mon Dieu, ma bonne Fille, que vos lettres me consolentet qu'elles me représentent vivement vostre
cœur et confiance en mon endroit, mais avec une si pure pureté, que je suis forcé de croire que cela vient de
la mesme main de Dieu.» AE, XIII, p.199. „Mein Gott, meine gute Tochter, wie sehr freuen mich doch Ihre
Briefe und wie lebendig stellen Sie doch Ihr Herz und Ihr Vertrauen auf mich mit einer so klaren Reinheit
dar, daß ich gezwungen bin zu glauben, daß dies aus der Hand Gottes selbst kommt.“ DA, 6, p.121.
254
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, pp. 276-277.
255
Ibid., p. 277.
256
Cf. Lewis S. FIORELLI, “Winning Hearts: Ministering in Salesian Manner” in Human Encounter in the
Salesian Tradition, pp. 389-408.
206
gentleness, empathy and genuineness. These qualities are essential for the ministry and are
recommended by the Church.257

Every priest must possess certain therapeutic qualities for effective ministry. Pastoral
ministry becomes more effective and Christ-like when he has qualities like empathy,
positive regard, acceptance and respect. What is required is not complete professionalism
but these ordinary qualities which almost everyone can learn with training and constant
practice. Temptation, scruples, attachments and spiritual dryness are realities in the life of a
Christian. A pastor inevitably comes across these problems and people who seek help to
deal with them. In countries like India, the pastor is also confronted with many problems of
the faithful – tensions in the family, separation, divorce, etc. They turn to the priest/ pastor
for help. How far is he able to help? Francis de Sales stands out as a wonderful model for
all pastors in this regard. We see how wonderfully he guides the people under his care.

3.2.2 Some Other Examples

One is surprised by the number of women who came under the guidance of Francis de
Sales. It is true that there were more women among those who placed themselves under his
direction and guidance. Was he more attracted to women than men? Or was he selective in
choosing his directees, preferring women? Not at all; such thinking is totally out of place.
It is to be understood in the context of his time. Women were more religious and spiritual-
oriented in those times. They had more time than men who were busy with the affairs of
the world – profession, business, wars, etc. It is a fact even today in the Church. If one
takes into account church attendance and the reception of the sacraments, one immediately
comes to the conclusion that even today it is women who try to lead a more religious life
than men.258

As the eldest son, Francis was intimately connected to his family, too. This close
relationship continued even after he was elected bishop although it was often difficult for
him to find time. He helped them in matters of administration, arranging alliances through
marriage and also in some legal matters. Above all, Francis was a spiritual guide to his

257
Cf. Vatican II Decree on the Training of Priests Optatam Totius (OT) recommends that priestly candidates
be given a sound pastoral training and acquire qualities of Jesus the Pastor during their formation. For details
refer to OT nos. 4-8, 11, 12.
258
Cf. Paula DEVINE, Men, Women, Religiosity in Northern Ireland: Testing the Theories in Journal of
Contemporary Religion, 2013, 28. 3, pp. 473-488. See also Jessica L. COLLET & Omar LIZARDO, A
Power- Control Theory of Gender and Religiosity in Journal for Scientific Study of Religion, 58.2, 2009, pp.
213-231.
207
own family.259 He wrote many letters to his mother and siblings in order to help them grow
in holiness. Although most of the spiritual children or directees of Francis were women, a
great number of men also sought help from him to lead a genuine Christian life. They
came from all social strata and professions. Some of them are dealt with in the following
pages.

3.2.2.1 Bishop Jean-Pierre Camus

His list of directees included prominent personalities like Bishop Jean-Pierre Camus, a
Parisian, eloquent preacher and writer, ordained priest at twenty-four and in the same year
appointed Bishop of Belley by King Henry IV, with dispensation form Pope Paul IV.
Francis consecrated him Bishop on 30 August 1609. He relinquished his office in 1629 and
retired to a monastery in Normandy. His retirement did not last long. He soon returned to
Paris and to active ministry.260

Although there are differing views on the relationship between Francis de Sales and
Camus, many believe that there existed an intimate friendship between them.261 It is true
that as a bishop, Camus was constantly in conflict with many religious orders, even the
Visitation. The question raised by many is: how could such a propagator of the spirit of
Francis de Sales and his spirituality of gentleness and meekness ever do that? Even Jane de
Chantal was cautious in dealing with him and did not appreciate his ways. 262 Many
scholars, however, believe that he was indeed deeply influenced by his friend and mentor
Francis de Sales. He was a spiritual son of Francis and totally influenced by him. As a
prolific writer, he tried to expose to the secular world the spirituality and ideas of Francis
de Sales through his novels and secular writings. Although he did not explicitly use the
term ‘friend’ often in order to refer to Francis de Sales, Pocetto argues that they were
indeed friends263 - in keeping with the spirit of Francis who often combined friendship with
spiritual direction. Camus’ impressions and personal experiences of Francis de Sales are

259
Cf. MOOKENTHOTTAM, St Francis de Sales: A Formative Biography, p. 213.
260
See ‘The Index’ in Selected Letters, pp. 300-301. There is a short biographical sketch of Jean-Pierre
Camus here.
261
Cf. Alexander T. POCETTO, Jean-Pierre Camus (1584-1652) as Disseminator of the Salesian Spirit.
Article published online as part of Studies in Salesian Spirituality, September 2001, pp.1-18. Available
online. http://web1.desales.edu/assets/salesian/PDF/ATP-Camus.pdf (14.1.2016).
262
Cf. Ibid., p. 2.
263
Cf. Ibid., pp. 2-3, 11-12.
208
put together in his book The Spirit of Francis de Sales (L'Esprit de St. François de Sales).
Scholars consider this work to be authentic and reflecting the spirit of the Saint.264

3.2.2.2 Antoine Favre

Besides Jean-Pierre Camus, Francis de Sales had other spiritual sons who were also his
friends. They included statesmen like Antoine Favre, noblemen and others. Antoine Favre
was a special friend and spiritual son of Francis de Sales. Like Francis, he too was a noted
writer. He was well-known for Codex Fabrianus, a Latin commentary on Savoyard law.
He was the first president of the Senate of Savoy. Some of the letters of Francis to Favre
are extant today although they have not been officially published.265

It was together with Favre that Francis de Sales founded the Academie Florimontane
(Florimont Academy) which, unfortunately, did not last long. The meetings were held at
the house of Favre.266 He accompanied Francis on many of his trips. They were known to
be close friends and ‘brothers.’ On November 6, 1618 the Cardinal-Prince of Paris, son of
the Duke of Savoy, took both Francis and Favre with him to Paris. People immediately
recognised the two friends of the Cardinal sitting with him in his carriage. They said,
“There is the illustrious Bishop of Geneva, the greatest theologian of our time! There is
President Favre, who has published so many books. He and Francis de Sales are like
brothers because of the incomparable bond of affection that unites them.”267

The letters between them reveal how close they were to each other. In his correspondence
with Antoine Favre, Francis frequently assures him that he thinks constantly of him. He
writes to him on 17 December 1610: “You are always present to my soul, and principally
at the altar . . . It seems to me that our friendship is boundless and, being so firmly planted
in my heart, it is as old as my heart itself.”268 Another letter269divulges the strong bond of
communion between them: “The souls that God has made completely one are inseparable,

264
Cf. POCETTO, Jean-Pierre Camus (1584-1652) as Disseminator of the Salesian Spirit, pp. 11-12. (This
book is freely available as e-book in different formats: iBook, Kindle, etc.)
265
A few extant unpublished letters are available on the Salesian Resource site.
266
Francis de SALES, Letters (unpublished) to Antoine Favre, published as part of Texts in Salesian
Spirituality by Marie-Patricia BURNS (ed.) Alexander T. POCETTO (tr). Available online:
http://web1.desales.edu/assets/salesian/PDF/Letters-Favre.pdf (14.1.2016).
267
RAVIER, St Francis de Sales: Sage and Saint, p. 222.
268
Francis de SALES, AE, Tome XIV: Lettres - Volume IV, p. 388. As translated by POCETTO in Spiritual
Friendship in Salesian Spirituality. Published online:
http://web1.desales.edu/assets/salesian/PDF/PocettoFriendship.pdf (14.1.2016).
269
Letter of Francis de SALES dated 31.12.1610. (See also AE, XIV, pp. 395-396: DA, 8, pp. 209-210).
209
for who can separate ‘that which God has joined?’ No, not death or anything will ever
separate us from the unity which lives forever in our hearts.”270

The letter of Francis to Favre on 17 August 1610 from Annecy271 gives us an insight into
the deep friendship that existed between them and how they cherished each other. Both
were busy people: Francis burdened with the administration of his diocese, and Favre with
the political affairs of Savoy. In this letter Francis also shows his slight displeasure at not
having been personally told about Favre’s son’s selection into the Senate. “But why didn’t
I know that your oldest son was received in the Senate except through hearsay, although
you wrote to me after he had been accepted?”272 The letter also reveals the great affection
Francis has for Favre and his wife. He addressed his children ‘nephews’. Francis also
refers to the other members of Favre’s family which is a clear sign that he was familiar
with the family and aware of the happenings there. Francis also refers to Favre’s daughter
in this letter who later became one of the founding-members of the Visitation Order.

3.3 Salesian Method of Spiritual Direction: Basic Concepts

Before I go into the salient features of spiritual direction in the spirit of St Francis de Sales,
I need to clarify certain terms and comment on the sources on which Salesian spiritual
direction is based. Therefore, I try to clarify the term ‘Salesian’ and examine some sources
and basic concepts associated with it. It is also required to make oneself familiar with the
humanism of Francis de Sales in order to understand what philosophical thinking
influenced and inspired him to deal with human persons the way he did.

3.3.1 Clarifying the Term ‘Salesian’

The term ‘Salesian’ has become rather unclear and confusing in recent decades. Over the
years, especially due to the spread of the Congregation of the Salesians of Don Bosco
(SDB), sometimes ‘Salesian’ has acquired a different meaning than what it originally
meant. In its original sense, ‘Salesian’ meant what is connected with St Francis de Sales
and his spirituality. Thus, we speak of Salesian Literature, Salesian Spirituality, Salesian
Family (meaning all those who follow the spirituality of St Francis de Sales), and so on. In

270
SALES, AE, XIV, p. 396. As translated by POCETTO in Spiritual Friendship in Salesian Spirituality.
271
Cf. SALES, Letters (unpublished) to Antoine Favre, pp. 1-12.
272
Ibid., p. 3.

210
my approach I ascribe this original meaning to the term. In this paper ‘Salesian’ means
whatever is connected with St Francis de Sales, his spirituality and his method of spiritual
direction. If any reference is made to SDB, it will be specified as Salesians of Don Bosco,
and not just as Salesian.

3.3.2 Defining Salesian Method of Spiritual Direction

As dealt with in the earlier part of this chapter,273 in the Church there are various methods
and traditions of spiritual direction. Many schools of spirituality have their own tradition of
spiritual direction based on the methods of their patrons and their spirituality. Thus, one
can speak of the Ignatian method of spiritual direction, the Dominican, Carmelite and
Franciscan methods of spiritual direction. 274

Although Francis de Sales guided numerous persons spiritually during his lifetime, he has
not laid down any specific method to be followed.275 It was partly because he dealt with
each person individually – taking into account one’s uniqueness of character, personality,
life situation and stage of growth in spiritual life. In the words of John P. Connolly:

Love of God can be expressed in thousands of ways depending upon the

heart and personality of each person; consequently, the heart and the
personality must be considered in spiritual direction. For this reason, Saint
Francis de Sales does not subject every person to the same regime or to the
same prefabricated set of religious practices. He changes his advice and
counsels from one person to the next; but invariably, the desired and
obtained result is love.276

Connolly says further, “His main interest, then, was that his direction be worthwhile for the
individual; and what may be worthwhile for one, may not be so for another.”277

It is true that Francis de Sales has not given any specific definition or method for spiritual
direction, neither in his books nor in his talks. Author A. J. Strus, however, tries to give a
definition in the spirit of the Bishop of Geneva: “It is an act in which God arouses desire in

273
See 3.1 (It means refer to section 3.1 of this work for details).
274
A detailed description of different schools of spiritual direction by different authors in numerous articles is
given in the handout of the German Catholic Bishops Conference on Spiritual Direction, ‘Da kam Jesus
hinzu......’ ( Lk 24:15): Handreichung für geistliche Begleitung auf dem Glaubensweg, Bonn: Secretariate der
Deutschen Bischofskonference, 2001, pp. 107-132. For another detailed description of different schools of
spiritual direction by different authors, refer to the book, Vater, sag mir ein Wort.
275
Cf. A. J. STRUS, Seelenführung in Themen Salesianischer Theologie. Ein Kompendium, Eichstätt: Franz
von Sales Verlag, 1989, p. 261.
276
John P. CONNOLLY, Basic Principles of Salesian Direction in Salesian Studies, Vol. 2.2, (80-92),
January 1964, Delaware: Institute of Salesian Studies, p. 81.
277
Ibid., p. 83.
211
the heart of a human being to tread the path of perfection; and when the person has
responded positively to such an inspiration of God, God enables him and gives him the
means (= a spiritual director and the relationship) to reach that perfection.”278 He states that
spiritual direction in the spirit of Francis de Sales involves a reciprocal relationship to the
director because it is his duty to help to carry out the work of God.279

3.3.3 Sources of Salesian Spiritual Direction

The numerous works of St Francis de Sales and thousands of his letters - most of them
were written for the purpose of spiritual direction – give a glimpse into his ‘method.’280
Among his books An Introduction to the Devout Life (Philothea), Treatise on the Love of
God (Theotimus), and Spiritual Conferences - compiled by the Visitation Sisters from his
Conferences - were written with the main purpose of spiritual direction. Along with these
books, the letters of Francis de Sales constitute the main source of the Salesian way of
spiritual direction.281

An Introduction to the Devout Life, shortly known as An Introduction (Philothea) is

actually a compilation of letters of spiritual direction to Madame de Charmoisy. These
letters were later on compiled and edited by Francis de Sales himself into a book with short
additions of articles and essays on different aspects of spiritual life. The book An
Introduction contains a systematic plan and structure to guide a person living in the midst
of the world to spiritual maturity. It is a compendium on spiritual direction, so to say.282

His letters of spiritual direction reveal his deep insight into the nature of human persons
and their problems. They reveal his intense desire to guide them to perfection, even at a
high cost to his life, in terms of time, energy and health.283 In his encyclical on St Francis
de Sales, Rerum Omnium Perturabationem, Pope Pius XI said, “We are now happily called
upon to celebrate the Third Centenary of the entrance into heaven of another great saint,

278
STRUS, Seelenführung, pp. 266-267. (Translation mine).
279
Cf. Ibid., p. 276.
280
Cf. Devasia MANALEL, Spiritual Direction: A Methodology, Bangalore: SFS, 2005, pp. 72-73.
281
Cf. Franz WEHRL, Die Schriften den hl. Franz von Sales. Eine literarhistorische und quellenkundliche
Studie, Würzburg: Echter Verlag, 2005, pp. 4-8.
282
Cf. Armind NAZARETH, The Origin of the Introduction to the Devout Life in IDL, pp. 17-21.
283
Cf. SALES, Thy Will be Done, p. 55. (In many of his letters Francis de Sales acknowledges at the
beginning that he is really pressed for time although he would gladly write more and oftener. He begins this
letter with apologies for being late to write to her).
212
one who was remarkable not only for the sublime holiness of life which he achieved but
also for the wisdom with which he directed souls in the ways of sanctity…”284

In this study my focal point was to concentrate on his letters written to the laity and also on
An Introduction, because the latter also belongs to the same genre in terms of method and
content.

3.3.4 Humanism of St Francis de Sales

Francis de Sales is known as a Christian humanist because of the stress and emphasis he
places on the worth and dignity of the human person at a time when it was radically
affected by Protestantism, Renaissance humanism, and other similar movements. The
Renaissance humanism of the fifteenth century did have an impact on Francis de Sales.
However, we need to make a distinction between the humanism of Renaissance and
Christian humanism. Franz Wehrl, who has done extensive research into Salesian
spirituality, makes it clear: “If we speak of Francis de Sales as a humanist in the sense of
Renaissance humanism, then he is not a humanist at all.”285 He was a humanist because he
believed strongly in human freedom, freedom of the will, capacity of the human soul to
raise itself to God, and in the glory and responsibility of human beings as the crown of
creation.286 Francis de Sales at all times emphasized the grandeur as well as the littleness of
man. All that a human being has, he has received from God. In front of God he is nothing.
At the same time, God has abundantly blessed him. His grandeur, with God on his side,
and his nothingness without God, was emphasized by Francis. God’s grace - when
received, responded to, and nurtured in oneself - makes weak and fragile human beings
unique and able to turn to their Creator.

Pope Benedict XVI also acknowledges that Francis de Sales is a Christian humanist who
perfectly combines humanism with Christian spirituality. “St Francis de Sales is an
exemplary witness of Christian humanism; with his familiar style, with words which at
times have a poetic touch, he reminds us that human beings have planted in their innermost

284
Pope Pius XI, Rerum Omnium Perturabationem, No.5.
285
Franz WEHRL, Der Humanisme Chretien des hl. Franz von Sales, in Jahrbuch für Salesianische Studien,
Band 37, Eichstätt, Franz Sales Verlag: 2006, p. 8. (See also the following pages for further reading).
286
Cf. SALES, TLG, Bk 1, Chs. 1-5, pp. 21-34. In these five chapters Francis de Sales deals with many
philosophical, psychological and anthropological matters like the human will, the powers of the will, sense
appetites, emotions, the role of love, etc.
213
depths the longing for God and that in Him alone can they find true joy and the most
complete fulfilment.”287

3.3.4.1 Christian Humanism

Francis de Sales is one of the prominent Christian humanists. True Christian humanism
does not try to replace God but tries to have knowledge of God and through this knowledge
tries to have friendship and a loving relationship with God in freedom. God takes human
form to invite us to share His divine life. This idea of humanism moved Francis de Sales:

At both times God takes on our mind in order to establish a very close
covenant with all of humanity. Despite the high esteem in which Greek
thought held the intelligence and will of man, it is Christian humanism that
gives us ‘the fullness of the affirmation of man as the centre of the universal
drama, man in the spirit, made to the image and likeness of God according to
the Spirit.’ If Christian anthropology places man at the centre of this drama,
this is not for the purpose of displacing or replacing God. Quite the contrary,
this fundamental orientation tells us from the start that the search can
enlighten and lead us to the knowledge, love and friendship of God. St.
Francis de Sales was fascinated by this idea in his very first sermon. When
God decided to create man in His own image and likeness, He revealed His
own Trinitarian character, that is to say, His intimate life.288

In the words of Antony Kolencherry, “Francis de Sales was indeed a devout humanist of
the 17th century. He said of himself, ‘I am nothing but human.’ He was convinced that God
is the God of the human heart; and the human being who has been created in the image and
likeness of God emerges as a full-fledged being only in his loving union with God. The
description ‘the most human of all saints’ characterizes him most aptly.”289

Francis de Sales was also a man of moderation in his life; in his philosophical and
theological views, too. He placed the human being between the over-optimistic view of
secular humanists and the utter pessimistic view of the Protestants and accorded pre-
eminence to love which embellishes virtues with a divine glow. Love alone gives attraction
and perfection to virtues. Human beings, per se, are attracted by love to God. This holds
true in interpersonal relationships, too. ‘All by love and nothing by force’ was his dictum.
The uniqueness of the anthropology of Francis de Sales is that he has been able to blend
the secular and genuine human values with the real spirit of the gospels.290

287
Pope Benedict XVI, General Audience on 2 March 2011, in the Vatican.
288
Alexander T. POCETTO, An Introduction to Salesian Anthropology in Salesian Studies, 1969, Vol. 6, No.
3, pp. 36-62. Here, p. 36.
289
Antony KOLENCHERRY (Ed.), Human Person in St Francis de Sales, Bangalore: SFS, 1992, p. 3.
290
Cf. Ibid.
214
3.3.4.2 Know Thyself: Attaining Knowledge of Oneself
The humanists of his time were over-awed by the dictum, ‘Know Thyself’. They thought it
to be the basis of knowledge. Francis de Sales and other Christian mystics, on the other
hand, emphasize that we come to the knowledge of ourselves when we totally leave
ourselves to God and abandon ourselves to Him. Undue emphasis on self-knowledge
sometimes leads to disillusionment, disappointment and frustration. Alexander T. Pocetto
tries to explain how Francis understood the motto ‘Know Thyself’:

The first element of knowledge of God, Francis informs us, ‘is in the
knowledge of self.’ The oracle of Delphi is for him not only a remedy
against pride but also more particularly the very basis of true humility. “It is
not wrong to consider ourselves in order to glorify God for the gifts He has
given us, providing that we do not become vain and complacent with
ourselves. It is a saying of the philosophers, but which has been approved as
a good one by the doctors: 'know thyself,' that is to say know the excellence
of your soul that you will not debase nor despise it.”291

Francis took the motto of the secular humanists ‘Know thyself’ as an invitation to know
oneself and to realize that we are not gods. “Among the ancients all of human wisdom was
contained in the motto ‘Know thyself’. It is in the knowledge of oneself that man
recognizes his own limitations, that he is not a god. They envisaged this self-study as a
remedy against pride, against the tendency of man to make himself a god. By contrast,
according to Christian humanists, this oracle leads to a knowledge that we are not God but
that we are made in the image of God. It is in this way that we come to true knowledge of
God.”292

All the spiritual guidance given by Francis de Sales was based on this idea of the
wholeness of a human person, who is called to holiness and endowed with divine gifts, but
at the same time weak and fragile, due to sin. He is, in his existential situation, enabled by
Christ, called to enter into a loving relationship with God and his neighbour, and fulfil his
responsibilities to the community. In this process, every Christian must be ultimately
united to Christ. Midathada Mariadas terms this intimate relationship to Christ as
‘affective Christo-centrism’ because it involves all the affective faculties of the human
being.293 In the opinion of Francis de Sales, knowing oneself happens in living in

291
Cf. POCETTO, An Introduction to Salesian Anthropology, p. 40.
292
POCETTO, Ibid.
293
Cf. Mariadas MIDATHADA, in Foreword to Human Person in St Francis de Sales, p. 11.
215
communion with others. It is an excellent opportunity for us to know ourselves. The
Church is the oracle of the Lord.294

‘Know thyself’ has two major dimensions. One is to acknowledge our worth, our
greatness, and to value ourselves. The other is to acknowledge that as human beings we are
imperfect and weak. Francis says, “The famous saying of the ancient philosophers Know
thyself means be aware of your worth and greatness, so that you do not abase and degrade
yourself by doing things which are unworthy of your noble calling. It means also ‘Know
thyself,’ that is, your unworthiness, imperfections and your wretchedness.”295

Thus, it is amply clear that the anthropology of Francis de Sales was thoroughly
humanistic, deeply Christian and Christo-centric to the core.296 These attitudes of realism,
optimism, Christian humanism and Christo-centrism are clearly reflected in all his
writings, especially in his letters of spiritual direction.

3.3.4.3 Human Being: Image of God and Crown of Creation

It is important to know what picture of human being Francis de Sales had before we delve
into the details of the method of his spiritual direction. The idea we maintain of human
beings is central to our thinking and it guides the way we think, act and relate to others.

Francis de Sales had an anthropology that was perfectly in conformity with the image of
human being in the Bible and in line with the teachings of the Church. It was also at times
totally in contrast to the Protestant ideas propelled by the Reformation that neglected the
dignity and holiness of man.297

Francis de Sales always upheld the glorious position of human beings in the order of
creation. Human being is created in the image and likeness of God. This biblical teaching
is central to the anthropology of Francis de Sales. Human beings, therefore, claims Francis
de Sales, have an innate inclination to love God above all things. In spite of our fall, our
frailties and human weaknesses, this inclination to God is deep-rooted in us. Divine
inspiration and interventions help us to go beyond ourselves and, therefore, we have a

294
Cf. POCETTO, An Introduction to Salesian Anthropology, pp. 43-44.
295
Francis de SALES, Spiritual Conferences Vol.1, tr. by Ivo CARNEIRO, Bangalore: SFS, 1995, p. 2.
Emphasis in the original. (See also AE, VI: Les Vrays Entretiens Spirituels, p.19).
296
Cf. Thomas KALARIPARAMBIL, Dignity of the Human Person in St Francis de Sales in Human
Person in St Francis de Sales, pp. 82-83.
297
Cf. Thomas PERUMALIL, Perfection. A Salesian Perspective, Bangalore: SFS, 1998, pp. 30-34.
216
natural inclination to search and love God.298 Human being has an irreplaceable role as the
crown of creation. The world is considered as an ‘ecstasy’ of God.299 Meditating on the
goodness of God leads us to God. The picture that Francis de Sales cherished of a human
being is positive, optimistic and at the same time realistic.300

3.3.4.4 Levels of a Human Being

Devasia Manalel describes the Salesian understanding of human person on three levels -
sense level, rational level and faith level. Human being is a sensible being (animal/sense
level), is a rational being (intellectual level), and also a spiritual being (faith level).301
Human beings at the sense level are primarily propelled by bodily desires, passions,
feelings, instincts, and habits. Rational level is the level of reason, will, and human
wisdom. These faculties motivate us to seek the good and shun evil. Rational level is
superior to sensible level. But these two levels can go awry because what they are based on
- our passions, instincts, human reason and human wisdom - can go astray. They can also
be led by self-love.302

Human being is also a spiritual being. Every human being, therefore, in the opinion of
Francis de Sales, has to raise himself to the spiritual level which is the core-level of a
person. It is the seat of faith, hope and charity. At this level a human person is sensitive to
God’s will, open to God and alive to the Spirit.303

Spiritual level or faith level is the centre of spiritual life. The aim of spiritual growth or
spiritual direction is to let the spiritual level predominate over the other levels of a person.
A holistic approach to spiritual life has to take proper care of all the three levels; but at the
same time all efforts must be focused on the topmost goal. Therefore, one has to take good
care of one’s body, update oneself intellectually, and lead a normal life of moderation
without ever forgetting the spiritual level. This call for integration is a recurring motif in
the letters of spiritual direction of Francis de Sales.304

298
Cf. SALES, TLG, Book 1, Ch. 16, pp. 67-69. (See also AE, TOME IV: Traitte de L’Amour de Dieu,
Livre1, Chapitre 16: Que Nous Avon Une Inclination Naturelle d’aymer Dieu Sur Toutes Choses, pp.77-79.
See also DA, Band 3: Gottesliebe 1, Buch 1, Kapitel 16: Wir neigen natürlicherweise dazu, Gott über alles zu
lieben, pp. 90-92).
299
Cf. MANALEL, Spiritual Direction: A Methodology, p. 36.
300
Cf. PERUMALIL, Perfection. A Salesian Perspective, pp. 30-34.
301
Cf. MANALEL, Spiritual Direction: A Methodology, pp. 24-25.
302
Cf. Ibid., pp. 24-25.
303
Cf. Ibid., p. 29.
304
Cf. Ibid., p. 30.
217
Francis stresses the need for tempering the body but at the same time of taking due care of
it; he emphasizes the necessity of using the faculties of intellect and will but
simultaneously making total surrender in faith to God’s will.305

3.4 Salient Features of Salesian Spiritual Direction

Every school of spirituality and every method of spiritual direction have their own
characteristic features. Having dealt with Salesian anthropology and some concrete
examples of his spiritual direction, I now attempt to draw out some of the salient features
of spiritual direction in the Salesian tradition. Salesian spirituality as well as the Salesian
way of spiritual guidance is as much suited to the present time as in the time of Francis de
Sales. It is relevant to all times because it does not separate spirituality from life, nor does
it in any way enjoin on the directees what is not compatible with their state of life. Salesian
spirituality teaches us to be holy in every situation of life. It is also contextual. In any
context of our life the guidance of Francis de Sales is valid because he says: ‘Bloom where
you are planted’ and ‘Be what you are and be that at its best.’ 306 This is the guidance
Francis offers to Christians of any given time.307

Based on the foregoing parts dealing with Francis de Sales and his method of spiritual
direction, I list the following features as characteristic of the Salesian way of spiritual
direction.

3.4.1 Necessity of a Spiritual Guide

Francis de Sales believed and taught that it was necessary to have a spiritual
guide/director/friend for making progress in devout life. He understood well the need for a
friend who will accompany us on this journey of faith and guide us from going astray. In
An Introduction, he says, “I say to you, dear Philothea: if you want to set out earnestly on
the path of devotion, find some person to guide and direct you. This is the most important
advice...It is necessary to have, more than anything else, this faithful friend to guide our

305
Cf. SALES, TLG, Bk 1.Ch.1, pp.21-23. (See also AE, IV, pp. 23-25; DA, 3, pp. 50-52).
306
This quotation has already been dealt with in the previous part.
307
Cf. Noel REBELLO, Salesian Spiritual Direction: Spiritual Direction of Laypersons, in Indian Journal of
Spirituality (IJS), Vol. XVI, No. 2, 2003, pp. 271-272.
218
actions by his advice and counsels and thus keep us safe from the snares and deceits of the
evil one.”308

This is one of the first things that one has to do as one starts the spiritual journey: “But I
tell you once again, ask God to give you such a person and when you find one, give thanks
to God. Be faithful and do not look for others. Rather, move on with simplicity, humility
and confidence, for your journey will be full of happiness.”309 Francis de Sales, however,
insists that one must be prudent and selective in choosing a spiritual director: “Choose one
from a thousand, writes John of Avila. And I insist, choose one from ten thousand, for
those who are fit for such a task are very few indeed.”310 He was also aware that it was not
always possible for lay people to find such a spiritual director, and it was also the reason
why he published books like An Introduction and The Love of God in order to help the laity
with their spiritual growth.311

Francis de Sales himself understood the value of a spiritual director from his own
experience. Francis who became a famous spiritual director had placed himself under the
guidance of spiritual directors.312 When he was at the College of Clermont, a well-known
Jesuit college at that time, one of the Jesuits, whose name was never made known, was his
spiritual director who helped him compose a Programme of Life. 313 At the University of
Padua, Francis chose Fr Pessovino as his spiritual director. He was an experienced teacher
and an able spiritual guide. Fr Pessovino was a learned and knowledgeable man who
helped his directees to have a broad and catholic outlook. Under his guidance, Francis
composed ‘The Rules for Spiritual Life’, which he followed during his life at Padua.314

Even as a bishop he was guided by a spiritual director. Fr Jean Fournier, a director and
professor of theology and Rector of Pont-a-Mousson University, was his spiritual director.
He helped Francis to compose his ‘Resolutions for Episcopal Life’.315 They shared not only
a deep spiritual relationship but also an intense friendship. It was Fr Fournier who

308
SALES, IDL, p. 43. (Part 1. Ch. 4: The Necessity of a Guide to Begin and to Make Progress in Devotion.
See also AE, III, pp. 22-25 : Livre 1.IV: De La Nécessité d’un Conducteur Pour Entrer et Faire Progres en
la Devotion; DA 1- Philothea, 1. 4: Für den Beginn des frommen Lebens und dessen Fortschritt ist ein
Seelenführer notwending, pp. 38-40). It is important to note that Francis de Sales sees the spiritual guide as a
friend. As seen already, in the Salesian tradition, spiritual direction is seen also as friendship.
309
SALES, IDL, p. 44.
310
Ibid.
311
Cf. Sebastian LEITNER, Introducing the Introduction, in IJS, Vol. XVIII, No.2, 2005, pp. 166-183.
312
Cf. Francis MOGET, The Spiritual Directors of St Francis de Sales in IJS, Vol. XVI, No.2, 2004, p. 186.
313
Cf. Ibid., p. 188.
314
Cf. Ibid.
315
Cf. Ibid., p. 192.
219
convinced Bishop Francis to compile his ‘spiritual notes’ to Madame de Charmoisy into
one of the best spiritual classics of all time – An Introduction to the Devout Life, a long
spiritual direction in book form!316 Later in his life, when Francis took up the direction of
Jane de Chantal, he let her influence his life spiritually. He was strongly influenced by her
personality. Authors speak of a mutual spiritual direction from which both of them
benefitted.317

Thus, Francis de Sales had experienced the importance and value of a spiritual director in
his own life and benefitted immensely from it. Knowing this background helps one to
understand the emphasis Francis places on having a spiritual director.

3.4.2 Discernment and Primacy of God’s Will

Discerning God’s will has been one of the most important aspects of spiritual direction
from the earliest times. During the time of the Desert Fathers many sought their guidance
to discern God’s will. Discernment is also a core element of spiritual direction in the
Salesian tradition.318 It is one of the main goals of spiritual direction. What is discernment?
In simple terms, “Discernment is the spiritual practice that accesses and seeks to
understand what God is trying to say.”319 Seekers of all times have sought the guidance of
spiritual masters to ascertain God’s will for them. Every Christian is called to do God’s
will. But to do it, one has to find out what God wants. How does one discern God’s will? It
is not always an easy task.

One of the most important aspects of the Salesian method of spiritual direction is the joyful
acceptance of God’s will with love. God’s will has supremacy over our will, even when it
goes against our will. Therefore, he encourages, suggests and coaxes his directees into
doing God’s will. Sometimes the circumstances of one’s life show what God’s will is even
if it goes against one’s own wishes and desires. To a woman who wanted to become a nun
but who was prevented from doing so, he writes, “But if after all your efforts you cannot
succeed, you could not please our Lord more than by sacrificing to Him your will and
remaining in tranquillity, humility and devotion, entirely conformed and submissive to His

316
Cf. MOGET, The Spiritual Directors of St Francis de Sales, p. 193.
317
Cf. RANFT, A Woman’s Way. The Forgotten History of Women Spiritual Directors, p. 112,
318
Cf. Richard J. SWEENEY, Discernment in the Spiritual Direction of St Francis de Sales, in Review for
Religious, 39.1, 1980, St Louis University, pp.127-141.
319
Henri J. M. NOUWEN with Michael J. CHRISTENSEN and Rebecca J. LAIRD, Discernment: Reading
the Signs of Daily Life, New York: Harper Collins, 2013, p. ix.
220
divine will and good pleasure. You will recognize this clearly enough when, having done
your best, you cannot fulfil your desires.”320

It is not enough to do God’s will but one must do it in humility and love, without losing
one’s calm and serenity. Doing the will of God joyfully is what Francis demands of every
Christian. To another woman he writes a long letter to convince her that to acquire
devotion and to get true joy and peace of mind, we must do God’s will, as God wants it
and we must do it joyfully:

The first thing is that God wills it so; and it is indeed reasonable that we
should do His will, for we are in this world only for that .... The fact is that,
in a word, we want to serve God, but after our will, and not His ... We are
not to choose at our own will. We must wish what God wishes, and if God
wishes me to serve Him in one thing, I ought not to wish to serve Him in
another ... But this is not all: we must not only do the will of God, but in
order to be devout, we must do it joyfully.321

Francis de Sales always took sufficient time to discern if it was God’s will to undertake the
direction of a person. He wanted to make sure that he was acting in line with the will of
God in taking up the spiritual guidance of a person. Spiritual direction of someone could be
successful only if it went in accordance with Divine Providence. Hence, he felt it necessary
to discern the will of God regarding this matter.322

Francis de Sales always laid stress on the fact that the gifts and charisms that he received
from God had to be put to use in accordance with the will of God. He had to strike a
balance between his other pastoral responsibilities as bishop and the guidance of souls. It
was also due to many other reasons like his busy schedule; taking care of his vast diocese
demanded great energy from him and he was also a sought-after preacher for which he had
to prepare himself. It cost him his precious time, his sleep and even affected his health.323

320
SALES, Thy Will be Done. p. 5. « Mais si, après tous vos effortz, vous ne pouves pas reüscir, vous ne
sçauries plaire davantage a Nostre Seigneur que de luy sacrifier vostre volonté, et demeurer entranquillité,
humilité et dévotion, entièrement remise et sousmise a son divin vouloir et bon playsir, lequel vous
reconnoistres asses quand, ayant fait vostre possible, vous ne pourres pas jouir de vos souhaitz. » AE, XIV, p.
75.„Wenn Sie aber nach all Ihren Bemühungen keinen Erfolg haben, könnten Sie Unserem Herrn nicht mehr
gefallen, als wenn Sie ihm Ihren Willen aufopfern und in Ruhe, Demut und Frömmigkeit verbleiben, ganz
seinem göttlichen Willen und Wohlgefallen hingegeben und untergeordnet. Sie werden diesen genügend
erkennen, wenn Sie Ihr Möglichstes getan haben und doch das Ziel Ihrer Wünsche nicht erreichen können.“
DA, 6, p. 54.
321
Ibid., pp. 10-12. (See also AE, XII, pp. 345-352; DA, 6, pp. 82-87).
322
Cf. Devasia MANALEL, Spiritual Direction According to An Introduction to the Devout Life in IJS, Vol.
XVI, No. 2, 2003, pp. 223-224.
323
Cf. Prinz GOTTFRIED, Vorwort in Jahrbuch für Salesianische Studien, Band 29, Eichstätt, 1996, p. 5.
221
3.4.3 Grounded on the Supremacy of Love and Personal Freedom

There can be numerous motives for human actions. It could be pleasure, it could be pure
satisfaction, it could be the fulfilment of a need, etc. For Francis de Sales love is the pre-
eminent principle of all our actions.324 He believed and taught that love should be the
ultimate motive of all human actions. He insisted that his directees follow his guidance out
of love and not out of force, nor obedience. To Jane de Chantal who wanted to place
herself under his guidance, he gave a couple of suggestions and pieces of advice. He tells
her, “And if you happen to omit or forget anything that I told you to do, have no scruples
about it, for here is the general rule of our obedience written in capital letters: LOVE,
AND NOT FORCE, SHOULD INSPIRE ALL YOU DO; LOVE OBEDIENCE MORE
THAN YOU FEAR DISOBEDIENCE.”325 He told her that he allowed her the individual
freedom of the Spirit. At the beginning stage of their spiritual direction, Francis wanted her
to maintain her liberty and personal freedom, though at the later stages of their friendship,
they were totally united in their wills.

Regarding the practice of the little virtues - which he strongly recommended to all his
directees - he suggests to Jane de Chantal, “Do the whole without [undue] eagerness, but
with true liberty.”326 Francis de Sales believed that love can be a much greater force to
bring about change in human beings than coercing somebody or commanding or
demanding. Most human beings are amenable to love, gentleness and appreciation. In
counselling, psychotherapy and guidance, these virtues are more effective than coercion or
trickery.

3.4.4 Person-Oriented Approach

Francis de Sales’ way of guiding people was characterised by his person-oriented

approach. I consider this to be one of the greatest contributions of the Salesian approach to
spiritual direction. He was able to speak or write to his directees in a personal way,
orienting himself to them and their individual needs. Anyone reading his letters could feel
that he was speaking to them personally and could feel his personal warmth and proximity.
I call this approach of Francis de Sales the person-oriented approach. In order to be person-

324
Cf. SALES, TLG, Bk. 1, Ch. IV, pp. 29-31. (See also AE, IV, pp. 33-34; DA, 3. pp. 57-59).
325
SALES, Selected Letters, p. 67. (See also AE, XII, p. 359; DA, 5, p. 58). This topic has already been dealt
with in the early part of this chapter. For details see 3.2.1.3.5.1.
326
SALES, Thy Will be Done, p. 40. (See also AE, XIII, pp. 91-92; DA, 5, p. 96).
222
oriented, Francis had to have a deep understanding of human nature, be familiar with each
directee and his/her life-situation and a high regard for human uniqueness. Francis’ person-
oriented approach is characterised by the following elements:

3.4.4.1 Deep Understanding of Human Nature

The way Francis de Sales dealt with different persons was not the same. He did not follow
a set pattern of dealing with everyone in the same manner. He had a personal approach to
each individual which was tailored to his/her life. Each person is unique – unique in
talents, gifts, psychological and spiritual endowments. This uniqueness of every individual
person has to be taken into account. Moreover, every single individual lives in a different
familial and social environment. Francis acknowledged that the uniqueness and diversity of
each individual was the result of the wisdom and handwork of God.327

Francis de Sales always had a great understanding of and for human nature. As a Christian
humanist, he also understood well human imperfections and frailties and showed a great
deal of understanding for it. To Madame Brulart whose relatives interfered with her
devotions and failed to understand her behaviour, he wrote, “We must allow them this little
bit of human nature.”328 He tried to convince her that it was part of human nature to be frail
and sometimes misunderstanding and that she should show understanding for the little
weaknesses of others.

While Francis de Sales himself showed great understanding of human nature, he could also
ask others to do so. He treated penitents with utmost love and concern, welcomed people
of all walks of life, respected and upheld the dignity of every person however low in social
status one may have been. As Pope Benedict XVI puts it, he could access any person with
freedom and help him access God with freedom and confidence.329 The person-oriented
approach of Francis also emphasised that a person should be able to lead a life of devotion
in his or her surroundings, whatever might be the situations.

327
Cf. PERUMALIL, Perfection. A Salesian Perspective, p. 34.
328
SALES, Thy Will be Done, p. 61. See also Selected Letters, p.126. Stopp translates it as “Well, you must
allow them this little touch of human nature.” «Que voules-vous, il leur faut permettre cette petite humanité.»
AE, XIII, p. 226. „Was wollen Sie, man muß diese kleine Menschlichkeit verstehen.“ DA, 6, p.106.
329
Cf. Joseph RATZINGER (Pope Benedict XVI), To Bring Fruits: Each according to One’s Nature.
Homily of Joseph Cardinal Ratzinger in the Mother House of the Congregation of the Poor Sisters of Notre
Dame, Munich, on the Feast of Francis de Sales in 1982.
223
3.4.4.2 Taking into Account the Life-Situation of the Directee
What made the guidance of Francis de Sales so effective? It was mainly because of his
ability to take into account the life-situation of each directee under his direction, which
many of his contemporaries could not do. He was able to understand the life of his
directees. In giving guidance, Francis de Sales always took into account the individual
qualities, uniqueness, needs and the life-situation of the person concerned. To a pregnant
woman who had scrupulosity because she could not kneel down for a long time as she used
to do earlier, he was full of understanding and had a practical piece of advice: “Make no
effort to oblige yourself to any kind of exercise, except quite gently. If you get tired
kneeling, sit down; if you cannot command attention to pray half an hour, pray only fifteen
minutes or even half of that.” He advises her further to pour out her feelings to the Lord, to
complain to him but all this must be done with love: “For if it is done lovingly, there is no
danger in complaining, nor in begging cure ... but do this with love and with resignation
into the arms of the good will of God.”330

Francis de Sales advocated that devotion should be an integral part of one’s life; it should
also be suited to each individual’s state of life. Devotion that is separated from one’s life
cannot be true devotion. Whatever state or situation of life one is in, one must make
devotion compatible with that situation.331 Thus, a married person should seek devotion in
the family, in his household - being in the midst of it and radiating his/her life as well as
that of others with God´s grace. That means making sacrifices, accepting the failures of
others, living in harmony with them, etc. For a nun, it is in life in the community, leading a
life of prayer, interiority and humility. She has to practise devotion in living in obedience
to the superiors and in harmony with other members of the community. To be true to her
vocation, a nun has to spend hours in prayer and silence, which is not the case for a
married woman. For a man in the court of the king it is totally different. He has to live in
high society but has to practise his Christian vocation accordingly by giving good
examples, leading a life of virtues and, above all, by taking Jesus as his patron.332

To Madame Brulart, who has problems practising devotion and virtues due to the hostile
environment at home, he advises to make a self-evaluation to see if she has contributed to
the hostile environment and warns her against being ‘too devout and restive’. He urges her
to make her devotion attractive to others, too: “I know that you will take my advice in a
330
SALES, Thy Will be Done, pp. 91-92. (See also AE, XIV, pp. 53-54; DA, 6, pp.140-141).
331
Cf. SALES, IDL, Part I, Chs. 1-3, especially Ch. 3.
332
Cf. SALES, Thy Will be Done, p. 77. (See also AE, XIV, pp. 376-381 & DA, 6, pp. 196-200).
224
good way, because I speak with sincerity. Perhaps you have given occasion to your good
father and good husband to mix themselves up with your devotion, and to be restive about
it; I cannot tell you how. Perhaps you are a little too eager and bustling, and you have
wanted to bother and restrict them. If so, that is without doubt the cause that makes them
now withdraw. We must, if possible, avoid making our devotion troublesome.”333 He
encourages her to show understanding towards human frailties and weaknesses: “We must
allow this little bit of human nature...”334 This is a piece of advice typical of Francis de
Sales. He calls upon everyone to be understanding towards others and to put up with the
little human frailties, failures and imperfections of others because all human beings are
weak and frail.

He wrote to Madame Brulart who is in the initial stages of devotion and is over-eager to
make her devotion pleasant and lovable: “You must not only be devout, and love devotion,
but you must make it lovable to everyone. Well, you will render it lovable if you render it
useful and agreeable. The sick will love your devotion if they are charitably consoled by it;
your family will love it if they find you more careful of their welfare, more gentle in little
accidents that happen, more kind in correcting ...”335 Francis de Sales tells her to combine
her spiritual life well with her life in the family and to show her devotion concretely in her
daily life.

Francis advised his directees to accept their life situation and to accept with love what
cannot be changed. To Madame Guillet de Monthoux, a woman who was close to him,
who had difficulties with her in-laws in the family, he wrote, “Well now, here you are in
your establishment, and you cannot alter it; you must be what you are, mother of a family,
since you have husband and children. And you must be so with good heart and with love of
God, yea, for the love of God…”336 He tells her she must be prepared to sacrifice her will
for the sake of the household, and encourages her to do it with love and out of love: “It is
better that the running of the household be not exactly as you wish, it will please those to
whom you owe so much... Peace is better than fortune. You must do what can be done with

333
SALES, Thy Will be Done, p. 62. See also AE, XIII, pp. 225-230 «Il faut, s’il se peut, nous empescher de
rendre nostre dévotion ennuyeuse.» p. 227. See also DA, 6, pp. 105-109. „Wenn möglich, sollen wir
vermeiden, daß unsere Frömmigkeit unangenehm wird.“ p. 107.
334
Ibid. What Francis means by his statement here is that she should be able to put up with the human
frailties and imperfections of the members of her own household. (See also 3.2.1.2.6 for more details).
335
Ibid., p. 48. (See also AE, XII, pp. 267-271; DA, 6, pp. 79-81).
336
Ibid, p. 55. Emphasis as in the original. (See also AE, Tome XVIII: Lettres – Volume VIII, pp. 305-307;
DA, 6, pp. 245-246).
225
love.”337 And finally, he urges her to yield to God’s will, after all that has been done, and
what she could do: “Do well what you can, and the rest leave to God, who will do it sooner
or later, according to the disposition of His divine providence.”338 Such was the faith,
wisdom and understanding that Francis de Sales showed in all his spiritual direction!

Francis was firmly convinced that devotion that does not suit the life-situation of the
person, that causes strife and troubles in the family, and that takes away the freedom and
joy of the person, is not real.

Even in today’s world one comes across many who try to live a devout life but without
taking into account the vocation to which God has called them. We see many mothers who
want to spend long hours in the church, neglecting their children, or religious who do not
find time for prayer or community life under the pretext of charitable and social activities.
Francis de Sales admonishes the Christians that one should combine one’s devotion with
one’s vocation and life-situation if it has to be genuine. It is the same Lord who gifts one
with a personal vocation and at the same time invites one to a life of devotion and,
therefore, they are two sides of the same coin.

3.4.4.3 Respecting the Uniqueness of Every Person

Francis de Sales writes in The Treatise on the Love of God, “Assuredly, we never see two
persons perfectly alike in natural gifts. We do not find perfect equals in supernatural
gifts.”339 Francis believes that this difference shall remain even in the life after death: “Just
as one star is different from the other in brightness (1 Cor. 15:41), humans are different
from one another in glory. It is a clear sign that they have been also different in grace. So
this variety in grace or this grace in its variety creates a sacred beauty. It makes a sweet
harmony which causes joy to the whole holy city of the heavenly Jerusalem.”340

Francis de Sales adamantly believes that this uniqueness of the individual has to be
respected. Therefore, guiding persons from different walks of life and different
environments, Francis oriented himself to each person. He tells everyone to be the unique
person that he/she is and be that in the best way. In writing to Madam de Brulart, he says,

337
SALES, Thy Will be Done, p. 56.
338
Ibid.
339
SALES, TLG, Bk. 2. Ch. 7, p. 97.
340
Ibid. (1 Cor 15:41 reads, “The sun has its own splendour, the moon another splendour, and the stars yet
another splendour; and the stars differ among themselves in splendour.”).
226
‘Be what you are, and be that at its best’.341 Every human being is called to be the best he
or she can be, instead of trying to blindly imitate someone else. Francis de Sales
encourages people to bring the best in them to fruition in spite of the negative and unholy
elements that they might find within themselves. It reminds one of what Carl Rogers said,
‘Be the self that you really are.’342

3.4.4.4 Individual Direction

Did Francis de Sales engage in group direction? Or did he take up only personal and
individual direction? Although Francis de Sales gave regular spiritual conferences to the
Sisters of the Visitation whom he co-founded with Jane de Chantal, he is most known for
his direction of individual persons. He spent an enormous amount of his time meeting
people individually, writing personal letters to each of his directees and establishing
personal bond with each of them. Being in a relationship with individual persons helped
him to get to know them better and, as a result, he could guide them more effectively and
personally. He had a wonderful talent for guiding individual persons and cherishing these
relationships. In the words of Alice von Hildebrand:

Endowed with natural grace, illuminated by supernatural grace, St Francis

knew how to adapt himself to each individual case. With an intuitive sense
that clearly came from above, he knew when to encourage, when to rebuke,
when to moderate and slacken the pace of those anxious to run, when to
quicken the pace of those who were sluggish. He combined patience and
love with firmness in his principles, never deviating from the teaching of
holy Church. He made no distinction of persons; to all his spiritual children,
whether rich or poor, cultivated or uncouth, male or female, he gave the
same loving care, the same unconditional devotion.343

Franz Wehrl is of the opinion that this individual care of persons and the importance he
places on relationships has its foundation in the ministry and examples of Jesus himself. It
was also a method of the counter-Reform movement of the Church of France at that
time.344 This intimacy and friendship that he shared with his directees can easily be noticed

341
SALES, Thy Will be Done, p. 22. « Soyons ce que nous sommes, et soyons le bien, pour faire honneur
au Maistre ouvrier duquel nous sommes la besoigne. » AE, XIII, pp. 53-54. For details refer to 3.2.1.2.2.
342
Cf. Carl R. ROGERS, On Becoming a Person, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995, pp. 163-182. (Part IV,
Chapter 8: ‘To Be That Self Which One Truly Is’: A Therapist’s View of Personal Goals).
343
Alice von HILDEBRAND, In Foreword, Thy Will be Done, p. xii.
344
Cf. WEHRL, Schwerepunkte Salesianisher Seelenführung p. 21.
227
in the way he addressed his directees in his letters. He addressed them ‘my dearest,’ ‘my
beloved,’ ‘my dear child,’ ‘my dearest daughter’ and so on.345

Moreover, Francis helped his directees, especially Jane de Chantal, to prepare a ‘spiritual
directory’ of daily actions.346 To help one to do so called for deep personal knowledge of
the person that he could guide individually and according to the individual’s personal
characteristics and traits. Francis de Sales was himself in the practice of keeping a
directory of his action from his youth. This helped him in his spiritual and personal growth
and exercised a control over all his actions. This also helped him to review his life from
time to time.347 Helping his directees to make their own spiritual directory was indeed a
great step in individual direction. It is the result of his long years of experience as spiritual
director and guide. Ceresko says:

Although written specifically for the first Visitandines, this Spiritual

Directory represents a distillation into a brief and compact form the fruits of
Francis’ many years of experience and wisdom in living the Christian life
and in guiding and directing others in that same endeavour. This ‘Spiritual
Directory’ thus holds a unique place among Francis’ writings. It provides a
privileged access to the style and method of this great spiritual master.348

3.4.5 Importance of Relationship and Friendship in Spiritual Direction

Salesian anthropology is basically relational. It is in relationship with others that one

comes to know more of oneself. ‘Know thyself’ in Salesian tradition is a call to get out of
oneself and get into relationships with others. Human beings are called to work out their
salvation here on earth in relationships with other human beings. This is an essential
dimension of Christian living. It is also the ministry of the Church to be this community
where the believers can be in relationships with others and achieve their salvation as a
community.349 Speaking of Salesian anthropology, John Crossin says being in relationships
with others gives one knowledge of oneself. “As many theologians do today, St. Francis de

345
Reference to this are too many to be given here. Practically every letter of Francis de Sales begins with a
very personal note.
346
Cf. Anthony R. CERESKO, St Francis de Sales’ “Spiritual Directory” for a New Century: Re-
interpreting the Direction of Intention in IJS, Vol. 14. 4, 2001, pp. 377-391. The Spiritual Directory which
he prepared for the Visitation Sisters is based on his own spiritual directory. See also AE, Tome XXV:
Opuscules – Volume IV «Directoire des choses spirituelles» pp. 137-175. DA Band 12: Geistliche Schriften,
Part VII, ‚Das Geistliche Direktorium‘, pp. 402-417.
347
Cf. CERESKO, St Francis de Sales’ “Spiritual Directory” for a New Century, pp. 377-378. See also
Lewis FIORELLI, The Spiritual Directory Today, (unpublished article). Available online:
http://web1.desales.edu/assets/salesian/Brisson/Fiorelli-Directory.pdf (14.1.2016)
348
CERESKO, St Francis de Sales’ “Spiritual Directory” for a New Century, p. 378.
349
Cf. LG, No. 1.
228
Sales begins his considerations, for example in his Treatise on the Love of God, with the
human person. De Sales begins with the Greek axiom: "Know Thyself." This knowledge of
self is attained primarily in going out of oneself and reflecting on this experience and not
predominantly in introspection. Thus, in acting we come to know ourselves. And action
brings us into contact with others.”350

3.4.5.1 To Be Is to Be Related
Human existence is basically relational after the image of God who is Himself relational.
Father, Son and Holy Spirit are in constant relation, communion and communication with
one another. To quote Crossin: “Mutual relationships are most important for our spiritual
growth. There is in us both a need to go out to others and a receptivity to others. Of course,
our giving and receiving is a faint image of the Trinity.”351 Therefore, human beings are
called to relate to one another. As philosopher Jiddu Krishnamurti says, “To be is to be
related.”352

The spiritual relationship that exists between two persons helps them to be more fully
human. Pocetto argues, “It is through spiritual friendship that a person becomes what
he/she is. In order to enter into a spiritual friendship, people have to accept themselves as
they are. We have to first be a friend to ourselves before we can become a friend to
another. True friendship modeled after that of the Trinity requires that friends have a very
profound respect for each other.”353

The fact that human beings are called to be related - and this dimension makes them more
human - necessitates that they should develop relational qualities in themselves.
Therefore, Francis de Sales insisted so much on those virtues that play a crucial role in
interpersonal relationships. They include gentleness, patience, humility and simplicity.
These virtues cement the mutual relationship among human beings. ‘To be related’ also
calls for frequent communication. That explains why Francis tried to be constantly in touch
with his spiritual children in spite of his busy life as a bishop. Through his letters –
thousands of them – he not only guided them but also kept up his contact with his spiritual

350
John CROSSIN, Reflections on Salesian Anthropology in Mind and Heart Renewed: Essays in Honour of
Rev. John Harvey osfs, Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2001. Available online:
http://web1.desales.edu/assets/salesian/PDF/Crossin-Anthropology.pdf (15.1.16).
351
Ibid.
352
Jiddu KRISHNAMURTI, The Mirror of Relationship, Third Public Talk given on 09.06.1940 in Ojai,
California. Available online at: http://www.jiddu-krishnamurti.net/en/1936-1944-the-mirror-of-
relationship/krishnamurti-the-mirror-of-relationship-42 (14.1.2016).
353
POCETTO, Spiritual Friendship in Salesian Spirituality.
229
children separated by distance and time. As noted earlier, some of his letters are only a few
lines just giving assurance and promising prayers. But they serve the great purpose of
‘being related.’ In the opinion of Pocetto, “Friends who are so joined together by God
cannot be separated by distance or time (OEA, XVIII, 416). This kind of union is not
achieved unless there is a good deal of openness, exchange of feelings, and frequent
communication. It takes also a great sensitivity to the needs of the friend and a rather
affectionate and warm nature that readily responds to others…”354

3.4.5.2 Relationship that Helps and Heals

It is clear in the writings of Francis de Sales that he believed that human relationships
could have a tremendous power to heal. Therefore, in many cases he combined spiritual
direction with friendship. In Salesian tradition spiritual direction and friendship go hand-
in-hand.355 Friendships are one of the best forms of relationships that can bring out the
best in each other. Friendship based on true and pure relationship is a great incentive for
the person to become what he truly is. Such a pure and genuine relationship leads to self-
realization, happiness and contentment in life: “The profound union that exists in spiritual
friendship does not destroy the personality or the individuality of friends. In fact, it helps
them reach a deeper level of understanding and enables them to become what they are.”356

Francis’ friendship with others was totally based on freedom and devoid of any sort of
obtrusion. He never wanted to force his ideas on others although he was a bishop and a
learned man. He showed extreme respect for others and their opinion. Pocetto opines:

Because Francis has such a deep respect for his friends and wants them to be
what they are, he does not force his opinions on them and can differ with
them in serious matters without destroying the friendship. A good example
of this was his friendship with Claude-Nicolas de Quoex and his brother
Phillip. These two very dear friends of his had different views on how to
reform the monastery of Talloires. De Sales tells them that he does not want
to force his opinions on them: ". . . I do not think that either my feelings, nor
my opinions, nor my interests should serve as a rule to anyone in the world,

354
POCETTO, Spiritual Friendship in Salesian Spirituality. [OEA = AE] (Pocetto here refers to the letter of
Francis to Madame de Villesavin written in July-August, 1619 from Paris). AE, Tome XVIII: Lettres –
Volume VIII, pp. 415-416 « Ne croyes jamais, ma très chere Fille, que la distance des lieux puisse separer les
ames que Dieu a unies par les liens de sa dilection.» DA, 6, p. 313. „Glauben Sie niemals, meine liebe
Tochter, daß die örtliche Entfernung die Seelen trennen kann, die Gott durch die Bande seiner Liebe vereint
hat.“
355
Cf. POCETTO, Ibid.
356
Ibid.
230
 and particularly to my friends. ... Let each one follow his own judgment as
long as Christ is glorified" (OEA, XVI, 114).357

The freedom and liberty Francis gave to his directees and his human approach to them had
their advantages. This approach helped his directees to open themselves fully to him. They
placed their confidence and trust in him. At a time when psychotherapy was unheard of,
Francis could help people through his personal relationship as in counselling and
psychotherapy, wonderfully aided by his warmth and personal qualities. No spiritual
direction or psychotherapy can be helpful when the client is not able to trust the director or
therapist and open himself up fully to him.

Interestingly enough, efforts have been made in recent times to bring out the therapeutic
value of the Salesian method of spiritual direction because of the stress it lays - like logo
therapy - on personal freedom, spiritual friendship, importance of mutual relationship and
the search for meaning.358 Efforts have also been made to compare Salesian spirituality
with the depth psychology of Carl Gustav Jung.359

3.4.6 The Importance of Little Virtues

Virtues are an integral part of Christian life. The Catholic Church teaches, “A virtue is an
[sic] habitual and firm disposition to do good. It allows the person not only to perform
good acts, but to give the best of himself. The virtuous person tends toward the good with
all his sensory and spiritual powers; he pursues the good and chooses it in concrete
actions.”360 The purpose of acquiring virtues is to be fully human and to become like
God.361

One of the important points that Francis de Sales stresses in his spiritual direction,
especially in his letters, is the importance of the little virtues. They are gentleness,
patience, humility and simplicity. In Introduction he strongly recommends the practice of
these virtues.362 In his opinion, one should not always look for virtues that appear to be

357
POCETTO, Spiritual Friendship in Salesian Spirituality. (AE Tome XVI: Lettres-Volume VI, Letter to
Philippe de Quoex, pp.113-117. « Non certes, je ne pense pas que ni mon sentiment, ni mes opinions, ni mes
interestz doivent servir de réglé a pas un homme du monde, et particulièrement a mes amis … » p.114.
358
Cf. Raymund FOBES, Sinnzetriert und salesianisch. Geistliche Begleitung im Geist des hl. Franz von
Sales in der Begegnung mit Viktor E. Frankls Logotherapie, in Human Encounter in the Salesian Tradition,
pp. 367-387. [The whole edition deals with encounter, relationship and similar themes in Salesian tradition].
359
Cf. Irene BECK, Franz von Sales und C. G. Jung, in Jahrbuch für Salesianische Studien, Band. 7, 1969,
pp. 7-17.
360
CCC, Part III, Section 1, Chapter 1, Article 7.
361
Cf. Ibid.
362
Cf. SALES, IDL, Part III, Chs. 1-10. (These chapters deal mainly with the little virtues).
231
nobler and more excellent, but for the practice of which our life-situation offers hardly any
chance. Such are virtues like martyrdom, persecution for the sake of faith, etc. Chances to
practise them are indeed rare. But the simple virtues add flavour to our lives, make our
lives more pleasant, and our living together peaceful and joyful. Moreover, there are
innumerable chances to practise them in our day-to-day living.363 An authentic spiritual life
supports the practice of virtues: “The practice of virtues and progress in them is a natural
outcome of growth in prayer and charity in the Salesian understanding.”364 Manalel states
three reasons why Francis de Sales advocates the practice of virtues:

No one is (pre)determined to do what is best. Due to our free will, we can

choose to act against what is good or seek the good through wrong means.
The human will is pulled in a variety of directions. Virtues primarily
recognize the need to develop habits that incline one to whatever is best.
Secondly, human nature is wounded by sin and needs to be rehabilitated
through virtue. A person’s behaviour flows from his nature. The wounded
nature does not take away the capacity for virtue; rather, it does condition it.
Therefore, virtues work to restore a nature wounded by sin ... a third reason
why virtues are needed is to overcome vices. The best way to understand
vices is to realize that they are the opposite of virtues in every way, but like
the virtues, they are habits. Vices are dehumanizing habits; unless acted
against and weakened, they will overcome virtues...”365

Francis de Sales believed that these little virtues enabled one to let go of judgemental
attitude and become more compassionate and understanding towards people. He believed
that there was nothing small in the service of God.366 The letters of Francis de Sales are full
of examples whereby he tells his directees to practise the little virtues to make their life
devout, pleasant and harmonious. The little virtues of humility, patience, gentleness and
simplicity are central to the spirituality of Francis de Sales and they contribute to growth in
inter-personal relationships.

To a young woman who has difficulty in praying, but who is over-eager, Francis de Sales
recommends patience: “It pretends to excite us to good, but only to make us tepid; it makes
us run in order to make us stumble. This is why we must always beware of it, especially in
prayer.”367 He tells her further that if she does not find words to speak, just being in the
presence of the Lord in patience will do: “We shall not be overeager to speak to him since
it is no less useful for us just to be in his presence; jea, it is more useful although not much

363
Cf. SALES, IDL, pp. 137-141.
364
MANALEL, Spiritual Direction: A Methodology, p. 300.
365
Ibid., pp. 303-304.
366
Cf. John SANKARATHIL, God of the Ordinary, Bangalore: ATC, 1999, p. 129.
367
SALES, Thy Will be Done, p. 28. By ‘it’ Francis here means over-eagerness.
232
to our taste. When you come to him, speak to him if you can. If you cannot, stay there; be
seen; and care for nothing else.”368

To another directee, Madame de la Flechere, a woman beset by the tasks of daily life, and
apparently suffering from lack of gentleness and patience, Francis says, “Do not lose any
occasion, however small it may be, for exercising gentleness of heart toward everyone.”369
Further he suggests to be patient, “Have patience with everyone, but chiefly with
yourself.”370

In the opinion of Francis de Sales, we should choose virtues that correspond to our life-
situation and duties rather than with our tastes. He believes that every life situation
requires the practice of some particular virtue. Different are the virtues to be practised by a
bishop, by a prince, by a soldier, by a married woman, by a widow. Although all should
strive to have all the virtues possible, nevertheless, all are not bound to practise them
equally. But each one must devote oneself to those virtues much needed for the state of
life, to which one is called by God. Writing to Jane de Chantal regarding the importance of
the little virtues, he suggests to her to take up virtues that are suitable to her state of life as
a widow: “Each one must love the virtues that are suitable to him, each according to his
vocation. The virtues of a widow are humility, contempt for the world and of oneself and
simplicity.”371

3.4.7 High on Optimism

The spiritual guidance of Francis de Sales was characterised by optimism and positive
outlook on life. As spiritual director, Francis infuses great optimism in his directees.
Anyone who reads Francis de Sales cannot but be moved by the optimism radiated in his
writings. His letters of spiritual direction are full of optimism, hope, joy and positive
emotions. It springs from the highly positive idea Francis de Sales had of a human being.
Every human being is created in the image and likeness of God. And God, who created
human beings, and whose children they are, never leaves them alone. They are always
under the protection of the loving Father and He will always take care of them. The basis

368
SALES, Thy Will be Done, p. 29.
369
Ibid., p. 49. (See also AE, XIV, pp. 21-23; DA, 6, pp. 137-138).
370
Ibid., p. 51. «Ayés patience avec tous, mais principalement avec vous mesme.» AE, XIV, p. 22. „Haben
Sie Geduld mit allen, in erster Linie aber mit sich selbst.“ DA, 6, p. 138.
371
Ibid., p. 31. (See also AE, XIV, pp.109-111). «Chacun doit aymer les vertus qui luy sont convenables,
chacun selon sa vocation. Les vertus d’une vefve sont l’humilité, le mespris du monde et de soy mesme, la
simplicité.» p.109.
233
of this optimism is total faith and trust in a personal God who always accompanies His
children. It comes also from the acceptance of all the good things that God has given us in
our lives. Human happiness comes from doing God’s will and totally trusting in His
Providence.372 Jesus, through his redemptive mission, has given all human beings the
capacity to turn to the Father and to reach the final goal of being with Him in heaven.
There is hardly any letter that does not encourage the addressee or infuse in him/her the
courage to go forward joyfully.

He encourages a priest who sought his advice because he had problems in his priestly life,
to persevere in his ministry in spite of the difficulties in the following words: “Believe me,
remain there where you are; do faithfully everything in good conscience that morally you
can do, and you will see that ‘if you believe you will see the glory of God’ (Jn 11:40).”373

He has an inspiring thought for Jane de Chantal at a time when she was beset with troubles
and abjections. He wrote to her374on 6 August 1606: “Let us always be moving; however
slowly we advance, we shall make plenty of way.”375 Francis de Sales reminds Christians
that it is important to keep moving even when they face difficulties, because the difficulties
will not last long. God does not allow human beings to be tested beyond their capacity.376

One who wants to grow in spiritual life has to constantly fight against desperation.
Desperation is a great barrier to spiritual growth. It is important to be optimistic and
positive and to carry on with one’s decisions in spite of the failures one encounters. To
Madame Flechere, who struggles hard to be devout but often falls short of her
expectations, he writes,377 “But do these exercises with a tranquil and joyous spirit; and if
distractions arise, humble yourself and start again.”378

372
Cf. WRIGHT / POWER in the ‘Introduction’ to Letters of Spiritual Direction, p. 42. (For details see
Theme II, pp. 40-43).
373
SALES, Thy Will be Done, p. 18. (See also AE, XIV, pp. 65-67). « Croyés-moy, demeurés la; faites
fidellement tout a la bonne foy ce que moralement vous pourres faire, et vous verres que si crecdideris,
videbis gloriam Dei (Joan xi, 40).» p. 66-67.
374
Cf. AE, XIII, pp. 201-212. See also DA, 5, pp.123-131.
375
SALES, Thy Will be Done, p. 144. «Mais gardes de vous empresser, car vous entortilleries vostre filet a
nœuds et embarrasseries vostre fuseau. Allons tous-jours; pour lentement que nous avancions, nous ferons
beaucoup de chemin. » AE, XIII, p.202. „Hüten Sie sich aber vor Hast, denn sonst verwickelt sich Ihr Faden
zu einem Knoten und bringt Ihre Spindel in Unordnung. Machen wir nur immer weiter; wenn wir auch nur
langsam vorwärts kommen, so legen wir doch einen weiten Weg zurück.“ DA, 5, p. 123.
376
Cf. 1 Cor. 10:13b “You can trust that God will not let you be put to the test beyond your strength.” (NJB)
377
Cf. AE, XIV, pp. 121-123. See also DA, 6, pp. 144-146.
378
SALES, Thy Will be Done, p. 154. «Mais faites cela avec un esprit tranquille et joyeux, je veux dire ces
exercices; et s’il vous arrive des manquemens, humilies vous et recommencés. » AE, XIV, p. 122. „Aber tun
234
Francis de Sales encourages her to be optimistic and never to give up her efforts. The most
important thing in spiritual growth is never to give up. This idea of Francis de Sales is
reflected also in his spiritual conferences to nuns:

It is a very good thing to feel ashamed of ourselves when we become

conscious of our miseries and imperfection. However, we should not stop
there, we should not fall into a state of discouragement. Rather, we ought to
lift up our heart to God in holy confidence; the foundation of this trust is in
God himself and not in our own self. For, even if we change, God never
changes, and he remains always gentle and merciful when we are weak and
imperfect as when we are strong and perfect. I am always in the habit of
saying that our misery is the throne of God’s mercy. It follows, then, that the
greater our miseries, the greater should be our confidence in God; for,
confidence is the life of the spirit. Take away confidence from your heart
and you doom yourself to death.379

For a young woman380 who is constantly discouraged by her failures, Francis de Sales has
words of optimism and common sense: “I do not mean to say that we are not to put
ourselves in that direction; but we are not to desire to get there in one day, that is in one
day of mortality. For this desire would torment us, and for nothing. To advance well we
must apply ourselves to make good way in the road nearest to us and to do the first day’s
journey...”381 He encourages her to move on optimistically, at the same time patiently and
step and step.

One could gather any amount of supporting materials to show that Francis had such a fine
way of encouraging his directees and infusing optimism in them. He shows understanding
for human weakness and at the same time encourages them to go on because God does not
fail anyone who attempts to make progress. Francis pushes them gently ahead with ‘love’s
gentle persuasion’382 to go on their way without getting stuck. Those who persevere till the

Sie das, das heißt diese Übungen, ruhigen und freudvollen Geistes; und wenn Ihnen dabei Fehler unterlaufen,
demütigen Sie sich und beginnen Sie wieder von neuem.“ DA, 6, p. 145.
379
SALES, Spiritual Conferences, Vo.1. p. 3. Emphasis mine. AE, Tome VI: Les Vrays Entretiens Spirituels,
« J’ay accoustumé de dire que le throsne de la misericorde de Dieu c'est nostre misere : il faut donc, d'autant
que nostre misere sera plus grande avoir aussi une plus grande confiance. (car la confiance est la vie de
l’ame: ostezluy la confiance, vous luy donnez la mort). p. 22. The part in the bracket appears in the footnote
of the original Annecy Edition. DA, Band 2: Geistliche Gespräche „Ich pflege zusagen: unsere Armseligkeit
ist der Thron der göttlichen Barmherzigkeit. Je größer also unsere Armseligkeit, desto größer unser
Vertrauen. Das Vertrauen ist das Leben der Seele, nimmst du ihr das Vertrauen, so jagst du sie in den Tod.“
p. 42.
380
Madame Soulfour. Letter dated 22.7.1603. (See also AE, XII, pp. 202-206; DA, 6, pp. 38-42).
381
SALES, Thy Will be Done, pp. 173-174.
382
Cf. Ivo CARNEIRO, in the ‘Translator’s Introduction’ to Spiritual Conferences, Vol.1, p .xi.
235
end will surely survive.383 With faith and hope one should continue one’s journey, getting
up again every time one falls. The greatest danger lies in hopelessness and in giving up.

3.4.8 Mystical Dimension of Christian Living

Every Christian is called to live a mystical life. Francis de Sales always emphasized in his
spiritual direction the mystical dimension of daily Christian living. Years later, Karl
Rahner would say that a Christian in today’s world (tomorrow, too) has to be a mystic or
no Christian.384 The mysticism that Francis de Sales advocates is one that is perfectly in
tune with the daily life of a Christian. A Christian’s daily life cannot be separated from his
devotion and spirituality. Francis de Sales suggests invariably to everyone in his spiritual
direction how important it is to remain constantly in the presence of God, to thank Him
constantly for all His blessings and to repeatedly ask Him for His forgiveness. Every
Christian is called to live, to work and to be 24x7 in the presence of God. He is called to
experience God in his daily life, in the midst of the world. The more Christians are aware
of God’s presence in the world and His love for them, the more intensive and deeper will
their devotion be.385

To be constantly in the presence of God, in order to be always united with him, Francis de
Sales suggests some simple methods which can be extremely helpful to every Christian. He
encourages every directee that even if he/she does not have time for long hours of prayer,
they can become aware of the presence of God at regular intervals, or rather very often,
which is itself a prayer.386 He also strongly recommends repetition of short invocations or
ejaculatory prayers. They help us to be constantly in the presence of God and to develop
our trust and confidence in the Lord.387

Another important practice that adds a mystical dimension to Christian living is

meditation. Francis de Sales makes it a point to recommend daily meditation to his
directees, each according to their situation. Meditation is a method to purify thoughts and

383
Cf. Lk 21:19, “Your perseverance will win you your lives.” (NJB)
384
Cf. Karl RAHNER, Frömmigkeit heute und morgen, in: Geist und Leben, No. 39, 1966, pp. 326-342. See
esp. p. 335; see also Frömmigkeit früher und heute, in Schriften zur Theologie, Bd. 7, Einsiedeln: Benziger,
1966, pp.11-31.
385
Cf. Raphael MERCIER, Prophetic Insight and Pastoral Guidance Methods of Prayer according to St
Francis de Sales, in IJS, Vol. XVIII, No.3, 2005, pp. 333-361. Here p. 334.
386
Cf. SALES, IDL, pp. 104-106.
387
Cf. Ibid., pp. 107-108.
236
as a consequence human actions, too. Daily meditation done in the morning or evening fills
one’s heart and mind with good thoughts and reflections.388

It is important to raise one’s heart and mind to God at regular intervals. Writing to
Madame Brulart389on obtaining true devotion and peace of soul, he suggests to her to ask
God often during the day for this grace: “I would wish you often, during the day, to ask
God to give you love of your vocation and to say like St Paul when he was converted,
‘Lord, what will you have me to do?’ ”390 Just being in the presence of God with awareness
and thinking of God, raising one’s heart and mind to Him even without words are all forms
of genuine prayer. Writing to Jane de Chantal on prayer – she is apparently disturbed in
prayer and does not know what to do during prayers – he stresses that just being in the
presence of God wherever we are and whenever, and making certain acts towards God are
indeed wonderful forms of prayer. He tells her that sometimes it is not required to speak
much or make acts of adoration or any other form of prayer. It would suffice to be simply
there ‘like a statue in its niche’ before God or with God.391

In the midst of the world and in the ‘busy-ness’ of the world, we are called to live
constantly in the presence of God and to be aware of it. To a married woman392 who is
beset with her household duties and, therefore, finds it difficult to have fixed times for
prayers, Francis de Sales has a soothing suggestion: “Often make spontaneous prayers to
the Lord, at every moment you can, and in all companies, always seeing God in your heart
and your heart in God.”393

To be a mystic in the world today demands of one to experience the Lord more than to
understand him or to know about him. It is the experience that precedes the knowledge.
From experiencing the Lord we come to know of his goodness and love.

The Salesian understanding of mysticism is totally practical. Francis de Sales advocated a

mysticism that is to be practised not only in monasteries or cloistered convents. Nor is it to
be lived out only in deserts or on mountain tops, but in the world - in the midst of one’s
daily activities and in loving relationship with others. Mysticism in the opinion of Francis

388
Cf. SALES, Thy Will be Done, pp. 12-13. (See also IDL, Part 1 Chapters 9 to 18).
389
Letter to Madam Brulart on 13.10.1604. (See also AE, XII, pp. 345-352;DA, 6, pp. 82-87).
390
SALES, Thy Will be Done, p. 13. (Emphasis mine)
391
Cf. SALES, Thy Will be Done, p. 36. Letter to Madame de Chantal, (1611 ?). See AE, XV, pp. 320-323.
« comme une statue dans sa niche » p. 321.
392
To Madame Brulart, Letter dated 3.5.1604. (See AE, XII, pp. 267-271; DA, 6, pp. 79-81).
393
SALES, Thy Will be Done, p. 47.
237
de Sales is one that is nurtured by a deep intimacy with God, living constantly in the
awareness of the presence of God and reminding oneself of it every now and then through
short acts and ejaculatory prayers, or even raising one’s thoughts to God. It is a mysticism
in the midst of the world but undisturbed by it, allowing God’s love to radiate one and
through one’s relationship with one’s neighbours, especially through the practice of the
little virtues of gentleness, patience, simplicity and humility that makes life here on earth a
heavenly experience.

Concluding Remarks

The world today is going through a phase of unprecedented scientific and technological
developments. As a result, the world is in constant flux. In this process of rapid change and
transformation, many of the old values and practices are tumbling down. The so-called
liberalism of today and the supremacy of the ego and personal freedom are leading the
society, the family and the individuals often to nowhere.

Francis de Sales also lived and worked in a similar situation. It was the time immediately
after the Reformation and the humanism of the Renaissance had taken deep roots in the
society. However, many people from all walks of life who were looking for spiritual
guidance and a direction in their lives came to Francis de Sales. He was able to help them
through his person-oriented approach, fine personal qualities, personal touch and his deep
psychological insights. He could convince them that every Christian was called to holiness
and that holiness was not inaccessible to ordinary people living in day-to-day life-
situations. Through his letters, the main medium of communication those days, he could
touch and move the hearts of people. It was difficult for people to reject his genuine
suggestions given with great love and understanding. He guided many persons and won
thousands back to the Catholic fold. His success also depended on the fact that he could
counter negative developments with positive elements. Thus, to counter the evil effects of
a negative and exaggerated form of humanism he relied on Christian humanism which
gave God the central place He deserved, at the same time upholding the dignity of the
human being as the pinnacle of creation. He could do so because he had the educational
background and training, sound formation in faith and, above all, total dependence on God.

The pastors of today have a similar obligation: to bring a personal touch to their ministry in
the world which is becoming more and more impersonal, more digital and more distanced
from humanity; to orient themselves to the life-situation of every believer without
238
compromising on Christian faith and values; to love and guide people in the true spirit of
Christ. Christian life does not reach its perfection all of a sudden. It is like a small sapling
planted in a garden. It has to be nurtured in all seasons. One should not forget that there are
different plants in a garden and they produce different flowers. In the same way, all
Christians are called to bear fruit according to their nature and abilities. This message of
Francis de Sales is more valid today than ever, as people are more and more conscious of
their uniqueness than ever before. A great danger that one faces today is that this
uniqueness is almost equated with egoism which almost consumes families, the society and
humanity at large.

Spiritual growth is like a house that one builds where each brick contributes its share to the
completion of the whole structure. Such are the daily acts of virtues one performs. They
build one up, form one’s character and make one’s life here on earth pleasant, joyful and
more Christ-like. However high one’s goals may be, one must never forget that human
beings are frail, weak and likely to fall. Therefore, Francis de Sales recommends that one
make progress slowly but steadily, little by little, in self-acceptance, gentleness and
patience. The most important thing is never to give up. This spirit has to be communicated
to every Christian in the world.

The present time offers the Church challenges as well as possibilities because there are
more and more people on the search – for God, for spirituality and devotion, for meaning
in life, for identity. The spirit of guidance that Francis de Sales offers is indeed of supreme
value at this juncture.

239
 CHAPTER 4

CARL ROGERS AND THE PERSON-CENTRED APPROACH

Introduction

IN this longish chapter, my intention is to trace, in some detail, the life and the background
of Carl Rogers, the founder of the person-centred approach (PCA).1 It is important to
understand the person – and to understand him critically – to have a better understanding
of Rogers’ philosophy and his contributions to psychology. That is done in the first part.
This part also tries to see the major influences in the life of Rogers, what shaped him to be
the person he was, the different stages of his life and what influence each stage had on him
personally, and how it contributed to the development of PCA.

In the second part, effort is made to see systematically the basic concepts of PCA and how
the person-centred therapy (PCT) operates. To achieve this goal, first a theoretical study of
PCA is undertaken, and secondly an effort is made to show how it has been applied in
action.

PART 1

4.1 Carl Rogers: Biography, Influences and Development of

his Person-Centred Approach

Person-centred therapy is one of the widely used forms of psychotherapy and counselling
today. After almost seven decades of existence, Person-centred therapy (PCT) remains
relevant even today. Unlike other therapy forms, PCT has a much wider reach - it is used
in private practice, in educational institutions and even in religious and pastoral settings.
Person-Centred Therapy (PCT) and person-centred counselling and all other person-
centred approaches trace their origin to the foundation laid by Carl Ransom Rogers. Carl
Rogers pioneered a new approach to psychotherapy and counselling known as non-

1
I have used throughout this work the abbreviations PCA and PCT denoting Person-Centred Approach and
Person-Centred Therapy respectively. I have also left North American spellings unchanged when they refer
to the name of a person, book or institution (i.e., when used as proper nouns) and in quotations. I have
generally used the masculine gender to refer to persons in order to avoid the clumsy reading of the text. It
does not reflect any gender prejudice whatsoever.
240
directive, client-centred or person-centred approach.2 Rogers developed his therapy as a
response to the psychoanalytic approach and the behavioural method. PCA is an integral
part of the humanistic approach and of the ‘third force’ psychology.3

Rogers is perhaps the first psychologist who stressed that the quality of human relationship
is central to counselling and psychotherapy. For him, to be a counsellor is to be a facilitator
and to provide a healthy and salutary climate for the client to use his own capacity and
potential for self change.4

True to the spirit of Carl Rogers, PCT includes various schools, directions and ‘tribes’. It
includes many approaches like the classical client-centred, focusing-oriented, existential,
experiential, integrative, and several more.5 Compared to the other psychologists of his
time, Rogers was the first to take a purely scientific approach to psychotherapy at that
time. He was also responsible for the spread of professional counselling in various fields
like education, family, and inter-personal relationships. Rogers spearheaded the humanistic
psychology movement in the 1960s through the 1980s.6

Rogers is also known world-wide as an author. Being a prolific writer, he persuasively

brought out his ideas and concepts through his 16 books and more than 200 articles.7 He
was also a pioneer in using non-print media for the propagation of his ideas. He made tapes
and videos of his therapy sessions and circulated them. He was also known worldwide as
an educator and speaker, and always attracted large audiences all over the world.8

Carl Rogers occupied many distinguished positions like the New York State Chairman and
national executive committee member of the American Association of Social Workers,
vice-president of the American Orthopsychiatric Association, first president of the
American Academy of Psychotherapists, president of the American Psychology

2
Cf. Howard KIRSCHENBAUM / Valerie Land HENDERSON, The Carl Rogers Reader, NY: Houghton
Mifflin, 1989, p. xi.
3
Humanistic or the third force in psychology evolved in the second half of the twentieth century. It was a
reaction against Freud’s psychoanalysis and its various allied schools and the behaviourist schools initiated
by B. F. Skinner. Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow were the pioneers of the humanistic movement.
4
Cf. Brian THORNE, Carl Rogers, London: Sage Publications, 1992, p.vii.
5
Cf. Pete SANDERS, The Many Tribes of the Person-Centred Nation, Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books, 2004.
One only needs to turn the pages of this book to get familiar with some of the major approaches in the
person-centred therapy.
6
Cf. Howard KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books, 2007, p.
xi.
7
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM / HENDERSON, The Carl Rogers Reader, p. xi.
8
Cf. Ibid., p. xii.
241
Association, and many more. He was instrumental in establishing the Association for
Humanistic Psychology in 1963.9

The numerous awards and recognitions he received include the Distinguished Scientific
Contribution Award instituted by the American Psychology Association, and the
Distinguished Professional Contribution Award by the same association.10 His life was
characterised by outstanding contributions over the long period he was active in the
profession - 59 years! He was active and contributed vigorously to the field till his death in
1987.11

In sketching the life of Carl Rogers and of the development of his psychology, I have
drawn heavily from Kirschenbaum’s detailed biography of Carl Rogers. It not only
describes Rogers’ life in detail, but also deals at length with such topics as the development
of his ideas, the background influences, the growth and spread of the client/person-centred
approach, and their relevance. Carl Rogers was even nominated for the Nobel peace prize.
He left many private papers behind to be made public after his death. Authors believe that
he wanted others to know of his private and hidden life. Kirschenbaum prepared the
biography of Rogers after serious consideration of various sources available.12

4.1.1 Family, Childhood and Youth

Carl Rogers was a typical product of Midwestern America. He had purely American
ancestors, unlike many psychotherapists and psychologists who were either of Jewish-
European descent or directly European. His predecessors - the Rogers - were from England
who migrated to America as early as the 17th century. So was the case with his mother’s
family. They had lived in the new country for more than 300 years, too. 13 The family had
settled in the Glen Falls area and later moved to Wisconsin. Walter Alexander Rogers, his
father, attended the University of Wisconsin and was closely associated with YMCA. He
was a successful engineer and had several projects under his supervision. Later the family
moved to Chicago and Walter started his own company with a friend.14

9
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM / HENDERSON, The Carl Rogers Reader, pp. xii-xiii.
10
Cf. Ibid., p. xiii.
11
Cf. Ibid.
12
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. ii.
13
Cf. THORNE, Carl Rogers, p. 1.
14
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp.1-2.
242
Carl Ransom Rogers was born on 8 January 1902 as the fourth of six children. As a child,
Carl was rather sickly and weak. His father’s business improved, and when Carl was five,
they moved to a better suburb on the north side of Oak Park. It was an upper middle class
community with restrictions.15

4.1.1.1 Avid Reader

Carl joined a school when he was nearly seven years old, rather later than other children.
Carl was an avid reader, a quality which remained with him till the end of his life. He read
anything he could get hold of: stories, novels, comics.16 Carl created a fancy world of his
own through his readings. As a young boy, he also tried to get information about such
taboo subjects like love, sex, etc. Carl had a fascination for adventure stories. He was a
vulnerable child, tender, easily hurt but at the same time took things in a feisty and
sarcastic manner.17

4.1.1.2 Strict Upbringing in a ‘Fundamentalist’ Religious Family

Since his parents, Walter and Julia, were committed Christians, religion played a major
role in the life of the family. The family considered itself to be different and treated
themselves as the ‘elect’ of God.18 The family atmosphere at home was not one of
freedom, but more of discipline, rigorous religious practices and Protestant work ethics. In
his own opinion, it was not only strict and conservative, but his family was almost a
fundamentalist Protestant family.19

As Carl grew up, his family prospered due to the hard work of his father. However, it was
often admitted by Carl Rogers that he did not feel emotional closeness to his father. His
parents were strict disciplinarians. They exercised total control over the children. Rogers
recalled later in his life: “My parents cared a great deal for us, and had our welfare almost
constantly in mind. They were also, in many subtle ways, very controlling of our
behaviour. It was assumed by them and accepted by me that we were different from other

15
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 2-3.
16
Cf. Ibid.
17
Cf. Ibid., pp. 4-5.
18
Cf. THORNE, Carl Rogers, p. 1.
19
Cf. Carl R. ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, Personality and Interpersonal Relationships, as Developed in
the Client-Centered Framework, in Sigmund KOCH (ed.) Psychology: A Study of Science. Vol.3,
Formulations of the Person and the Social Context, NY: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1959, (184-256),
p.186. Hereafter referred to as A Theory of Therapy, 1959.
243
people – no alcoholic beverages, no dancing, cards or theatre, very little social life and
much work.”20

His father, although an engineer, had a passion for farming. He bought a farm near Glen
Ellyn, Illinois, west of Chicago, and in 1915 he built a new house there. 21 The children at
Rogers’ family also had to do some hard work at home and on the farm. Through these
activities and work on the farm Rogers developed a life-long love for the outdoors and
nature. He also learnt to observe things intensely and developed a love for nature. Perhaps
influenced by his own experience on the family farm, he developed an interest in scientific
agriculture. As he says, he had a ‘deep abiding respect’ for the scientific method.22

Carl Rogers’ childhood and youth were spent socially and emotionally isolated. The only
source of entertainment for Carl was reading. He developed intellectually and in inner life.
Carl had from early years on an intense urge to communicate his reflections and to reach
out to the public through his writings.23

4.1.1.3 Desire for Farming

In September 1919, Carl went to Madison College, University of Wisconsin. For major, he
chose agriculture, wanting to specialize in scientific agriculture. He stayed at the YMCA
campus where his brother Ross was president of the YMCA Chapter then. In complete
contrast to his childhood life, Carl engaged himself in a lot of extracurricular activities.
Away from home and from its restrictive atmosphere, he had a burning desire to meet
people and make friends. He was part of many groups like the ‘Ag-Triangle’ which helped
him with socialization. At College, he also made his first friends in life. 24

4.1.1.4 Desire to be a Missionary

In 1919, the Des Moines Convention was organised in Iowa by YMCA. It was indeed a
turning point in the life of the eight-year old Carl. After the convention, he decided to
become a missionary. From 1919 to 1921, his life moved in the direction of ministry. He
changed agriculture as his major and opted history which would help him become a

20
Carl R. ROGERS, On Becoming a Person: A Therapist’s View of Psychotherapy, NY: Houghton Mifflin,
1961, p. 5. [Emphasis in the original].
21
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 8-10.
22
Cf. ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p.186.
23
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 14-23.
24
Cf. Ibid., pp. 18-19.
244
minister in the Church.25 He was already engaged in ministry, youth work and
evangelism.26

Another major turning point in his life was being selected to go to Peking for the World
Student Christian Federation Conference in 1922. The trip meant that he would lose a
semester. He was ‘strongly and religiously motivated to undertake this trip’.27 On 15
February 1922, Carl left Illinois to begin the trip which he later called the greatest
experience of his life. In August 1922, he was back in the US from the China trip. This six-
month trip had a profound impact on him. It brought about a major change in his life, in his
outlook and his approach to religion. It caused a liberalising of his religious views: “In
major ways I for the first time emancipated myself from the religious thinking of my
parents, and realized that I could not go along with them. This independence of thought
caused great pain and stress in our relationship, but looking back on it I believe that here,
more than at any other time, I became an independent person.”28

Brian Thorne, another biographer and friend of Carl Rogers, believes his China journey
already laid the foundations for his own idea of counselling and therapy:

As he experienced the depth of group life, so it became possible for him to

understand and to value individual differences. What is more, the acceptance
he found in the group, the increasing security of the relationship with Helen
and the changing perception of the nature of God enabled him to maintain an
authenticity which was crucial to his escape from the shackles of the narrow
parental view of reality. The interweaving of the later core conditions of
empathy, acceptance and genuineness is not difficult to trace.29

Rogers did not yet leave religion, but he was looking for a more personal approach to it.
By the time he reached home after the trip, there was a great gap between him and the
family. He encountered occasional fights in the family with his mother due to his altered
life-style.30 It was not only a religious gap, but it was, as his biographer Howard
Kirschenbaum notes, also an emotional and intellectual gap. His religious, social, political
and economic views changed considerably. Carl Rogers also exuded considerable self-
confidence now.31 Since he had lost a semester, he had to wait to re-enter the University.

25
Cf. ROGERS, On Becoming A Person, p. 7.
26
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 19-22.
27
Cf. Ibid., p. 23.
28
ROGERS, On Becoming A Person, p. 7.
29
THORNE, Carl Rogers, p. 5.
30
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 31-32.
31
Cf. Ibid., p. 25.
245
During this period he took a correspondence course in Psychology from Wisconsin
University for which the texts were prepared by William James.32

When he was back at the University, he took history as major and plunged into academics.
Rogers’ philosophy of life was gradually emerging. One must trust one’s own experience.
He believed his own clear conscience was above anything else - the Church, the Pope, the
Bible or any force on earth.33 He also believed in the right of private judgement in religious
matters.34 Rogers also considered religion to be useless if it were only negative. He wrote
in his diary on 15 February 1922 on his trip to China: “Our religion is worse than useless if
it is only a negative thing, for by its very nature it ought to be the most positive and
compelling force in our lives.”35

4.1.1.5 Carl and Helen Eliott

During his studies at Wisconsin, Rogers got close to Helen Eliott. Helen was an art student
at the University at the time. Carl was gradually moving away from his parents. 36 The
empirical bend of Carl was growing and he had a strong desire to find out the truth. After
his studies at Wisconsin, Carl wanted to study further and he moved to Union Theological
Seminary (UTS) in NY. This move was not well appreciated by his family. They wanted
him to marry and settle down in life. Rogers could not think of marrying anyone other than
Helen. She had already begun working as a commercial artist. Against their parents’ advice
they got married on 28 August 1924. The marriage would last 55 years till the death of
Helen on 29 March 1979.37

4.1.1.6 Studies in New York: 1924-1928

It was the personal choice of Carl to study at UTS. The Union Theological Seminary was
considered liberal. Although Carl’s attitude to religion had undergone a serious change, he
still wanted to prepare himself for religious work. At UTS, Carl enjoyed the air of freedom
and liberty. He loved Arthur Cushman McGiffert, then head of the Seminary, who
promoted free and liberal thinking.38

32
Cf. THORNE, Carl Rogers, p. 5.
33
Cf. ROGERS, On Becoming A Person, pp. 23-24.
34
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 33.
35
Carl. R. ROGERS / David E.RUSSELL, Carl Rogers: The Quiet Revolutionary. An Oral History,
Rosewill: Penmarin Books, 2002, p. 63.
36
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 35-36.
37
Cf. Ibid., p. 41.
38
Cf. ROGERS, On Becoming A Person, p. 7.
246
Rogers’ papers at the university reflected his increasingly liberal thinking. Some of them
were critical and liberal to the extent of stating that there is nothing like the religion of
Christianity. Although Carl was registered for the religious education programme, during
his first year at UTS he was also re-introduced to the world of psychology. He had already
been introduced to Psychology through correspondence course from Wisconsin. He found
the subject exciting. In the summer of 1925, Carl worked as a part-time or ‘temporary
pastor’ in East Dorset in Vermont where he also had the opportunity to preach sermons.39

4.1.1.7 Moving over from Theology to Psychology

In his second year at UTS, 1925-1926, Carl also attended many classes at Columbia
University where he came into contact with clinical psychology and with William Heard
Kilpatrick and his philosophy of education. Carl was deeply impressed and influenced by
Kilpatrick, John Dewey, and the idea of progressive education. He found himself attracted
to child guidance and gradually he moved from theology to psychology.40

During studies at UTS, he also worked as Director of religious education at the First
Congregational Church in Mt Vermont, NY. He introduced many progressive approaches
in religious education there. In the fall of 1926, he moved to Teachers’ College, Broadway,
to major in clinical and educational psychology. It was at this time that Rogers said
goodbye to religion. He left the Church, never again to return to any formalized religion. 41
In 1926, their first child David was born. Rogers had now new responsibilities besides his
studies and work.

Teachers’ College, Columbia University, was a leading centre for the training of
psychologists. Important psychologists like E.L. Thorndike were teaching at Columbia at
that time. Rogers, however, was not impressed with Thorndike’s intelligence testing,
measurement and assessment methods. Rogers found them to be dull.42

Carl Rogers was faced with a serious problem. He had no job now and no income. He took
up a job as assistant to Goodwin Watson. Watson appreciated the person of Rogers and his
work very well. Carl received his MA in Psychology from Columbia University.

39
Cf. THORNE, Carl Rogers, p 7.
40
Cf. ROGERS, On Becoming A Person, p. 9.
41
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 47-48. (See also Carl R. ROGERS, A
Theory of Therapy, 1959, p.186).
42
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 52.
247
4.1.2. Rogers Moves into Academic and Scientific World

Rogers’ intense involvement in the academic and scientific world of psychology and
psychotherapy begins with the short period of employment at the Institute for Child
Guidance in NY. Thenceforth his life was an endless journey of academic achievement.

Later in 1926, with a fellowship in hand, Rogers moved to the newly formed Institute for
Child Guidance in New York. Here Rogers was exposed to Freudian thinking. The
psychology at the Institute in the opinion of Rogers was more eclectic. Rogers had some
initial interest in Freudian psychology, but it waned over the years. Rogers found it more
or less esoteric. Alfred Adler was one of the lecturers at the Institute.43 For his dissertation,
Rogers developed a test system for children and an adjustment inventory. He had collected
all his data by 1928 but got all this worked up and finally as a dissertation only in 1931. He
got his Ph. D while working in Rochester in 1931.44

4.1.2.1 Rochester: Laying the Foundation for His Own Therapy

In mid-April 1928, Rogers appeared for an interview for a job at the Rochester Society for
the Prevention of Cruelty to Children. He was selected for the job which involved working
with delinquent and problem children and included diagnosing their difficulties, doing
‘treatment interviews’ and planning for their treatment.45

The early 1900s witnessed an enormous growth in psychology, psychotherapy and social
work. Psychology had two major directions – on the one side, testing and measurement
and, on the other, experiment work in the labs. The Rochester Society for the Prevention of
Cruelty to Children had on average 600-700 children per year, most of them from the
middle class. Rogers’ work was a confluence of three professions – psychology, psychiatry
and social work. The Centre had children with behavioural and personality problems and
many different other problems like stealing, lying, sex perversion and sadism.46

4.1.2.1.1 Disenchantment with Existing Methods

As for Rogers, his time at Rochester was a decade of experimentation and soon he became
dissatisfied with diagnostic models. He tried to develop his own method by incorporating
different approaches. He was pragmatic in an eclectic manner. He was also unhappy with

43
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 54-57.
44
Cf. Ibid., p. 59.
45
Cf. ROGERS, On Becoming A Person, p.10.
46
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 61-62.
248
traditional methods and felt the need for a new way: “More and more he began to realize
that he could regard himself as a pioneer in his own right and that he could take the risk of
formulating his own ideas based on the day-to-day experience of the encounters he had
with those seeking his help.”47

Rogers was not someone who would blindly accept the views and teachings of others. He
learnt from his own experiences. Openness to new and creative ideas was part of Rogers.
He speaks about one of his experiences: “Somehow this incident impressed me with the
possibility that there were mistakes in authoritative teachings, and that there was still new
knowledge to discover.”48 From many such experiences he was convinced of the need for a
new approach.

4.1.2.1.2 Fundamental Motive: Desire to Help

One of the motives that moved Rogers throughout his professional life was his desire to
help. It is clearly seen from his earliest years of practice. The question that he asked
himself in every case was: ‘How can we be of help to this child?’49 One of the common
forms of therapy was environmental therapy - placing the child in an entirely new
atmosphere. In most cases, it was a foster home. It was not the ideal solution for the
problems of children.

Rogers noted time and again: “Extreme behaviour, psychological and emotional problems
would often disappear or be reduced to a minimum in a healthy environment. The child has
within him the drive, the need to grow and mature. To create an environment that supports
growth is to allow the child to be healthy.”50 What constitutes this healthy supportive
environment? Rogers noted that four attitudes were necessary: i) an attitude of intelligent
understanding, ii) consistency of viewpoint and discipline, iii) an attitude of interested
affection, and finally iv) satisfaction in the child’s developing abilities.51

4.1.2.1.3 From Child Therapy to Adult Therapy

During the period of his work in Rochester, Rogers made an important transition from
child counselling to adult therapy. His first ‘adult-interview’ was an eye-opener for Rogers.
It caused a major change in his professional life. It also confirmed his beliefs which he had

47
ROGERS / RUSSELL, Carl Rogers: The Quiet Revolutionary, p. 9.
48
ROGERS, On Becoming A Person, p. 10.
49
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 67.
50
Ibid., p. 71.
51
Cf. Ibid.
249
already gained from his work with the children: “This incident was one of a number, which
helped me to experience the fact – only fully realized later – that it is the client who knows
what hurts, what directions to go, what problems are crucial, what experiences have been
deeply buried. It began to occur to me that unless I had a need to demonstrate my own
cleverness and learning, I would do better to rely upon the client for the direction of
movement in the process.”52

4.1.2.1.4 Developing the Concept of Actualizing Tendency

Actualizing tendency was one of the earliest concepts in his therapy to be developed. This
idea came from his work with the children. He noticed this tendency in children that, given
suitable conditions, they were capable of making adjustments of their own. He noticed a
tendency in them that moves in the direction of growth and adjustment. Already at that
time Rogers believed, “… that most children, if given a reasonably normal environment
which meets their own emotional, intellectual and social needs, have within themselves
sufficient drive toward health to respond and make comfortable adjustment to life.”53

This hypothesis would become a life-long conviction of Rogers and the central premise of
the person-centred therapy. Later he would revise this as the actualising tendency of the
individual. Kirschenbaum notes, “Although at this stage of his career Rogers was more
interested in the child’s ‘adjustment’ than his self-actualization, the basic premise was
firmly in place that the person has within him or herself the resources to grow in healthy
directions when suitable conditions are present.”54

As we have already seen, during his Rochester years Rogers tried out many forms of
available therapies. He was not happy with most of them. Due to his disenchantment with
the existing theories and with his intense desire to help, and propelled by a scientific and
creative mind, Rogers was already laying the foundation for his later psychotherapy. In the
later years at Rochester, Rogers moved more in the direction of intensive psychotherapy. It
was an experimental period for Rogers. For him it was also a fruitful time. Soon he would
develop his own psychotherapy.55

52
ROGERS, On Becoming A Person, p. 12. Italics as in the original.
53
As quoted by KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 73.
54
KIRSCHENBAUM, Ibid.
55
Cf. Brian THORNE, Carl Rogers, pp. 8-9.
250
4.1.2.1.5 Influence of Rankian Relationship Therapy
During the period 1935-36, Rogers became familiar with Otto Rank and Relationship
Therapy.56 It had an influence on Rogers later. Otto Rank was a former follower of Freud.
Upon Rogers’ invitation, Rank came once to Rochester in 1936 to conduct a seminar.
Rogers was much taken up by Rank’s ‘will theory’, although he later rejected all the
theories of Rank. Some claim that Rank and the Rankian school have strongly influenced
Rogers. However, Kirschenbaum believes, it is more his school than Rank himself that
influenced Rogers and contributed to his thinking. One of the ideas that influenced Rogers
most was that the therapist is not himself the director of therapy but only a supporter or
helper. Rogers also liked the emphasis the Rankian school placed on the dignity and
capacity of the individual.57

4.1.2.1.6 Academic and Personal Life

His biographers note that he had a special ability to write quickly and persuasively in the
busy intervals. Before Rogers left Rochester after 12 years of work there, he wrote his first
book in 1939, titled The Critical Treatment of the Problem Child.58 Rogers was also
immersed in a lot of professional and social activities during his Rochester years. He
served as the president of the Rochester Psychological Society. During these years his
fame spread beyond New York. He published dozens of scholarly articles about his
research in child guidance. He was a popular figure in conferences, public discussions and
his articles appeared often in journals. His first book also contributed to his fame. As a
person, Rogers was totally accepting, warm, understanding but also tenacious and
determined, too.59

4.1.2.2 In Ohio
In 1940, Rogers received a full professorship at Ohio State University. His book Clinical
Treatment of the Problem Child had its influence in getting him this job. It was his first
full-time teaching job and he was quite excited about it.60 He led a busy and active life at
Ohio. His duties involved taking classes at the University, supervision of counsellors-in-
training, conducting workshops, writing articles and, of course, conducting counselling

56
Cf. Carl R. ROGERS, A Way of Being, Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1995 Edition, p. 37.
57
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 85-90.
58
Cf. THORNE, Carl Rogers, p. 11.
59
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 93- 95.
60
Cf. ROGERS, On Becoming A Person, p.12.
251
sessions. There were many students under his supervision. Rogers received his greatest
satisfaction from his students in the graduate seminars and under his supervision.61

4.1.2.2.1 Birth of a New Therapy

In 1940, Rogers started a practicum for students in advanced clinical treatment. It was
perhaps the first in a university setting in the US. His classes were popular and attended by
hundreds of students who were eager to listen to him.62 As noted earlier, since his
Rochester years, Rogers was disenchanted with the existing forms of therapy and had been
working on a new form of therapy based on his own experience. On 11 December 1940, he
presented his therapy at the University of Minnesota where he was invited to give a speech.
Rogers presented the fundamental elements of his new approach. Rogers stated the goals of
the new psychotherapy:

This newer approach differs from the older one in that it has a genuinely
different goal. It aims directly toward the greater independence and
integration of the individual rather than hoping that such results will accrue
if the counselor assists in solving the problem. The individual and not the
problem is the focus. The aim is not to solve one particular problem, but to
assist the individual to grow, so that he can cope with the present problem
and with later problems in a better integrated fashion… In the first place, it
relies much more heavily on the individual drive toward growth, health, and
adjustment…In the second place, this newer therapy places greater stress on
the emotional elements, the feeling aspects of the situation, than upon the
intellectual aspects … In the third place, this newer therapy places greater
stress upon the immediate situation than upon the individual’s past… For the
first time this approach lays stress upon the therapeutic relationship itself as
a growth experience.63

On this date – 11 December 1940 – Carl Rogers said the Client-Centred Therapy was born.
Rogers got both positive and negative feedback. It was not well accepted in therapy circles
by the therapists who laid heavy stress on their own professional expertise and
experience.64

In spite of the negative reactions from professional and academic circles, Rogers was
determined to further develop his own therapy. In order to propagate his new therapy,
Rogers began writing the book, Counseling and Psychotherapy: Newer Concepts in
Practice. In autumn 1941, the book was ready, but the publisher Houghton Mifflin was

61
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 105-106.
62
Cf. Ibid., pp. 107-109.
63
Carl R. ROGERS, Counseling and Psychotherapy: Newer Concepts in Practice, Massachusetts: Houghton
Mifflin, 1942, pp. 28-30. [This talk has been incorporated into his book Counseling and Psychotherapy].
64
Cf. THORNE, Carl Rogers, p. 13.
252
unwilling because they feared there would be no takers for the book. To the surprise of
everyone, the book sold over 100,000 copies and remained in print for most of the 20th
century.65 This book was referred to as ‘The Bible’ by his students in Ohio.66 Some
important ideas from the book would help us to understand Rogers and his therapy better.
Rogers used many innovations in his book. Some of the core ideas of the person-centred
approach today, such as treating the person seeking help as client and not as patient, non-
directiveness, reflection on feelings, therapeutic relationship, etc. were dealt with in this
book.

Although his book Counseling and Psychotherapy helped Rogers to establish himself and
rise to fame and to establish a trademark name ‘Rogerian’, the psychological establishment
of the country and the academic circles largely ignored the book which received no major
reviews or critique in the journals or periodicals. In spite of this ‘neglect’ from academic
circles, Rogers’ approach caught on. Although his new ideas were not well accepted by
other psychologists and psychotherapists, he became more and more popular with graduate
students and the ordinary public.67 The students saw in him a caring father figure, an elder
brother and a friend. His student-centred approaches were also appreciated by his students.
He was accepted by all sections of students. Many of his then students went on to become
famous later. They include Arthur Comb, Virginia Axline, Thomas Gordon and Nicolas
Hobbs. Rogers had friends and admirers from even ‘inimical’ fields. Fr Charles Curran, a
Catholic priest, had great respect for him and once along with friends entered into a lively
discussion with Carl Rogers on sensitive issues. Although they disagreed with him on
several issues, they greatly appreciated the person of Carl Rogers.68

4.1.2.2.2 Academic Fame

As Rogers’ fame spread considerably due to his seminars, lectures and books, he came to
be widely accepted as a psychologist of renown. Carl Rogers became a member of many
professional associations like the American Psychological Association and American
Association for Applied Psychology. In addition, he was associate editor of Journal of
Consulting Psychology and of Psychology Monographs. All these assignments took plenty
of his time. In the period between 1940 and 1945, he had 20 studies and articles published

65
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 110.
66
Cf. ROGERS / RUSSELL, Carl Rogers: The Quiet Revolutionary, p. 12.
67
Cf. Ibid.
68
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 134-138.
253
in various journals. His non-directive approach was making steady progress and so was his
influence on the field of psychology and psychotherapy.69

Since Rogers’ family did not practise any religion, the children – David and Natalie - were
free to have their own world views and lead their own lives. There were no religious
books or stories read to them at night.70

4.1.2.2.3 With the Armed Forces

During the years of World War II he was also engaged in counselling Air Force personnel.
He accepted a one-year offer as Director of Counseling Services for the United Services
Organization (USO) in New York.71 His duties included training professional staff in
counselling, helping the Force in personal adjustment and workshops with intense training.
The new job meant that he had to move to New York.72

4.1.2.3 Chicago Years

After his work with the USO, Rogers was invited by Ralph Tyler of Chicago University to
be a visiting professor. Tyler was much impressed with Rogers and his work and invited
him to join the University to help set up a counselling centre there. The 12 years that Carl
Rogers spent in Chicago beginning in 1945 was the most prolific and productive period of
his life. He wrote three books, numerous articles, published many studies and was also
President of the American Psychology Association. The first half of the 12-year period was
spent on the creation of the counselling centre, his own personal development and refining
his approach. The second half was dedicated to more research and for laying theoretical
foundation for this therapy.73

It was initially difficult to find a proper place and finance for a counselling centre at the
University. As Rogers refused to lead the Institute, his assignments included from being a
counsellor to doing research to taking classes. He also had numerous direct personal
experiences in counselling.74

69
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers,pp. 143-144.
70
Cf. Ibid., p. 140.
71
Cf. David COHEN, Carl Rogers: A Critical Biography, London: Constable, 1997, pp. 107-109.
72
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 147.
73
Cf. Ibid., p. 151.
74
Cf. ROGERS / RUSSELL, Carl Rogers: The Quiet Revolutionary, pp.13-15.
254
4.1.2.3.1 From Non-Directive to Client-Centred
Rogers was growing in his knowledge and experience. It also meant accommodating new
information and experience and changing when needed. Rogers noticed how others had
struggled to learn his non-directive method which had an ‘illusion of simplicity.’75 In his
later writings the emphasis was not on method, but on the attitudes of the counsellor.
Rogers noticed that if the method was not in line with the attitudes of the counsellor, he
was doomed to fail. The attitudes held by the counsellor toward the worth and significance
of the individual is primary.76

In 1951, Rogers brought out his third major book titled Client-Centered Therapy. Here he
speaks openly about the changes and modifications that took place in his thinking and
practice. It enjoyed a good readership and reflects his work at the Counseling Center in
Chicago.77 Although it was neglected by the academic world, his style of communication
became very personal. It was an unusual approach in those times in academic circles.78 At
the Counseling Center at the University, he was basically a counsellor, therapist and
scientist. In his classes he tried to apply increasingly client-centred methods. He allowed
the students to do self-evaluation and they could choose their grades. Rogers was basically
a facilitator. He himself was always a learner.79

Two outstanding qualities were visible in Rogers during his years at the Center. Firstly, it
was his great capacity to understand and accept another person as a separate individual
capable of self-direction and worthy of trust. Secondly, he showed an enormous capacity to
listen empathically and his ability to encourage independent, creative work among his staff
and students.80 Rogers could at the same time be very ‘hard driving’, forceful, ambitious;
and he had a sense of importance but at the same time unassuming. He also fought for his
rights. Another characteristic that many noticed was that his was a warm personality, but
he was frequently aloof. He had a natural reticence, a kind of withdrawnness. Carl Rogers
was influenced by his own personal life.81

75
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 154.
76
Cf. Ibid., p. 156.
77
Cf. ROGERS / RUSSELL, Carl Rogers: The Quiet Revolutionary, p.13.
78
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 165.
79
Cf. Ibid., p. 169.
80
Cf. Ibid., p. 172.
81
Cf. Ibid., pp. 174-183.
255
4.1.2.3.2 Personal Crisis - 1949
When he was in Chicago, Carl Rogers experienced a period of intense personal distress. It
was due to a messed-up therapy with a severely distressed woman. Rogers admitted he was
lost in this relationship. It turned out to be a destructive relationship. She demanded up to
five appointments per week. He himself had to take to psychotherapy to overcome his
distress. To get over the matter, he spent months away with his wife Helen wandering and
travelling around.82 Some authors like Thorne and Russell believe that Rogers developed
his client-centred therapy because he himself needed the healing it provided.83 Rogers had
trained enough counsellors that he could turn to in times of trouble like this. This proved
helpful to him in this time of crisis.84

When he returned, Rogers was not sure about his future. He was apprehensive about
working again as a therapist and about his future in the field of psychology and
psychotherapy. He doubted his own worth as a person. He had to seek the help of
therapists whom he had trained to overcome this crisis. It took him a year to be again in the
profession of therapy.85

This crisis was an eye-opener for Rogers. He obtained new insights from this crisis.
Through this experience, he was able to accept himself. This crisis helped him to be more
free and spontaneous with his clients in the future. Rogers said that through this experience
he learned to love and value himself. Once that was done, he returned again fully into the
profession.86

Recalling this crisis and reflecting on it before his death, he said to David E. Russell, “I did
go to him for therapy, and that was very, very profitable, very helpful. I realize that
probably my deepest problem was not being able to like or love myself. That changed at
that point and changed a lot of things in my life - more inner changes than outer.”87
‘Psychoanalytically’ seen, the problem of not being loved lay deep in his person. It could
have been a hangover from his childhood. This bondage of his childhood could have been
triggered by his troubled therapeutic relationship with this distressed woman.88

82
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 184.
83
Cf. ROGERS / RUSSELL, Carl Rogers: the Quiet Revolutionary, p. 13.
84
Cf. THORNE, Carl Rogers, p. 14.
85
Cf. ROGERS / RUSSELL, Carl Rogers: the Quiet Revolutionary, p. 13.
86
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 186.
87
ROGERS / RUSSELL, Carl Rogers: the Quiet Revolutionary, pp. 164-165.
88
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 187.
256
David Coven, author of the critical biography of Rogers, looks at it critically and thinks it
is likely that Rogers even may have had an affair with her and rejected her. However, he
admits that there is no evidence of any sexual involvement with the client. He confirms
that Rogers suffered a total nervous breakdown.89

4.1.2.3.3 Further Development of Person-Centred Therapy

During the years in Chicago, his method of therapy was undergoing changes and taking
concrete shape. As Kirschenbaum notes, “In the twelve years at Chicago he moved from
the method to the attitudes to the relationship as the key ingredient in the therapeutic
process.”90 As early as 1941, he had developed his concept of actualizing tendency which
would be the central point of his therapy. In order to develop a comprehensive theory,
Rogers still had to work on many other aspects. His work in Ohio and Chicago laid the
foundation for the same. This came in the background of his long experience and rigorous
research unknown to the field of psychotherapy at that time.91

We see clearly the gradual development in the thinking of Rogers. Rogers argues now that
it is not enough to have the attitudes. These attitudes must be both lived and expressed by
the therapist in a genuine interpersonal relationship. They should be expressed in the core
conditions of the therapy. Each of these conditions is dealt with in detail in the second part
of this chapter. We only take an overview of their development in the following part.

4.1.2.3.3.1 Unconditional Positive Regard (UPR)

Another concept that evolved during this period was unconditional positive regard (UPR).
In the early stages of his therapy, Rogers referred to it as acceptance. Later he revised it as
UPR. The development of this concept was greatly influenced in the mid-fifties by the
doctoral dissertation of Stanley Standl, one of his doctoral students. It was not accepted
blindly from him, but Rogers thought over it for a while before he finally came out with his
own version of UPR. Rogers postulated it as one of the six necessary and sufficient
conditions of therapy.92

Although Rogers was open to other therapeutic approaches, he considered his therapy to be
the best. His tolerance of differences and openness is a great quality in him.93 Rogers was

89
Cf. COHEN, Carl Rogers: A Critical Biography, pp.136-140.
90
KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 195.
91
Cf. ROGERS / RUSSELL, Carl Rogers: The Quiet Revolutionary, p. 14.
92
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 193-195.
93
Cf. Ibid., p. 196.
257
never a fanatic. In the beginning stages the ‘conditions’ remained a hypothesis for Rogers.
He was open to empirical data and willing to adapt his thinking to it. In the early 1940s,
Rogers popularised recording, transcribing, and publishing therapeutic interviews. He did
it on a regular basis. It was something totally new, innovative, bold and revolutionary in
the field of psychotherapy. Rogers had conducted thousands of interviews for the sake of
study and research.94 Rogers and Rosalind Dymond published part of these research data in
1954 as a book titled Psychotherapy and Personality Change.95

4.1.2.3.3.2 Congruence
Carl Rogers was always a learner and listener. During his years in Chicago he developed
another important element of client-centred therapy – congruence. Congruence was not
basically Rogers’ idea. It was already in discussion in psychological circles at that time.
Rogers, however, developed this concept further to fit into his therapeutic method. He
claimed that congruence should be communicated. If not, it would express itself in other
ways and interfere with the process of therapy. If it remains uncommunicated, it may even
confuse the client. Congruence, however, remained the most obscure, ambiguous, and even
misunderstood concept of client-centred therapy due to the lack of concrete examples.96

4.1.2.3.3.3 Developing the Six Conditions

Carl Rogers spoke for the first time of these conditions in a systematic manner in 1956.97
From then on, Rogers was working on the improvement of this important theoretical
dimension of his therapy.98 This he slightly modified and improved upon it in 1959 and
incorporated into his famous work A Theory of Therapy, Personality and Interpersonal
Relationships, as Developed in the Client-Centered Framework, published in the third
volume of Sigmund Koch’s series on psychology.99 This is considered by many as the best
exposition of client-centred therapy by Carl Rogers. The six necessary and sufficient
conditions of therapy as proposed by Carl Rogers in 1959:

94
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 199.
95
Cf. Ibid., p. 208.
96
Cf. Ibid., pp. 188-191.
97
The 1956 version can be read in the Journal of Consulting Psychology, Vol. 21, No. 2, 1957, The
Necessary and Sufficient Conditions of Therapeutic Personality Change, pp. 95-103. [See especially p. 96 for
the six conditions].
98
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 192-196.
99
See Carl R. ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy Personality and Interpersonal Relationships, as Developed in
the Client-Centered Framework, in Sigmund KOCH (ed.), Psychology: A Study of Science. Vol. 3,
Formulations of the Person and the Social Context, McGraw-Hill Book Company, NY: 1959, pp. 184-256
(Hereafter referred to as A Theory of Therapy, 1959.)
258
 Conditions of the Therapeutic Process: For therapy to occur it is necessary
that these conditions exist: 1.That two persons are in contact. 2. That the first
person, whom we shall term the client, is in a state of incongruence, being
vulnerable, or anxious. 3. That the second person, whom we shall term the
therapist, is congruent in the relationship. 4. That the therapist is
experiencing unconditional positive regard toward the client. 5. That the
therapist is experiencing an empathic understanding of the client's internal
frame of reference. 6. That the client perceives, at least to a minimal degree,
conditions 4 and 5, the unconditional positive regard of the therapist for
him, and the empathic understanding of the therapist.100

Rogers said that in order for the therapy to be successful, these attitudes must be lived and
experienced by both the therapist and the client in a genuine interpersonal relationship.
During his Chicago years, his method of therapy was undergoing changes and taking
concrete shape. As Kirschenbaum notes, “In the twelve years at Chicago he moved from
the method to the attitudes to the relationship as the key ingredient in the therapeutic
process.”101

4.1.2.3.4 Academic Honours

His innovative approach to research brought wide appreciation from all circles. He was
acknowledged as a pioneer in psychotherapy research. Many awards followed. In 1956,
Rogers was selected with two others to receive the first Distinguished Scientific
Contribution Award from the American Psychological Association. The same year he was
elected first president of the American Association of Applied Psychology.102

During these years, he also got acquainted with the philosophy of Kierkegaard, Martin
Buber, Sartre, Whitehead and others. They began to influence his thinking and writing.103
All these years his prolific writing appeared in a wide variety of periodicals and
professional journals. His approach began to impact various fields like education, social
work, nursing and management. It had its influence in Christian circles, too, especially in
the field of pastoral counselling. Many Christian thinkers and ministers like Rev. Ralph
Higgins believed that it was the person-centred approach which was truly compatible with
the Christian ministry and was easy to learn without rigid psychological training.104 As
noted earlier in this work, pioneers in pastoral counselling like Anton T. Boisen and
Seward Hiltner were also influenced by Carl Rogers.

100
ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 213. Emphasis as in the original.
101
KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 195. Italics in the original.
102
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 212-213.
103
Cf. Ibid., pp. 223-224.
104
Cf. Ibid., p. 215.
259
Rogers became a well-known and much sought-after teacher. Students came from various
distant places to listen to him. His speeches and workshops were filled to their capacity. He
was offered visiting professorship at five universities including Harvard. In 1957, Time
magazine acknowledge his contributions.105

4.1.2.3.5 Personal Life – A Troubled Phase

Regarding his personal life in the forties, he had his own problems, too. Rogers
experienced no sexual desires. It was a difficult time in their relationship, but his wife
Helen stood by him. Later Rogers said, “Her quiet continuing love meant a great deal to
me and probably was the best therapy I could have had.”106 Helen’s standing by him in the
difficulties of his life was better than the best therapy for him.

It is important to note that Rogers himself acknowledges that his wife stood by him in this
difficult period of his life. Her love and her standing by her partner in the difficult times of
his life was a concrete expression of her love and fidelity. Is Rogers going to stand by her
in her crisis and requite this love and fidelity to her in her difficult times?

4.1.2.3.6 Carl Rogers – A Man of Integration and Synthesis

Rogers was a man of synthesis. He was able to take useful ideas from different sources and
modify and make them his own. His ideas of self, concept of self-actualisation,
unconditional positive regard, etc. are the best examples of this special gift of Rogers. He
did not invent any of these concepts. One of the reasons for this success could be that
Rogers was a practical and empirical man and was less interested in theory.107

Rogers is indebted to Rollo May for his ontology. Rollo May and Carl Rogers were
friends. They had many dialogues. Both were leaders of the growing ‘humanistic
psychology’ movement. Rollo made known to Rogers that he found no ontology in his
psychology and that it was important for him to have an ontology to build up his
psychology.108 This must have also helped Rogers to build his psychology on the concept
of self and self-actualisation.

The 1940s and 1950s were psychologically fertile years in the US. Attempts were made to
give counterpoints for psychoanalysis and behaviourism. In the 1950s, Abraham Maslow

105
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 216.
106
Carl R. ROGERS, Becoming Partners: Marriage and its alternatives, NY: Delacorte, 1972, p. 25. (See
also Carl Rogers Reader, p. 33. Speaking Personally, Part 2. My Own Marriage).
107
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 234-235.
108
Cf. Ibid., p. 236.
260
spoke of a ‘third force’ in psychology. It was known by different names, such as holistic,
existential, humanistic, and, of late, as positive psychology. Rogers was widely
acknowledged as the leading spokesperson of humanistic psychology.109

At the time when Rogers studied at the universities it was Freud’s psychoanalysis that was
holding sway in the US. Rogers was familiar with Freud. Although Freud shaped his
academic and professional environment, Rogers was not overly impressed by Freud,
especially his unmeasurable concepts like Id, Ego and Super Ego, Oedipus complex, to
name a few. For Rogers, tangibility, testability and scientific nature were important.110 His
biographer Kirschenbaum notes, “Rogers said it took years for him to get over both his
religious and his Freudian training with their view of human beings as being fundamentally
evil.”111

Authors like Kirschenbaum and Thorne, who treat Rogers positively, say that as a child
and youth, Rogers had a negative view of religions and human beings. He must have
inherited it from his family, which was fundamentalist at that time. However, I must assert
that Christianity does not see human beings as fundamentally evil. Christian theology
treats human beings as created in the image and likeness of God. Humans have such a lofty
place in creation. But at the same time it acknowledges that human beings are fallen
through sin and disobedience and redeemed through Jesus Christ as planned by God.
Human beings continue to have the image and likeness of God, and at the same time are
weak and sinful, constantly in need of help from God. Rogers’ totally negative idea of
human beings must have come from his evangelical parents and the false theology they
followed. It also shows in religious education how a wrong idea of God can do a lot of
damage, which can sometimes have a life-long influence on the person.

4.1.2.3.7 Dialogues
Carl Rogers also engaged himself in many debates and dialogues with prominent
personalities and psychologists of the time.112 He had two debates with B.F. Skinner, in
1956 and in 1962. His other dialogues were held with Martin Buber in 1957, Paul Tillich in

109
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 241.
110
Cf. Ibid., p. 243.
111
Ibid.
112
See Howard KIRSCHENBAUM / Valerie LAND HENDERSON (Eds.), Carl Rogers: Dialogues, Boston:
Houghton Mifflin, 1989. This book contains Carl Rogers’ Dialogues with Martin Buber, Paul Tillich, B.F.
Skinner, Michael Polanyi and Gregory Bateson.
261
1965, Michael Polanyi in 1966, and Gregory Bateson in 1975.113 He also held a podium
discussion with Reinhold Niebuhr and correspondence with Rollo May on important
psychological issues of the time.114 After his 1956 debates with Skinner, Carl Rogers
became popular as an advocate against the misuse of behavioural science to manipulate
and control human behaviour.115

4.1.2.4 Wisconsin Years: 1957-63

At the height of his career in Chicago, Rogers decided to move to the University of
Wisconsin. In the spring of 1957, Rogers had been to the University of Wisconsin as a
visiting professor. He was there for five months and held seminars on psychology,
counselling and education. His stay there was highly successful. Prof Virgil Herrick was
instrumental in getting Rogers to Wisconsin. The reasons from Rogers’ point of view were
better research opportunity, better living situation and other academic and personal
reasons.116

In Wisconsin, Rogers was able to establish a support group as he had done in Chicago. His
main assignment in Wisconsin was to serve as chairman of the Executive Committee
which was led by Virgil Herrick who had in the first place invited him to Wisconsin.117

4.1.2.4.1 Disappointment in Wisconsin

Rogers had taken some of his students to Wisconsin. They included Eugene T. Gendlin,
Philippa Mathieu and Joe Hart. Rogers’ stay and work at the University of Wisconsin was
not as successful as he had wanted it to be. His proposals met with resistance from the
departments of psychiatry, clinical psychology and social work, which he was expected to
unify. There was much institutional politics. Although students wanted to work with
Rogers, they were dissuaded by the strict system of the university and examinations.118 His
academic work at the University was disappointing due to the detrimental atmosphere that
prevailed in the Department. There were also frequent conflicts and a ‘rule of veiled terror’
was experienced by the students of the Department.119 Rogers was totally disillusioned

113
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM / HENDERSON (Eds.), Carl Rogers: Dialogues, pp. 41-176.
114
See Ibid., Part III.
115
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 268.
116
Cf. Ibid., pp. 238-239.
117
Cf. Ibid., p. 282.
118
Cf. ROGERS / RUSSELL, Carl Rogers: The Quiet Revolutionary, pp. 178-179.
119
Cf. THORNE, Carl Rogers, p. 17.
262
with the institutional system at Wisconsin: “I learned there what I had learned before:
institutions are exceedingly difficult to change and that institutional life is not for me.”120

4.1.2.4.2 Rogerian Listening

Rogers, however, was like anywhere else, able to strike a good rapport with the students.
Most of his students and colleagues always noticed therapeutic qualities in Rogers. He was
gifted with a wonderful capacity for listening and understanding. He could focus and
concentrate on a person and what he was saying with full attention. Rogerian listening or
active listening became popular and was used to describe empathic listening in which the
listener shares with the speaker his understanding of the speaker, his feelings and
emotions, not just his words. It also respects the uniqueness and individuality of the
client.121

4.1.2.4.3 Overseas Trips

Although he was disappointed with the situation at the university, Rogers made use of his
time. During this period he made several professional trips. He received many invitations
from different universities to lecture as visiting professor. In the summer of 1961, he
undertook a six-week trip to Hong Kong and Japan. Logan, a former student of his, who
was now a professor in Ibarki Christian College, was behind this trip. Logan was
instrumental in spreading client-centred therapy in Japan and believed the visit of Carl
Rogers would give an impetus to client-centred therapy in Japan where Rogers held many
workshops and training programmes. Out of his interest in Zen Buddhism, he also met Zen
masters and held discussions with them although it did not produce any concrete and useful
result for him.122

From August 1962 to June 1963, Rogers was a fellow at the Center for Advanced Study in
Behavioural Sciences in Stanford, California. There he came in contact with Michael
Polanyi and Erik Erikson. Polanyi and Rogers influenced each other mutually. Rogers also
showed appreciation for Erikson. Rogers even believed that Erikson had an aura of a good
therapist.123

120
ROGERS / RUSSELL, Carl Rogers: The Quiet Revolutionary, p. 179.
121
See Philipp NAWROTH, Aktives Zuhören nach Carl R Rogers, (e-book) Grin Verlag: 2013. The whole of
this short e-book deals with Rogerian listening.
122
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 303-307.
123
Cf. Ibid., pp. 307-308.
263
4.1.2.4.4 ‘On Becoming a Person’
In 1961, Rogers brought out his seventh book, On Becoming a Person.124 It was a
collection of 21essays. This book reflected Rogers’ career until then as a psychologist and
psychotherapist and it included many of his publications from 1931 to 1961. The book
begins with a personal section, This is Me. In the first two sections of this book he
elaborates his ideas of therapy. The idea of ‘The Fully Functioning Person’ is also
elaborated in this book. The book also narrates the role of research in psychotherapy. Carl
Rogers also widens his insights into various other fields like education, teaching, learning,
day-to-day relationships, interpersonal relationships, family life, etc.125 In the section on
‘Growing Power of Behavioural Sciences’ he cautions against the inherent danger of being
able to predict human behaviour, the pressure to conform, killing of creativity, and the
dangers of knowledge acquired through control of behaviour.126

One can apparently feel here the threat felt by a humanistic psychologist from the spread of
the Behaviourist school. One must keep in mind that both person-centred approach and
behaviourist approach were taking shape and spreading around the same time. Carl Rogers
and B.F. Skinner were not only contemporaries but also competitors.

4.1.2.4.5 Widening of Person-Centred Approach (PCA)

During this time, Rogers was working to apply his client-centred approach to various other
fields. He was also trying to apply his theories and methods to interpersonal and
intergroup conflict resolution. Rogers advocated more listening and honest, open
communication between the parties.127

Rogers’ book On Becoming A Person sold well and it contributed much for the spread of
humanistic psychology. He was a member of various other associations. In 1956, he was
elected first president of the American Academy of Psychotherapists.128

4.1.2.5 In California
Carl Rogers could not make an impact in Wisconsin as he had wanted, but his books made
him famous and influential. During his Wisconsin years Rogers was extremely active
outside giving speeches and seminars, conducting workshops and other professional

124
See Carl R. ROGERS, On Becoming a Person, NY: Houghton Mifflin, 1961.
125
Cf. See ROGERS, On Becoming a Person, especially Part IV, chapters 14-18.
126
Cf. Ibid., pp. 363, 383.
127
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 319.
128
Cf. Ibid., p. 323.
264
activities. Through these activities he exercised considerable influence in the field of
psychology and psychotherapy. In December 1965, Rogers moved to California, into a
new house in La Jolla. He and his wife Helen liked the beautiful location.129

4.1.2.5.1 Western Behavioural Science Institute (WBSI)

The Institute was only a 10-minute drive away from his house. Rogers was invited by
Thomas Gordon and Richard Farson – both of them his former doctoral students - to work
with WBSI. Rogers was offered a higher salary than in Wisconsin. He was impressed by
the organization and its goal and even contributed financially to WBSI.130

In California, Rogers had a televised dialogue with Michael Polanyi. At WBSI, from 1964
to 1969, Rogers was fully engaged with ‘encounter groups’. Soon he was able to establish
himself as a leading figure at WBSI.

4.1.2.5.2 Centre for Studies of Person (CSP)

The good times at WBSI did not last long. The departure of Dick Farson from WBSI
created problems for Rogers. There were organizational problems in WBSI, coupled with
internal problems, power-conflicts and personal problems. Finally things reached such a
state that Carl Rogers and 25 other staff members resigned from WBSI and started a new
centre called ‘Center for Studies of the Person’ (CSP). The departure from WBSI was
sudden.131 Carl Rogers was not the prime mover, but without his support it would not have
been possible. The new institute had to come into existence without any grant. An
atmosphere of freedom and closeness prevailed at CSP unlike at WBSI. Eventually, CSP
received independent legal status.132

4.1.2.5.3 Personal and Family Troubles

The move to California distanced Carl and Helen geographically farther from their
children. However, David and Natalie kept up good contact with their parents. Both of
them had difficult times in their lives with personal problems like conflict, separation and
divorce.133 Rogers tried his best to help Natalie and her husband Larry in their marriage.
But in spite of his best efforts they divorced. He wrote to them: “I think that what I am
trying to say is that I love and care for each of you, not as perfect creatures, but as very

129
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 325-329.
130
Cf. Ibid., pp. 332-333.
131
Cf. ROGERS / RUSSELL, Carl Rogers: The Quiet Revolutionary, pp.196-198.
132
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 362-367.
133
Cf. Ibid., p. 370.
265
fallible, imperfect persons. And as a very fallible, imperfect person, I expect to go on
valuing each of you, caring for each of you.”134

One sees here a very human side of Rogers. Although he advocated in his works and books
the nearly ‘godly’ nature of human beings, there were occasions in his own life where
Rogers had to acknowledge that as a human person he was frail and imperfect. Perhaps one
could say that there was something of a Christian understanding of man in him till the end
of his life, which admits human frailty and imperfection.

In spite of all their problems in life, both the children had a great appreciation for Rogers
and cherished him tenderly till the end of his life. It was also the period when Rogers and
Helen would begin to have marital troubles in their own lives; some of them would last till
the end of Helen’s life. Both of them also began to experience health problems like blood
pressure, heart palpitations, etc.135 In the winter of 1965, Rogers and Helen went on a two-
month trip to Hawaii, South Seas, Australia and New Zealand where he gave a series of
lectures. He was impressed by Australia and found there was huge scope for therapy
there.136 It was followed by a two-month trip to Europe. Most of his time was not only
pleasure-oriented, but also academic in nature. During his long trips to the Caribbean and
Mexico, a lot of writing was done.137

4.1.2.5.4 Critical Remarks

From 1967 to 1970, Helen’s health kept deteriorating and they could not travel together.
There were problems in the family, too. Helen was getting increasingly unhappy with
Rogers and his behaviour.138 However, Rogers was not interested in staying back to take
care of her or to spend time with her. Rogers was now also being considered the hero of
the counter-culture and was driven by the liberal ideas of the 1960s and 1970s. He
travelled alone. He spent many days and nights away from his sickly wife. His wife Helen
felt excluded.139 He travelled around meeting encounter groups, which was not without
criticism. Larry, his son-in- law, criticised him and believed, “one reason for their appeal
(…) was that they gave people the chance to form ‘deep relationships’ with no

134
ROGERS as quoted by KIRSCHENBAUM in The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 370.
135
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, ibid., p. 371.
136
Cf. COHEN, Carl Rogers: A Critical Biography, pp.181-182.
137
Cf. ROGERS / RUSSELL, Carl Rogers: The Quiet Revolutionary, p.190.
138
Cf. Ibid., pp. 212-214.
139
Cf. COHEN, Carl Rogers: A Critical Biography, pp.186-192. One can read here the details of their
problems at home. One must remember that Cohen looks at the issues critically and avoids any sort of eulogy
which many other biographers of Rogers engage in.
266
responsibility. You could fall madly in love in a group and go home three days later to the
comfort of your wife. It was escapism.”140 His travels and programmes brought him in
contact with thousands of people across the country.141 Did Rogers contribute to the
permissive counter-culture of the 1960s and ‘70s? Cohen thinks so:

For someone so imbued with the work ethic, it is extraordinary that Rogers
approved of hippies, the sexual revolution, the student sit-ins, flower power
and even the use of drugs. They all inspired rather than disturbed Rogers…
Rogers did not see – but few did – that the counter-culture was also deeply
narcissistic and that it would often turn out to be selfish. For many people,
being ‘open to experience’ would mean utterly absorbed in themselves, the
favourite hobby of the ‘Me’ generation.142

Was Rogers a promoter of the permissive culture of the 1960s and ‘70s? It is difficult to
say. But it is clear from the different biographies that he held totally liberal and lenient
views regarding the changes in the society, and Rogers himself seemed to have lived
accordingly. Another important issue is that of his treatment of his wife when she was sick
and unable to travel around. Can his neglect of his wife in any way be justified?

4.1.2.5.5 Two ‘Failed Projects’ and Conflict with the Catholic Church
In 1968, something happened that brought Rogers indirectly into conflict with the Catholic
Church. He held a workshop for the delegates to a chapter of the Sisters of the Immaculate
Heart, a religious order which ran schools. His workshop encouraged the Sisters to be
more independent and to make personal choices as they preferred. Some Sisters began
asserting themselves even if it meant being in conflict with tradition and authority. This
created division and controversy in the community. It went to that extreme that finally the
Vatican stepped in and demanded of the Sisters to conform to traditional norms and rules.
Consequently, over forty Sisters left their religious life and the Order within a year. The
Immaculate Heart College, which the Sisters run, was finally closed in 1980.143

How did it happen? Was he trying out something similar to the encounter groups with the
Sisters? Carl Rogers himself admitted that their naivety and lack of experience could have
contributed to these unpleasant events that happened at Immaculate Heart.144 Admitting
this fact, he wrote to one of the leaders at Immaculate Heart: “Like you, I recognize how
naïve we all were when we started the project - and by and large I’m glad for it. We

140
COHEN, Carl Rogers: A Critical Biography, p.187.
141
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 407.
142
COHEN, Carl Rogers: A Critical Biography, p.196.
143
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 398- 401.
144
Cf. Ibid., pp. 401-402.
267
weren’t even adequately aware of all the intricacies of organizational development or the
problems of changing institutional systems…”145

Rogers was also criticized by his colleagues. Kirschenbaum notes, “His colleague William
Coulson came to regret his role in the Immaculate Heart and other projects and dedicated
much of his life telling the world about the errors of his and Rogers’ ways in failing to
respect the legitimate role of authority in education, parenting, the Church and society.”146

A few years later another project, called ‘Project Transition’ at the public school system of
Louisville, was taken up by Newman Walker and Car Foster, also based on the ideas of
Carl Rogers. Unlike at Immaculate Heart, Rogers was not directly involved in the project,
but he played a consultatory role. Although the project began successfully, it ended
prematurely due to various problems.147

These two failures gave enough fodder for the critics of Carl Rogers to doubt his
hypotheses regarding education. Rogers invited criticism from all circles, including the
Church. Even today the question remains as to the validity of his views regarding
education and institutional change.148

One of the insights that these events provide is that the blind acceptance of psychology
leads to problems. It is true in the case of spiritual and religious matters. In the first case,
the over-eagerness of the Sisters brought about problems in their community and slowly
led to a split in the community and the gradual closing down of the school. Accepting and
adopting psychology into the spiritual world has always been a sensitive issue. These
events warm that even today, one must be extremely careful in doing so; otherwise, the
results could be catastrophic.

For Rogers, it must have been an eye-opener. He must have come to the realization that
working with religious communities and institutions is not the same as working with
individual persons.

145
Letter of Carl ROGERS to Bonnie McWinnie in 1974. As quoted by KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and
Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 401-402.
146
KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 402.
147
Cf. Ibid., pp. 402-405.
148
Cf. Ibid., p. 405.
268
4.1.2.5.6 Academic Dynamism
In April 1952, Carl Rogers gave a demonstration at Harvard Business School on ‘student-
centered learning’. By the mid-60s, the human potential movement had become part of
American life. Two strong advocates of this movement were Carl Rogers and Abraham
Maslow. Carl Rogers’ On Becoming a Person and Abraham Maslow’s Towards a
Psychology of Being were the most popular books on humanistic psychology at that time.
Along with the growth of humanistic psychology, Rogers’ ideas on humanistic education
were also becoming popular and widely talked about.149

In his book Freedom to Learn: A View of What Education Might Become, published in
1969, Carl Rogers enumerated the elements involved in experiential learning. It has a
quality of personal involvement, is self-initiated, pervasive, it is evaluated by the learner,
and its essence is meaning.150 To his dismay, most reviews of this book were negative.
Critics found nothing new in it, but only repetition of old opinions. Like some of his
former books, this book too was largely neglected by academic circles, but his idea became
part of the thinking of thousands of ordinary people. Rogers’ influence was felt at different
levels from child guidance to education.151 The other books he brought out during this
period were Man and the Science of Man, Freedom to Learn, On Encounter Groups and
Person to Person: The Problem of Being Human.

Due to his contacts and his fame, he had to respond to hundreds of mail per week, added to
that many telephonic calls. His work and ideas received further recognition and
appreciation in the awards that followed. In 1964, he was named the Humanist of the Year
by the American Humanist Association. In 1967, he received the Distinguished
Contribution Award of the American Pastoral Counsellors Association. In addition to that,
he received three more honorary Doctorates. He was also on the editorial board of many
psychology and psychotherapy journals. In 1972, Rogers received another remarkable
recognition for ‘making lasting impression’ on the profession of psychology. He received
the first Distinguished Professional Contribution Award from the American Psychological
Association.152

149
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 388-389.
150
Cf. Ibid., p. 390.
151
Cf. Ibid., p. 395.
152
Cf. Ibid., pp. 408-409.
269
For Rogers, age was slowly catching up. In 1969, 67 years old, he was still full of energy,
eagerness and enthusiasm to widen his area of influence and his psychology.

4.1.2.5.7 The Person of Rogers: Attracted to the Young

In California many of his colleagues were impressed with his ability to listen, and the
respect, care and understanding he radiated. The Centre of Studies of the Person (CSP) was
founded in 1968 as part of WBSI. Most of its members were young. Young people were
especially attracted to Rogers. He was a sort of old person with whom the young people
could associate, share their feelings and feel at home.153

They were impressed by his ideas of ‘the person of tomorrow’ and the ‘emerging person’.
Rogers was also showing increasing openness to feminism. In 1981, he presented a
workshop with his daughter Natalie and granddaughter Frances Fuchs on the topic ‘New
World/New Person: A Theme Generational View’. In 1972, Rogers published his
thirteenth book, Becoming Partners: Marriage and Its Alternatives. The book included his
personal experiences, caste studies, inputs from letters and recorded interviews. Readers
could once again have a taste of his personal and intimate style of writing in this book. The
book sold well as it dealt with current and relevant topics of the 1970s like premarital sex,
cohabitation and communes.154

Reading the later works of Rogers one asks oneself whether he really promoted freaky
ideas. Were sometimes his ideas on education, marriage, growth and experiencing the
moment, etc. promoting the zeitgeist? Did he try to become popular through his liberal and
libertine ideas? Rogers was against following anyone mindlessly. Kirschenabum recalls:
“His favourite Zen quotation that he often repeated was: ‘When you meet the Buddha, kill
the Buddha.’”155 Rogers used to say, “When you find the guy who has all the answers, the
person you ought to follow, the person that shows you the way to go, well… I’d try to get
rid of him psychologically.”156

4.1.2.5.8 Duty, Love, Selfishness, Intimacy and Sex

In the 1970s, his wife Helen’s health became poor and Rogers had to take care of her. He
began to feel burdened, distraught and depressed. He was troubled and stressed by the
situation and even felt that he was feeling the inability within himself to care for others. In

153
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 415.
154
Cf. Ibid., pp. 416- 425.
155
KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 428.
156
Carl ROGERS as quoted by KIRSCHENBAUM in The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 428.
270
1974, he arranged for someone to care for Helen and left her for ten days to be alone. He
spent the days in a cottage in Stinson Beach in California. In 1976, Helen was on the verge
of death. Rogers had to take over all household responsibilities. Biographers state that
Rogers felt frustrated that his life was being hemmed in by her sickness. He felt awfully
restricted and unable to live his normal life due to his wife’s illness. It was for him the
most trying part of their 50 years of marriage.157

During this period - during the 1970s - Carl Rogers’ need for intimacy and sex was intense
and he felt deprived by the illness of his wife who did not want to have sex with him. His
biographer, one of his own friends and associates, who regards him greatly, notes:

He became increasingly desperate to experience an intimate, exciting sexual

relationship before it was too late. So there was a man who relished and
extolled new experience, personal growth and change. All around him
people were experimenting with new forms of relationships. They were open
about their sexuality. The counter- culture even provided philosophical and
psychological justification for such relationships. Opportunities readily
presented themselves. Yet he felt trapped at home, taking care of Helen, with
whom he had no sexual relationship and with whom he experienced
diminished intimacy. He wanted to break free and experience an important
part of life he felt was missing out on. Moreover, he felt he did not have
much time left.158

During this time Rogers fell in love with a young married woman in her 30s, participant of
a person-centred workshop, and he had an unconsummated love affair for four years.
Howard Kirschenbaum, who studied his personal letters, says: “It is painful to read his
letters to her, filled as they are with pleading, demeaning, and embarrassing requests for
more than she is willing to give.”159 David Cohen also notices that Rogers had a special
attraction to younger women: “He did not think he wanted a marriage ‘certainly not for a
good long time’. Age differences didn’t matter to him but he just happened to be drawn to
younger women.”160

That was not the end. Rogers had some other illicit relationships which he did not hide
from Helen and which caused strain in their relationship:

Rogers did have a few, more or less single, satisfying sexual experiences in
the few years before Helen’s death. Probably this contributed to his
describing the decade as the ‘most satisfying in my life’. But it was not

157
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 429-430.
158
Ibid., pp. 459-460.
159
KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 460.
160
COHEN, Carl Rogers: A Critical Biography, p. 225.
271
 without its turmoil and conflict for him and, of course, for Helen. … He did
it to meet his own needs, but naturally it hurt her… Naturally all this
contributed significantly to their stormy relationship in their later years.161

Reading about the ‘most satisfying decade’ of Rogers raises many questions in the minds
of readers. Was Rogers, by any imagination of mind, right in doing so? Did he not have a
duty and obligation to look after his wife in her sickness, who gave up her career and
looked after him so far? Does not personal growth also mean self-discipline and self-
control? Even in that ripe age, did he not have any control over his desires and drives?
Does not one get the impression that he neglected his sick spouse and went after his own
pleasures and thus added to her sufferings? Where is the limit to one’s own pleasure in the
face of one’s obligations? Is that the humanism and self-realization Rogers advocated?
Was Rogers a product and advocate of the sexual revolution of the ‘60s, ‘70s and ‘80s?

Although some of his friends and colleagues like Maureen O’Hara tend to condone Rogers
for his aggressive self-realization, Rogers had been badly criticized for his illicit
relationships and his bad handling of his wife during her illness.162

One could also interpret his behaviour as being selfish and inhuman. It seems when his
wife was sick and helpless, Rogers felt that he was being restricted and controlled by the
need to care for her: “I have baffled and hurt her by the fact of my own independent life.
While she was so ill, I felt heavily burdened by our close togetherness, heightened by her
need for care. So I determined, for my survival, to live a life of my own. She is often
deeply hurt by this, and the changing of my values.”163 Was he not able to accept the
normal pain and sufferings of life? He who taught thousands to be human found it difficult
to accept suffering also as part of human life.

4.1.2.5.9 Helen’s Death

Later in the year 1976, Helen’s situation improved - physically and psychologically. She
began taking up her normal activities again. In the opinion of Rogers, she ‘fought her way
back by sheer force of will’.164 She was able to travel once again and accompanied Rogers
on some of his trips. However, new problems cropped up again. Rogers found Helen very
demanding. After more than 50 years of marriage with Helen, Rogers began showing
interest in another woman. This brought further discord into the marriage. Helen was

161
KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 461.
162
Cf. Ibid., p. 463.
163
ROGERS, A Way of Being, p. 86.
164
Cf. Ibid., p. 85.
272
angry at it and could not accept it for a fact. They faced some troubled times again in their
relationship.165

Sometimes an ordinary reader finds it shocking to read about the personal life of one of the
most famous psychologists. Some critical authors suggest that Helen was shattered by
Rogers’ relationship with another woman when she was sick and helpless, and he let her
experience lots of frustration and pain in her last year of sickness and suffering. 166 In the
summer of 1977, Helen’s health began to decline again. Helen died on 29 March 1979. She
had paranormal experiences and visions of white light before death.167

Helen’s death came as a great relief for Rogers. He now felt he was on his own after a long
period, 55 years. He enjoyed this new-found freedom in every sense: “At age seventy-five,
he developed intimate, loving, sexual relationships with three women and maintained all
three relationships simultaneously for the next half dozen years.”168 Of his three women,
two were divorced; one was married but whose husband had approved of her relationship
with Rogers. In addition to these three steady relationships, Rogers also had a few other
brief liaisons.169

Rogers was a great friend to all his contacts. He kept up contacts and developed new ones.
Meanwhile, Rogers had another personal problem to deal with: his alcoholism and
consequent emotional volatility. From his Chicago days he had grown dependent on
alcohol. Helen and Rogers used to take 8-10 drinks per day. Few people were aware of this
part of his personality. Although his children tried to warn and control Rogers, his
alcoholism remained with him till the very end.170

There were different sides to Rogers’ personality that the world knew little of - his appetite
for sex, his weakness for alcohol and his intense loneliness. The other side of Carl Rogers
was revealed to the world only after his death. Kirschenbaum, his biographer, writes:

And so, in a sense, there were two Carl Rogers. One was the Rogers most of
the world knew through his various professional roles and his typical “way
of being” - a man remarkably consistent with his professional values,
philosophy and person-centred approach to relationships. Hence the vast

165
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 431-432.
166
Cf. COHEN, Carl Rogers: A Critical Biography, pp. 209-223. Cohen looks very critically at the
behaviour of Rogers towards his wife in her last years.
167
Cf. ROGERS, A Way of Being, p. 91.
168
KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 466.
169
Cf. Ibid., pp. 466-467.
170
Cf. Ibid., pp. 469-477.
273
 body of testimony describing Carl Rogers as an embodiment of the fully
functioning person and professional he wrote about – a man, I would say,
who modeled his teaching at least as congruently as any prominent
psychologist in history. The other Carl Rogers was the one very few people
(not even me during his lifetime) were privy to - a man who was not at peace
with himself, who suffered from a drinking problem, who was surrounded by
love but deeply lonely.171

It raises many questions. Was Carl Rogers a psychological wreck? Did he not enjoy real
happiness in life, although he claimed to have? Was having an intimate and sexual
relationship without any binding characteristic of him? Did he propagate this promiscuous
spirit in his group sessions? Was it the result of his loneliness or poor self-respect? Did he
have two personalities – one totally hidden from the world? Was Rogers a man who helped
thousands of people but could not solve his own problems? Kirschenbaum seems to
attribute his emotional problems to his childhood experiences.172 But that does not sound
convincing. Is that not the psychoanalytical way of diagnosing which Rogers had rejected
all his life? Kirschenbaum also traces his alcoholism and other problems to his scars of
childhood such as not being fully loved, totally accepted, etc. Is not tracing the source of
one’s problems to the unresolved past psychoanalytic and un-Rogerian and against the
humanistic approach?

In the 1970s because of Helen’s illness, Rogers spent plenty of time working at home and
corresponding with people from all over the world. His friends and students were bringing
out new publications and material on client-centred therapy, and the approach was
spreading world-wide. With his daughter Natalie and other colleagues Rogers began
offering person-centred workshops in 1974. It usually lasted three weeks. In 1977, he was
in Brazil and conducted workshops with even up to 800 people.173

In 1977, Carl Rogers published his fourteenth book, Carl Rogers on Personal Power:
Inner Strength and Its Revolutionary Impact. It dealt with topics like leadership,
management, autonomy, self-actualisation, self-responsibility and maturity. In this book
Rogers develops further his concept of actualizing tendency. He postulated that this
tendency in human beings toward maintenance, fulfilment, actualization, and enhancement
of the organism was a trustworthy base.174 This book sold moderately well. But Rogers

171
KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 476-477.
172
Cf. Ibid., p. 476.
173
Cf. Ibid., p. 442.
174
Cf. Carl R. ROGERS, Carl Rogers on Personal Power: Inner Strength and Its Revolutionary Impact,
London: Constable, 1978, p. 238.
274
also faced criticism for being too ‘evangelistic’ about his ideas and for ‘new narcissism.’
He was criticized for promoting selfishness and selfish turning inside, promoting extreme
self-indulgence, political naivety and over-simplifying.175 These are also most common
criticisms levelled against the person-centred approach even today.

During this time he became closely associated with a new political figure, John
Vasconcellos, California legislator, who played an important role in the life of Rogers. He
became a political coach for Rogers, and Rogers a life coach for Vasconcello.176

4.1.2.5.10 ‘Spiritual’ Journey?

Rogers had left religion in his youth and was not interested in any religious activities
thereafter. However, in his later years Rogers began to be more open to spiritual and
psychic phenomena. He began to speak about the transcendental and spiritual dimension of
person-centred relationship. Some authors like Kramer believe that it was the period of
spiritual emergence for Carl Rogers.177

Did he really become spiritual? Some others believe that Rogers was only dabbling with
paranormal and psychic phenomena. Kirschenbaum believes that Carl Rogers never
became ‘deeply spiritual’ in the strict sense of the word, but experienced a period of
intellectual, emotional and spiritual evolution.178 During this period Rogers developed
more trust in his own person and deep empathy for the other and was able to fully
concentrate on the other. Rogers believed that at the higher levels of therapy, the therapist
experiences a slightly altered state of consciousness, which is beyond the ordinary level of
it. This higher level of consciousness can bring about a lot of healing. At such level of
consciousness, the very presence of the other is curative. In his own words:

When I am at my best, as a group facilitator or as a therapist, I discover

another characteristic. I find that when I am closest to my inner, intuitive
self, when I am somehow in touch with the unknown in me, when perhaps I
am in a slightly altered state of consciousness, then whatever I do seems to
be full of healing. Then, simply my presence is releasing and helpful to the
other. There is nothing I can do to force this experience, but when I can relax
and be close to the transcendental core of me, then I may behave in strange
and impulsive ways in the relationship, ways which I cannot justify
rationally, which have nothing to do with my thought processes. But these
strange behaviours turn out to be right, in some odd way: it seems that my

175
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 454-455.
176
Cf. Ibid., p. 453.
177
Cf. Robert KRAMER, The Birth of Client-Centered Therapy: Carl Rogers, Otto Rank, and “the Beyond”
in Journal of Humanistic Psychology, Vol. 35, No. 4, Fall 1995, pp. 54-110.
178
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 477.
275
 inner spirit has reached out and touched the inner spirit of the other. Our
relationship transcends itself and becomes a part of something larger.
Profound growth and healing and energy are present.179

In the late 1970s, Carl Rogers showed interest in new sciences, spirituality and psychic
phenomena. He also came in contact with telepathy, precognition, reincarnation,
communication with the dead, etc. On some occasions, he also met with some gurus of
oriental religions.180 In the last years of Helen, Rogers and she even visited a medium
where she experienced contact with her deceased sister, which Carl Rogers also found to
be credible.181 As Kirschenbaum notes, Rogers ‘was fascinated, but not convinced.’182
Helen, on the other hand, was interested in psychic phenomena. His daughter Natalie was
also serious about spirituality and helped her mother to be more open to spiritual
experiences in her last trying years. Rogers, however, would not call her a religious
person. Helen’s death, nevertheless, changed some of his views. He began to believe in
the continuation of the human spirit after death.183 Rogers writes in A Way of Being:

All these experiences (the last days of Helen, her death, etc.) so briefly
suggested rather than described, have made me more open to the possibility
of the continuation of the individual human spirit, something I had never
before believed possible. These experiences have left me very much
interested in all types of paranormal phenomena. They have quite changed
my understanding of the process of dying, I now consider it possible that
each of us is a continuing spiritual essence lasting over time, and
occasionally incarnated in human body. That all of these thoughts contrast
sharply with some of the closing portions of the chapter, written only two
years earlier, is obvious.184

Was it a radical change of mind? Did he really believe in the spiritual dimension of human
beings? It sounds so. Kirschenbaum believes he was on a spiritual journey from around
1977 to his death.185 It was also the period oriental philosophy and spirituality was taking
root in the western world. They offered an alternative to the existing religions in Europe
and attracted huge following in the West with their novelty. Rogers also had a special
audience with a famous Hindu spiritual leader, Swami Muktananda, who believed that
Rogers had a very highly evolved consciousness.186 Rogers also had experience of
transcendental meditation and breathing exercises with Andre Auw, an ex-Catholic priest

179
ROGERS, A Way of Being, p. 129. Italics as in the original.
180
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 479-486.
181
ROGERS, A Way of Being, p. 90.
182
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 480.
183
Cf. Ibid., pp. 482-483.
184
ROGERS, A Way of Being, pp. 91-92.
185
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 483.
186
Cf. Ibid., pp. 484-485.
276
and his former doctoral student, who occasionally acted as his therapist.187 Some others
who knew him closely in his later years also attest to his spiritual bent towards the last
phase of his life. Quoting some persons who were closely associated with Rogers, like
Maria Bowen, who served as Rogers’ therapist in the 1980s and Brian Thorne, his friend
and associate and Maureen O’Hara, Kirschenbaum claims that, Rogers was a spiritual
person all throughout his life although Rogers was never religious in the strict sense.188

Speaking about the person of tomorrow in his book, A Way of Being, Carl Rogers says that
being spiritual is a quality of the person of tomorrow: “A yearning for the spiritual... These
persons of tomorrow are seekers. They wish to find a meaning and purpose in life that is
greater than the individual. … They wish to live a life of inner peace. Their heroes are
spiritual persons – Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Teilhard de Chardin…”189
Although he was totally unconventional, Rogers had his own definition of spirituality. In
an interview shortly before his death, he said, “Another time, a group of young priests were
trying to pin me to the wall, saying that I must be religious. I finally said to them and it is
something I still stand by – I am too religious to be religious – and that has quite a lot of
meaning for me. I have my own definition of spirituality…”190

4.1.2.5.11 Spread of Person-Centred Approach

In the 1970s and ‘80s, Rogers was actively engaged in the spread of the person-centred
approach across the continents. Rogers’ work was introduced in Europe as early as 1949 at
the Catholic University of Louven by Prof J. R. Nuttin. But the movement began to spread
actively only in the ‘70s. It took roots across Europe, in countries like France, Italy and
Austria. Workshops were conducted across Europe. His six-week trip to Europe in autumn
1983 contributed in large measure to the spread of the movement. Even in his advanced
age Carl Rogers exuded a lot of energy and enthusiasm and could work with attention and
concentration. He worked on his book, On Personal Power, which was published in 1977.
In 1977 he was in Brazil, in 1979 in Poland, in 1984 in Hungary and in 1982 in South

187
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 483.
188
Cf. Ibid., pp. 487- 489. (For details of Thorne’s view on the matter, refer to two of his books, The Mystical
Power of Person-Centred Therapy: Hope beyond Despair, London, Whurr Publishers 2002 and Counselling
and Spiritual Accompaniment. Bridging Faith and Person-Centred Therapy, 2012).
189
ROGERS, A Way of Being, p. 352.
190
As quoted by KIRSCHENBAUM in The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 490.
277
Africa.191 Carl Rogers’ last cross-cultural experience was in the Soviet Union in 1986. He
was accompanied by his colleague Ruth Sanford.192

4.1.2.5.12 Further Development of PCA outside USA

The person-centred approach began to fade in the US in the 1980s. The American society
was getting more enamoured with cognitive and behavioural therapies, and the counter-
culture of the ‘60s and ‘70s was giving way to more conservative decades. 193 Beyond
America, the person-centred approach began to flourish. Spearheading the movement in
Europe were Reinhard Tausch and Jobst Finke in Germany, Germain Lietaer in Belgium,
and Peter Schmid in Austria. Tausch had developed an eclectic approach in Germany,
combining both person-centred approach and behavioural methods – something which
would normally be seen as totally contradictory. When Rogers visited Tausch in his clinic,
Rogers even encouraged him to continue with his eclectic approach. 194 Peter F. Schmid
founded the Institute for Person-Centred Studies in Vienna in 1969. Carl Rogers visited
Austria in 1981 and again in 1984 upon his invitation.195

4.1.2.5.13 Working Towards Peace

Carl Rogers was actively and genuinely concerned about peace in the world. He was
greatly concerned about the future of planet Earth and tried to apply the principles of the
person-centred approach to bring nations together to engage in talks. CSP had a
programme called ‘The Peace Project’ intended for this purpose. His interest in reducing
international tensions was clearly visible in his article ‘Dealing with Psychological
Tensions’ which appeared in the Journal of Applied Behavioural Science in 1965.196 His
talks and writings, presentations on reducing tension among nations and fostering more
understanding and peace in the world were well recognized. In 1983, he held his first
workshop toward this end. He was even considered for the Nobel peace prize.197

191
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 493-500.
192
Cf. Ibid., p. 516.
193
Cf. Ibid., The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 524.
194
Cf. Ibid., pp. 524-525. [This also reveals an important characteristic of Carl Rogers. He was basically
open to new ideas and was not against it when people still used the term person-centred but modified the
approach in keeping with the context, situation and need. He was against such a strict interpretation of the
person-centred approach].
195
Cf. Ibid., p. 526.
196
Cf. ROGERS / RUSSELL, Carl Rogers: The Quiet Revolutionary, p. 215. [Details of his work towards
reducing international tensions can be read in pp. 215-236].
197
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 540-556.
278
4.1.2.5.14 Final Years
In his advancing age, in 1980, he published his fifteenth book, A Way of Being. In 1983, he
brought out a revised edition of his Freedom to Learn as Freedom to Learn for the ‘80s.
Rogers continued to write articles in the 1980s. In the ‘80s his health began deteriorating
and he suffered from heart problems. In 1981 he suffered macular degeneration in both
eyes. In August 1985, he had a fall and broke his neck and it took several months to heal.
In January 1987 after his eighty-fifth birthday, he had a woman in his house to help him in
case of emergency.198

Besides his romantic relationships, friendship with women was important for Rogers. He
was surprised at his own popularity and success which he himself had never expected. As
of 1982, he was one of the leading psychotherapists and one of the best-cited authors. In
December 1985, Rogers attended a conference in Arizona on ‘Evolution of
Psychotherapy’. In 1986 February, at the age of eighty-four, Carl Rogers and Ruth Sanford
undertook their second trip to South Africa. He was nearing eighty-five and he sounded
happy and contented in life. His eighty-fifth birthday was celebrated on 22 December 1986
along with a fund-raiser for the Carl Rogers Peace Project. The President of the United
States, Jimmy Carter, sent a personal note to him greeting him on his 85th birthday.199

In the last week of January 1987 Rogers suffered a mini stroke, but he recovered soon.
When he was able to travel, he went with a companion to Las Vegas to spend a few days
there. In January 1987, he had a fall and a broken hip and underwent an operation. He
knew that he wanted to go. Soon afterwards he suffered a cardiac arrest and fell into a
coma. He had already stated in his will that he did not want to be kept alive with the help
of machines. David Rogers knew that his father was brain-dead, and in keeping with the
wishes of his father, had the life-support system removed. Rogers lay in coma for three
days. During these days members of his family, friends and colleagues said farewell to
him. On 3 February 1987, they received a letter from Congressman Bates’ office
nominating Carl Rogers for the Nobel peace prize. It was read out to him as he lay in
coma. He died on 4 February 1987.200

198
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 560-562.
199
Cf. Ibid., pp. 563-568.
200
Cf. Ibid., pp. 569-571.
279
Concluding Reflection

As we close the description of the life and works of Carl Rogers and the growth and spread
of his person-centred approach, one can only wonder at his person and his achievements.
Carl Rogers remains, even today, on top of the list of the ten most influential
psychotherapists of all time. He continues to influence the field of psychology and
psychotherapy.201

His desire and determination to look beyond for an alternative approach to the existing
unconscious-dominated, sex- and drive-driven psychoanalytic method and the
deterministic behaviouristic approach, with a tendency to manipulate human beings and
thereby interfere in personal freedom and choice, led him to the unknown limits of
humanistic psychology. The credit goes to Rogers for exploring and establishing the power
of human attitudes like empathy, acceptance, and sympathy; and the vital role played by
therapeutic relationship. His work and influence had such a revolutionary impact. That is
why he has been called a ‘quiet revolutionary’.202

Throughout his life, Carl Rogers remained a modest person who shunned popularity,
glamour, and publicity. He kept a low profile. He has been considered by many as one of
the greatest personalities of the 20th century. One of the striking features that most of his
friends, acquaintances, colleagues and students admired – that in his personal life too, - is
that Rogers was a wonderful person who exuded the qualities of a therapist in his day-to-
day life. He was a keen listener, empathic in his relationships, and person-centred in his
dealings.

One should, however, be careful in ‘canonizing’ Carl Rogers. As a weak human being,
Rogers had also had his shady sides. He was weighed down by his own problems in his
personal and married life, and an excessive desire for companionship and for pleasure. His
manner of treating his wife in the years of her illness is highly despicable and shocking.
He also seems to have been an advocate of the liberal spirit of the ‘70s. His craving for
women and sex seemed to have been one of the major motives of his later years. His
alcohol addiction seemed to have disturbed him deeply although it was not known to the
world at that time. The fact that Rogers left behind papers and documents regarding his
secret and personal life and allowed them to be made public shows that he did not want to

201
Cf. KIRCHENBAUM / HENDERSON, The Carl Rogers Reader, p. xiii.
202
Cf. Ibid., p. xiv.
280
hide his personal life and dark sides after his death. It also means he wanted people to
know him as he really was, in keeping with his spirit of congruence.

The purpose of this part of the paper was to explore the person of Rogers critically and also
to see how the PCA had developed and spread.

Part II

4.2 Person-Centred Therapy in Action

Introduction

We have already seen in detail in the first part of this chapter - along with the biography of
Rogers - the birth, influence, growth and spread of person-centred therapy (PCT). This part
deals with the basic philosophical and psychological foundations of PCT and its concrete
application in counselling and psychotherapy.

Person-centred approach is an “experiential way of being.”203 Person-centred approach is

different from other approaches because it starts from different premises than the other
psychotherapies. Two basic features that differentiate the person-centred approach are:
firstly, it relies on the constructive actualizing tendency of the person. Secondly, it rejects
the pathological model in terms of diagnosis, dealing with, and cure of psychological
problems. It tries to release growth and development rather than looking for pathological
cure.204

Person-centred theory is not an arbitrary theory which tries to fit the client into the
theoretical frame of a particular system. On the other hand, it takes into account the
experience of each particular individual. Rogers claims: “Our theory develops on our

203
Carl R. ROGERS, The Basic Conditions of the Facilitative Therapeutic Relationship, in The Handbook of
Person-Centred Psychotherapy and Counselling, NY: Palgrave Mac Macmillan, 2007, pp. 1-5, here p. 1.
This is the summarised form of a talk given by Carl Rogers in Vienna on 2 April 1981 to the psychotherapists
at the Medical Faculty of the University of Vienna. The talk gives in a nutshell all the core aspects of the
person-centred approach and one of his latest descriptions of the same.
204
Cf. ROGERS, The Basic Conditions in The Handbook of PCPC, p. 1.
281
experience with the clients, it is not an arbitrary theory which was developed and then we
fit the clients to it.”205

4.2.1 Basic Concepts in PCA

Unlike other psychotherapies, PCT does not have a long and complicated theoretical
structure on which it is based. PCT, however, is based on some basic concepts which are
central to the person-centred approach in general. In the following pages, we are going to
see some of them.

4.2.1.1 Client, not Patient

Person-centred approach (PCA) sees the person seeking help as a ‘client’ and not a
‘patient’. PCA treats him as a self-respecting person seeking help, who is autonomous and
self-responsible. It has to do with the philosophical understanding of person in PCA. The
words of its own founder make the difference clear and explain why he chose the term
‘client’ rather than ‘patient’:

A patient means someone who is sick, who puts himself in the hands of the
doctor, who feels that the doctor is probably the authority who will tell him
what to do. A client, on the other hand, is a self-respecting person who
comes to someone else for service: I go to a lawyer for help, what I want is
expertise. But I am still the one in charge, I am the one to decide whether to
take his advice or not, I am the one who is self-responsible. The use of the
term client is to stress the fact that we regard the person coming for help as a
self-responsible, autonomous individual who is seeking help, and we are
trying to provide a climate from which he can find that help for himself. The
use of the word client means greater respect for the autonomy of this
person.206

4.2.1.2 Non-Directiveness
In the non-directive approach of Carl Rogers, independence and personal freedom of the
client are respected. The therapist does not use his skills and power to control or
manipulate the client but he uses it to create an atmosphere and in which the client can
work and develop. It helps the client to discover resources within himself and to make
crucial choices to move ahead.207

Carl Rogers’ idea of non-directivity came at a time when the process of therapy was
reduced to diagnosis, interpretation and psych-education by an expert. The client was at the

205
ROGERS, The Basic Conditions in The Handbook of PCPC, p. 2.
206
Ibid.
207
Cf. ROGERS, Counseling and Psychotherapy, pp. 418-419.
282
receiving end of the whole process. Although some of his ideas changed, were modified
and further developed, non-directivity remained more or less the same till the end. He said
in an interview to Richard Isadore Evans a few years before his death, “I still feel that the
person who should guide the client’s life is the client. My whole philosophy and whole
approach is to strengthen him in that way of being, that he’s in charge of his own life and
nothing I say is intended to take that capacity or opportunity away from him.”208

4.2.1.2.1 Power to the Client

Most therapeutic schools use directive approaches, and accordingly the therapists use their
personal power to control, guide and sometimes even to ‘manipulate’ the client. They use
their skills and techniques to exercise this power which is vested in the therapist. But
person-centred approach, on the other hand, gives power to the client to decide, to choose
and to direct his own life. As early as 1942, when Rogers was still developing his
psychotherapy he wrote:

At the back of these differences between the directive and non-directive

approaches lie deeper differences in the philosophy of counselling and the
values which are assumed to be important… The first basic difference in
purpose centers around the question of who is to choose the client’s goals.
The directive group assumes that the counselor selects the desirable and the
socially approved goal which the client is to attain, and then directs his
efforts toward helping the subject to attain it. An unstated implication is that
the counselor is superior to the client, since the latter is assumed to be
incapable of accepting full responsibility for choosing his own goal. Non-
directive counseling is based on the assumption that the client has the right
to select his own life goals, even though these may be at variance with the
goals that the counselor might choose for him. There is also the belief that if
the individual has a modicum of insight into himself and his problems, he
will be likely to make this choice wisely…The non-directive viewpoint
places high value on the right of every individual to be psychologically
independent and to maintain his psychological integrity. The directive
viewpoint places a high value upon social conformity and the right of the
more able to direct the less able.209

In therapy, the therapist has a lot of power – he has the power to direct, guide, misguide or
manipulate the client. Sometimes the clients are so weak and distressed that they are just
puppets in the hands of the therapist. Therefore, the therapist has a responsibility not to
misuse this power. Person-centred therapists are also aware of this reality, but they
exercise it in a very constructive and health-promoting manner. He does not relinquish his

208
As quoted by Peter SANDERS in Introduction to the Theory of Person-Centred Therapy, in The
Handbook PCPC, (pp.9-18), p.15.
209
ROGERS, Counseling and Psychotherapy, pp. 126-127.
283
power; on the other hand, he shares this power with the client in the therapeutic
relationship.210

Power has many dimensions. Personal power can be used to help others and at the same
time it can be used in an authoritarian manner to control and manipulate others. PCA
transmits this power to the client and desists from using it for the therapist’s own purposes.
The politics of therapy should lead to the independence of the client and not his
dependence on the therapist.211 Arthur C. Bohart, who supports a more integrative
approach, believes one of the most distinguishing marks of person-centred approach is that
it trusts the client, unlike other therapeutic approaches. Many features of PCA are now
used in other forms of therapy, but they do not trust the client as PCA does.212

“It is possible and desirable to experience personal power without exercising authoritarian
power (power over). It is this refusal to disempower the other, to take responsibility for the
course of direction of the therapeutic encounter that allows the emergence of ‘power from
within’ …”213

4.2.1.2.2 Is Non-Directive Approach Possible?

Person-centred approach is also known as non-directive therapy. Non-directivity is the
bedrock of person-centred therapy. Some critics see non-directivity as a practical
impossibility. They argue that total non-directivity is impossible, because the client is
vulnerable and in a state of incongruence and distress, and, therefore, he cannot be an equal
partner to the therapist. Moreover, he has more expertise than the client and there is an
imbalance of power between the two because of the training, experience, skills, etc. of the
therapist. He is ethically obliged to apply his expertise and skills to help the client. That is
his job. So critics argue that the person-centred approach only pretends to be non-directive.
There cannot be a complete non-directivity or equality of power.214

Person-centred therapists argue that it is a misapprehension of the person-centred approach

and of non-directivity. Non-directivity, as understood by the person-centred approach,
primarily relates to the client’s right to choose his own goals, even if it is in conflict with
210
Cf. Paul WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, London: Routledge, 2010, p. 147.
211
Cf. Alberto ZUCCONI, The Politics of the Helping Relationships: Carl Rogers’ Contributions, in Person-
Centered and Experiential Psychotherapies (PCEP), Journal of the World Association for Person-Centered
and Experiential Psychotherapy and Counseling, Vol.10, No.1, March 2011, pp. 2-10.
212
Cf. Arthur C. BOHART, Can You Be Integrative and Person-Centred Therapist at the Same Time?, in
PCEP, Vol.11, No.1, 2012, (1-13), pp. 8-9.
213
WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, p. 148.
214
Cf. Ibid., p. 145.
284
the views of the therapist. It is because, “the belief is that clients have insights into
themselves and their problems and are best placed to make the right choices at the right
time. This is about trusting the actualising tendency.”215

Non-directivity in person-centred approach is not just ‘reflecting’ the responses; it has

more to do with the therapist’s acceptance and recognition of the clients as unique
autonomous persons who are experts on their own lives. Non-directivity remains at the
heart of the practice of those who still follow the classical way. The therapists are there to
accompany the clients on their journey: “In this are related forms of practice, clients
formulate their own goals and therapists are companions on the journey, not leaders.
Person-centred therapists cannot have goals for their clients, cannot presume to know what
outcomes are desirable for them.”216

4.2.1.3 Stance against Absolutism

To hold a psychological theory as absolute is to negate its growth. It means to close itself
to further discussion or newer ideas. Change is the law of nature. Rogers was against any
form of absolutism. He believed that no theory was absolute, even his own. Every such
theory is based on a context and conditioned by the existing culture and society:

Another deep-seated opinion has to do with theory. I believe that there is

only one statement which can accurately apply to all theories from the
phlogiston theory to the theory of relativity, from the theory I will present to
the one which I hope will replace it in a decade and that is that at the time of
its formulation every theory contains an unknown (and perhaps at that point
an unknowable) amount of error and mistaken inference. The degree of error
may be very great, as in the phlogiston theory, or small, as I imagine it may
be in the theory of relativity, but unless we regard the discovery of truth as a
closed and finished book, then there will be new discoveries which will
contradict the best theories which we can now construct.217

Rogers knew that the best of theories would be modified or contradicted later. Rogers was
deeply conscious of this fact when he developed his own theory and did not want to see his
theory as a dogma: “To me this attitude is very important, for I am distressed at the manner
in which small-caliber minds immediately accept a theory, almost any theory, as a dogma
of truth. If theory could be seen for what it is, a fallible, changing attempt to construct a

215
WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, p.146.
216
Ibid.
217
ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p.190.
285
network of gossamer threads which will contain the solid facts, then a theory would serve
as it should, as a stimulus to further creative thinking.”218

He criticizes the psychoanalytic school for making the theories dogmatic, which is against
the spirit of Freud. Freud himself kept changing and improving his theories. But his
followers have made dogmas out of them:

I am sure that the stress I place on this grows in part out of my regret at the
history of Freudian theory. For Freud, it seems quite clear that his highly
creative theories were never more than that. He kept changing, altering,
revising, giving new meaning to old terms always with more respect for the
facts he observed than for the theories he had built. But at the hands of
insecure disciples (so it seems to me), the gossamer threads became iron
chains of dogma from which dynamic psychology is only recently beginning
to free itself. I feel that every formulation of a theory contains this same risk
and that, at the time a theory is constructed, some precautions should be
taken to prevent it from becoming dogma.219

Rogers admits that his theory of personality is not an absolute theory. His purpose is to
provide an understanding of human organism and its dynamics. Rogers believes that if his
theory of personality is valid, then it can be applicable in other fields of human
relationship, too – for example, inter-personal relationship, education, family and group
leadership. Rogers acknowledges that he has drawn from the scientific works of Victor
Raimy, Richard Hogan, Stanley Standal, John Butler, Thomas Gordon, etc. He has also
been influenced by Oliver Brown, Gendlin, Abraham Maslow, Julius Seeman, and many
others.220

Carl Rogers was himself aware that his theory was not going to be absolute. It was and is
in keeping with his spirit that his own theory and ideas change and develop. Therefore, to
make them absolute would be against the spirit of Rogers. This underlying principle gives
great scope for further modification, development in different directions and integration of
his theory into various fields like pastoral counselling, spiritual direction, etc.

4.2.1.4 Importance of Subjective Experience

PCA is based on subjective truths and subjective experiences. It deals more with the
phenomenological world than the transcendental one. What counts here is the personal
experience of the individual and his subjective world.

218
ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 191.
219
Ibid.
220
Cf. Ibid., pp.193-194.
286
Like many other humanistic and existentialist psychologists, Rogers values subjective truth
over objective truth. He was not sure whether there was objective truth and whether we
could ever know it. There may be objective truth, but we cannot know it. What we can
know is the subjective truth. Rogers’ focus on subjectivism and the ‘agnostic approach’
towards objective truth is a matter of contention with Christian theology.221 Rogers wrote
in 1959: “To put it more briefly, it appears to me that though there may be such a thing as
objective truth, I can never know it; all I can know is that some statements appear to me
subjectively to have the qualifications of objective truth. Thus, there is no such thing as
Scientific Knowledge; there are only individual perceptions of what appears to each person
to be such knowledge.”222

Such radical statements denying objective truth and scientific knowledge have brought
Rogers much criticism. Rogers solely depends on the personal experience of the individual.
For him the experience of the person is the highest authority:

Experience is for me the highest authority. The touchstone of validity is my

own experience. No other person’s ideas, and none my own ideas, are as
authoritative as my experience. It is to experience that I must return again
and again, to discover a closer approximation to truth as it is in the process
of becoming in me. Neither the Bible nor the prophets – neither Freud nor
research – neither the revelations of God nor man – can take precedence over
my own direct experience.223

Can such an extreme form of subjectivism and phenomenological approach lead to

objectivity and truth? In the view of Rogers, to look for the objective truth is not the task of
a psychotherapist. He is there to help the client and the client’s experience is the truth for
him in the therapeutic relationship.

4.2.1.5 Actualizing Tendency

It is one of the core concepts in Carl Rogers. The whole theoretical basis as well as the
classical person-centred practice of therapy is based on the concept of actualizing
tendency. In the person-centred approach, the person is not driven by hunger, libido, sex,
pain, avoidance, etc. Rogers believed that the organism always strives to maintain and
enhance itself in all his actions. He called this tendency ‘the actualizing tendency’. He

221
Cf. Stanton L. JONES & Richard E. BUTMAN, Modern Psychotherapies. A Comprehensive Christian
Appraisal (2nd Edition), Downers Grove, IL: Inter Varsity Press (IVP), 2011, pp. 270-273.
222
ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p.192.
223
ROGERS, On Becoming a Person, pp. 23-24. Emphasis as in the original.
287
believes it is the mainspring of life and it can be released when proper conditions are
provided:

Gradually my experience has forced me to conclude that the individual has

within himself the capacity and the tendency, latent if not evident, to move
forward toward maturity. In a suitable psychological climate this tendency is
released, and becomes actual rather than potential. … It shows itself in the
tendency to reorganize his personality and his relationship to life in ways
which are regarded as more mature. Whether one calls it a growth tendency,
a drive toward self-actualization, or a forward-moving directional tendency,
it is the mainspring of life, and is, in the last analysis, the tendency upon
which all psychotherapy depends. It is the urge which is evident in all
organic and human life - to expand, extend, become autonomous, develop,
mature - the tendency to express and activate all the capacities of the
organism, to the extent that such activation enhances the organism or the
self…it is my belief that it exists in every individual, and awaits only the
proper conditions to be released and expressed.224

4.2.1.5.1 What is the Actualizing Tendency?

What, then, actually is the actualizing tendency? Rogers says it is an inherent tendency
which is present in every person to enhance its organism. His idea of actualizing tendency
goes much deeper than that of Maslow:

This is the inherent tendency of the organism to develop all its capacities in
ways which serve to maintain or enhance the organism. It involves not only
the tendency to meet what Maslow terms "deficiency needs" for air, food,
water, and the like, but also more generalized activities. It involves
development toward the differentiation of organs and of functions,
expansion in terms of growth, expansion of effectiveness through the use of
tools, expansion, and enhancement through reproduction.225

The actualizing tendency can also be seen as the source of energy for the individual that
propels him to action. Rogers says, “I see the actualizing tendency in the human organism
as being basic to motivation.”226 PCA does not postulate any other motive for the
individual’s move towards growth and adjustment in its theoretical system. This tendency
comes from the individual as a whole, not from any particular dimension - for example,
biological, psychological or spiritual:

It should be noted that this basic actualizing tendency is the only motive
which is postulated in this theoretical system. It should also be noted that it
is the organism as a whole, and only the organism as a whole, which exhibits
this tendency. There are no homunculi, no other sources of energy or action
in the system. The self, for example, is an important construct in our theory,

224
ROGERS, On Becoming a Person, p. 35.
225
ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p.196.
226
ROGERS, On Personal Power, p. 237.
288
 but the self does not "do" anything. It is only one expression of the general
tendency of the organism to behave in those ways which maintain and
enhance itself.227

Rogers argues that he was not the only psychologist who thought about the actualizing
tendency and he admits that he has been influenced by Goldtein, Maslow, Angyal, Szent-
Gyoergyi, and others.228 In his later years, Rogers postulated that there was a tendency in
the universe and in every human being.229 This is a tendency which is contrary to entropy.
It is a tendency to move towards greater integrity, complexity and differentiation. It is a
modification of his 1959 postulation of actualizing tendency where he postulated that the
organism tries to maintain and enhance itself.230

4.2.1.5.2 Movement towards Autonomy and Independence

The actualizing tendency includes an enhancement of effectiveness and a movement away
from control to autonomy and independence. It is also a move towards wholeness and
integration. Rogers symbolically describes it as “…the tenacity of life, the forward thrust
of life, the ability to push into incredibly hostile environment and not only to hold its own
but to adapt, develop, become itself.”231 Bohart claims it is an organizational tendency to
survive. “The actualizing tendency, however, is not merely a motive to survive. Rather, it
is an organizational tendency to survive, cope and grow. By ‘organizational tendency’ I
mean that it is a proactive tendency to organize the organism for optimal functioning in the
given circumstances.”232

4.2.1.5.3 Actualizing Tendency is Generative

The actualizing tendency is generative in the sense that it leads to growth and
development. What about the tendency for self-destruction? Rogers believed, “Only under
unusual or perverse circumstances do these potentialities become actualized. It is clear that
the actualizing tendency is selective and directional – a constructive tendency, if you
will.”233 This tendency can be found in all organisms.234 An important point that Rogers
stressed was that the actualizing tendency is fundamentally biological, and not moral. Nor

227
ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p.196.
228
Cf. ROGERS, A Way of Being, p. 119.
229
Cf. Ibid., pp. 113-136.
230
Cf. Arthur C. BOHART, The Actualizing Person in The Handbook of PCPC, (47-63), p. 49.
231
ROGERS, On Personal Power, p. 238.
232
BOHART, The Actualizing Person, p. 49.
233
ROGERS, A Way of Being, p. 121.
234
Cf. Ibid., p. 118.
289
does it go always in the positive direction. Rogers believes that this tendency is present in
every person, even in the most abnormal person:

Under the most adverse circumstances, they were striving to become. Life
would not give up, even if it could not flourish. In dealing with clients whose
lives have been terribly warped, in working with men and women on the
back wards of state hospitals … so unfavourable have been the conditions in
which these people have developed that their lives often seem abnormal,
twisted, scarcely human. Yet, the directional tendency in them can be
trusted. The clue to understanding their behaviour is that they are striving, in
the only ways that they perceive as available to them, to move towards
growth, toward becoming. To healthy persons, the results may seem bizarre
and futile, but they are life’s desperate attempt to become itself. This potent
constructive tendency is an underlying basis of the person-centred
approach.235

Rogers says that the actualizing tendency may express itself in the satisfaction of a wide
variety of needs like hunger, security or sex. Satisfaction of these needs enhances the
individual and contributes to his self-esteem. The actualizing tendency is the substratum of
all organismic tendencies. These and other behaviours are expressions of the actualizing
tendency.236

4.2.1.5.4 Universal Formative Tendency

Rogers is of the opinion that there has been too much emphasis on ‘entropy’, the tendency
towards deterioration or disorder, and very little has been spoken of the universal formative
tendency. Rogers argues, “My main thesis is this: there appears to be a formative tendency
at work in the universe, which can be observed at every level. This tendency has received
much less attention than it deserves. Physical scientists up to now have focused primarily
on “entropy”, the tendency toward deterioration or disorder. … But there is far less
recognition of, or emphasis on, the even more important formative tendency which can be
equally well observed at every level of the universe.”237

4.2.1.5.5 Actualizing Tendency is Biological, not Moral

The actualizing tendency does not mean that a person will grow to be moral. Bohart says,
“It is important to note that for Rogers, the existence of this tendency is biological. It is not
fundamentally moral. Nor does it necessarily go in the morally positive direction. At the

235
ROGERS, A Way of Being, pp. 118-119.
236
Cf. Ibid., p. 123.
237
Ibid., pp. 124-125.
290
human level one could learn and become better and better at being a sadistic monster. All it
postulates is a tendency to proactively grow and adapt.”238

Rogers did not believe that the direction of self-actualization will always be positive or
pro-social. It can even go in a narcissistic or self-centred direction: “Self-actualization is
not postulated to inevitably move in a positive, pro-social direction. What is implied is that
the organism will work to maintain and enhance what is defined as the self. This could lead
to the enhancement of a negative and destructive development of the self.”239 Maslow’s
concept of self-actualization, on the other hand, takes a positive direction. For Maslow,
‘actualized people’ are positive, creative, pro-social, loving, and so on. Although Rogers
was influenced by Maslow, there are clearly marked differences in their concept of self-
actualization.240

4.2.1.5.6 Criticism of Actualizing Tendency

The actualizing tendency as proposed by Rogers is not without controversies. It has been
criticized from all circles. But for Rogers it is the core of the organism. It is the quality of
life itself. It is active and present in the organism all the time. The actualizing tendency,
Pete Sanders says, can, however, be suppressed or diminished by certain situations:

The actualizing tendency is directional in that the organism inexorably

moves towards development, enhancement, differentiation and increasing
complexity…It can never be satisfied. This leads to an organism in
continuous motion, a motion evident and integrated from its continuous flow
of experience through to its complex social behaviour and creativity. The
fundamental position of person-centred psychology is that when the
actualizing tendency is not fettered by restrictions, the organism flourishes
and may realize its full potential.241

If the organism has a tendency towards growth, integration and health, how does he
experience maladjustment, vulnerability, anxiety, and sickness? It is because the material
and psychological environment in which the organism finds itself is less ideal, the
conditions in which one lives are not very conducive. Only in an environment free from
fear and judgement, an environment where there is understanding and unconditional love,
does the individual experience self-actualization.

238
BOHART, The Actualizing Person, p. 49.
239
Ibid., p. 51.
240
Cf. Ibid.
241
Pete SANDERS, Introduction to the Theory of Person-Centred Therapy, in The Handbook of PCPC, (pp.
9-18), p. 13.
291
4.2.1.6 Self-Actualization
The concept of self-actualization goes back to Kurt Goldstein, who believed in a holistic
view of the person. He believed that the person cannot be divided into different parts like
mind, body and soul. Goldstein was engaged in research in the field of brain damage and
repair. He noticed that a holistic being tended to cope with the threats to his integrity by
developing adaptational skills. This idea was close to Carl Rogers’ idea of self-
actualization and the idea of ‘self-heal’ in the person-centred therapy.242

Carl Rogers would have been further influenced by the idea of Abraham Maslow’s idea of
actualization, although there are clear-cut differences. For Maslow self-actualization is the
highest of the needs, which will only be fulfilled if all the underlying needs are fulfilled.
One cannot try to actualize oneself when the needs in the lower hierarchy are not fulfilled.
For Maslow self-actualization is the highest in the pyramid and it is a state. Although these
may have been precursors to Carl Rogers’ idea of self-actualization, his idea is different.
For Carl Rogers, self-actualization is a subset of actualizing tendency and which in turn is
a subset of the formative tendency.243

As an individual grows, the idea of ‘me’ and ‘I’ becomes more and more distinct and
separate from the rest of the world. Self-actualization need not always take place in a
positive direction. Thus, there can be a split between the actualizing tendency and the self-
actualization of the individual. If the psychological conditions of growth are not
favourable, it is likely that self-actualization can take place contrary to the actualising
tendency of the organism. Rogers often speaks of the favourable conditions which can
promote self-actualisation in the right direction. That is the role of therapy – to provide
favourable conditions through congruence, UPR and empathy. Rogers believed ‘conditions
of worth’ promote to unfavourable environment.244

Actualization or self-actualization is not a goal of therapy. It is perhaps surprising to note

for someone who is not very familiar with person-centred therapy that it is the actualizing
tendency that makes growth possible in the client, but is not in itself the goal of therapy.
Bohart makes it clear: “Actualization is not the goal of psychotherapy. Rather, it is the
‘engine’ which makes psychotherapy work. As clients are able to think and experience in

242
Cf. BOHART, The Actualizing Person, p. 48.
243
Cf. Ibid.
244
Cf. SANDERS, Introduction to the Theory of Person-Centred Therapy, p.14.
292
open, supportive relationships, they are able to use their growth capacities to move forward
in finding solutions to their problems.”245

The concept of self-actualization is one of the most misunderstood concepts in Rogers. He

has been accused of promoting narcissism, egocentrism, individualism and aggressive self-
promotion at the cost of others. It has been said in criticism of Rogers’ theory that the
individual focuses only on his personal goals and his own self-actualization and neglects
the good of others and that of the society. Rogers’ concept has also been criticized for
being too western and culture-specific because many non-western cultures have their own
concepts of self and self-actualization and common good.246 But the followers of the
person-centred approach defend self-actualization as proposed by Rogers saying that his
concept is not culture-specific and is compatible with all cultures. Bohart defends him
saying, “Self-actualization means enhancing or actualizing the self as the self is defined for
that person and culture. In a socio-centric culture, self-actualization would be different than
in an individualistic culture, and might be family- or group-oriented.”247

Self-actualization also involves a respectful stance towards others: “A key part of full
functioning is the capacity to listen to and respect others’ realities, as well as to dialogue
productively with them. Another part is to prize and care for other people.”248

4.2.1.6.1 ‘To Be the Self that One Is’

Rogers has been influenced by the dictum of Lao-tzu who said, “The way to do is to be.”249
The quest for the true self emerges when we ask ourselves the fundamental questions of
life. Answers to these questions bring every person closer to his true self. The fundamental
questions every person asks himself in life are:

‘What is my goal in life?’ ‘What am I striving for?’ ‘What is my purpose?’

These are questions which every individual asks himself at one time or
another, sometimes calmly and meditatively, sometimes in agonizing
uncertainty or despair. They are old, old questions which have been asked
and answered in every century of history. Yet, they are also questions which
every individual must ask and answer for himself, in his own way.250

245
BOHART, The Actualizing Person, p. 59.
246
Cf. BOHART, The Actualizing Person, p. 50.
247
Ibid.
248
Ibid., p. 55.
249
As quoted by ROGERS, in On Becoming a Person, p. 164.
250
ROGERS, On Becoming a Person, p. 164.
293
To be the true self does not mean to bring out the self which lies underneath. In Rogers, it
means to be congruent and to continually integrate all aspects of the self. To be authentic
an organism has to be in a process of constant growth and learning. Bohart opines, “To be
the self that one is, then, is to be in a process, to be in touch with all aspects of oneself, and
to have a trusting relationship towards oneself. These are all aspects of the fully
functioning person.”251

4.2.1.6.2 Fully Functioning Person

The fully functioning person in Carl Rogers is different from that of Maslow. For Maslow
it is basically a state that one can attain, but for Rogers it is a process. There really is not a
fully actualized person. It is a process, not an outcome. A fully functioning person strives
towards self-actualization by being genuine, being open to new information and new
learning and optimizing his growth. Contrary to Maslow’s concept, a fully functioning
person could be poor, handicapped or ‘unsuccessful’ in the eyes of the world. But he is
someone who acts congruently and one who does not hinder his growth and learning
process.252

In his 1959 exposition of PCT, Rogers gives the detailed theory of the fully functioning
person. Some of the characteristics of the fully functioning person that Rogers enumerates
are the following:

The fully functioning person will have at least these characteristics: 1. He

will be open to his experience… The corollary statement is that he will
exhibit no defensiveness. 2. Hence all experiences will be available to
awareness. 3. All symbolizations will be as accurate as the experiential data
will permit. 4. His self-structure will be congruent with his experience. 5.
His self-structure will be a fluid gestalt, changing flexibly in the process of
assimilation of new experiences. 6. He will experience himself as the locus
of evaluation…The valuing process will be a continuing organismic one. 7.
He will have no conditions of worth as the corollary statement is that he will
experience unconditional self-regard. 8. He will meet each situation with
behavior which is a unique and creative adaptation to the newness of that
moment. 9. He will find his organismic valuing a trustworthy guide to the
most satisfying behaviors, because a. All available experiential data will be
available to awareness and used. b. No datum of experience will be distorted
in, or denied to, awareness. c. The outcomes of behavior in experience will
be available to awareness. d. Hence any failure to achieve the maximum
possible satisfaction, because of lack of data, will be corrected by this

251
BOHART, The Actualizing Person, p. 51.
252
Cf. Ibid., p. 52.
294
 effective reality testing.10. He will live with others in the maximum possible
harmony, because of the rewarding character of reciprocal positive regard.253

In the person-centred approach, personality is a process. People continually grow and

change. It is part of the process. Characteristics of personality include both continuity and
change. Some elements remain the same while others keep changing. ‘A personality is a
structure in process.’254 Human behaviour is a synthesis of the past and of the present. A
fully functioning person has the potential for learning from experience.

Being open and congruent is an essential characteristic of self-actualisation and learning:

Implied in the idea of learning is openness to information. This involves both

openness to internal information and to information from the external world.
This suggests the importance of congruent self-self relationship as well as
open, respectful dialogue with others. … To be congruent does not mean that
one will always experience inner harmony. Sometimes one will be in a state
of harmony; other times there will be inner conflict. Rather, congruence,
defined as an open receptivity to all inner voices, means the creative
synthesising process of the individual can move forward.255

4.2.1.7 Experience
Rogers’ definition of experience is basically psychological and phenomenological. It is in a
way totally subjective, too. In his opinion, experience does not include the deep currents in
the unconscious which do not have relevance to the individual at the moment. It has more
to do with the moment-to-moment felt experience of the organism. Rogers focuses more
on the concrete experiences that are available to the person’s awareness:

This term is used to include all that is going on within the envelope of the
organism at any given moment which is potentially available to awareness. It
includes events of which the individual is unaware, as well as all the
phenomena which are in consciousness. Thus it includes the psychological
aspects of hunger, even though the individual may be so fascinated by his
work or play that he is completely unaware of the hunger; it includes the
impact of sights and sounds and smells on the organism, even though these
are not in the focus of attention. It includes the influence of memory and past
experience, as these are active in the moment, in restricting or broadening
the meaning given to various stimuli. It also includes all that is present in
immediate awareness or consciousness. It does not include such events as
neuron discharges or changes in blood sugar, because these are not directly
available to awareness. It is thus a psychological, not a physiological,
definition.256

253
ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, pp. 234-235.
254
Cf. BOHART, The Actualizing Person, p. 52.
255
Ibid., p. 53.
256
ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 197.
295
Experiencing is the source of creativity. Being in touch with our organism enriches our
functioning, gives us information and generates creativity in us to deal with our problems.
To be fully functioning also means trusting one’s feelings and experiences. One should
trust one’s feelings to explore oneself and to clarify them.

4.2.1.8 Organismic Valuing Process

When an infant grows up, he experiences himself257as the centre of the world. He is the
centre of the reality and the world as far as the infant is concerned. Even as an infant, he
has a tendency to actualize. It responds to the world in its own way. It values positively
what is good for him and what enhances his being. It is because of the actualizing tendency
present in the infant. The valuing process present in the person is called organismic valuing
process. “The infant also has an inherent tendency to value experiences which maintain
and enhance her organism positively. Experiences which work against actualization of the
organism are valued negatively. ‘Valuing’ can mean something as simple as ‘liking’ or
‘enjoying’. This is the organismic valuing process. As she develops, the infant is attracted
towards, and accepts, positively valued experiences whilst avoiding and rejecting
negatively valued experiences.”258

4.2.1.9 Nature of the Individual

Rogers’ idea of human beings is based basically on his experience of therapy. He does not
characterise human beings as fundamentally hostile, evil, anti-social, etc., like Freud
believed. Nor does he believe it to be a tabula rasa on which everything can be imprinted
or a malleable putty, which can be formed and shaped according to one’s liking. Nor does
he see the human being to be a perfect being as he is ‘warped and corrupted’ by the
society.259

4.2.1.9.1 Positive Outlook

From his theory of personality and experience in therapy, Carl Rogers comes to the
following conclusion regarding the nature of the person:

We present these conclusions about the characteristics of the human

organism: 1. The individual possesses the capacity to experience in
awareness the factors in his psychological maladjustment, namely, the
incongruence between his self-concept and the totality of his experience. 2.

257
I use the personal pronoun for child in keeping with the spirit of the person-centred approach. The child is
also a person, hence the use of personal pronoun.
258
SANDERS, Introduction to the Theory of Person-Centred Therapy, in The Handbook of PCPC, p. 10.
259
Cf. Carl R. ROGERS, The Nature of Man, in Pastoral Psychology, 11. 4, 1960, (23-26), p. 23.
296
 The individual possesses the capacity and has the tendency to reorganize his
self-concept in such a way as to make it more congruent with the totality of
his experience, thus moving himself away from a state of psychological
maladjustment, and toward a state of psychological adjustment. 3. These
capacities and this tendency, when latent rather than evident, will be released
in any interpersonal relationship in which the other person is congruent in
the relationship, experiences unconditional positive regard toward, and
empathic understanding of, the individual, and achieves some
communication of these attitudes to the individual.260

Rogers claims in his experience of human beings in therapy he has come to the conclusion
that they are basically positive and forward-moving: “In my experience I have discovered
man to have characteristics which seem inherent in his species, and the terms which have
at different times seemed to me descriptive of these characteristics are such terms as
positive, forward-moving, constructive, realistic, and trustworthy.”261 It is not only human
beings who are basically positive. In the opinion of Rogers, all organisms are basically
positive and constructive.

4.2.1.9.2 Man is a Man, not a Beast

Rogers says, even animals, for example lions, are basically constructive and trustworthy
and behave towards their own enhancement and that of their species. We don’t call them
basically evil when they behave according to their nature – a dog bites, a mouse eats our
cheese, a lion kills its prey, a sheep eats our garden grass, and the like. In the same way,
man also sometimes experiences anti-social and evil desires, even murderous feelings. But
that does not make him a fundamentally evil person. He is still a human being, not a beast.
He is not innately evil or innately destructive like some Freudians believe.262

Rogers believes it could lie in the approach of some therapists that they see human beings
as beasts and fundamentally evil. A lot depends on how one approaches a human being and
what kind of relationship one has with the client. He wonders how a therapist can care for
the client when he does not have a positive approach to the client and sees him as
destructive. “Perhaps these deep differences do not matter if the therapist really cares for
his patient or client. But how can the analyst feel a positive caring for his patient if his own
innate tendency is to destroy? And even if his own destructive tendencies were properly

260
ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 221.
261
ROGERS, The Nature of Man, in Pastoral Psychology, p. 23.
262
Cf. Ibid., pp. 24-25.
297
inhibited and controlled by his analyst, who controlled the destructiveness of that analyst?
And so on, ad infinitum.”263

4.2.1.9.3 Focus on the Positive

Rogers is strongly convinced from his experience that the view the therapist holds of
human nature is a decisive factor and can have consequences in therapy:

… the view the therapist holds of human nature does have consequences in
his therapy. Hence I believe it is important for each therapist to abstract for
himself from his own experience those trends or tendencies which seem
most deeply characteristic of the human being. I have indicated that for
myself man appears to be an awesomely complex creature who can go very
terribly awry, but whose deepest tendencies make for his own enhancement
and that of other members of his species. I find that he can be trusted to
move in this constructive direction when he lives, even briefly, in a non-
threatening climate where he is free to choose any direction.264

Carl Rogers vehemently criticises Freud for focusing on the evil which lies beneath the
man and neglecting all the good and positive aspects present in him.265

… both his critics and Freud himself focussed on the "evil" feelings in man
which lay beneath the surface. This continued to be the focus even though
Freud's own experience with his patients must have shown him that once
these "evil" feelings were known, accepted, and understood by the
individual, he could be trusted to be a normally self-controlled, socialized
person. In the furore of the controversy over psychoanalysis this latter point
was overlooked, and Freud settled for what is, in my estimation, a too-
superficial view of human nature. It was, of course, a much more deeply
informed view than that held by his contemporaries, but it was not so
profound a concept as his own experience would have justified.266

Carl Rogers criticizes Freud that the latter did not provide the warm relationship that the
client needed to accept his hidden feelings. The way Freud carried on his therapy was not
suited to it. Rogers explains his conviction: “It has been my experience that though clients
can, to some degree, independently discover some of their denied or repressed feelings,
they cannot on their own achieve full emotional acceptance of these feelings. It is only in a
caring relationship that these "awful" feelings are first fully accepted by the therapist and
can then be accepted by the client. Freud in his self-analysis was deprived of this warmly
acceptant relationship.”267

263
ROGERS, The Nature of Man, in Pastoral Psychology, p. 25. Italics as in the original.
264
Ibid., p. 26.
265
Cf. Ibid., pp. 25-26.
266
Ibid., p. 26.
267
Ibid.
298
Is man basically good? Carl Rogers never claimed it. His theory never postulated it. He
does not assume that humans grow necessarily in a pro-social and positive direction.
Human beings are both good and bad, but the Rogerian theory assumes that there is a
potential to change. Carl Rogers is of the opinion that both tendencies – good and evil –
are present in man. He is free to choose his direction. Rogers’ writings basically imply a
positive view of human nature. Because it is important in therapy what view of a human
being the therapist has because it influences his handling of the client and the person of the
client, too. He believed that at the deepest level human beings have the potency to be
positive, forward-moving, constructive, realistic and trustworthy. He was also aware that
human beings at times can be cruel, destructive, anti-social and regressive.268

4.2.1.9.4 The Art of Dealing with Humans Matters

Given the right conditions, most individuals will spontaneously move towards solving their
own problems and will adapt and re-organize themselves. The right conditions in the
person-centred approach include empathic listening, showing unconditional positive regard
and congruence. Research has supported that it is clients who make therapy successful.
Therefore, in the person-centred approach, therapy is seen as more self-healing, self-
righting and actualization rather than as repair.269 PCA lays stress on the way persons are
treated:

For Rogers, the key is how people are treated. If they are responded to in a
fundamentally positive, respectful and empathic way (as in psychotherapy),
he observed that individuals grow in a positive, pro-social direction. The
implication is that the actualization tendency can go in a positive direction,
given the right circumstances. What is different about this view compared to
others is the implication that people can naturally and spontaneously grow in
positive and pro-social directions if given proper supportive climate. They
do not have to be ‘taught’ or ‘programmed’ to do so.270

Evidence has shown that individuals do have the capacity to grow from trauma rather than
be devastated by it. Most human beings are resilient, they overcome their own problems
without the help of others (including therapists) and have a capacity for self-healing and
self-righting and that the client himself is the best therapist. This, however, does not mean
that all individuals are able to do so.271

268
Cf. BOHART, The Actualizing Person, p. 57.
269
Cf. Ibid., p. 59.
270
Ibid., p. 57.
271
Cf. Ibid., pp. 58-59.
299
4.2.1.10 It is the Relationship that Heals
This is one of the underlying marks of distinction which differentiates PCT from other
forms of therapy. In PCT, it is a relationship that brings about healing in the person. The
client finds new confidence and trust in himself through the therapeutic relationship. This
relationship is characterised by empathy, acceptance and positive regard. It is a
relationship with the full involvement of the therapist: “At a time when great emphasis was
laid upon a thorough intellectual understanding of a patient’s dynamics, Rogers pioneered
a clinical stance that seems to include equal dose of mind, heart and soul.”272

This relationship provides the client a safe atmosphere for self-exploration and to make use
of his own inner capabilities – to help his tendency to actualize to take over. The
relationship provides the facilitative atmosphere essential for healing:

The counselling relationship is one in which warmth of acceptance and

absence of any coercion or personal pressure on the part of the counsellor
permits the maximum expression of feelings, attitudes, and problems by the
counselee. The relationship is a well-structured one, with limits of time, of
dependence, and of aggressive action which apply particularly to the client,
and limits of responsibility and of affection which the counsellor imposes on
himself. In this unique experience of complete emotional freedom within a
well-defined framework, the client is free to recognize and understand his
impulses and pattern, positive and negative, as in no other relationship. This
therapeutic relationship is distinct from, and incompatible with, most of the
authoritative relationships of everyday life.273

When the person-centred therapist does not treat, what does he actually do? He offers the
client a climate characterised by a healing relationship which comprises six conditions. In
this relationship the quality of the relationship is more important than expertise or
techniques. As Wilkins says, it is more ‘being’ than ‘doing’ to the client.274

Maureen O’Hara summarises the central place of therapeutic relationship in PCA and its
relevance beautifully: “It isn’t the technique, it isn’t the therapist, it isn’t the lack of
training. It isn’t the new wonder drug, it isn’t the diagnosis. It is our clients’ own inborn
capacities for self-healing, and it is the meeting – the relationship in which two or more
sovereign or sacred ‘I’s meet as ‘we’ to engage with significant questions of existence.”275
PCT and related approaches are at best therapies of relationship. They help the person to

272
Barry A. FARBER / Debora C. BRINK / Patricia M. RASKIN (Eds.), The Psychotherapy of Carl Rogers.
Cases and Commentary, NY: The Guilford Press, 1996, p. 4.
273
ROGERS, Counselling and Psychotherapy, pp. 113-114.
274
Cf. WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, pp. 171-172.
275
Maureen O’HARA, Why is This Man Laughing, in Perspective (Association for Humanistic Psychology)
May/June 1995, (30-31), p. 30.
300
shift away from the over-individualistic and ‘island’ images of our nature and to bring
about personal and social change.276

Recent studies suggest that an appropriate and facilitative relationship can promote
actualization in the different partners in a relationship. They call this tendency co-
actualisation. Thus, actualisation takes place not only in one person in relationship but it
affects mutually others also who are in the relationship.277

4.2.2 Rogers’ Theory of Personality

The theory of personality is the backbone of a particular form of therapy. All the major
forms of psychotherapy have their own theories of personality on which the practice of
therapy is founded. The theory of personality shows how a particular approach sees the
growth of a person, the influence environment and other factors have on the development
of a person, how psychological problems arise and how they can be solved.

In the Rogerian approach, every felt experience is a reality. The child’s experience is
reality for him. It is his reality and has relevance and meaning for him. Even as a child an
organism has potency for awareness. He has in himself a tendency to actualize his
organism. He interacts with reality in terms of his actualizing tendency and tends to behave
as an organized whole – gestalt. He has the capacity to engage in an organic valuing
process. Whatever experiences are perceived as maximising or enhancing the organism are
valued positively, and threatening experiences valued negatively. The organism moves
towards positive experiences and avoids negative experiences.278

The infant has a tendency towards differentiation as part of its actualizing tendency. His
experiences become more and more differentiated and symbolized and he develops
awareness of his functioning. This is called self-experience. Through the interactions with
the environment, through others, especially the significant others, the concept of self is
further developed. As his awareness of self increases, there is also a need for positive
regard. Rogers claims it is a universal need and present in every human being. Rogers
believes that the satisfaction of the need for positive regard is reciprocal. In satisfying the

276
Cf. Godfrey T. BARRETT-LENNARD, Enquiring into Human Relationship in Therapy and Life Systems,
1956-2010: Searching Journey and New Understanding, in PCEP, Vol.10, No.1, March 2011, pp. 43-56.
277
Cf. Renate MOTSCHNIG-PITRIK / Godfrey BARRETT-LENNARD, Co-Actualization: A New
Construct in Understanding Well-Functioning Relationships, in Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 50.3,
2010, pp. 374-398.
278
Cf. ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 222.
301
needs of the other for positive regard, one satisfies one’s own need for it. 279 Sometimes it
can happen that the positive regard of significant others can be more compelling than that
of the organismic valuing process of the individual, then the individual becomes adient280
to the positive regard of the significant other.281

4.2.2.1 Self-Concept
As the child grows, he develops a picture of himself based on his experiences. The child
experiences himself as someone different and special. The child develops a picture of
himself as distinct from others. This picture is called self-concept. Sanders tries to define
it: “This differentiated portion of experiences comes into awareness as the self. The infant
then builds up a picture of herself as she experiences the world, particularly as a result of
being with others and being evaluated by others. This picture is the self-concept.”282

4.2.2.1.1 Introjected Values

As the infant/child grows, it looks for positive regard from others. Rogers says it is a
universal need in the individual and it is ‘pervasive and persistent’.283 The positive regard
from the other is so important and potent because it enhances self-actualization and it is
crucial in determining his behaviour. At this stage of growth he often takes evaluation from
the other for granted. Those evaluations from others taken into self-concept as they are, are
called ‘introjected values.’284 Introjected values are, thus, values and evaluations that are
originated outside of his organismic valuing process, but incorporated into his self-concept:
“When the infant accepts or avoids a self-experience as a result of positive regard from
another, the infant has developed a ‘condition of worth’.”285

Rogers says if the child experiences unconditional positive regard from significant others,
then he would not develop conditions of worth.286 As we have seen, the child has in
himself the tendency to actualize, to maintain himself, and to enhance himself. But because
of the introjected values the child may actualize in a different direction than that of the
organism. That creates disharmony between the self and the organism.287

279
Cf. ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 223.
280
Adience in Psychology means the urge to accept or to approach.
281
Cf. ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 224.
282
SANDERS, Introduction to the Theory of Person-Centred Therapy, p. 11.
283
Cf. ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 223.
284
Cf. SANDERS, Introduction to the Theory of Person-Centred Therapy, p.11.
285
Ibid.
286
Cf. ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 224.
287
Cf. SANDERS, Introduction to the Theory of Person-Centred Therapy, p.11.
302
This disharmony causes incongruence and consequent psychological tension in the
individual. When the experience of the individual fits in with his self-concept, he
experiences harmony. When the self-concept contains introjected material the individual is
likely to have experience which does not fit in his self-structure and that leads to
psychological tension. The more the disharmony the individual experiences, the greater the
incongruence, psychological maladjustment and vulnerability.288

The behaviour of the individual could be basically of two sorts – the behaviour could be
consistent with the self-concept. In this case the person is aware of this behaviour and
owns it up. On the other hand, the behaviour of the individual could be consistent with the
rest of the organism, in which case the behaviour is not consistent with the self-concept
and the individual may not own up his behaviour, and this can lead to incongruence in the
person. Sometimes the experiences can also be distorted to ‘fit in’ the self-concept without
threat.289

4.2.2.1.2 Rigid Self-Concept Causes Distress

What is the self-concept of a fully-functioning person like? In a fully-functioning person,
the self-concept is changing, flexible, and open to new ideas. Such a person is open and
collects more ideas about ‘me’ and ‘I’. When the person possesses a rigid self-concept and
is not open to new ideas, he is unable to incorporate new experiences in life, and as a result
perceives experiences as threatening. He is more dependent on his past experiences and
denies more current experiences. He is constantly in a process of defence, and as a result
psychological tension builds up. Sooner or later, the person experiences anxiety,
depression, confusion or pain. Such a person seeks help. In the process of therapy the
individual learns to integrate his experiences into his self-concept. Thereby he learns to
eliminate threats to his self-concept. Newer experiences are welcomed and a process of
integration takes place.290

4.2.2.2 Need for Self-Regard

An infant needs love because love is satisfying. The infant learns from his mother, from
her communication and gestures whether he is getting love or not. He tends to see himself
in terms of the behaviour of his mother. Maternal love is the guiding force at this stage. He
tends to see some behaviour as positive even if it is not organismically satisfying, and

288
Cf. ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 226.
289
Cf. SANDERS, Introduction to the Theory of Person-Centred Therapy, p. 11.
290
Cf. Ibid., p.12.
303
some as negative even if they are organismically experienced as positive. At this stage he
is said to have acquired conditions of worth because he cannot see himself as positive or
having worth unless he sees himself in terms of these conditions. His behaviour is now
guided by introjected conditions or introjected values.291

This course of growth need not be the necessary course. The child can also be accepted for
what he feels and for his behaviour. In which case, the conditions of worth will not
develop. If the child retains his own organismic evaluation of experiences, his life becomes
a balancing of his own satisfaction and that of his mother.292

As seen above, when the self-experiences of the individual are discriminated by significant
others as less worthy of positive regard, he experiences conditions of worth. It is because
his experience is not valued for being what it is. When the self-regard he experiences is
conditional, it is called conditional positive regard. To be fully functioning he has to
experience again unconditional positive regard, get rid of conditions of worth, and the need
for self-regard and positive regard should be in tune with the organismic evaluation. This
can help the individual to be psychologically adjusted and fully functioning.293

4.2.2.3 Discrepancy in Behaviour

How does incongruence develop in the child? As we have seen, he has a need for self-
regard. Because of the conditions of worth, he perceives experiences selectively.
Experiences in line with conditions of worth are symbolized294 in awareness, and
experiences contrary to conditions of worth are distorted or denied. As a result, some
experiences in the organism are not recognized as self-experience and not accurately
symbolized and not organized into self-structure in an accurately symbolized form. Thus
the selective perception in terms of conditions of worth and the incongruence between self
and experience cause psychological maladjustment.295 Some behaviour maintains and
actualizes those aspects which are not assimilated into the self-structure. They are either
unrecognized or distorted so as to be congruent with the self.296

291
Cf. ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 225.
292
Cf. Ibid.
293
Cf. ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 224.
294
‘Symbolization’ in Rogers means to become aware of something, to own it up, to express it, etc.
295
Cf. ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 226.
296
Cf. Ibid., p. 227.
304
4.2.2.4 Threat and Defence
When the organism continues to have experiences contrary to the self-structure, it is
perceived as a threat and creates anxiety in the organism. The organism develops defences
to counter this threat and anxiety. Defence consists in selective perception or distortion of
experience and thereby trying to keep experiences in line with the self-structure. Classical
defence mechanisms include rationalisation, compensation, fantasy, projection,
compulsion, phobias, etc. The consequences of this process of defence are preservation of
inconsistencies, rigidity of perception and inaccurate perception of reality. When it persists
for a while in the individual it gives way to neurotic behaviour and experience of distress
in the individual.297

4.2.2.5 Breakdown and Disorganisation

When the degree of incongruence reaches a high level and the defence system is unable to
cope, and if this experience is accurately symbolised in awareness of the organism, then
the organism becomes aware of the incongruence. He seeks help. As a result, a state of
disorganisation follows.298 To quote Rogers: “In the freedom of therapy, as the individual
expresses more and more of himself, he finds himself on the verge of voicing a feeling
which is obviously and undeniably true, but which is flatly contradictory to the conception
of himself which he has held.”299

This process of disorganization has to be handled by the therapist in such a gentle manner
that the client is in a position to deal with it. Overstraining the client can have negative
repercussions: “But if, through overzealous and effective interpretation by the therapist, or
through some other means, the individual is brought face to face with more of his denied
experiences than he can handle, disorganization ensues and a psychotic break occurs… We
have known this to happen when an individual has sought “therapy" from several different
sources simultaneously.”300

4.2.2.6 Process of Reintegration

When the individual has experienced incongruence and breakdown, it does not mean that
everything is lost. It is possible for the individual to have a process of reintegration. This is
a process which moves in the direction of increased congruence between self and

297
Cf. ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, pp. 227-228.
298
Cf. Ibid., p. 229.
299
Ibid.
300
Ibid.
305
experience. Rogers postulates conditions which are necessary for this process: decrease in
the conditions of worth, increase in unconditional self-regard and unconditional positive
regard communicated by significant others. The communication of unconditional positive
regard by a significant other takes place in the context of empathic understanding. The
experience of unconditional positive regard dissolves or weakens the conditions of worth
and causes an increase in the unconditional positive self-regard. When this happens the
threat is removed, the process of defence is reversed and there is accurate symbolization
and integration of experiences into self-concept.301 Carl Rogers summarises it as follows:

The consequences (… ) are that the individual is less likely to encounter

threatening experiences; the process of defense is less frequent and its
consequences reduced; self and experience are more congruent; self-regard
is increased; positive regard for others is increased; psychological
adjustment is increased; the organismic valuing process becomes
increasingly the basis of regulating behavior; the individual becomes nearly
fully functioning.302

Rogers admits that there isn’t much difference between his theory of personality and his
theory of therapy. He also believes that provided the conditions (as postulated by him)
exist, constructive personality changes can take place in any relationship characterised by
empathy and understanding:

It is intended to emphasize the fact that the reintegration or restoration of

personality occurs always and only (at least so we are hypothesizing) in the
presence of certain definable conditions. These are essentially the same
whether we are speaking of formal psychotherapy continued over a
considerable period, in which rather drastic personality changes may occur,
or whether we are speaking of the minor constructive changes which may be
brought about by contact with an understanding friend or family member…
Empathic understanding is always necessary if unconditional positive regard
is to be fully communicated.303

4.2.3 Person-Centred Therapeutic Relationship

In the following pages we make an attempt to make ourselves familiar with the therapeutic
relationship in PCA. The therapeutic relationship is central to change of personality in the
PCA. PCA believes that the relationship between the therapist and the client plays a

301
Cf. ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, pp. 230-231.
302
Ibid., p. 231.
303
Ibid. It is important to note here that at this stage of development of PCT, Rogers speaks very little about
the third condition, i.e. congruence.
306
crucial role in bringing about a change in the client. In this part we are going to focus on
what conditions are necessary for such a relationship to take place, what factors facilitate
this relationship, and what are the consequences of such a relationship, etc.

4.2.3.1 Conditions of Therapeutic Relationship

The basic hypothesis in person-centred approach (PCA) is that if the therapist can provide
the climate, then the self-actualizing tendency will take over and begin to develop. What
sort of climate is required for that? In which climate can the client search within himself
and find insights to bring about a constructive change in his life? The distressed individual
needs a condition-free (unconditional), empathic relationship with an authentic person for
the development of his personality and his actualization.

It is sometimes intriguing to note that in the later years of his work Rogers mainly wrote
and spoke about three basic conditions. For example, in 1981, Rogers spoke of three basic
conditions which facilitate this process of self-actualization in the client. These conditions
are essential. They are empathy, unconditional positive regard (UPR) and congruence.304

In 1957, Carl Rogers proposed six conditions that were necessary and sufficient for
therapeutic change to occur.305 He claimed no other conditions as necessary. In 1959, he
reiterated but slightly modified them. These conditions are generally accepted in the
person-centred approach as the necessary and sufficient conditions of therapeutic
relationship. They are:

For therapy to occur it is necessary that these conditions exist.

1. That two persons are in contact.

2. That the first person, whom we shall term the client, is in a state of incongruence,
being vulnerable or anxious.
3. That the second person, whom we shall term the therapist, is congruent in the
relationship.
4. That the therapist is experiencing unconditional positive regard toward the client.
5. That the therapist is experiencing an empathic understanding of the client’s internal
frame of reference.
6. That the client perceives, at least to a minimal degree, conditions 4 and 5, the
unconditional positive regard of the therapist for him, and the empathic understanding of
the therapist.306

304
Cf. ROGERS, The Basic Conditions in The Handbook of PCPC, pp. 2-4.
305
Cf. Carl R. ROGERS, The Necessary and Sufficient Conditions of Therapeutic Personality Change in
Journal of Consulting Psychology, Vol. 21. 2, 1957, (95-103), p. 96.
306
ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 213. Emphasis as in the original.
307
Therapeutic relationship is experienced differently by the clients. Rogers argues that it is
neither necessary nor helpful to manipulate this relationship in specific ways for different
clients. Such manipulations go against the genuineness of the relationship.307

Rogers claims the ‘growing edge’ of his theory lies in congruence or genuineness.
Congruence means that he is authentic in his relationship with the client: “This means that
the therapist's symbolization of his own experience in the relationship must be accurate, if
therapy is to be most effective. Thus if he is experiencing threat and discomfort in the
relationship, and is aware only of an acceptance and understanding, then he is not
congruent in the relationship, and therapy will suffer. It seems important that he should
accurately ‘be himself’ in the relationship, whatever the self of that moment may be.”308

Should the therapist communicate everything he feels to the client? The therapist
sometimes experiences fear, feelings of threat, insecurity, attraction to the client, etc. Does
being genuine mean that the therapist should also communicate the negative feelings to the
client? Rogers admits that it is difficult to express some feelings to the client. But the
therapist must at least be aware of what is going on in himself and how he feels.309 At the
same time, to be overcome by feelings that make one unable to express UPR and empathy
to the client is also detrimental to therapy.

For the therapy to be effective, wholeness of the therapist in relationship is necessary.

“For therapy to occur the wholeness of the therapist in the relationship is primary, but a
part of the congruence of the therapist must be the experience of unconditional positive
regard and the experience of empathic understanding.”310 Humanly speaking, it is not
possible to be congruent all the time. But the therapist must at least be congruent in the
relationship with the client. Rogers understands this situation, “But it is enough if in this
particular moment of this immediate relationship with this specific person he is completely
and fully himself, with his experience of the moment being accurately symbolized and
integrated into the picture he holds of himself. Thus it is that imperfect human beings can
be of therapeutic assistance to other imperfect human beings.”311 Have these conditions
which Rogers proposes as necessary been sufficiently proved? Rogers claims that studies

307
Cf. ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 214.
308
Ibid.
309
Cf. Ibid., p. 214.
310
Ibid., p. 215.
311
Ibid.
308
done by Fiedler, Quinn, Seeman, Lipkin and others have reaffirmed the effectiveness of his
conditions.312

4.2.3.1.1. Psychological Contact

A therapist, in order to help the client, has to be in contact with him. It is one of the six
necessary and sufficient conditions of which Rogers speaks. It is the first condition. In
1957,313 Rogers spoke of psychological contact, and in 1959 he modified it as contact.314
Both these terms – psychological contact and contact – are interchangeably used in person-
centred approach. What is meant by contact in person-centred approach? Rogers says in
his 1959 article why he opted to use the term contact and not relationship:

Two persons are in psychological contact, or have the minimum essentials of

a relationship, when each makes a perceived or subceived difference in the
experiential field of the other. This construct was first given the label of
"relationship" but it was found that this led to much misunderstanding, for it
was often understood to represent the depth and quality of a good
relationship, or a therapeutic relationship. The present term has been chosen
to signify more clearly that this is the least or minimum experience which
could be called a relationship. If more than this simple contact between two
persons is intended, the additional characteristics of that contact are specified
in the theory.315

4.2.3.1.1.1 Minimum Essential Relationship

Contact, as meant by Rogers above, is a ‘minimum essential relationship’ where each
person takes cognizance of the other and makes a difference to him. It involves two people
making some difference to each other, even if they are unaware of it. Contact is the basic
or primary relationship between the client and the therapist and the starting point of the
therapeutic relationship. It does not form part of the three core conditions, but is an
implied condition.316

Paul Wilkins argues that contact is important because it is the first stage of entering into a
relationship. It helps the therapist to perceive himself and to acknowledge the other. How
one enters into contact may vary from person to person and from situation to situation. Our
posture, appearance, facial expression, tone of voice and the general atmosphere may

312
Cf. ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 215.
313
Cf. Carl R. ROGERS, The Necessary and Sufficient Conditions of Therapeutic Personality Change in
Journal of Consulting Psychology, Vol. 21. 2, 1951, pp. 95-103.
314
Cf. ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 213.
315
Ibid., p. 207.
316
Cf. Will GYATT, Psychological Contact, in The Handbook of PCPC, (140-152), p. 141.
309
contribute to establishing contact. An important element in all these is congruence. The
therapist has to be congruent and genuine.317

It also means some awareness of the context in which the encounter takes place. Contact
also means awareness of each other, of the place and things and the ability to communicate
this awareness in an understandable way.318 In establishing contact, one has to be genuine.
“Contact is best assured by being true to one’s nature.”319

The second necessary and sufficient condition states that the client is in a state of distress
or incongruence. Otherwise he does not approach a therapist. If so, is he capable of
contact? Can contact be established with a person in distress? What should the therapist
do? The therapist pays attention to the client, shows him empathy and sometimes
communicates to the client the presence of hindering factors.320

4.2.3.1.1.2 Contact and Pre-Therapy

In the 1990s, Garry Prouty developed the concept of contact further for giving concrete
shape to his ‘pre-therapy’ especially in his therapy with clients with schizophrenic
tendencies who were not capable of normal contact.321 The purpose of contact or pre-
therapy is to help the client to feel welcomed, to have contact with oneself and to be
expressive: “In essence, the objective of pre-therapy is to encourage clients towards
contact with self, the world and others.”322 Pre-therapy is widely used in PCA today,
especially with patients who have difficulties with normal contact, for example, who suffer
from autism.323

In the pre-therapy school, as understood and seen by Garry Prouty, empathy and empathic
contact play a crucial role. In working with clients who are contact-impaired, pre-therapy
helps the therapist to ‘feel into’ the clients who are contact-impaired, retarded, brain-
damaged, schizophrenic, and the like.324 Contact could also be understood as a container

317
Cf. WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, p. 203.
318
Cf. GYATT, Psychological Contact, p.142.
319
WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, p. 204.
320
Cf. WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, pp. 206-208.
321
Cf. Garry F. PROUTY, The Practice of Pre-Therapy, in Journal of Contemporary Psychotherapy, Vol.
31.1, 2001, pp. 31-40.
322
WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, p. 210.
323
Cf. Corna CARRICK / Sheila McKENZIE, A Heuristic Examination of the Application of Pre-Therapy
Skills and the Person-Centred Approach in the Field of Autism in PCEP, Vol. 10.2, June 2011, pp. 73-88.
324
Cf. Elizabeth S. FREIRE, Empathy in The Handbook of PCPC, (194-206), p. 203.
310
for the therapist’s empathy and UPR. Seen from a relational point of view, we could say
that contact has to be mutual.325

4.2.3.1.1.3 Hindrances to Contact

Both the client and the therapist can experience factors that hinder the capacity for contact.
Some of them are incongruence, anxiety, anger, fear, alcohol, drugs and exhaustion.326
Will Gyatt says there can also be other hindrances that turn the client away. They include
cross-cultural divide, homophobia, racism, sexism, etc. In order to get over the hindrances,
one has to drop all assumptions and expectations for the client. The therapist has to be
receptive, sensitive and slowly allow the client to unravel his story. The quality of contact
can be electric, intense, vital or transformative. The therapist has an obligation to develop
his capacity for contact and to get over hindrances. Empathic understanding and
responding are a great help in establishing contact. The present-day world calls for
extended contact, taking into account inter-subjectivity and interconnectedness.327

Diversity can also be a hindrance to psychological contact. Something strange or foreign

causes dislike or aversion in human beings. When a therapist is not able to accept diversity,
he is indirectly allowing inequality and perpetuating the structures of power. 328 Len T.
Holdstock is of the opinion that in order to survive and to be effective in the world, which
is ever more globalized and multi-cultural, we need a paradigm shift in PCA to include
diverse concepts of self that transcends cultural boundaries.329

4.2.3.1.2 Client Incongruence

A client comes for therapy because he experiences incongruence. It is a source of mental
and emotional distress in a person. Rogers sees the incongruence in the client as the second
necessary and sufficient condition. The second condition states in the original: “That the
first person, whom we shall term the client, is in a state of incongruence, being vulnerable
or anxious.”330 When a person is well and fully functioning, he does not require therapy.
Classical person-centred approach sees incongruence as the central cause of mental
distress. It reduces the person’s ability to reach his vital goals. Person-centred approach

325
Cf. GYATT, Psychological Contact, in The Handbook of PCPC, (140-153), p. 147.
326
Cf. WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, pp. 205-206.
327
Cf. GYATT, Psychological Contact, in The Handbook of PCPC, pp.149-151.
328
Cf. Gillian PROCTOR, Diversity: The Depoliticization of Inequalities, in PCEP, Vol.10. 4, 2011, pp. 231-
234. [This whole issue – Vol.10, No. 4 - of PCEP deals with this topic and has many articles on diversity].
329
Len T. HOLDSTOCK, Towards a Paradigm Shift in the Person-Centered Approach, in PCEP, Vol.10,
No. 4, 2011, pp. 286-298.
330
ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 213.
311
uses the term ‘distress’ to refer to mental imbalance, personality disorder or any form of
psychological sickness and generally hesitates to use terms like mental illness, madness,
etc. It stands in a broader sense for any psychological maladjustment of the client.

4.2.3.1.2.1 Incongruence Leads to Dysfunctionality

Person-centred approach sees incongruence as the cause of dysfunctionality. This happens
in most cases when the person has a rigid self-concept and is frightened and defensive.
Such a person fails to revise his self-concepts, depends purely on the old constructs and
fails to listen to himself. He fails to open himself to corrective information. Lack of self-
acceptance and self-trust also contribute to dysfunctionality. However, the biggest obstacle
is defensiveness. It blocks the organism from adopting an open information processing
stance where the person can freely consider information and integrate it. The actualizing
process is an organismic process to cope with life’s stresses and promotes growth and
adaptation. A fully functioning person lets the actualizing process to operate most
effectively.331

4.2.3.1.2.2 Causes of Distress

Incongruence is caused in organisms by denying experiences or when experiences are
distorted or inaccurately symbolized to fit into the wrong self-concept. In his book Client-
Centered Therapy, 1951, Rogers dealt with at some length maladjustment and consequent
distress.332 Rogers explains it in detail in his 1959 theory of personality:

The Development of Incongruence between Self and Experience: 1. Because

of the need for self-regard, the individual perceives his experience
selectively, in terms of the conditions of worth which have come to exist in
him. a. Experiences which are in accord with his conditions of worth are
perceived and symbolized accurately in awareness. b. Experiences which run
contrary to the conditions of worth are perceived selectively and distortedly
as if in accord with the conditions of worth, or are in part or whole, denied to
awareness. 2. Consequently some experiences now occur in the organism
which are not recognized as self-experiences, are not accurately symbolized,
and are not organized into the self-structure in accurately symbolized form.
3. Thus from the time of the first selective perception in terms of conditions
of worth, the states of incongruence between self and experience, of
psychological maladjustment and of vulnerability, exist to some degree.333

Wilkins claims that the main reason for incongruence in the classic person-centred
approach is the self-concept of the individual which is out of touch with the organism.

331
Cf. BOHART, The Actualizing Person, p. 56.
332
Cf. Carl R. ROGERS, Client-Centered Therapy, London: Constable, 1951, (2003 ed.), pp. 507-512.
333
ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 226.
312
Incongruence can result from genetic or biological causes or life events - abuse in early
life, trauma, life events, etc.334

Gert-Walter Speierer has a slightly different opinion of the classical theory. He believes
that client-centred therapy is mainly the treatment of incongruence caused by the
acquisition of conditions of worth, bio-neuropsychological limitations and life-changing
events of intensity. Classical person-centred followers do not believe that bio-
neuropsychological limitation is one of the causes of incongruence.335

The classical person-centred approach sees basically only one cause for psychological
distress, namely, incongruence: “In précis, distress is caused by incongruence in the total
personality between the self-structure (largely the self-image or the self as perceived,…)
and the lived out experience of the person.”336 Each person is unique and, therefore, it is
difficult to predict the causes of distress in individual cases. Therefore, conventional
methods of diagnosis and medical methods are not useful. Therefore, to professionals who
are purely dependent on diagnosis and sophisticated medical methods the person-centred
approach seems simplistic and naïve.337

Many person-centred therapists today believe that psychological distress has more
environmental and social causes than biological causes. Many of them have to do with
power and powerlessness. Most of the causes of distress cannot be treated with medicine or
physical means. They can be helped through therapy. Person-centred therapists argue that
in working with individuals with mental and emotional distress, the clients have to be
taken and understood in their context. They cannot be divorced from their social and
political milieu.338

The client’s style of processing may contribute to emotional and mental distress. M. S.
Warner has identified three kinds of difficult processing. She says clients with these types
of processing are more likely to experience distress: Fragile process: Those who have this
style of functioning process core issues at very high or very low levels of intensity.
Dissociated process: They experience themselves often as having multiple selves that are

334
Cf. WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, p. 111.
335
Cf. Ibid., pp.111-112.
336
SANDERS, Introduction to the Theory of Person-Centred Therapy, p. 10.
337
Cf. Ibid.
338
Cf. WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, pp.115-116.
313
not integrated with one another. Psychotic process: They have impaired contact with
themselves, others and the world.339

4.2.3.1.3 Empathy
The following conditions of person-centred therapy (PCT) – empathy, unconditional
positive regard (UPR) and congruence – are generally referred to as the three basic
conditions of PCT. They are also sometimes called the three pillars of PCT.

Many present-day person-centred experts consider that although the three core conditions
of Rogers – UPR, empathy and congruence – are separate variables, their interrelationship
is so intimate and close and, therefore, they can be functionally said to be one condition.340

4.2.3.1.3.1 The Concept of Empathy

Generally speaking, empathy is the ability to understand another person’s feeling,
experience, etc.341 In psychotherapy, however, it has a much deeper meaning. Empathy is
a core concept in the person-centred approach. Empathy was part of the therapeutic
approach of Carl Rogers much before UPR and congruence. In his early years of practice,
Rogers discovered that empathy was a very effective tool.342

In the early stages of the development of his therapy Rogers found that the therapeutic
relationship is more effective when the therapist tries to understand the client as he sees
himself. As early as 1942, Rogers emphasized the counselling relationship as one based on
empathy and warmth. Here although Rogers does not directly mention empathy, he
emphasizes warmth, acceptance and freedom.343

We see a gradual development in the thinking of Carl Rogers regarding empathy. In 1951,
Rogers said that empathy involved the counsellor’s capacity to understand and assume the
internal frame of reference of the client. “At the present stage of thinking in client-centred
therapy… that it is the counselor’s function to assume, insofar as he is able, the internal
frame of reference of the client, to perceive the client as seen by himself, to lay aside all

339
Cf. WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, p. 113.
340
Cf. FREIRE, Empathy in The Handbook of PCPC, (194-206), p.197.
341
See Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary, 7th Edition.
342
Cf. FREIRE, Empathy, p. 194.
343
Cf. ROGERS, Counseling and Psychotherapy, pp. 113-114.
314
perceptions from the external frame of reference while doing so, and to communicate
something of this empathic understanding to the client.”344

Later in 1959, Rogers stated that empathy provided effectiveness to the therapeutic
relationship. He emphasized the ‘as if’ quality of empathy. According to him, it is the
empathy in therapeutic relationship that makes this relationship effective and which helps
the therapist to understand the client as he sees himself, without losing his own identity. It
may sound strange because most schools of psychotherapy use some form of diagnosis,
and to see the client as he sees himself is fallacy, because the client is ‘sick’ and needs help
and is not reliable. To see the client as he sees himself, to see and understand him from his
internal frame of reference - that is what makes person-centred therapy something special.
In 1959 Rogers wrote:

The state of empathy, or being empathic, is to perceive the internal frame of

reference of another with accuracy, and with the emotional components and
meanings which pertain thereto, as if one were the other person, but without
ever losing the “ as if ” condition. Thus it means to sense the hurt or the
pleasure of another as he senses it, and to perceive the causes thereof as he
perceives them, but without ever losing the recognition that it is as if I were
hurt or pleased, etc. If this "as if" quality is lost, then the state is one of
identification.345

Empathy is a particular type of understanding that comes from the internal frame of
reference of the client. Empathy shows a deep respect for the individual. It is deeply
connected with the concept of actualizing tendency and relies on the capacity of the
individual to actualize.346

Rogers’ concept of empathy led to a lot of research on empathy in the 1960s and ‘70s.
Empathy became part of every therapy form. There were attempts to give skills training to
develop empathy. In 1980, in his book A Way of Being, Rogers further defined his idea of
empathy. This time he adopted a more holistic approach to empathy.347 His description of
empathy and its effects are clearly and plainly presented and one does not need any
explanation:

An empathic way of being with another person has several facets. It means
entering the private perceptual world of the other and becoming thoroughly
at home in it. It involves being sensitive, moment by moment, to the

344
ROGERS, Client-Centered Therapy, p. 29.
345
ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, pp. 110-111.
346
Cf. FREIRE, Empathy, pp. 194-195.
347
Cf. Ibid., p. 195.
315
 changing felt meanings which flow in this other person, to the fear or rage or
tenderness or confusion or whatever that he or she is experiencing. It means
temporarily living in the other’s life, moving about in it delicately without
making judgments; it means sensing meanings of which he or she is scarcely
aware, but not trying to uncover totally unconscious feelings, since this
would be too threatening. It includes communicating your sensings of the
person’s world as you look with fresh and unfrightended eyes at elements of
which he or she is fearful. It means frequently checking with the person as to
the accuracy of your sensings, and being guided by the responses you
receive. You are a confident companion to the person in his or her inner
world. By pointing to the possible meanings in the flow of another person’s
experiencing, you help the other to focus on this useful type of referent, to
experience the meanings more fully, and to move forward in the
experiencing. To be with another person means that for the time being you
lay aside your own views and values in order to enter another’s world
without prejudice. In some sense it means that you lay aside yourself; this
can only be done by persons who are secure enough in themselves that they
know they will not get lost in what may turn out to be the strange or bizarre
world of the other, and that they can comfortably return to their own world
when they wish. Perhaps this description makes clear that being empathic is
a complex, demanding, and strong – yet also a subtle and gentle way of
being.348

Recently scholars like Peter F. Schmid in the field of person-centred approach influenced
by philosophers like Buber and Levinas have tried to give philosophical meaning to it
which confirms the presence of the ‘other’. Empathy also emphasises the mystery
dimension of the other person. “Empathy is the art of not-knowing. It is the art of being
curious, being open to being surprised, being kept awake by an enigma.”349 It helps to see
the client as ‘an Other’. Bozarth believes empathy is a manifestation and channel of
UPR.350

4.2.3.1.3.2 Empathic Listening and Reflection of Feelings

Listening is one of the key elements of counselling and psychotherapy. It is the heart of
any form of therapy. Listening as a means of catharsis is used in almost all forms of
psychotherapy. Listening is also one of the concrete means used by person-centred
therapists to show empathy and acceptance to the client. In fact, PCA has often been
criticised for the ‘over-emphasis’ it lays on listening and reflecting the feelings of the
client.

348
ROGERS, A Way of Being, pp. 142-143. Italics mine.
349
Peter F. SCHMID, Comprehension: the art of not knowing. Dialogical and ethical perspectives on
empathy as dialogue in personal and person-centred relationships in Rogers’ Therapeutic Conditions:
Evolution, Theory and Practice. Vol. 2. Empathy Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books, (53-71), p. 61.
350
Cf. FREIRE, Empathy, pp.196-197.
316
We live in a world full of noises. We hear a lot, but how often do we listen - to persons,
emotions and feelings? Listening is one of the greatest tools of healing. From our day-to-
day living, we know how listening can reduce tension, ease an atmosphere of stress,
establish a relationship and bring human beings together. To be listened to is to belong to.
Listening is one of the major tools in the person-centred approach. Person-centred listening
is a keen, empathic and non-judgemental listening. Rogers himself was a great empathic
listener. His students and colleagues marvelled at his capacity for listening. For Rogers,
empathy and listening are two sides of the same coin. Carl Rogers says being empathic (an
empathic listener) is one of the most delicate and powerful ways of using ourselves.351

In person-centred counselling, the therapist listens not only to the content of what the client
says, but also to the emotions and feelings. The therapist listens to the client with empathy,
moves with him moment-to-moment and is involved actively in the whole process. As
response, the therapist ‘reflects back’ to the client what he has said and reassures the client
that the therapist is with him, has understood him fully – not only what he has verbally
expressed - but his feelings, emotions and the relevance it has for him. A person-centred
therapist tries to see the meaning the client has from what he has said, without interpreting
or judging. 352

Since Rogers defines empathy as a process, not a state, empathic listening means, being in
a process. Rogers’ listening is much more than just giving attention to what the client says.
It means moving with the client – it is an empathic, moment-to-moment movement with
the client, entering into his private world and at home with it without judging or
moralising. It means being a confident companion to him and temporarily living with him.
This requires shedding our personal views, values and prejudices.353

Empathic listening has great consequences for the client. Speaking on the effects of
empathy and empathic listening, Rogers says:

We can say that when a person finds himself sensitively and accurately
understood, he develops a set of growth-promoting or therapeutic attitudes to
himself…The non-evaluative and acceptant quality of the empathic climate
enables him, as we have seen, to take a prizing, caring attitude towards
himself…Being listened to by an understanding person makes it possible for
him to listen more accurately to himself, with greater empathy toward his

351
Cf. Carl R. ROGERS, Empathic: An Unappreciated Way of Being, in The Counseling Psychologist, 1975,
Vol. 5, pp. 2-10.
352
Cf. ROGERS, Empathic: An Unappreciated Way of Being, p. 2.
353
Cf. ROGERS, Empathic: An Unappreciated Way of Being, p. 3.
317
 own visceral experiencing, his own vaguely felt meanings. But his greater
understanding of, and prizing of, himself opens up to him new facets of
experience which become part of a more accurately based self… So we are
perhaps not overstating the total picture if we say that an empathic
understanding by another has enabled the person to become a more effective
growth enhancer, a more effective therapist, for himself.354

Rogers means that this kind of listening can be applied in any context of human
relationship, be it family, education, church or group facilitation: “Whether we are
functioning as therapists, as encounter group facilitators, as teachers or as parents, we have
in our hands, if we are able to take an empathic stance, a powerful force for change and
growth. Its strength needs to be appreciated.”355

Billy Lee and Seamus Prior have stated that therapeutic reflexivity has four major sub-
themes. They are: learning to hear the self, listening as relationship, revelations of
otherness and ‘thereness’ (in terms of PCA, ‘presence’). Listening has a lot to do with
‘undoing’ than ‘doing’ – undoing one’s expectations, prejudices, learnt ways.356

Humanistically-oriented listening, influenced by phenomenology, tries to enquire into

things themselves, by removing the biases that normally accompany our perception. The
humanistic psychologist tries to understand the client in his own terms, unlike the
psychoanalysts who try to delve into his unconscious with a ‘third eye’.357 In the opinion of
Rogers, empathic listening is a gift that one can render to the other: “The gentle and
sensitive companionship of empathic stance (...) provides illumination and healing. In such
situations deep understanding is, I believe, the most precious gift one can give to
another.”358

PCT uses different listening skills that help the client to say more, open up more, to let out
pent-up emotions, etc. Empathic skills and methods allow the therapist, when the client
works through a problem, to remain unobtrusive, thereby allowing the client to have a
dialogue with the self. Classical continuers like mm’s, mh and hh’s and the variation of
tone of the therapist can play a great role and can be of immense help to the client. They

354
ROGERS, Empathic: An Unappreciated Way of Being, p. 10.
355
Ibid.
356
Cf. Billy LEE / Seamus PRIOR, Developing Therapeutic Listening, in British Journal of Guidance &
Counselling, 2013, Vol. 41, No. 2, pp. 91-104.
357
Cf. LEE / PRIOR, Developing Therapeutic Listening, p. 92.
358
ROGERS, Empathic: An Unappreciated Way of Being, p. 10.
318
help the client to remain on the topic and to stay focused.359 Listening, reflecting and
summarising as used in PCT is a way of checking for accuracy of the therapist’s
understanding, correcting - if he has understood it wrongly - and caring for the client. It is
an important way of fulfilling the conditions, especially empathy.

Listening is a difficult exercise. One of the most difficult things for the therapist is the
tendency to evaluate and judge, which PCA strongly deprecates. Carl Rogers advocated
listening with understanding and with empathy. Rogers claims listening with
understanding is the most effective agent for change at the personal level and improving
relationships and communication with others:

This tendency to react to any emotionally meaningful statement by forming

an evaluation of it from our own point of view is, I repeat, the major barrier
to interpersonal communication… Real communication occurs, and this
evaluative tendency is avoided, when we listen with understanding. What
does this mean? It means to see the expressed idea and attitude from the
other person’s point of view, to sense how it feels to him, to achieve his
frame of reference in regard to the thing he is talking about.360

Listening reduces psychological distress. Many professions like nursing and social work
train their personnel in the art of listening which can in turn be extremely beneficial to the
patients.361

4.2.3.1.3.3 Empathy as a Process

Rogers believes empathy is a process rather than a state. It means entering the private
perceptual world of the client. It also means being at home with the client, being with him
from moment to moment, understanding him and feeling what he feels and as he feels. It is
being temporarily in the world of the client and accompanying him from moment to
moment. It means becoming a ‘confident companion’ to the person in his inner world.
Empathy presupposes that the therapist enters the client’s world free of all prejudices
against him. This can be done by a person who feels secure within himself and who will
not get lost in the world of the other and who can comfortably return to his own world at
any time he wishes. Needless to say, being empathic is not an easy task.362

359
Cf. Pamela FITZGERALD / Ivan LEUDAR, On Active Listening in Person-Centred, Solution-Focused
Psychotherapy, in Journal of Pragmatics, 2010, Vol. 42, pp. 3188-3198.
360
ROGERS, On Becoming a Person, pp. 331-332.
361
Cf. Alun Charles JONES, John R. CUTCLIFFE, Listening as a Method of Addressing Psychological
Distress, in Journal of Nursing Management, April 2009, Vol. 17.3, pp. 352-358.
362
Cf. ROGERS, The Basic Conditions, in The Handbook of PCPC, pp. 2-3.
319
The person-centred approach lays emphasis on the present. It presupposes a gentle way of
being. Empathy involves understanding what the client is saying and experiencing and the
relevance it has for him right now:

This description makes clear that being empathic is a complex, demanding

and gentle way of being. Teaching this kind of therapy is by trying to teach
people what it means to be empathic in that sense, to be non-judgemental
and yet to very subtly understand all that is available in the consciousness of
this other person, and perhaps just a little bit below the layer of
consciousness. In being empathic, the therapist is not trying to go back into
the past, is not trying to leap ahead into the future; it’s trying to catch the
meaning that is real to the client at that moment. What the client is talking
about might have reference to the past or reference to the future, but the
meaning he is talking about is an immediate meaning, is that meaning we
would like to be sensitive to, enter into and be companion to.363

Many later authors and practitioners of the person-centred approach have also tried to see
empathy as a process. Empathy is not a single response, nor is it a series of responses. It is
being with the client throughout.364 Mearns and Thorne define empathy thus: “Empathy is
a continuing process whereby the counsellor lays aside her own way of experiencing and
perceiving reality, preferring to sense and respond to the experiences and perceptions of
her client. This sensing may be intense and enduring with the counsellor actually
experiencing the client’s thoughts and feelings as powerfully as if they had originated in
herself.”365

4.2.3.1.3.4 Effects of Empathy

Rogers considers empathy as a healing agent in therapy and as one of the most potent
aspects of his person-centred therapy. Empathy makes the client feel at home with the
therapist. It breaks the barriers and builds bridges: “It releases, it confirms, it brings even
the most frightened client into the human race. If a person is understood, he or she
belongs.”366

Being understood helps one to have a sense of belonging. One gets a sense of belonging to
the human family. Empathy also leads to self-empathy, helping one to be empathic with
oneself and to listen to oneself more attentively and accurately. Receiving empathy helps

363
ROGERS, The Basic Conditions, in The Handbook of PCPC, p. 3.
364
Cf. Dave MEARNS / Brian THORNE, Person-Centred Counselling in Action, London: Sage
Publications, (2nd ed.), 2000, p. 41.
365
MEARNS / THORNE, Person-Centred Counselling in Action, p. 41.
366
Carl R. ROGERS, in Rogers, Kohut and Erickson in Person-Centered Review, Vol. 1, (125-140), p. 129.
320
change of self-concept in the client and consequently change of behaviour. It also helps
one to empathize with others.367

Today, empathy is not the monopoly of the person-centred approach. It is practised by all
schools of psychotherapy. Even cognitive therapists, behaviourists and psychoanalysts
value it greatly today and use it in therapy. However, the Rogerian idea of empathy goes
much deeper and is different. Many schools of therapy use it as a means to gather data for
therapeutic interpretation and to prepare the client for the interventions of the therapist,
while in Rogers the main purpose of empathy is to communicate UPR. Rogers believed
that through empathy the therapist entered into the perceptual world of the client to provide
the client an opportunity to express himself deeply and truly and to discern himself more
clearly and to choose more significantly.368

Through empathy the therapist is perceived by the client as holding up a mirror, which
reflects the image of meanings and perceptions as experienced by him and this reflection
leads him to more clarifications and insights. The client who experiences being understood
in this way is helped to get into a process of attitudinal and behavioural change.369

Empathy can also be used to convey the understanding of the therapist and to help the
client to explore himself further. There can be different forms of empathic responses,
depending on the frame of reference of the client – understanding, evocation, exploration,
conjecture and interpretation.370

4.2.3.1.4 Unconditional Positive Regard (UPR)

It is the second basic attitude Rogers speaks of as essential for a therapeutic relationship. It
is about prizing, caring and appreciating the client. Rogers calls this attitude unconditional
positive regard, usually abbreviated as UPR. In our day-to-day life, caring for another
person is not easy. Therapeutic caring is even more difficult. This caring is a non-
possessive and non-judgemental caring. It is similar to the feeling a parent has for a child.
In spite of all his misbehaviour, the parents prize and love the child as someone of worth.
In Rogers’ opinion, “That type of caring is most effective in therapy. It is something the
therapist cannot order within himself. But the relationship is going to be more profitable if
that kind of caring exists…It is a positive caring which has no conditions attached…for the

367
Cf. FREIRE, Empathy in The Handbook of PCPC, p. 197.
368
Cf. Ibid., p.198.
369
Cf. Ibid., pp. 198-199.
370
Cf. Ibid., p. 202.
321
emotional growth, for the development of the individual, the relationship is best in our
experience when the care is really unconditional.”371

Dave Mearns and Brian Thorne, two experts in the field of PCT, argue that the
distinctiveness of UPR lies in its consistency. The therapist manifests UPR regardless of
the behaviour of the client. It is easy to value a client when he is positive or cooperates, but
in PCT the therapist is bound to show UPR irrespective of the behaviour of the client. This
unconditional valuing and acceptance of the client have positive effects on the client. He is
able to accept himself.372

Today different schools of psychotherapy and counselling use UPR or similar concepts. It
is one of the tools or attitudes in every therapeutic relationship. But the terms used are
sometimes different from that of PCT. In PCT, acceptance is a term used often instead of
UPR. Other terms include non-possessive warmth, prizing, affirming, liking, etc. However,
most of these terms are not as deep and meaningful as UPR.373

4.2.3.1.4.1 Development of the Concept of UPR

The concept of UPR was not developed suddenly by Rogers. It had a gradual growth and
many influences on its development. In 1951, Rogers spoke of the therapist’s attitude of
acceptance and respect which is the forerunner of UPR in 1959. In his 1951 book, Client-
Centered Therapy, he speaks about the attitudes the therapist should have. Although he
does not directly speak about UPR, he speaks about understanding the client as he is and
offering emotional warmth in a relationship. This is one of the important attitudes the
therapist should have:

In client-centered therapy the client finds the counselor a genuine alter ego
in an operational and technical sense… In the emotional warmth of the
relationship with the therapist, the client begins to experience a feeling of
safety as he finds that whatever attitude he expresses is understood in almost
the same way that he perceives it, and is accepted… The therapist perceives
the client’s self as the client has known it, and accepts it; he perceives the
contradictory aspects which have been denied to awareness and accepts
those too as being part of the client; and both of these acceptances have in
them the same warmth and respect.374

371
ROGERS, The Basic Conditions, in The Handbook of PCPC, p. 3.
372
Cf. MEARNS / THORNE, Person-Centred Counselling in Action, pp. 64-65.
373
Cf. Ibid., p. 66.
374
ROGERS, Client-Centered Therapy, pp. 40-41.
322
Here Rogers speaks of accepting the client’s self as it is, as the client sees himself and the
therapist also accepts all the contradictions within the client. Rogers was influenced by
one of his students, Standal, who used the term unconditional positive regard in his
dissertation. Rogers adopted this term for his therapy. By 1959, Rogers evolved his
concept of respect and acceptance to unconditional positive regard.375

In Carl Rogers’ theory it is an underlying principle that every individual has a need for
positive regard. He adapted the ideas developed by Standal and developed his own concept
of UPR.376 In his 1959 exposition of the person-centred approach, Carl Rogers describes
UPR as follows:

Unconditional positive regard. Here is one of the key constructs of the

theory, which may be defined in these terms: if the self-experiences of
another are perceived by me in such a way that no self-experience can be
discriminated as more or less worthy of positive regard than any other, then I
am experiencing unconditional positive regard for this individual. To
perceive oneself as receiving unconditional positive regard is to perceive that
of one's self-experiences none can be discriminated by the other individual
as more or less worthy of positive regard. Putting this in simpler terms, to
feel unconditional positive regard toward another is to “prize” him … This
means to value the person, irrespective of the differential values which one
might place on his specific behaviors. A parent "prizes" his child, though he
may not value equally all of his behaviors. … In general, however,
acceptance and prizing are synonymous with unconditional positive regard.
This construct has been developed out of the experiences of therapy, where it
appears that one of the potent elements in the relationship is that the therapist
"prizes" the whole person of the client. It is the fact that he feels and shows
an unconditional positive regard toward the experiences of which the client
is frightened or ashamed, as well as toward the experiences with which the
client is pleased or satisfied, that seems effective in bringing about change.
Gradually the client can feel more acceptance of all of his own experiences,
and this makes him again more of a whole or congruent person, able to
function effectively. This clinical explanation will, it is hoped, help to
illuminate the meaning contained in the rigorous definition.377

All individuals have a need for positive regard. When the individual is in incongruence,
there is a higher need for it, and it has to be offered unconditionally. Only UPR can heal
the person in therapy.378 Bozarth states that UPR is the agent of change in therapy: “It is
the congruent therapist’s experiencing of unconditional positive regard (UPR) toward the

375
Cf. Jerold BOZARTH, Unconditional Positive Regard in The Handbook of PCPC, (182-193), p.183.
376
Cf. ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 208.
377
ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 208.
378
Cf. Ibid.
323
client along with empathic understanding of the client’s internal frame of reference that
precipitates therapeutic personality change.”379

In simple terms, unconditional positive regard has been defined as a warm and total
acceptance of the client and his experience. UPR occurs when the client perceives that he
makes a positive difference in the experiential field of the therapist.380

4.2.3.1.4.2 Love and UPR

Even before Standal brought out his dissertation, one of the members on the staff of
Rogers, Oliver H. Brown, spoke of a similar concept, but used the term ‘love’, although he
knew that it was misunderstood. But Brown felt that ‘love’ was the most useful term.
Rogers, however, preferred the term ‘unconditional positive regard’ to any other term. 381 In
Bozart’s opinion, “Unconditional positive regard became an identified and integral part of
client-centred therapy in Rogers’ (1959) self-proclaimed magnum opus. Rogers considered
the term to be more precise than such terms as love and affection that were used by others
who proposed such needs as inherent traits…”382

UPR is in many ways a Christian concept. In the Christian sense, we could say, it is similar
to unconditional love. It means accepting another person without conditions, with all his
weaknesses and failures.

4.2.3.1.4.3 Role of UPR in PCT

In order to understand the role played by UPR, we need to look into the theoretical aspect
of the client-centred approach. In classical person-centred approach the distress in the
client is due to the incongruence experienced by him. He is vulnerable and anxious
because of the conditions of worth or due to introjections by significant others. He is not
valued for what he is, but conditions are placed on his worth. In such a case what he
experiences is conditional regard or rather conditional positive self-regard. It conflicts with
the individual’s organismic experiences and as a result he becomes incongruent. When the
client perceives the unconditional positive regard from a real and genuine therapist, who
shows empathic understanding to him, that facilitates the client’s unconditional positive

379
BOZARTH, Unconditional Positive Regard, p. 182.
380
Cf. Ibid., p. 183.
381
Cf. ROGERS, Client-Centered Therapy, pp. 160-161.
382
BOZARTH, Unconditional Positive Regard, p. 183.
324
self-regard. So it is UPR that frees the client from conditions of worth and consequent
congruence, prompted by the actualizing tendency.383

Mearns and Thorne also think more or less in similar fashion. They believe UPR liberates
the client from the oppressive conditions of worth. It frees him from the self-defeating
cycle of the conditions of worth, conditional positive regard, aggressiveness, withdrawal
from social contact and defensiveness. UPR has also effects on the therapeutic atmosphere.
The therapist’s ‘different’ behaviour breaks all defences in the client and provides him
with the freedom to be himself. The therapeutic atmosphere will become one of ‘trusting
environment’.384

4.2.3.1.4.4 UPR – Curative Factor in PCT

UPR has been differently viewed by the person-centred therapists. For some it is the
‘curative factor’ of the person-centred therapy. Some others consider it the ‘distinctive
feature of the person-centred therapy. On the other hand, some hold it to be a crucial but
impossible task for the therapists. In the classical view, it is indeed seen as ‘the curative
variable’ because in person-centred therapy, UPR is required to remove the conditions of
worth.385

In the opinion of Bozarth, “Unconditional positive regard communicated through empathic

understanding is in and of itself the curative factor that frees the client to integrate with the
experiences of the organism. Thus, organismic self-experiences ultimately become
integrally aligned with the actualizing tendency.”386 When the therapist’s trust in the
client’s actualizing tendency is greater, he experiences consequently a greater capacity to
experience unconditional positive regard towards the client. Bozarth reconceptualised the
three therapist conditions as follows: “Congruence as the state of therapist readiness,
empathic understanding as the conveyor of unconditional positive regard, unconditional
positive regard as the ‘curative factor.’ ”387

G. Lietaer opines that UPR helps the client to be more inner-directed and to be a ‘therapist
for himself.’ He also believes that confrontational interventions are more and more

383
Cf. BOZARTH, Unconditional Positive Regard in The Handbook of PCPC, p. 184.
384
Cf. MEARNS / THORNE, Person-Centred Counselling in Action, pp. 67-68.
385
Cf. BOZARTH, Unconditional Positive Regard, p. 184.
386
Ibid.
387
Ibid., p.185.
325
becoming part of the client-centred therapy.388 These views are actually divergent from the
classical person-centred views. The person-centred approach has in recent years become
more open to divergent and more eclectic views.

How effective is UPR in therapy? It is difficult to empirically test the effectiveness of

UPR. From research regarding the effectiveness of UPR, there is considerable result to
show that UPR is associated with therapeutic success. Sometimes UPR is wrongly
associated with ‘therapeutic alliance’, ‘client affirmation’ and therapeutic support. The
person-centred therapist affirms that these concepts are not the same as UPR in the person-
centred approach and, in fact, UPR works at a much deeper level.389

As we have already seen, while the classical view in the person-centred approach is against
any directiveness, in some post-classical approaches, there is also a tendency to direct,
guide and encourage the client towards a particular experience. In these cases the necessary
and sufficient conditions are also looked at differently by them, but at the same time being
faithful to the original concept.390

Many therapists see UPR as being sufficient as an intrinsic attitude of the therapist. A
‘classical’ therapist places no constraints on the client. He never attempts to solve the
problems or interferes, but provides warm acceptance to the client. In PCT it is not enough
to have UPR, but it is also necessary that it is to be communicated to the client. How it is to
be communicated varies from therapist to therapist. Each one has his own personal
repertoire.391 Bozarth recommends the following steps to therapists to develop UPR: “Be
congruent in the relationship. Maximise your own unconditional positive self-regard…
Maximise your attitude of UPR through your empathic experiencing of the client…Trust
the client to develop her own direction at her own pace, and in her own way.”392

4.2.3.1.4.5 Two Dimensions of UPR

Bozarth believes that there are two dimensions to UPR. Firstly, the therapist himself
experiences a difference in himself by his experiencing and receiving of the client. He is
not passive; he is actively receiving the client. The client’s experiential world makes a
difference in the therapist. He is affected by the client and has to attend to himself and his

388
Cf. G. LIETAER, Unconditional Acceptance and Positive Regard, in Jerold BOZARTH / Paul WILKINS
(Eds.), UPR: Unconditional Positive Regard, Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books, 2001, (88-108), pp. 92-93.
389
Cf. BOZARTH, Unconditional Positive Regard, p.186.
397
Cf. Ibid., p.187.
391
Cf. MEARNS / THORNE, Person-Centred Counselling in Action, p.74.
392
BOZARTH, Unconditional Positive Regard, p. 189.
326
own experiences in the therapy. Secondly, the therapist makes a difference in the
experiential world of the client.393 In Bozarth’s opinion UPR is the crux of Rogers’ theory:

The client’s perception of unconditional positive regard communicated

through empathic understanding by the congruent therapist is the crux of
Rogers’ theory… The thrust of the therapy is ‘to create the climate where
there are no constraints upon the client and, therefore, they are able to
reintegrate previously denied experiences into their way of being in the
world’…This climate is created by the client’s perception of the congruent
therapist’s experiencing of unconditional positive regard and empathic
understanding.394

In the post-classical approach, UPR is considered preliminary and it is dependent on the

client’s level of experiencing. As noted already, there are some post-classical views which
do not consider the conditions to be sufficient.

4.2.3.1.5 Congruence
The third basic condition which makes therapy effective is congruence. It means that the
therapist is a real person in his relationship with the client. In 1959, when Rogers expanded
and systematised his theory, he proposed congruence as one of the core conditions of
therapeutic change: “That the second person, whom we shall term the therapist, is
congruent in the relationship.”395

The therapist is in a genuine, real relationship with the client and he deals with the client
without any façade. He reveals to the client what he thinks and feels, if it is appropriate and
when it does not harm the therapeutic process. Rogers said in 1981:

It means that the client is in relationship not with a person in a white coat,
not with a professional, not with a façade but with a real honest-to-God
person. That takes away from something that some therapists prize a great
deal, namely, the professional façade that they put on when they meet
someone else. It is more effective when the therapist is himself or herself as
he or she is at the moment. For that kind of genuineness we use the term
‘congruence’ to indicate a matching between what is being experienced
inside and what is in awareness in the intellect and what is expressed
verbally.396

393
Cf. BOZARTH, Unconditional Positive Regard, pp.189-190.
394
Ibid., p.190.
395
ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 213. Italics in the original.
396
ROGERS, The Basic Conditions of the Facilitative Therapeutic Relationship, in The Handbook of PCPC,
pp. 3-4.
327
4.2.3.1.5.1 Revolutionary Idea of Congruence
Through the concept of congruence, Rogers has brought about a revolutionary change in
the field of psychotherapy. In all other therapy methods the therapist is an expert or
specialist, who diagnoses, analyses, prescribes and directs, always with a professional
façade, but hardly a real person. Genuineness adds a special dimension to the therapeutic
relationship. This quality adds a depth dimension to the therapeutic relationship.

The concept of congruence is not a monopoly of PCT, nor is it anything entirely new.
Moreover, the concept had been in development in the preceding decades. The concept has
also been further developed after the time of Rogers. 397 Different terms have been used to
describe congruence in PCT and other forms of therapy and counselling. They include
genuineness, transparency, authenticity, realness, etc.398 Some person-centred therapists
believe that congruence is the most difficult concept in the person-centred approach to
understand and develop because it refers to “the internal, relational and ecological
integration of persons.”399

Congruence includes internal and body awareness, communication, flow, spontaneity and
encounter. Rogers used the term interchangeably with realness, being genuine, transparent,
etc. He first mentioned it in 1951. Rogers’ first understanding of congruence was the
consistency between the ideal self and the real self in his personality theory. 400 It is not
only the therapist who requires congruence. In the preceding pages of the same work, he
speaks of the need for congruence in the client. To be a fully-functioning person, one has
to be congruent. There has to be congruence of self and his experience. This sometimes
requires revising self-concept and accurately symbolising his experiences:

He reorganizes the concept he holds of himself to include these

characteristics, which would previously have been inconsistent with self.
Thus when self-experiences are accurately symbolized, and are included in
the self-concept in this accurately symbolized form, then the state is one of
congruence of self and experience. If this were completely true of all self-
experiences, the individual would be a fully functioning person... If it is true
of some specific aspect of experience, such as the individual's experience in
a given relationship or in a given moment of time, then we can say that the

397
Cf. Sheila HAUGH, A Historical Review of the Development of the Concept of Congruence in Person-
Centred Theory, in Gill WYATT (Ed.), Congruence, (Series on Rogers’ Therapeutic Conditions. Evolution,
Theory and Practice, Vol. 1), Ross-on-Wye: PCCS Books, 2001, (1-17), p. 1.
398
Gill WYATT, Introduction to Volume 1: Congruence, in Congruence, Gill WYATT (Ed.), p. vii.
399
Jeffery CORNELIUS-WHITE, Congruence, in The Handbook of PCPC, (168-181), p. 168.
400
Cf. ROGERS, Client-Centered Therapy, p. 142.
328
 individual is to this degree in a state of congruence. Other terms which are in
a general way synonymous are these: integrated, whole, genuine.401

Later in the light of his therapy, he further developed the concept of congruence. When a
therapist is congruent, his symbolisation of the therapeutic relationship should be accurate
and genuine. He should be himself in the relationship. He should not be wearing a mask.402

Mearns and Thorne state, “The counsellor is ‘congruent’ when she is openly being what
she is in response to the client – when the way she is behaving is perfectly reflective of
what she is feeling inside – when her response to her client is what she feels and is not a
pretence or a defence. On the other hand, when she pretends to be ‘clever’ or ‘competent’
or ‘caring’ she is false in relation to her client – her outward behaviour is not congruent
with what is going on inside her.”403

4.2.3.1.5.2 Congruence, Awareness and Communication

So, in the person-centred approach, a person is congruent when he is aware of his
experiences and when he expresses it truthfully. For Carl Rogers, symbolisation is almost
the same as awareness. There should not be any dichotomy between self and experience.
The symbols we use – our awareness, language, gestures, posture – should match with the
real experience. If it is not the case, there is a state of incongruence. If the therapist tries to
suppress, reject or hide his real feelings, he is falling into a state of incongruence and that
is detrimental to the therapeutic relationship. Congruence is a matching between
experience, awareness and the therapist’s expression or communication. Incongruence can
take place at the level of our awareness, experience and being.404 In one of his later works,
Rogers wrote:

I have found that the more I can be genuine in the relationship, the more
helpful it will be. This means that I need to be aware of my own feelings,
insofar as possible, rather than presenting an outward façade of one attitude,
while actually holding another attitude at a deeper or unconscious level.
Being genuine also involves the willingness to be and to express, in my
words and my behaviour, the various feelings and attitudes which exist in
me. It is only in this way that the relationship can have a reality, and reality
seems deeply important as a first condition. It is only by providing the
genuine reality which is in me that the other person can successfully seek for
the reality in him. I have found this to be true even when the attitudes I feel

401
ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, pp. 205-206.
402
Cf. CORNELIUS-WHITE, Congruence, p.169.
403
MEARNS / THORNE, Person-Centred Counselling in Action, p. 84.
404
Cf. CORNELIUS-WHITE, Congruence, p. 169.
329
 are not attitudes with which I am pleased, or attitudes which seem conducive
to a good relationship. It seems extremely important to be real.405

How can one be congruent? Are there criteria and yardsticks to measure it? Experts say
there is no one fixed way of being congruent. It varies from person to person and from
situation to situation: “There is no one right way to be congruent. There is only a fluid
process that appreciates one’s self, others and the world as it is in that moment-to-moment
encounter.”406 Barbara Temaner Brodley argues that it is difficult to get the exact meaning
of congruence from the works of Carl Rogers because he presented this concept in
apparently different ways in his different works. There is a certain ambiguity regarding this
concept. Brodley believes that Rogers intentionally left it open to different
interpretations.407

Julius Seeman further developed Rogers’ idea of congruence in his human systems
approach. His approach is called organismic integration. His approach extends congruence
to multiple levels and processes like biochemical, physiological, perceptual, precognitive,
cognitive, interpersonal and ecological. He says that an important aspect of congruence is
to be able to receive and process the reality data of the person’s world. He also noted that
congruent people respond to the world with more engagement.408

4.2.3.1.5.3 Limits of Congruence

Can and should the therapist express all that he feels and thinks to the client in the name of
congruence? How far can he go? Mearns and Thorne believe that there are certain
restrictions to the extent that the therapist can go. They warn against equating congruence
with self-disclosure. Both are not the same. In PCT, congruence deals with the therapist’s
response to the client’s experiencing. It does not deal with the feelings and sensations of
the therapist which are external to the therapy. They believe that the therapist cannot
express anything on the ground of being congruent. In that case he will become more
focused on himself than on the client.409

Congruence in PCT deals with giving genuine response to the felt experience of the client
in therapy. Another important matter is that the response of the therapist should be relevant

405
ROGERS, On Becoming a Person, p. 33. (Emphasis as in the original).
406
CORNELIUS-WHITE, Congruence, p. 171.
407
Cf. Barbara Temaner BRODLEY, Congruence and its Relation to Communication in Client-Centered
Therapy in The Person-Centered Journal, Vol. 5. 2, 1998, (83-106) pp. 83-84.
408
Cf. CORNELIUS-WHITE, Congruence, pp. 171-172.
409
Cf. MEARNS / THORNE, Person-Centred Counselling in Action, pp. 90-91.
330
to the client and not to the therapist. Another factor is that the therapist cannot respond to
all the feelings of the client. So he should be able to respond to those feelings in the client
which are persistent and striking.410

In summary, one could say, “When we talk about being ‘congruent’ we are referring to the
counsellor giving expression to responses which she has which are relevant to her client
and which are relatively persistent or striking.”411

4.2.3.1.5.4 Role of Congruence

A congruent relationship exudes warmth and openness. An incongruent therapist, on the
other hand, conveys withdrawal and defensiveness. There have been debates in person-
centred circles as to whether it is right for the therapist to communicate his feelings to the
client. Carl Rogers’ primary intention behind introducing this concept was that the
therapist should not be deceiving himself and the client. It has more to do with the
integration, realness or wholeness of the therapist which strongly influences the
relationship with the client. The more actualized the therapist is, the more accurate will he
be in his symbolization of awareness and experience. Congruence also helps the client to
revise himself through openness to experience. All the three core conditions - empathy,
UPR and congruence - are at a non-verbal level and highly interconnected.412

Brodley also believes that congruence is connected to the other conditions of therapy.
Moreover, it is a state within the therapist. She says, “Congruence is a condition for
therapy in the sense that it must be a state or condition within the therapist. This state
permits the therapist to succeed in his intentions to experience unconditional positive
regard and empathic understanding in relation to a client. It does so by permitting the
therapist to experience an unconflicted and undistracted dedication to acceptant
empathy.”413 The role played by congruence can be summarised in the following points:

a) Authenticity is Pre-condition for Dialogue

In the opinion of Peter F Schmid, authenticity or congruence is a pre-condition for
dialogue. There cannot be any true encounter or dialogue between two persons without
being authentic. This is applicable to the therapeutic relationship, too. Therapeutic
relationship is also an encounter and also has the nature of dialogue. Therefore, if the

410
Cf. MEARNS / THORNE, Person-Centred Counselling in Action, pp. 91-92.
411
Ibid., p. 92. Emphasis as in the original.
412
Cf. CORNELIUS-WHITE, Congruence, pp. 170-171.
413
BRODLEY, Congruence and its Relation to Communication, p.85.
331
therapeutic relationship has to be effective, this pre-condition has to be respected and put
into practice.414 Schmid asserts that authenticity is a pre-condition and even much more
than a condition: “Among other things, congruence, genuineness or realness, is generally a
fundamental characteristic of being and becoming a person, and so is much more than a
therapeutic attitude or condition.”415
b) Independence and Inter-Connectedness
The more congruent and integrated a person becomes, the more independent and free he
will be. He moves away from the control of others. Rogers believed in his later years that
the person moves in a direction of inter-connectedness. This is a transcendental dimension
of the person.416
Peter Schmid is of the opinion that congruence essentially refers to the relational
dimension of human beings. Congruence has two dimensions: the inner dimension and the
outer dimension. The inner dimension can be called openness to oneself, and the outer
dimension transparency.417 Cornelius-White believes that congruence makes it easier to
live in a fully engaged process: “This involves internal congruence, communication, a
sense of flow, disciplined spontaneity, bodily awareness and an encounter stance to the
world.”418
c) Accurate Symbolization
Internal congruence is based upon self-awareness or accurate symbolization of experience.
He is aware of his inner feelings and perceptions and reactions as they occur. In other
words, the therapist has empathy, regard and acceptance for his own experiencing. At the
deepest level, empathy, UPR and congruence are rarely communicated in words. People
pick it up through body language and other forms of non-verbal communication. But
sometimes the therapist should deliberately communicate it for the success of the
therapy.419
d) Experience of Spontaneity and Flow
Being in congruence is an experience of spontaneity and flow. It is also learning to accept
one’s personal strengths and vulnerabilities, without being overcome by them. A congruent
person is at home with himself, he is in a flow of life which includes ups and downs. The

414
Cf. Peter F. SCHMID, Authenticity: The Person as His or Her Own Author. Dialogical and Ethical
Perspectives on Therapy as an Encounter Relationship, And Beyond in Wyatt GILL (Ed.), Congruence, pp.
213-228.
415
SCHMID, Ibid., p. 218. Italics in the original.
416
Cf. CORNELIUS-WHITE, Congruence, p. 173.
417
Cf. SCHMID, Authenticity: The Person as His or Her Own Author, p. 220.
418
CORNELIUS-WHITE, Congruence, p. 174.
419
Cf. Ibid.
332
therapist is also a human being and has his own human frailties and vulnerabilities.
Congruence means being aware of them and accepting them. However, being in a flow
means that the therapist is able to bracket the irrelevant experiences. 420 Another dimension
of congruence is spontaneity. Lietaer describes it as ‘disciplined spontaneity.’421
e) Congruence contributes to Effectiveness
Speaking about the role of genuineness in being a teacher - facilitator in education - Carl
Rogers says:

When the facilitator is a real person, being what she is, entering into
relationship with the learner without presenting a front or façade, she is
much more likely to be effective. That means that the feelings that she is
experiencing are available to her, available to her awareness, that she is able
to live these feelings, be them, and able to communicate them if appropriate.
It means that she comes into a direct person-to-person basis. It means she is
being herself, not denying herself…Thus, she is a person to her students, not
a faceless embodiment of a curricular requirement nor a sterile tube through
which knowledge is passed from one generation to the next.422

Rogers emphasized very often that when a therapist is natural and spontaneous, he is more
genuine and congruent: “I believe it is the realness… when the therapist is natural and
spontaneous that he seems to be the most effective.”423

In the opinion of Mearns and Thorne, congruence takes away the aura of secrecy and threat
from the therapeutic relationship. Concealing the real response and sending contradictory
signals only confuse the client who is already in distress and affects the efficacy of therapy.
They argue, “Congruence demystifies the counsellor’s work because it shows simply and
clearly what she is experiencing in response to the client. It shows that she is not
harbouring complicated and threatening interpretations or theories about the client’s
pathology. It takes away the secrecy of counselling and ensures that the counsellor and the
client share the same reality.”424

4.2.3.1.5.5 Concluding Reflection

Only a person who can be openly himself at the moment of therapy can be an effective
therapist. Congruence has another layer in its practice which is bodily felt. The therapist, to
be fully congruent and effective, has to pay attention to their clients’ bodies and that of

420
Cf. CORNELIUS-WHITE, Congruence, p. 175.
421
Cf. Ibid.
422
Carl R. ROGERS, The Interpersonal Relationship in the Facilitation of Learning, in The Carl Rogers
Reader, p. 306. [Originally published in LEEPER. R (Ed.), Humanizing Education. Alexandria, VA:
Association for Supervision of Curriculum Development, 1967, pp. 1-18]. Emphasis as in the original.
423
Carl R. ROGERS, as quoted by CORNELIUS-WHITE, Congruence, p. 175.
424
MEARNS / THORNE, Person-Centred Counselling in Action, p.105.
333
their own. There must also be what is called ‘bodily felt congruence’ and it calls for mind-
body-spirit integration.425 In today’s world of change and pluralism, a congruent therapist
should develop a capacity to accept diversity and plurality and tolerate a certain degree of
ambiguity and discomfort, too, which are necessarily part of human existence today. As
Mahatma Gandhi said, it is being and becoming the change that we want to see in the
world today.426

4.2.3.1.6 Client Perception

Perception or client perception is the sixth condition proposed by Rogers as necessary and
sufficient. Perception as a concept in psychology is one of the most researched topics. It is
also an important concept in philosophy, especially in epistemology. The development of
the concept owes much to the work of European philosophers like Buber, Kierkegaard, and
Merleau-Ponty. The humanistic psychologists have been greatly influenced by these
existentialist philosophers. The humanists have taken the idea that a person can only be
understood from his point of view, which in turn lays emphasis on the uniqueness of
human experience. It lays stress on personal awareness and how people make sense of
events for personal meaning.427

Although perception is implicit in any form of therapy, Rogers was the first to state it as a
necessary and sufficient condition. This emphasizes the view of humanistic psychology,
where the subjective or phenomenological experience of the person is central to therapeutic
change, that it is the client who makes the decision in the therapy. 428 Wilkins claims this
condition puts the client at the centre of the therapeutic process and at the same time lays
responsibility on the therapist to make sure that the client is being and feeling understood
and accepted.429

To have a concrete effect on the client, it is not enough that the therapist has all qualities
and conditions but the client also be able to perceive it from the therapist. That is the sixth
and last condition. Rogers stated in 1959: “That the client perceives, at least to a minimal
degree, conditions 4 and 5, the unconditional positive regard of the therapist for him, and

425
Cf. CORNELIUS-WHITE, Congruence, pp.176-177.
426
Cf. Ibid., pp. 178-179.
427
Cf. Shaké G. TOUKMANIAN / Lila Z. HAKIM, Client Perception in The Handbook of PCPC, (207-
220), pp.208-209.
428
Cf. TOUKMANIAN / HAKIM, Client Perception, pp. 209-210.
429
Cf. WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, p. 69.
334
the empathic understanding of the therapist.”430 It means that the client should perceive at
least to some degree the UPR and the empathy that the therapist has for him. It is not
enough that the therapist has UPR and empathy for the client. He should also be able to
communicate them to the client in a manner that he perceives them to some extent. It is
logical to think that as long as he does not perceive them in the therapist, they do not exist
for him. In 1957, Rogers wrote the following about the final condition of therapeutic
change:

The final condition as stated is that the client perceives, to a minimal degree,
the acceptance and empathy which the therapist experiences for him. Unless
some communication of these attitudes has been achieved, then such
attitudes do not exist in the relationship as far as the client is concerned, and
the therapeutic process could not, by our hypothesis, be initiated. Since
attitudes cannot be directly perceived, it might be somewhat more accurate
to state that the therapist’s behaviors and words are perceived by the client as
meaning that to some degree the therapist accepts and understands him. …
In the present state of our knowledge the meaning of “to a minimal degree”
would have to be arbitrary.431

Client perception is important for therapy because only if the client perceives the
therapist’s congruence, UPR and empathy, can he engage himself in a therapeutic
relationship. Rogers has written actually little about client perception. It is a condition
which often is not apparent but lies at the core of the person-centred therapeutic practice:
“Although often not readily apparent, it is the central and most pervasive concept that runs
through the links and humanistic foundations of the theory to many of its basic
prepositions, including Rogers’ unique conceptualization of the process of therapy and the
nature of the therapeutic relationship.”432

How can the therapist transmit empathy and UPR to the client that he is able to perceive
them? Rogers has not given any explanation or method regarding this. He seemed to have
assumed that when other conditions are present, this should automatically occur.
Therefore, in the field of person-centred therapy, the further understanding and practice of
it is based on the understanding, experience and training of the individual therapist. 433

Some practitioners and authors believe it can be ascertained from the way the client
behaves if he has perceived UPR and empathy from the therapist. Another possibility is a

430
ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 213. Italics as in the original.
431
Carl R. ROGERS, The Necessary and Sufficient Conditions of Therapeutic Personality Change in Journal
of Consulting Psychology, Vol. 21. 2, 1957, p. 99.
432
TOUKMANIAN / HAKIM, Client Perception, p. 207.
433
Cf. TOUKMANIAN / HAKIM, Client Perception, p. 211.
335
post-therapy evaluation obtained from the client. Yet another means can be to see whether
the client has undergone positive therapeutic change.434 They also believe that further
study and research is needed in this field. Since the client is a major contributor to the
outcome of the therapy, it is crucial to know the perception of the client of the
conditions/qualities shown by the therapist.

4.2.3.2 Status of the Conditions

Do all person-centred therapists consider all the six conditions proposed by Rogers in 1959
as necessary and sufficient? It is difficult to say. There are different views regarding the
conditions even among person-centred practitioners. It depends mainly on their approach.

Those who strictly follow the classical version of the person-centred approach hold that
these conditions are necessary and sufficient. Other followers of the person-centred
approach such as processing therapy and process-experiential schools also regard them as
crucial. They believe that these conditions are more important than techniques in therapy.
Techniques are relatively unimportant or play only a subsidiary role in the person-centred
approach except to help fulfil the three core conditions.435 Freiere throws more light on the
issue:

Although the focus on the phenomenological world of the client is a

common ground for all person-centred orientations, there are differences
among them in relation to how the therapist should communicate empathy
and the associated conditions of unconditional positive regard and
congruence. From the classical perspective, the six conditions are ‘necessary
and sufficient’, but in the view of the other orientations they are ‘necessary
but not sufficient’ and should be supplemented with other procedures.436

Jeffrey Von Glahn argues the psychological hurt - one of the main reasons why one
approaches a therapist – and therapeutic catharsis – one of the major means of releasing
this hurt or tension – should also be treated as a necessary and sufficient condition.437

In the major later works of Rogers like On Becoming a Person and A Way of Being, one
sees a detailed treatment of the three ‘core conditions’ and a neglect of the other three
conditions. Did Rogers change his attitude? Or did he think that these three are more
important than the other? Or did he take the other three conditions for granted?

434
Cf. TOUKMANIAN / HAKIM, Client Perception, p. 213.
435
Cf. FREIRE, Empathy, p. 201.
436
Ibid.
437
Cf. Jeffrey Von GLAHN, Proposed Necessary and Sufficient Conditions for Optimal Psychotherapeutic
Change, in PCEP, Vol.10. 2, June 2011, pp. 129-143.
336
There are some person-centred therapists who treat only the core conditions as necessary
and sufficient. They include famous person-practitioners like Bozarth, Bohart, Greenberg
and Geller. But authors like Keith Tudor argue that Rogers spoke of six necessary and
sufficient conditions and they should remain so. All the six are necessary and they are
sufficient, too. He also argues that the idea of ‘core conditions’ is confusing and could be
done away with.438 Many person-centred therapists, who take deviation from the classical
version of the therapy, do not accept the Rogerian version of the ‘necessary and sufficient
conditions’ as sufficient. In the post-classical person-centred approach the therapist uses
also other activities and processes that they believe to be facilitative. They also intend to
influence the client without manipulating him, and some are even explicit about the
process of directivity.439 Process directive perspective in PCA makes use of selective
understanding to focus on the client’s growth possibilities. Over the years, some person-
centred therapists have focused more on becoming an ‘alter-ego’ for the client and entering
into an ‘I-thou’ relationship with the client with more free use of self and with more self-
disclosure and self-expressiveness.440

Brian Thorne and Dave Mearns, two ardent senior person-centred therapists, are of the
opinion that very often the core conditions are sufficient:

The debate about the necessity and sufficiency of Rogers’ six conditions will
probably never be resolved because it is difficult to see how a convincing
research design could ever be devised to test the complete package. Clearly,
however, the conditions are not always necessary because there is ample
evidence that ‘therapeutic movement’ can take place without them; a chance
meeting with a far from empathic stranger in a train has been known to
change a life in a positive direction as has the reading of a powerful novel.
What does seem likely, however, is that the presence of the core conditions
and their recognition at some level by the client is sufficient in most cases to
provide a powerful context for positive development.441

4.2.4 Process of Therapy and Its Outcome

Having seen the historical development and the theoretical background of PCT, it is time
to see the process and the effects of therapy. Although most research done in the field

438
Cf. Keith TUDOR, Rogers’ Therapeutic Conditions: A Relational Conceptualization, in PCEP, Vol.10,
No. 3, September 2011, (165-180), pp.166-168.
439
Cf. BOZARTH, Unconditional Positive Regard in The Handbook of PCPC, p. 185.
440
Cf. FREIRE, Empathy, p. 202.
441
Dave MEARNS / Brian THORNE, Person-Centred Therapy Today: New Frontiers in Theory and
Practice, London: Sage Publications, 2000, pp. 99-100. Emphasis as in the original.
337
concludes that psychotherapy is beneficial, the efficacy of therapy is still a controversial
field because sometimes the effects are not measurable, and in many cases the effects
cannot be concretely related to the therapy.442

4.2.4.1 How Does Therapeutic Change Take Place in PCT?

How can the presence of these conditions in the therapist bring about change in the client?
Rogers believes that if these three conditions (i.e., the above-mentioned core conditions)
are present in the therapist, constructive personal change is most likely: “If all those three
match in a therapist then I think the client is very fortunate, and constructive personal
change is most likely to occur… It is that if in a relationship this kind of empathy or of
caring exists, then the relationship will be constructive, but is not as though you can tell
yourself to be empathic and immediately be there. What I am saying is if these three
conditions exist, then change is much more probable. But you cannot order yourself to do
that.”443

Rogers claims when the client is really listened to with whole heart and with empathy, he
begins to look into himself. The condition of the therapist helps the client to have an
internal process which helps him to listen to himself and to increase his self-worth. His
self-image changes, growth takes place – he becomes more real, genuine and self-
trusting.444 Carl Rogers describes this process in a much later work as follows:

If the client finds herself really listened to in this intense, sensitive and deep
way, she begins to listen to herself more: What is going on in me? In other
words, the empathic attitude on the part of the therapist encourages the client
to a more sensitive listening to herself. As the therapist exhibits more of a
positive and unconditional caring toward the client, the client begins to feel:
‘Possibly I am worthwhile, possibly I can care for myself more, and possibly
I can regard myself with greater respect’. And there she begins to change the
often very negative self-attitudes which are common in clients. So it begins
to develop a more positive self-concept in the client. In other words, what
happens in the client is a real reciprocal act of what’s occurring in the
therapist. As the therapist listens to the client, the client comes more to listen
to himself or herself; as the therapist cares with a more unconditional caring
for the client, the client’s self-worth begins to develop. As the client

442
Cf. Michael J. LAMBERT / Benjamin M. OGLES (Eds.), The Efficacy and Effectiveness of
Psychotherapy in Michael J. LAMBERT (Ed.), Bergin and Garfield’s Handbook of Psychotherapy and
Behaviour Change (5th Edition), NY: John Wiley & Sons, 2004, pp.139-193. This book is a very useful and
one of the most authoritative compendia for those who like to inform themselves more about psychotherapy,
its effectiveness, different factors that contribute to its success/failure etc.
443
ROGERS, On Becoming a Person, pp. 31-38.
444
Cf. ROGERS, The Basic Conditions, in The Handbook of PCPC, p. 4.
338
 responds in herself in both those ways then the client is becoming more real,
more congruent, more expressing of what is actually going on inside.445

One of the greatest processes taking place in the client is that he is more able to listen to
himself and able to have a positive self-image of himself. It is made possible through the
unconditional acceptance, empathic listening and congruence manifested by the therapist.
Through his empathic listening, the therapist enables the client to listen to himself. Carl
Rogers also claims that his theory of therapeutic condition is based on empirical research.
Since 1957, it has been enormously researched and confirmed.446

4.2.4.2 Process of Therapy

How does the process of therapy take place? What happens in the sessions of person-
centred therapy? Rogers says when the necessary conditions 447 – the six conditions – are
present, the process of therapy sets in the client a process. It may be good to refer back to
the original idea and the detailed wording of Rogers as early as in 1959 to understand this
important process:

When the preceding conditions exist and continue, a process is set in motion
which has these characteristic directions: 1. The client is increasingly free in
expressing his feelings, through verbal and/or motor channels. 2. His
expressed feelings increasingly have reference to the self, rather than non-
self. 3. He increasingly differentiates and discriminates the objects of his
feelings and perceptions, including his environment, other persons, his self,
his experiences, and the interrelationships of these. He becomes less
intentional and more extensional in his perceptions, or to put it in other
terms, his experiences are more accurately symbolized. 4. His expressed
feelings increasingly have reference to the incongruity between certain of his
experiences and his concept of self. 5. He comes to experience in awareness
the threat of such incongruence. This experience of threat is possible only
because of the continued unconditional positive regard of the therapist,
which is extended to incongruence as much as to congruence, to anxiety as
much as to absence of anxiety. 6. He experiences fully, in awareness,
feelings which have in the past been denied to awareness, or distorted in
awareness. 7. His concept of self becomes reorganized to assimilate and
include these experiences which have previously been distorted in or denied
to awareness. 8. As this reorganization of the self-structure continues, his
concept of self becomes increasingly congruent with his experience; the self
now includes experiences which previously would have been too threatening
to be in awareness. A corollary tendency is toward fewer perceptual
distortions in awareness, or denials to awareness, since there are fewer

445
ROGERS, The Basic Conditions, in The Handbook of PCPC, p. 4.
446
Cf. Ibid.
447
As noted earlier, there is some lack of clarity regarding the conditions. In his early writings Rogers spoke
of six conditions, but in his later writings he mentions basically three conditions – empathy, UPR and
congruence, known as the core conditions. In his later works Rogers seems to be taking the other three
conditions for granted. He seems to be presupposing that without the presence of these three conditions –
contact, incongruence of the client and perception – therapy cannot take place.
339
 experiences which can be threatening. In other words, defensiveness is
decreased. 9. He becomes increasingly able to experience, without a feeling
of threat, the therapist's unconditional positive regard. 10. He increasingly
feels an unconditional positive self-regard. 11. He increasingly experiences
himself as the locus of evaluation. 12. He reacts to experience less in terms
of his conditions of worth and more in terms of an organismic valuing
process.448

Rogers says although all these steps may not be visible in all instances of therapy, they are
the most visible elements in this process. Rogers says he cannot exactly say why if all
these conditions exist the change necessarily takes place. There has been sufficient
evidence to prove that it does take place.449

4.2.4.3 Changes That Take Place as a Result of Therapy

What are the outcomes experienced by the client as a result of the therapy? What are the
visible and invisible, internal and external changes that take place as a result of therapy?

I have dealt with already in the preceding parts some of the major changes that take place
as a result of therapy. Rogers in his 1959 work stated that some of the relatively permanent
changes taking place in the client are the following. The client experiences increased
congruence between self and experience, the lack of which formerly caused distress. The
client becomes more congruent. He is more open to experience. He is more realistic and
has a better psychological adjustment than before. Tensions in him are reduced. He
experiences a higher degree of positive self-concept and self-regard. He experiences better
acceptance of himself and of others. He affirms himself as the locus of evaluation and of
choice. He believes that his behaviour is within his control. He becomes more socialized,
mature, adaptive and creative.450

4.2.5 Criticism of PCT

In spite of his wide popularity and acceptance, Rogers’ work and contributions has been
the object of severe criticism, too. The person-centred approach faced and still faces plenty
of criticism:

From the beginning, client-centered therapy has had its critics — for the
apparent vagueness of its principles, its antipathy to diagnosis, its claim that

448
ROGERS, A Theory of Therapy, 1959, p. 216. (Emphasis in the original).
449
Cf. Ibid., p. 217.
450
Cf. Ibid., pp. 218-219. [Here I have mentioned only a few of the changes; for a detailed list of changes
refer to pp. 218-219].
340
 therapists need little training, and its emphasis on the client’s self-evaluation
as the way to judge the outcome of therapy. Rogers admitted that his ideas
left a great deal of room for interpretation. Many thought he was a gifted
therapist, and it is difficult to know whether those who follow his model or
use his methods are practicing as he intended. Client-centered therapy may
also work less well with people who find it difficult to talk about themselves
or have a mental illness that distorts their perceptions of reality. 451

Those who defend the PCA argue that most of the criticism is due to misunderstanding and
lack of understanding of the person-centred approach. It has often been criticised for being
too naïve, simple, simplistic and unscientific. Many believe the person-centred approach
requires no training or qualification. It is enough to be ‘nice’ to people. There is actually no
serious work and no expertise is required. This type of therapy is only helpful in trivial
matters. Most of this criticism is due to the poor presentation of the person-centred
approach by its own followers and due to the lack of unity among them.452

Rogers faced most severe criticism from the academic circles and from psychologists who
found it difficult to accept the revolutionary new ideas of Rogers. Even at the time of
Rogers he was criticised for not having a coherent theory of personality for his
psychotherapy and Rogers was aware of it, too.453

His theory and method have been criticised for oversimplification, trusting the ‘sick’
patients and relying on their resources, which is a fallacy. This is not going to help therapy.
Others claimed there was nothing new in the findings of Rogers - ‘there is nothing new in
it,’ ‘we knew it already.’454 Rogers’ position was directly against the popular thinking in
the field of psychotherapy at that time: we must also use our expertise, experience, and
knowledge sometimes to direct and to guide, too. It is the therapist who should give
direction to the process of therapy.

4.2.5.1 Tendency to Self-Actualise: Does it Exist?

The actualising tendency is one of the core concepts of PCA. It is also one of the main
points of controversy in PCA. Critics say it is merely a theoretical construct, and such a
tendency does not exist, and it cannot be scientifically proved in any way. Person-centred
therapists themselves admit that there is some lack of clarity regarding the actualising

451
Client Centred Therapy, in Harvard Mental Health Health Letter, January 1, 2006, (authorless article).
http://www.health.harvard.edu/newsletters/harvard_mental_health_letter/2006/january (10.12.15)
452
Cf. WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, pp.123-124.
453
Cf. ROGERS, Client-Centered Therapy, p. 15.
454
Cf. KIRCHENBAUM / HENDERSON, The Carl Rogers Reader, pp. xiv-xv.
341
tendency.455 Christian thinkers argue that by aggressively promoting self-actualization,
Rogers places the self at the centre of all human actions and contributes to egoism and self-
centredness. They criticize Rogers’ theory for being self-focused and neglects the ethical
and social dimensions.456

Some criticise the person-centred approach on the goal and endpoint of the therapy. They
take for granted that the goal of therapy is self-actualisation. But this view is not true. For a
person-centred therapist, self-actualization is not a state or the goal of therapy. “Person-
centred theory neither states nor implies that there is an ideal state which is to be the
objective of therapy and/or personal growth.”457 Unlike Maslow, Rogers sees self-
actualization as a process. It is not the peak or a point of stagnation. The person-centred
therapy does not see it as a goal of therapy. Sometimes self-actualization can come in
conflict with the actualizing tendency. But it is true that a fully-functioning person
experiences directional growth, not a state. It is a process of becoming.458

4.2.5.2 Naïve and Seriously Lacking

Critics consider the person-centred approach to be naïve and lacking459 because it operates
without the traditional and established methods in therapy like transference and other
unconscious methods. They argue that being empathic and congruent, the person-centred
therapist sometimes denies the client the negative transference of their feelings. That
prevents real and in-depth therapy. Being nice alone is not enough. Sometimes the
therapist has to confront and challenge the person. Person-centred therapists say they do
not emphasise it because it can affect relational depth in the therapy, which the person-
centred approach holds as more important than healing. Transference takes place and is
useful in a relatively superficial relationship, not in a deep relationship as in the case of the
person-centred therapy.460

The academic circles largely neglected Rogers’ works and contributions. Rogers was
aware of this fact. The person-centred approach was not taken seriously in the universities

455
Cf. Joanna L. RINGROSE, The Concept of Actualising Tendency in Client-Centred Psychotherapy Theory
and Practice (unpublished article). Available online at:
http://www.karunatherapy.co.uk/files/Actualising%20tendency.pdf (03.1.2016).
456
Cf. Terry WATSON / Stanton L. JONES / Richard E. BUTMAN, Person-Centered Therapy, in Stanton L.
JONES / Richard E. BUTMAN (Eds.), Modern Psychotherapies. A Comprehensive Christian Appraisal,
Downers Grove, IL: IVP, 2011, (pp. 260 -290), pp. 272-275.
457
WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, p.126.
458
Cf. Ibid., pp.125-126.
459
See Client Centred Therapy, in Harvard Mental Health Health Letter.
460
Cf. WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, pp.141-142.
342
because they believed it to be unscientific and naïve and seriously lacking. Some think
Rogers has a very trivial view of what is going on within a human person, his inner
conflicts, emotions and his deep-seated desires and passions.461 Rogers was disappointed at
the neglect of his psychotherapy in academic circles. A year before his death he wrote: “In
universities I feel we are under-represented, badly misunderstood and seen as superficial.
We are under-represented partly because we constitute a threat to the academically-
minded. We espouse the importance of experiential as well as cognitive learning. Such
learning involves the risk of being challenged by the experience, and this can be
frightening to one whose world is intellectually structured.”462

Carl Rogers himself was agitated about being considered naïve. He wrote in a personal
communication: “Because my writing is reasonably lucid and my ideas are less complex,
does not mean that my ideas are less complex or profound than those whose writing is
more difficult to understand.”463 Some critics of PCT say that it is very affective in nature
dealing mainly with feelings and emotions and leaves out many important cognitive
aspects of human life like sensing, perception, thinking, etc. C. H. Patterson argues that in
reality the person-centred practitioner deals with the client as a whole and sees him as a
person in his entirety.464

4.2.5.3 Is Non-Directive Approach Possible?

Non-directive approach is central to PCT. In fact, it is also called non-directive therapy.
Critics say it is impractical and impossible. They argue that an incongruent client can never
be an equal partner to the therapist and can never be in a position to direct himself. He
needs help and that is the reason he seeks it. The therapist is bound by the ethics of his
profession to help him; he actively uses his training, skills and expertise to do so. To be
client-centred can only be a pretention.

Person-centred practitioners argue that it is a wrong understanding of PCA. Non-directivity

in the first sense means the freedom and the right of the client to choose his own goals and
to decide the direction of the therapy. Wilkins says: “The belief is that clients have insight

461
Cf. WATSON / JONES / BUTMAN, Person-Centered Therapy, pp. 274-275.
462
Carl R. ROGERS, Carl Rogers on the Development of Person-Centered Approach in Person-Centered
Review, 1.3, (257-259), 1986, pp. 257-258.
463
As quoted by Barry A. FARBER, in The Psychotherapy of Carl Rogers. Cases and Commentary, p. 2.
464
Cf. C. H. PATTERSON, The Therapeutic Relationship: Foundations for an Eclectic Psychotherapy,
Monterey, CA: Brook/Cole Publications: 1985, p. 214.
343
into themselves and their problems and are best placed to make the right choices at the
right time. This is about trusting the actualising tendency.”465

It is one of the earliest criticisms against the PCT therapy that the therapist is only a
passive participant/listener who just listens to the client and reflects his feelings. It is true
that the therapist is a listener - but a sharp and active listener. It is a way of being in which
the therapist makes the client feel understood, helps him to deeper self-exploration and
being in a relationship with him and accompanying him on his way. 466

The major controversy regarding Rogers is to what extent can we rely on the individual’s
ability to guide his own growth and to what extent is outside help required? Take, for
example, the situation of a person in a ditch or mire, desperately looking for help to come
out. In such a situation is it not normal to throw a piece of rope or a pole at him so that
with its help he can get out of it? Or should we just feel with him and ‘empathically’
watch him go down?

4.2.5.4 Over-simplistic Psychopathology

Critics of the person-centred approach say that it does not have a sound theoretical basis to
explain psychopathology. They criticise that this approach does not have a method of
diagnosis like psychoanalysis. Rogers traces all psychopathology to incongruence. That
sounds too simple. One of the questions an ordinary person, who is not very familiar with
psychology, often asks is: Can simple incongruence cause serious mental illness and
personality disorders? Can incongruence be the cause of serious mental illnesses as
Rogers claims?

It is true that the person-centred approach does not ‘diagnose’ because it treats the clients
as persons and not as patients. Diagnosis labels and fixes the client. Then the therapist
would try to focus more on the problem than on the person. That is totally contrary to the
spirit of the person-centred approach, which, however, uses exploration to see the causes of
incongruence in the person and assessment to ascertain the client.467

4.2.5.5 Over-optimism Regarding Human Nature?

Another criticism against the person-centred philosophy is the presumption that human
beings are fundamentally good. Is it not too naïve and unduly optimistic to claim human

465
WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, p.146.
466
Cf. PATTERSON, The Therapeutic Relationship, pp. 213-217.
467
Cf. WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, pp.127-128.
344
nature to be fundamentally good in the face of all the atrocities committed by humans in
the past and today?468 One important point to be taken into account is that Rogers never
claimed human beings to be innately good. Nor did he hold the view that humans are
inherently evil. What he believed was that human beings have such basic characteristics
like being positive, forward- moving, constructive, realistic and trustworthy.

It is true that Rogers did not hold human beings to be fundamentally hostile, destructive
and evil, although some grow in that direction. Nor did he believe human being to be
tabula rasa which has to be filled up. He did not hold human beings to be perfect beings,
either. Carl Rogers spoke more about the psychological and biological nature of man than
of his moral nature. He held the optimistic view that we are constructive; we tend to grow
and move towards the perfection of our potential. Accordingly, the person-centred
approach does not hold that we are innately good but that we human beings have intrinsic
worth. This approach believes that it is human to have murderous and evil feelings. The
therapy helps the person to accept these feelings, acknowledge them and to change
them.469

Many argue that Rogers has largely neglected the problem of evil in his theory of human
nature. Rollo May, himself a humanistic psychologist, was convinced that humanistic
psychology failed to deal with the problem of evil: “The issue of evil – or, rather, the issue
of not confronting evil – has profound, and to my mind, adverse effects on humanistic
psychology. I believe it is the most important error in the humanistic movement.”470

The critics of Rogers saw in him the stubbornness not to accept the problem of human
destructiveness. They criticized him for not accepting the negative facts and realities of
human life.471

4.2.5.6 Are the Conditions ‘Necessary’ and ‘Sufficient’?

The person-centred approach has also been often challenged for holding on to Rogers’
conditions as necessary and sufficient. While many accept that they are helpful and even
necessary, they take exception to the view that they are sufficient. Rogers’ three core
conditions – congruence, UPR and empathy – have been widely accepted and appreciated.

468
Cf. WATSON / JONES / BUTMAN, Person-Centered Therapy, pp. 270-276.
469
Cf. WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, pp.131-133.
470
Rollo MAY, The Problem of Evil: An Open Letter to Carl Rogers, in Journal of Humanistic Psychology,
Vol. 22.3, (10-21), 1982, p.19.
471
Cf. COHEN, Carl Rogers. A Critical Biography, p. 229.
345
At the same time, they argue that these conditions are not sufficient. Even among the
person-centred practitioners there are differing views on this point and many do not hold
them to be absolute. They are constantly being reconsidered and modified by them.472

4.2.5.7 PCA: A 20th Century North American White Male Perspective?

The person-centred approach has been criticised for being typically a 20th century
Midwestern white male perspective.473 This argument does not hold water today as it has
spread in all the continents now. It has also undergone changes in line with different
cultures. Even at the time of Rogers, the person-centred approach had gone far beyond the
USA. He himself was instrumental in the spread of the person-centred approach.474

Some statements of Carl Rogers show that he was concerned about paying attention to the
cultural setting. In 1951, following suggestions regarding the training of future counsellors
and therapists, he said:

It seems desirable that the student should have broad experiential knowledge
of the human being in his cultural setting. … Such knowledge needs to be
supplemented by experiences of living with or dealing with individuals who
have been the product of cultural influences very different from those which
have moulded the student. Such experience and knowledge often seem
necessary to make possible the deep understanding of another.475

Most counselling and therapy forms originate in and are influenced by a particular culture
and setting. But that does not mean that they are limited to that culture. In today’s world all
therapy forms spread their wings across the globe. Person-centred therapists, and, in fact,
all therapists who engage in therapy with people of other cultures, have to take extreme
care to take into account the culture of the client, the concept of person and self. He has to
make himself familiar with cultural diversities and respect them.476 Kirschenbaum is also
aware of the criticism that PCT is too individualistic and the core conditions and non-
directive approach makes it inappropriate for multi-cultural applications, especially in the
non-western cultures.477

472
Cf. WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, pp.135-136. [More on this topic: Status of the
Conditions – 4.2.3.2].
473
Cf. WATSON / JONES / BUTMAN, Person-Centered Therapy, pp. 264, 277.
474
Cf. WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, pp.137-138.
475
ROGERS, Client-Centered Therapy, 1951, p. 437.
476
Cf. Colin LAGO, Counselling Across Difference and Diversity, in The Handbook of PCPC, pp. 251-265.
477
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 510.
346
4.2.5.8 PCT Lacks Depth and Rigour
One of the popular views about the person-centred therapy is that it is too mild and
inoffensive and it can help only people who have minor adjustment problems in life, who
need a listening ear and sympathy but it cannot really treat/deal with people who have
serious and deep-rooted psychological problems. It is basically palliative in nature. It is no
real psychotherapy. Its methods solely consist of listening, reflecting and mirroring. It is
ineffective.478

The person-centred therapy uses ‘reflecting’ because it is an effort to make sure that the
client is understood properly and fully with the meanings he holds for himself. The person-
centred approach withholds one-sided interpretation or delving into the unconscious by the
therapist. Reflection is about being non-directive. The aim is to understand the whole
experience of the client, expressed and unexpressed. However, the person-centred
approach uses therapeutic encounter to understand the client and to respond to the ‘whole
of the client’s experience’. What is on the ‘edge of awareness’ can be perceived through
therapeutic empathy, even if the client is not aware of it and fails to reveal it. For this the
tool of ‘reflection’ is a great help.479

Client-centred therapy has also been often criticised for being not effective for treating
serious psychological problems. Critics say it is useful for only a few problems and works
with only some clients. However, person-centred therapy has proved successful and
effective with clients with schizophrenia and psychotic problems.480

4.2.5.9 Rogers: an Advocate of the Spirit of 1960s and ‘70s?

After the Second World War, the western world was gripped by a spirit of liberalism,
permissiveness, promiscuity and personal freedom which also gave rise to dramatic social
changes, rise of hippy culture, sexual revolution, breakdown of traditional values, etc,
which reached its climax in the 1960s and ‘70s. The movement was obviously anti-
traditional and anti-authoritarian and it attacked tradition, religious beliefs, Church and
anything that tended to limit personal freedom. It was also characterised by a new-found
love for eastern religions, mysticism and spirituality.

478
Cf. WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, pp.151-153.
479
Cf. Ibid., pp.154-155.
480
Cf. PATTERSON, The Therapeutic Relationship: Foundations for an Eclectic Psychotherapy, p. 214.
347
Rogers was well-accepted and appreciated by the young people. Young people flocked to
Rogers and to his lectures and programmes. But the question remains: Did Rogers promote
the liberal and libertine spirit of the ‘60s and ‘70s? His personal life and philosophy tend to
suggest so. His many illegal affairs seem to suggest that Rogers was part of the sexual
revolution of this age.481

His tendency to negate authority, religious beliefs, Church, and the stress he lays on the
individual experience and personal freedom also give support to this argument. The
tendency to see everything as relative and subjective - as self is the ultimate judge of
everything- poses a great danger to society and the social fabric, church and any form of
authority.482 Was Rogers an anti-authoritarian narcissist in whose opinion the world was
limited to the personal phenomenological perception of the individual? How far can we
trust the individual person and his senses? Are there no realities beyond the perception of
the individual? Rogers’ psychotherapy will be further scrutinised in the following chapter.

Concluding Remarks

From this study of Carl Rogers and PCA until now it is clear the contribution of Rogers to
the field of psychology and psychotherapy is enormous. No wonder, he is considered by
many as one of the greatest psychologists of the 20th century483 and the pioneer and father
of the counselling movement.484 The psychotherapy that Rogers developed may not today
be as wide-spread or practised in its original form as it was in the last century. But it exists
even today and has given birth to many branches or to ‘tribes’, who still trace their origin
back to Carl Rogers.

Rogers has introduced and developed a personal manner of expressing and communicating
in psychotherapy which was hitherto unknown. Even his critics do acknowledge his
contributions to the field of psychotherapy: “Rogers’ philosophy – listen to the client, treat
him or her with respect, use empathy, try to get the client to find his or her own solutions –
has become part of the fabric of therapy.”485

481
Cf. COHEN, Carl Rogers. A Critical Biography, pp.18-19.
482
Cf. WATSON / JONES / BUTMAN, Person-Centered Therapy, p. 278.
483
Cf. Eminent Psychologists of the 20th Century in Monitor on Psychology, Vol. 33.7, 2002, American
Psychological Association (APA), p. 29. See also (for the same), The Review of General Psychology, Vol.
6.2, 2002, pp. 139-152.
484
Cf. J. M. FUSTER, Personal Counselling, p. 27.
485
COHEN, Carl Rogers. A Critical Biography, p. 235.
348
Rogers has given rise to a movement which has spread across the world and in different
directions. For those who apply psychology in the pastoral field, Rogers remains even
today a great model. Person-centred approach is one of the most frequently used methods
in the pastoral field even today. Emphasising the healing power of relationship could be
seen as Rogers’ greatest contribution to humanity and to the field of pastoral counselling.
However, further research and development in this direction is needed to make PCA more
suitable and relevant to our times and our context.

Perhaps it is appropriate to wind up this section with a quote:

For our technological age is increasingly impressed by new wonders of

telecommunication, new drugs and cures, new hardware and software, new
gadgets for work and leisure – the latest advances modern science and
capitalism have to offer. Rogers’ message points us in a different direction,
at first glance much less exciting and more difficult: The answer to most of
our problems lies not in technology, but in relationships. What really matters
is trust in ourselves and others, in communication, in how we handle our
feelings and conflicts, in how we find meaning in our lives.486

486
KIRSCHENBAUM / HENDERSON, The Carl Rogers Reader, p. xvi. Emphasis mine.
349
 CHAPTER 5

Person-Oriented and Person-Centred: Looking for a Combined

Approach

Introduction

After having seen at some length two important approaches in Spiritual Direction and
counselling/psychotherapy respectively, it is time to look for similarities and differences to see
whether it is possible to develop a combined approach. This chapter looks for such similarities
and differences between the two approaches and tries to integrate the common elements from
both of these approaches.

As noted already in the first chapter, it is not an easy task to combine psychology/ psychotherapy
with Christian theology/spirituality. But the many successful efforts in the recent times give us
hope and encouragement. Efforts at an integration of Christian theology with different cultures
and sciences have been made from the very beginning of Christianity. What would have been
Christian theology without the Greek philosophy? Today one speaks also of Liberation
Theology, Asian Theology, Indian Theology etc.

Psychology is relatively very young and efforts to integrate it into pastoral ministry are still
going on, especially with reference to the diverse spiritual traditions of the Church. Over the last
decades the cry for integration between counselling (psychotherapy) and spirituality has been
louder. It has come from psychologists, therapists and from spiritual directors. Many of them
argue that in order to give a holistic healing to the needy person a healthy integration is
necessary.

In spite of the declining interest in organised religions, especially in the West, there has been a
great interest in recent times in spirituality and its integration into psychotherapy and vice
versa. Spirituality remains a fundamental aspect of human experience. A significant number of
people have psychological problems related to spiritual experiences. Most therapists are not
competent to deal with the spiritual issues of the clients and thereby they ignore a key element of
clients’ experience.1 Numerous books and authors (some of them are quoted in this work) reveal
that the spiritual dimension of persons cannot be neglected and that it has also to be taken into

1
Cf. William WEST, Psychotherapy and Spirituality. Crossing the Line between Therapy and Religion, London:
Sage, 2000, pp. 131-133.
350
account in counselling and therapy.2 In pastoral circles a purely psychological approach is less
appreciated in recent times as it tends to neglect the spiritual dimension of the person. The initial
euphoria about a purely psychological approach has died down. It is not any more ‘psychology
alone.’ There is a renewed interest in spiritual and religious issues in therapy. Therapists have
come to the understanding that the spiritual and religious issues of a person cannot just be
pushed aside in therapy.3 Sometimes the spiritual and the psychological issues are so intimately
intertwined that it is difficult to separate the spiritual from the secular. Moreover, they believe
that spiritual issues also belong to the key aspect of human life.4

5.1 Is an Integration Possible?

To go into every aspect regarding the integration of spirituality into counselling and
psychotherapy would be too broad, unrealistic and impractical. Therefore, the fundamental
question that I ask here is: is it possible to integrate Salesian approach with person-centred
approach? This is the subject matter of this chapter. This question is answered in the light of
what I have dealt with so far in this work.

Since my attempt is intimately related to Salesian approach, to ascertain the thinking of some
scholars and experts from this field, an internet survey was conducted. 5 Eighty-two persons
responded to the survey. Most of those who took the survey were familiar with Salesian
spirituality and engaged in some form of ministry of guidance – counselling, pastoral
counselling, spiritual direction, teaching etc. Some psychotherapists/psychologists were also part
of the survey. The findings of the survey have also been incorporated into this chapter.

In the survey, most of those who follow Salesian spirituality, i.e, the spirituality of Francis de
Sales, felt that it was possible to combine Salesian spirituality and counselling/psychotherapy.
But invariably all of them had a word of caution regarding the integration of psychology in
pastoral counselling. Salesian spirituality has a great potential for guiding people. Of those who

2
Cf. P. Scott RICHARDS / Allen E.BERGIN, A Spiritual Strategy for Counselling and Psychotherapy (2nd Edition),
Washington DC: American Psychological Association (APA), 2005, pp. 5-26. In this book, officially published by
the APA, the authors, narrating many concrete examples and therapy cases, make a serious appeal for a theistic
spiritual strategy.
3
Cf. RICHARDS / BERGIN, A Spiritual Strategy for Counselling and Psychotherapy pp. 3-12.
4
Cf. James M. NELSON, Psychology, Religion and Spirituality, New York: Springer, 2009, pp. 490-491.
5
The result of the survey is attached at the end of this work for reference.
351
were familiar with Salesian spirituality, 93.91% said that they used Salesian spirituality in their
ministry of guidance/direction. 6

The Church stands for the use of modern knowledge for helping persons, in so far as they don’t
go against the Gospel and the teaching of the Church.7 William West, therapist and author, calls
on the therapists to remove their prejudices about religion and spirituality, both positive and
negative. He encourages them to familiarize themselves even with spiritual direction and the
literature on spiritual guidance and pastoral care. They should not set aside the spiritual issues of
the clients when it appears in therapy. There should be more openness in this regard. It is also
important for therapists to discern the nature of spiritual experiences. Some of them are
sometimes falsely equated with madness by psychologists/therapists. A therapist should be able
to differentiate between spiritual direction, pastoral care, counselling and psychotherapy and
should be aware of the limits of his competence. He also suggests that the therapist themselves
should be involved in a process of spiritual development.8

In spite of the moribund state of religion today, West is convinced that spirituality and spiritual
experiences play a vital role for the psychological health of many clients. The therapists today
should be culturally and spiritually equipped to work with the clients. He firmly believes that
there is room for spirituality in today’s therapy.9 Another author, Peter Verhagen also believes
that an integration both spirituality and psychotherapy is possible and desirable. Both spirituality
and psychotherapy need to work together, as allies. He calls up on World Psychiatric Association
to get rid of its narrow- minded, reductionist and materialistic approach and to see religion and
spirituality as allies.10

5.2 Francis de Sales and Carl Rogers: A Comparison of Persons

Before I take a comparative look at the approaches of Francis de Sales and Carl Rogers, perhaps
it is fitting to compare these two personalities. That may help one to understand better the
similarities and differences in their approach from the point of view of their own lives. Persons
can be better understood when we look at their family, background, early life social context,

6
Refer to the survey for details.
7
Cf. G.S 62. See also 1.1.2 (Hereafter reference to previous chapters will be made by referring to the numbering in
the respective chapter. This is done to avoid unnecessary repetition. For example, here the footnote leads to Chapter
1 and the section 1.2).
8
Cf. WEST, Psychotherapy and Spirituality, pp. 131- 133.
9
Cf. Ibid., pp. 134- 135.
10
Cf. Peter J. VERHAGEN, Controversy or Consensus? Recommendations for Psychiatrists on Psychiatry,
Religion and Spirituality in Asian Journal of Psychiatry 2012, No. 5, pp. 355-357.
352
upbringing, education and the formative experiences. Knowing the person with his background
is also central to any form of therapy and spiritual direction. A short biographical sketch and
formative influences of both were dealt with in the previous chapters. Here we take only
comparative look at them based on the previous chapters to see the similarities and differences.

5.2.1 Upbringing

In the preceding chapters, e.g., in chapters two and three, I have gone into in details of the life
and ministry of Francis de Sales. Therefore, only some of the points relevant for our present
consideration are discussed here below.

Francis de Sales was a product of his political and religious environment. His family, especially
his mother influenced him deeply and positively. From early on, he was convinced of God’s and
his mother’s love for him.11 Likewise, Rogers was also greatly influenced by his family and
upbringing – but the influences were more or less negative. The family was a fundamentalist
protestant family. His parents were loving but very authoritarian. Unfortunately, he did not
experience the freedom and appreciation that was needed for sound mental and spiritual growth.
Her mother emphasized more the wretchedness of human beings than the love God had for them.
They also tried to segregate themselves from the ‘filthy’, ‘unholy’ environment around them.
This kind of upbringing had an effect on Rogers till the end of his life. This negative idea of God
and religion was also partially responsible why Rogers left religion in his adolescent years.12

As their biographers note, both them had a passion for reading and a longing for knowledge from
the younger days and both them were rather aloof in the school. They found more pleasure in
reading than in playing around with other children.

As regards schooling and education, Francis de Sales and Rogers received excellent education.
Thanks to the wealth of the family and their status as nobles, Francis received the best of
education available at that time. He completed his studies with a double doctorate – in Canon
Law and in Civil Law. His education had positive effect on Francis de Sales. He was open to
new ideas, able integrate different views and able to form his own opinion on many issues. As
narrated in the second chapter, at his younger days he came into contact with French Humanism,
French Renaissance and Christian Humanism which was beginning to flourish in Savoy. All
these had a profound influence on his preaching, writings and ministry of guidance. At the same

11
See 2.1.1.3
12
See 4.1.1.2
353
time Francis was also deeply aware of the dangers of humanism. His deeper contact with
Humanism in Paris and the terrible crisis he experienced taught him that the spirit of secular
humanism had to be tempered by faith and virtues.13 Later in his writing he was able to integrate
humanism into Christian theology and spirituality in the light of his own study and personal
experience.

Rogers also had good opportunities for education. Rogers was a very good student at different
colleges and universities and completed his studies with Doctorate. As a professor Rogers was
very much loved and valued by his students. Many students from outside universities would
gather to listen to his lectures and talks. He immediately established good rapport with young
people and students. There were many students under his supervision. Rogers received his
greatest satisfaction from his students in the graduate seminars and under his supervision.14

5.2.2 Personal Traits

If one looks Francis de Sales and Carl Rogers - their lives, work and personal qualities - one is
struck by the great similarity that one finds between the two. Both of them are very significant
personalities in their own fields, have made great contribution to the field of spiritual direction
and counselling respectively. Their ideas were to some extent revolutionary, too. Francis de
Sales tried, at a time of religious hatred, violence and animosity, to work his way through love,
friendliness, gentleness and his optimistic outlook. Rogers emerged at a time when
psychotherapy was getting established in the western world. He helped in establishing the ‘third
force’ as response to psychoanalysis and behaviourism.

Both of them had in common a very kind and positive approach to human beings, a spirit of
humanism, and above all, a heart for the other, especially for suffering human beings. Their
personal lives were characterised by gentleness, patient listening, non-judgemental attitude,
peaceable and peace-loving nature. Both cherished love of solitude, love of nature and possessed
a capacity to wonder at nature. They were both creative and productive, and wrote voluminously.

Looking at their personal traits, both of them were very loving and loveable personalities. As a
person, Rogers was totally accepting, warm, understanding but also tenacious and determined,
too.15 Rogers was also a man of determination with a defiant will to continue in spite of setbacks.

13
See 2.1.2.1
14
See 4.1.2.2
15
See 4.1.2.1.6
354
When his new therapy and his earlier books were not met with the expected success but were
dismissed with scorn from the academic circles, Rogers was not willing to give up his efforts.
He kept on working until he found acceptance and success.

In both of them, one notices a certain sense of disenchantment with the existing system and the
desire to work towards improvement, even if they had to meet with resistance and rejection.
Rogers was unhappy with the existing system of psychotherapy and the methods it used which,
he believed, was reductionistic and manipulative. He felt the need of starting a new form of
psychotherapy. In the same way, Francis de Sales also wanted to reform the Church in the spirit
of the Council of Trent, although he had to face many severe objections to it, even from his own
colleagues. His call to personal renewal was met with stiff resistance from the priests and
religious. In order to make religious life possible for the poor girls and the widows, he started the
Visitation Order. He also wanted to give a new dimension to spiritual direction basing it on love
and personal freedom. This was totally at variance with the existing practices.

Interestingly, both men experienced severe personal crisis sometime in their lives that changed
their perspective to life and influenced the rest their lives. As student in Paris in 1586 Francis
experienced his severest crisis in life.16 Rogers experienced the most serious crisis of his life in
1949 in Chicago after a botched up therapy with a severely schizophrenic woman.17 Francis
overcame his crisis through total surrender to God in prayer. Rogers, on the other hand, turned to
a therapist friend. Both emerged stronger and more willing to accept themselves after the crisis.

Francis de Sales and Rogers, both have left their influence on various fields that is felt even
today. Francis’ views on theology, spirituality and his insights on spiritual direction and
guidance continue to have its influence even today. So, too, Rogers does have an enormous
impact on various fields like psychology, psychotherapy, education, social work, peace
movements, nursing and management. Rogers’ psychology has its influence in Christian circles,
too, especially in the field of pastoral counselling. Many Christian thinkers and ministers believe
that the person-centred approach is well compatible with Christian ministry and is easy to learn
without rigid psychological training.18

16
See 2.1.2.2.6 ( All the details of the crisis, the occasion, his response etc. are dealt with here)
17
See 4.1.2.3.2
18
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 215.
355
5.2.3 Prolific Writing

Another important characteristic that both of them possessed, was their capacity to use language
effectively – both in speech and in writing. Francis de Sales was a master of French language. He
was very creative in his writing. He would write to people especially in his letters of spiritual
direction, as though he were talking personally to the person. His letters were very personal and
exuded warmth and love. All his works display his powerful but at same time persuasive use of
language, exuding charity and openness, his wonderful use of imageries from nature and
literature and concrete examples from day-to-day life. His language was characterised by
simplicity of style, elegance and grace. Although some of the works of Francis de Sales are
lost,19 most of them are available today in different languages. All his available works form 26
volumes in French known as the Annecy Edition.20 A German translation of all his works is
available, too.21 His works are even today relevant and Francis de Sales is considered one of the
best spiritual authors of the Church.22

Like Francis de Sales, Rogers was also a prolific writer. All of his works are available today. He
gave numerous talks and training programmes around the world. Being a prolific writer, he
persuasively brought out his ideas and concepts through his sixteen books and more than two
hundred scientific articles.23 He was also a pioneer in using non-print media for the use of
therapy. He made tapes and videos of his therapy sessions for the sake of scientific research. Carl
Rogers was also known as an educator and speaker and he always attracted a large audience.24

In the works of Francis de Sales and Rogers one comes to know of their love of nature.
Wonderful examples from nature are used profusely in their works, more especially in Francis de
Sales.

5.2.4 Masters of Empathic Listening

Francis de Sales and Rogers were excellent listeners. Their listening was characterised by
empathy and understanding. Francis de Sales spent hours in the confessional welcoming all

19
Only some of his over 20,000 letters of spiritual direction are available today.
20
All the works of Francis de Sales are published in 26 volumes (plus one Index) as Oeuvres de Saint François de
Sales de évêque et prince de Genève, ed complète Annecy 1892 -1932. Generally known as the Annecy Edition
(AE/OAE) in the English speaking world. It is generally known as OEA in the German speaking world.
21
See Deutsche Ausgabe der Werke des Hl. Franz von Sales (DA/DASal).
22
Cf. Franz WEHRL, Die Schriften des hl. Franz von Sales. Eine literarhistorische und quellenkundliche Studie,
Würzburg: Echter, 2005, pp. 1-9.
23
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM / HENDERSON, The Carl Rogers Reader, p. xi.
24
Cf. Ibid., p. xii. (See also 4.1)
356
people and listening to their problems. He also spent hours guiding his directees (spiritual
children) and giving conferences to the Visitations Sisters. Being a very busy person in his
capacity as bishop, preacher and author he could not find enough time for personal encounter
with every spiritual child. Writing letters of spiritual direction was also one of the ways through
which he directed many.25

As confessor, Francis exhibited enormous listening skills and power to speak to the hearts of the
penitents.26 He made them feel welcome, treated them with extreme gentleness and warmth. His
empathy with the penitents, his capacity to go down to their level, his gentleness towards the
sinners, his listening skills and his almost supernatural skills to understand the human nature
helped him to be an excellent and most sought-after confessor that time. To encourage his
penitents and to help them to open up, he used to say to them: “Don’t make any difference
between your heart and mine; I’m yours, our souls are one and equal.”27

In the language of psychotherapy today one could day that he was very therapeutic in his treating
of people and was blessed with (or he acquired through his effort and diligence) the capacity to
heal people. He knew how to listen, what to talk, how to talk and how to instruct them without
bossing over or moralising them.

Rogers is most known for his listening capacities. He gave therapeutic listening a new dimension
called ‘Rogerian Listening’. Two outstanding qualities were visible in Rogers during the early
years of his work as therapist. First, he exhibited an unimaginable capacity to listen
empathically; second, his ability to encourage independent, creative work among his staff and
students through his empathy. Rogers showed tremendous understanding and appreciation of the
other person and trusted the other as a separate individual capable of self-direction and worthy of
trust.28

Rogers could concentrate on a person and listen to him with full attention. Rogerian listening or
active listening has been popularised because of this quality of his. In active listening the listener
shares to the speaker his understanding of the speaker, his feelings and emotions, not just his
words. It also respects the uniqueness and individuality of the client and tries to see his
experiences from his frame of reference.29 Wherever Rogers went, he attracted young people

25
See 3.2.
26
See 2.2.1.2 ff. See also 3.2 ff. ( ‘ff’ here means the following sections. It does not refer to page numbers).
27
As quoted by Jane de Chantal, Testimony, p. 127.
28
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 172. ( See also 4.1.2.3.1)
29
See 4.1.2.4.2
357
around him. He respected them, listened to them and believed in their capacities. Such an
attitude in him attracted the young to him and they felt at home with him.30

5.2.5 Skilful Integration and Synthesis

The fine ability to integrate and to synthesize different ideas and views, retaining their originality
and without losing one’s identity, is one of the qualities that shaped the work and contribution of
Francis de Sales and Rogers. Rogers was a man of synthesis. Rogers developed his psychology
and his method of therapy integrating ideas from different philosophers and psychologists. He
borrowed many ideas from them and modified them to suit his method of therapy. His idea of
self, concept of self-actualisation, unconditional positive regard etc. are best examples of his
integrative approach. These concepts were not originally invented by Rogers; but he developed
them in his own way.31

Influences of Otto Rank’s relationship therapy are clearly visible in Rogers. One of the ideas that
influenced Rogers most was that the therapist is not himself the director of therapy but only a
supporter or helper.32 Rogers is also indebted to Rollo May for his ontology and to Abraham
Maslow for his concept of self –actualisation. As already seen, Rogers was less interested in
theory but was very practical and empirical. He was gifted with a very pragmatic approach.33 He
was also basically open to the idea that someone else could also try to use and modify his theory
and therapy to a different frame work.

Francis de Sales, in a similar way, was able to perfectly integrate humanism into his spirituality
and spiritual direction without diluting Christian values and theological basis. He accepted what
was good in secular humanism, modified it and developed his own humanism based on a sound
Christian theology. In his writings we find abundant reference to the Greek literature, the Fathers
of the Church, doctors of the Church and the literature of his time.

5.2.6 Personal Touch, Spontaneity, Gentleness and Openness

What helped Francis de Sales and Rogers dear to people and stood them in good stead to win the
hearts of many people through their encounter was their personal approach that radiated warmth,
friendliness, openness and spontaneity. In his preaching Francis de Sales could speak to the

30
See 4.1.2.5.7
31
See 4.1.2.1.3- 4.1.2.1.6
32
See 4.1.2.1.5
33
Cf. KIRSCHENBAUM, The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, pp. 234-235.
358
hearts of the people. He relied on spontaneity and personal approach. Regarding preaching he
says, “The supreme art is to have no art. Our words must be set aflame, not by shouts and
unrestrained gestures, but by inward affection. They must issue from our heart, rather than from
our mouth. We must speak well, but heart speaks to heart, and the tongue speaks only to men’s
ears.” 34

Francis de Sales was also a person who could freely enter into personal contact with people. His
gentleness and pleasing manners attracted people to him. They found it difficult to turn away
from his compelling personal characteristics like gentleness, patience, warmth and empathy.
Francis knew well the magnetic power of these qualities or virtues. Those who came to him and
got to know him, found him irresistibly personal and welcoming. He was one of the most
person-oriented spiritual directors. His success lay in the fact that he was very personal and he
could orient himself to every person and to his particular situation. Each one was guided
according to his or her need and the way that suited the person and for the period of time they
needed his help.35

This quality of personal touch and spontaneity is also seen very much in Rogers. These qualities
attracted many to his talks, lectures and training programmes. Everyone felt that he was speaking
to him personally. This is true even in the case of reading the works of Rogers – the reader feels
that Rogers is speaking to him directly. It is very clear and Francis de Sales and Rogers not only
practised therapeutic qualities in their spiritual direction and psychotherapy, but their whole lives
were characterized by them.

5.2.7 Differences in Person

I have mentioned here (only) some of the major similarities in the personalities of Francis de
Sales and Rogers. In spite of these similarities, there exist many major noticeable differences.
These differences are bound to occur as they come from two different fields which are
apparently contradictory.

Francis de Sales was a deeply religious and spiritual person throughout his life. As stated earlier,
Rogers left institutional religion in his younger days. Although Rogers believed in some spiritual

34
Francis de SALES, On the Preacher and Preaching, p. 64. (See 2.3.2.5.1) Italics mine. AE, XII, « Le souverain
artifice c’est de n’avoir point d’artifice. Il faut que nos paroles soyent enflammees, non pas par des cris et actions
desmesurees, mais par l'affection intérieure; il faut qu’elles sortent du cœur plus que de la bouche. On a beau dire,
mais le cœur parle au cœur, et la langue ne parle qu’aux oreilles» p. 321.
35
See 3.2.1.2.1
359
and transcendental realities towards the end of his life, he was not a religious person and never
acknowledged to be one. It is also interesting to note how they both overcome the most difficult
crisis in their lives: while Francis de Sales turns to prayer and total surrender to God for healing,
Rogers takes recourse to therapy for the same.

There was something of a mystery around the person of Rogers. Although many people were
close to him, no one knew him intimately. There was a part of life which he kept only for
himself. Brian Thorne, his friend and colleague, says:

To his colleagues Carl was warm, accepting, the attentive listener, the
conscientious scholar, the trusting delegator of responsibility. He was, in short, the
perfect empathiser who could move around in other people’s skins and feel at
home there. But who was he? One of his colleagues of those days, T.M.
Tomlinson, put it succinctly: ‘He is one of the most important people in my life. I
hardly know him’… It would seem from this revealing comment that, despite his
warmth and empathy, Carl was at this time essentially aloof and not much drawn to
self- disclosure. 36

One the moral side, Rogers has been accused of deliberately neglecting his duties to his wife
towards the end of her life for the sake of following his own ways of pleasure. He has also been
accused of promiscuous and adulterous relationships. One is shocked at his craving for sex and
pleasures in the later years of life. One tends to ask oneself: is yielding to temptation the best
way of overcoming it? Many aspects of Rogers’ personal life can by no means be justified. He
was also an alcoholic. Critics ask whether he has been a psychological wreck lost in adultery,
promiscuity, alcoholism and lack of self-control.37 The attempt here is not to judge Rogers or to
condemn him, but is to see the reality critically.

5.3 Looking for a Common Ground

I have already described some of the major similarities in the personalities of Francis de Sales
and Carl Rogers. Now it is time to look for common elements in their respective approaches that
would serve as a foundation for a combined approach to pastoral counselling – the main purpose
of this study.

Without a common ground one cannot speak of integration. To integrate the approach of Francis
de Sales with that of Rogers (or vice versa), requires some common elements – in their theory
and praxis. Therefore, in the following pages I make an attempt to point out some of the

36
As quoted by THORNE, Counselling and Spiritual Accompaniment, p. 64.
37
See 4.1.2.5.8
360
outstanding similarities in their approaches. I also argue that an integration of PCA into spiritual
direction and pastoral counselling in the spirit of St Francis de Sales is possible on the following
common elements found in both of them.

5.3.1 Humanistic Anthropology

After a close reading of Rogers and Francis de Sales, I have come to the conclusion that there are
many common features in their anthropology. Regarding the nature of human being, both are
influenced by humanism which lays emphasis on the worth and dignity of human being. Rogers’
anthropology is characterised by an aggressive optimism. Francis de Sales also has a very
positive idea of human being and has an optimistic outlook towards human nature. His optimism
is at the same time, is more tempered and realistic through Christian theology.

Francis de Sales is a humanist but he acknowledges that human nature has both positive as well
as negative elements. To neglect this fact would be closing one’s eyes to the reality. Man has to
take into account this reality and acknowledge that he is prone to evil. He has not only to assert
his strength but also to admit his weakness in order to reinforce the former and to fight against
the latter. Human beings are not perfect and no humanism can negate the reality of sin, evil and
human weakness. That would be illusionary. Psychiatrists today believe the readiness to accept
oneself, which necessarily includes the readiness to accept one’s weakness and failures, is central
to the healing process.38 Francis was well aware of the evil and the imperfection present in
himself and in all human beings.39

Three centuries before Rogers, Francis was familiar with the workings of the human mind. He
was a humanist of the human heart. His learning and his familiarity with humanism helped him
to understand human beings better. He was, one could say, very familiar with the ‘psychology of
his time.’ Pope Benedict XVI says, “In reading his book on the love of God and especially his
many letters of spiritual direction and friendship one clearly perceives that St Francis was well
acquainted with the human heart.”40

Just as Rogers used his anthropology to help his clients, Francis de Sales used his knowledge of
human beings to guide anyone who sought his help – especially by infusing hope and confidence

38
Cf. Raphael BONELLI, Wir sind alle unschuldig! Wirklich? in Psychologie Heute, 2013, No.12. pp. 63-66. In
this article Dr Bonelli and well known Viennese doctor and psychiatrist portrays the dangers of denying our fault
and the tendency to hold the other as responsible. He makes an earnest appeal to accept one’s weaknesses and
failures without which no healing is possible.
39
See 2.1.2.2.3 and 2.1.2.2.4
40
Pope Benedict XVI, General Audience on 2 March 2011, in Vatican.
361
in them and not in judging or condemning them. And Francis enjoyed doing it and found
meaning in it. As a humanist, he showed great understanding for human situation. Pope Pius IX
called him ‘the wisest guide of souls.’41 Although it was a difficult task Francis enjoyed it; he did
it with love. In his own words, “The guidance of persons individually is a difficult task, I admit,
but one which brings comfort as in the case of people gathering crops or picking grapes, who are
happiest when they have plenty of work to do and heavy burdens to carry.”42

Pope Benedict XVI also acknowledges that Francis de Sales is a Christian humanist who
perfectly combines humanism with Christian spirituality: “St Francis de Sales is an exemplary
witness of Christian humanism; with his familiar style, with words which at times have a poetic
touch, he reminds us that human beings have planted in their innermost depths the longing for
God and that in him alone can they find true joy and the most complete fulfilment.”43

Francis de Sales is considered a humanist because he believed strongly in human freedom,

freedom of the will, capacity of the human soul to raise itself to God and in the glory and
responsibility of human beings as the crown of creation.44 Francis de Sales at all times
emphasized the grandeur as well as littleness of man. All that he has, he has received from God.
God has abundantly blessed by Him. He is nothing before God. His nothingness without God
makes every human being weak, fragile and prone to evil and at the same time his grandeur with
the help of God makes him gifted, unique and able to turn to his Creator.45

Carl Rogers is one of the forerunners of humanistic psychology. Humanistic psychology values
human beings as persons of worth, as creative and as growth-oriented beings. Perhaps Rogers
prized human person more than any other psychologist. He believed in the inner capacities of the
human beings, especially the tendency to actualise. He believed in the capacity of human beings
to heal himself, provided appropriate conditions are provided. He was optimistic that human
beings are always growth-oriented. Later in his life he believed that human beings are also
capable of transcendence. At the same time, Rogers has been criticised for being over-optimistic
about human beings and neglecting the negative side of human beings.

41
Pope Pius IX, Dives in Misericordia Deus.
42
Francis de Sales in the Preface to IDL, p. 29.
43
Pope Benedict XVI, General Audience on 2 March 2011, in Vatican
44
Cf. Francis de SALES, TLG, Bk. 1, Chs. 1-5, pp. 21-34. In these five chapters Francis de Sales deals with many
philosophical, psychological and anthropological matters like the human will, the powers of the will, sense
appetites, emotions, the role of love etc.
45
See 3.3.4
362
Regina Bäumer and Michael Plattig argue, to the rescue of Rogers, that Rogers’ picture of
human being was developed in sharp contrast to the fundamentalist evangelical picture of human
beings that he experienced at home in his private familial circles at that time. It could be seen as
a reaction of Rogers and should be understood as such. They are also of the opinion that
Christian theology has over the years over-emphasized the aspect of sin, with more negative
consequences as positive. Rogers’ idea of man is very radical in its positive direction. It is a
challenge and provocation the positive or the good in human beings to accept and to appreciate.46
Similar views have been expressed by those biographers who are sympathetic towards Rogers;
for example like Kirschenbaum and Thorne.

Both Christian and Rogerian anthropology rest on a common ground: both believe in the basic
goodness of human beings – in the capacity of human beings to grow, develop and to love. In the
anthropology of Francis de Sales, it is a God-infused quality in a human being and without God’s
help he is prone to go astray. Christian theology believes in the need of grace as human nature is
fallen, but redeemed. Focusing on sin does not bring healing. But focusing on God’s grace and
mercy brings healing and redemption.47 Rogers’ positive approach to human beings can easily be
offset by his aggressive optimism that negates the weakness and fallen nature of human beings.
This exposes his anthropology to the danger of being unrealistic and presumptuous. It is the
subjective experience of most human beings to experience weakness, sin, evil and helplessness
in themselves. Rogers, who lays so much worth on subjective experience, fails to notice this
aspect of human experience.

Even though Rogers has been severely criticized for his aggressive and unrealistic optimism
regarding human beings, his affirmation that ‘Man is a Man, not a Beast’48 contains a great truth
that we can never neglect. In spite of all his failures, weaknesses, evil committed, he remains a
human person. Rogers believes, given the opportunities, he can be gained back to the good. He is
basically trust-worthy and growth-oriented. Therefore, counselling and therapy should begin
from the foundation that the client is a human being - whatever the evil has done - and that he
has the capacity to change and grow, when the proper therapeutic climate is provided. The
underlying truth behind this assumption is the basic goodness of man and the tendency in him to
regain it when he has lost it.

46
Cf. BÄUMER / PLATTIG, Aufmerksamkeit ist das natürliche Gebet der Seele, pp. 91-92.
47
Cf. Christian E. BRUGGER, Psychology and Christian Anthropology, in Edification: Journal of the Society of
Christian Psychology, Vol. 3, No.1, 2009, pp 5-18.
48
ROGERS, The Nature of Man, in Pastoral Psychology, p. 23 (See also 4.2.1.9.2).
363
Good spiritual direction or pastoral counselling, therefore, makes effort to provide the directee
this climate of growth. A person who seeks help is accepted as a positive, constructive person
and is enabled to grow to the fullness of his stature. Francis de Sales argues that human beings
have the will and power to respond to God’s love. He says, “It is the greatest gift to us that
without end we can grow more and more in the love of our God while this frail life shall last.”49

In conclusion, both Francis de Sales and Rogers were influenced by humanism. Rogers followed
a humanism that convinced of the absolute goodness of human beings, to a great extent
neglecting the negative side of human beings. Francis de Sales, on other hand thought in line
with Christian revelation and theology that human being are created in the image and likeness of
God and are good.50 But human beings lost the original nature and have been redeemed by
Christ. We need God’s grace to be in the redeemed state. Francis de Sales believed that
relationship or spiritual companionship can be a great help in this process of regaining our
original goodness.

On the basis on the considerations above, it is important to note that in pastoral counselling one
should not reject or ‘write off’ anyone – everyone is a child of God with capacity for growth.
Even the worst sinner can be a saint, because he is a child of God and is basically good and has
the potential in him to get back to this original nature. This positive and optimistic approach
should be a fundamental concern in pastoral counselling.

5.3.2 Primacy of Love

Does love play a role in person-centred therapy? Does Rogers speak about love in his therapy at
all? As noted already, one of the colleagues of Rogers, Oliver H. Brown, proposed the term
‘love’ to refer to UPR, but this proposal was rejected for the danger of being misunderstood.51

Love does play a role in psychotherapy. Love plays a central role in person-centred therapy.52
The role played by love has been acknowledged by many experienced person-centred therapists.

49
SALES, TLG, Bk. 3, Ch.1, p. 149.
50
Cf. Genesis 1:31.
51
See 4.2.3.1.4.2
52
Cf. Stephen A. DIAMOND, Essential Secrets of Psychotherapy: What’s Love Got to Do With It? : How Therapy
Helps in Psychology Today, Online Version, Posted 30.09.2011.
www.psychologytoday.com/blog/evil-deeds/201109/essential-secrets-psychotherapy-whats-love-got-do-it-part-one.
See also part II published on 21.10.2011: Essential Secrets of Psychotherapy: What's Love Got to Do With It? Part
Two: https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/evil-deeds/201110/essential-secrets-psychotherapy-whats-love-got-
do-it-part-two and a third article: What’s Love Got to Do With It?: How Therapy Helps in Psychology Today,
(Online Version, September 27, 2012), https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/evil-deeds/201209/whats-love-got-
do-it-how-therapy-helps (06.1.16).
364
In the opinion of Brian Thorne, it is ultimately love that brings about healing in person-centred
therapy. He says:

It is my conviction, as I have argued earlier, that the work of the therapist is not
essentially concerned with dispensing wisdom or expertise or even with the
deploying of skills. It is more to do with embodying values consistently no matter
how great the client’s confusion, resistance or even hostility. For me, this means
not only that I attempt to demonstrate unambiguously the unique value that I place
on an individual life, but also my conviction that in the last analysis it is love with
understanding that heals.53

Robert Kugelmann, quoting Jean-Luc Marion, French philosopher and psychologist, says that
there are certain phenomena which can know only through love. They are beyond the realm of
human beings, access to which is possible only through charity or love. Any attempt to integrate
faith and science should, therefore, follow the lead of love: “When we practice our psychology
with charity, then something of integration takes place”54

There are other person-centred therapists like Sheila Hugh and Paul Wilkins who believe that
UPR can be understood as love. Therapeutic relationship is a loving relationship. Quoting Tudor
and Worrall, Sheila Hugh believes, “UPR demands, legitimises and makes room for a kind of
loving within the process of therapeutic relationships.”55 Hugh argues that UPR can also be
understood as gentleness: “We can do the same thing with gentleness - a sub-item of
unconditional positive regard, which could be seen as careful use of words, and/or a soft
voice.”56 In my Survey 92.77% agreed that gentleness is a useful attitude in pastoral
counselling.57

Paul Wilkins, another therapist and prolific author in the person–centred orientation, believes
UPR is required to replace the self-less love that is gradually disappearing from the human
society today: “Is the unconditional positive regard of a therapist necessary to replace the selfless
love which may previously have been offered elsewhere? Arguably, there is a recognition of the
value of something like unconditional positive regard to well-being and growth in the tenets of
major religions. …‘forgiveness’ and compassion are at the heart of Christian (and other) belief.

53
THORNE, Counselling and Spiritual Accompaniment, p. 55. Emphasis mine.
54
Jean-Luc MARION as quoted by Robert KUGELMANN in Psychology and Catholicism, p. 422.
55
Keith Tudor und Mike Worrall as quoted by Sheila HAUGH, Kindness, Concern and Love, Presentation at
European Person-Centred Symposium, Prague, April 24-25, 2014.
56
Sheila HAUGH, Kindness, Concern and Love. (Presentation at European Person –Centred Symposium, Prague,
April 24-25, 2014. Unpublished material).
57
See Survey, Q. 10. (57.83 % found gentleness useful very often in guidance).
365
If these are to be offered to their fullest extent, perhaps there is a requirement for acceptance of
the other on the part of the bestower.”58

Brian Thorne argues that to provide the client with the therapeutic conditions as demanded by
PCA and to offer him ‘presence’ is, in effect, to love them unconditionally. “I recognised
instantly that to offer clients the kind of relationship characterised by the presence of the core
conditions was, in practice, to love them.”59 Experienced person-centred therapists UPR as an
aspect of diaconia or agape. Wilkins, for example, believes that UPR is an aspect of love or
agape, but it means much more in therapy:

Love or agape is what is offered by a therapist extending the facilitative conditions,

and that this reflects the wisdom of thousands of years of human experience and
the conclusions of ‘great philosophers of various times and cultures’ ... However,
unconditional positive regard is only one of these facilitative conditions … It
seems, therefore, that unconditional positive regard is not the same as agape, but is
an aspect of it - if undoubtedly an essential aspect and perhaps the most
important.60

Different forms of psychotherapy recognise the value of love without directly acknowledging it.
Inability to love and to be loved is a serious psychological disability. Even in psychoanalysis the
importance of love is taken for granted. Erich Fromm says:

Whatever complaints the neurotic patient may have, whatever symptoms he may
present, are rooted in his inability to love, if we mean by love a capacity for the
experience of concern, responsibility, respect, and understanding of another person
and the intense desire for that other person's growth. Analytic therapy is essentially
an attempt to help the patient gain or regain his capacity for love. If this aim is not
fulfilled, nothing but surface changes can be accomplished.61

To love and to be loved is a basic human need. All humans seek love. They want to be accepted,
appreciated, valued, recognized and want to love. In the modern society many are sadly deprived
of love. Many receive it neither from their families, their friends nor from other relationships.
Many turn to therapy to seek this ‘deprived’ love or to overcome the neurosis caused by lack of
love.62

58
Paul WILKINS, Unconditional Positive Regard reconsidered, in British Journal of Guidance & Counselling, Vol.
28. 1, (23-36), 2001, p. 25.
59
THORNE, Counselling and Spiritual Accompaniment, p.75.
60
WILKINS, Unconditional Positive Regard reconsidered, p. 25. Emphasis mine.
61
Erich FROMM, Psychoanalysis and Religion, New Heaven: Yale University Press, 1950, pp. 86-87.
62
Cf. Stephen A. DIAMOND in Essential Secrets of Psychotherapy: What’s Love Got to Do With It? How Therapy
Helps in Psychology Today, Online Version, September 2012, https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/evil-
deeds/201209/whats-love-got-do-it-how-therapy-helps (06.1.16).

366
In the opinion of Stephen Diamond real love means unconditional acceptance, appropriate limit-
setting and the capacity for concern, empathy and warmth. Not receiving this kind of real love
can impede the growth of a human being. People who have not received this love have also
difficulty later in receiving love and being loved – a problem known as intimacy inhibition in
psychotherapy.63As Psychologist Theodor Reik remarked, “Work and love; these are the basics.
Without them there is neurosis.”64Most psychologists and psychotherapists acknowledge the
value and the need of love in human life.65 Accepting a person means also accepting that he is a
person capable of loving and being loved. Every human being has this capacity. It is also one of
the important goals in spiritual direction to make the directee feel valued, accepted and loved.
This motive can be clearly seen in Francis de Sales and in his guidance.66

Diamond believes that psychotherapy, by its very nature, is love. It is spiritual love. It is love of
all that is human. It is love of humanity - with bright and dark sides: “Love even of the dark and
tragic, seemingly sometimes senseless side of life. And this is, for want of a better term,
a spiritual love. Psychotherapy is, for these reasons, an essentially spiritual process.”67

Psychosynthesis therapists Ann Gila and John Firman also argue that Psychotherapy is a special
type of love. It is love characterised by deep empathy and respect. Love facilitates even self-
actualisation. Love is one of the essential needs of human life which psychotherapy has to
provide. And all approaches of psychotherapy can be seen as different forms of offering this
healing love:

It appears that all these different approaches perceive, though from quite different
vantage points that human being flourishes within an empathic, respectful
communion with others, a communion that we believe can be called ‘love’. It
seems that it is love that facilitates the innate drive of synthesis, wholeness and
actualization; love that supports the human journey over the course of a lifetime;
love that allows the human spirit to thrive. Looking even more closely at the
operation of this love, however, we can see that this is a particular type of love.
This is a love that can see and embrace whole of who we are - in short, an
empathic love.68

63
Cf. Stephen A. DIAMOND in Essential Secrets of Psychotherapy: What’s Love Got to Do With It?
64
As quoted by Stephen A. DIAMOND, in Essential Secrets of Psychotherapy: What’s Love Got to Do With It?
65
Cf. M. Scott PECK, The Road Less Travelled. A New Psychology of Love, Traditional Values and Spiritual
Growth, Ebury Publishing, Kindle Edition, 2012. Part II of this bestseller from the well-known psychotherapist
titled ‘Love’ treats this topic in detail from a psychological and spiritual point of view.
66
See 3.2.1.1.3.1- 3.2.1.1.3.3
67
Stephen A. DIAMOND, What’s Love Got to Do With It?.
68
Cf. Ann GILA / John FIRMAN, A Psychotherapy of Love: Psychosynthesis in Practice, New York: State
University of New York Press, 2010, pp. 2-3. Emphasis mine.
367
It is true that Rogers does not speak explicitly about love in his therapy. But living out the three
core conditions – empathy, UPR and congruence – could be understood as concrete expression
of love. In Christian sense, it can be understood as love in action.69 Gila and Firman believe that
Rogers meant in effect therapeutic love or empathic love when he spoke of unconditional
positive regard.70

Francis de Sales was well-aware of the power of love and he showed it in his life. As bishop of
Geneva, Francis wanted to re-conquer diocese Geneva from the Calvinists. He knew only one
way how it could be possible. He said, “We must bring down the walls of Geneva with charity;
we must invade by charity … It is by hunger and thirst, endured not by our adversaries but by
ourselves, that we must repulse the enemy…”71 Francis knew that no other weapon was more
powerful than love ‘to conquer’ people. That was the weapon used by Jesus. ‘Everything by
love, nothing by force’ was dictum in dealing with people. This attitude - of relying on the power
of love, charity and gentleness - is a hallmark of Salesian approach, which should not be
neglected in any form of pastoral counselling which bases itself of Salesian spirituality.

Francis’ approach is also characterised by giving enough room for personal freedom and the
liberty of spirit. Unlike the spiritual directors of his time, he was neither a taskmaster nor a
demanding disciplinarian, who would force obedience upon his directees. He appreciated his
directees when they accepted his instruction and guidelines; but he did not want them to do so in
a subservient manner. Francis did not want his directees to feel compelled, constrained or forced.
The relationship and friendship should be based on freedom, liberty, independence and maturity.
As noted earlier in this work, he told Madam de Chantal that love and not fear should be the
reason for her obedience and her course of action.72 In his guidance of Madam Brulart it is very
clearly visible how Francis de Sales exudes therapeutic qualities like warmth, openness,
congruence and genuineness.73

A method of pastoral counselling that bases itself on PCA and the spirituality of Francis de Sales
has to be based on love and personal freedom. Pastoral counselling, because of its diaconal
nature, has to express itself in concrete form of love that embraces all aspects of human life – a
love that is expressed in feelings, emotions and gestures. It is a love that is concrete in its
expression – with readiness to help and to accompany and to make sacrifices for the client. This

69
Cf. 1Cor.13: 4-13.
70
Cf. Ann GILA / John FIRMAN, A Psychotherapy of Love: Psychosynthesis in Practice, p. 5.
71
RAVIER, Francis de Sales: Sage and Saint, p. 57. See also 2.2.1
72
Cf. SALES, Selected Letters, p. 67. See 3.4.3 for details.
73
See 3.2.1.2.1- 3.2.1.2.2
368
love should take form in counselling/therapy as unconditional acceptance, kindness, gentleness
and patience with respect for the other and his personal freedom. Finally, as Brian Thorne
believes the therapist should also have the freedom and courage to love and to be loved.74

5.3.3 Importance of Relationship

One of the most important similarities between Salesian spirituality and person-centred approach
is the emphasis placed on relationship. It is ultimately in a loving relationship characterised by
empathy, unconditional acceptance and genuineness, that the person finds healing, strength and a
new approach to life. In Francis de Sales this relationship is characterised by love, freedom,
acceptance and gentleness.

5.3.3.1 Human Life is Relational

Salesian anthropology is basically relational.75 Human beings are called to live in relationship
with one another. It is in our relationships that we come to know ourselves and our fellow-beings
better. A person who lives in isolation has very limited knowledge of himself and of other human
beings. As Christians, we work out our salvation on earth in communion with others. The mutual
relationship that exists between human beings reflects the Trinitarian relationship. Human beings
are called to work out their salvation here on earth in relationship with other human beings.

The very human and amiable approach of Francis helped his spiritual children to open
themselves fully to him. People placed their confidence and trust in him. At a time when
psychotherapy was unheard of, Francis could help people through his personal relationship,
wonderfully aided by his warmth and personal qualities. No spiritual direction or psychotherapy
can be helpful when the client is not able to trust himself to or and open up himself fully to the
director or the therapist.

5.3.3.2 Quality of Relationship

Rogers is perhaps the first psychologist who stressed that quality of human relationship is central
to counselling and psychotherapy. This is one of the marks of distinction which differentiates
PCT from other forms of therapy. It is not enough to have the therapeutic attitudes. These
attitudes must be both lived and expressed by the therapist in a genuine interpersonal
relationship. They should be expressed in the core conditions of the therapy. To be a counsellor

74
THORNE, Counselling and Spiritual Accompaniment, p. 59.
75
Cf. John W. CROSSIN & Sheila GRACIA, Practical Holiness. (Unpublished article; available online:
http://www.oblates.org/dss/practical_holiness/practical_holiness.pdf). See also 3.4.5 ff.
369
is to be a facilitator and to provide a healthy and salutary climate for the client to use his own
capacity and potential for self-change.76

Regina Bäumer and Michael Plattig, who have already made attempts to combine PCA with
spiritual direction, have also emphasized the relevance of relationship. They believe that the
underlying principle is that a healthy, constructive, positive relationship can cause a healthy
change in another person. In order to effect change, the relationship has to be characterised by
the six conditions proposed by Rogers. To encounter another person in therapy means to give
him the possibility and the chance to grow and develop and to be (become) his own self.77

5.3.3.3 Relationship Heals

In PCT the relationship between the client and the therapist is central to the healing process. The
relationship provides the client with new insights into his person and life. The actualising
tendency in the person is activated by this relationship which is characterised by the therapeutic
conditions (especially the core qualities) provided the therapist. The client finds new confidence
and he develops trust in himself through the therapeutic relationship. This kind of a relationship
calls for the full involvement of the therapist. It is not a problem-centred approach, but a person-
centred approach which gives the person power to help himself.78

Therapeutic relationship provides the client the safe atmosphere for self-exploration and enables
him to make use of his own inner capacities – to help his actualizing tendency to take over. The
relationship provides the facilitative atmosphere essential for healing. The therapist does not
‘treat’ the client like a patient, but provides the client a climate of healing through a relationship
characterised by the therapeutic conditions. The quality of the relationship is more important
than expertise or techniques. As Wilkins says, it is more ‘being’ to the client and ‘doing’ to the
client.79

5.3.3.4 Relationship for Peace and Mutual Co-Existence

Bäumer and Plattig argue that the emphasis Rogers placed on relationship neutralises the
criticism against him that he promoted individualism and narcissism. By placing emphasis on the
relationship between persons, not only in the context of therapy, but in the whole gamut of
human experience – in the family, in the class room, in the society etc.– Rogers tried to work

76
Cf. THORNE, Carl Rogers, p. vii.
77
Cf. BÄUMER / PLATTIG, Aufmerksamkeit ist das natürliche Gebet der Seele, p. 77.
78
Cf. SCHMID, Personale Begegnung, pp. 51-54. See also 4.2.1.10.
79
Cf. WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, pp.171-172.
370
towards peaceful co-existence and towards the reduction of tension. Being-in-relationship, and
not independent existence, is one of the cornerstones of Rogers’ philosophy. 80

The aspect of relationship in spiritual guidance has also been sufficiently emphasized by Francis
de Sales. He speaks in terms of spiritual companionship. Francis de Sales emphasized very often
the need for a companion on the journey of life.81 It is true that he does not directly speak about
empathy, UPR and genuineness as the psychologists of today. But Francis de Sales speaks of
faithfulness, 82gentleness, confidence, simplicity and mutual trust:

I say to you, dear Philothea: if you want to set out earnestly on the path of
devotion, find some person to guide and direct you. This is the most important
advice ... It is necessary to have, more than anything else, this faithful friend to
guide our actions by his advice and counsels and so keep us safe from the snares
and deceits of the evil one… But I tell you once again, ask God to give you such a
person and when you find one, give thanks to God. Be faithful and do not look for
others. Rather move on with simplicity, humility and confidence, for your journey
will be full of happiness.83

He warns everyone that such companions are very few and one should be very prudent and
selective in choosing such guides in life: “Choose one from a thousand, writes John of Avila.
And I insist, choose one from ten thousand, for those who are fit for such task are very few
indeed.”84

It clear from the comparative study of Rogers and Francis de Sales that relationship plays a vital
role in their therapy and spiritual guidance respectively. For healing to take place in a person,
this relationship has to be characterised by therapeutic qualities as proposed by Rogers and by
love, freedom, acceptance, gentleness and respect as shown by Francis de Sales. Both Francis de
Sales and Rogers show us that the art of dealing with human beings does matter very much.85

5.3.4 Focus on the Person

One of the main concerns of Francis de Sales and Rogers in all their interaction with human
beings was to give importance to the person. They asked themselves: how can I be of help to this
person? It has been sufficiently explicated in this work what it means to be person-centred and

80
Cf. BÄUMER / PLATTIG, Aufmerksamkeit ist das natürliche Gebet der Seele. pp. 92-93.
81
See 3.4.1
82
In my opinion faithfulness is a quality which comes very close to genuineness.
83
SALES, IDL, Part I, Ch. 4, pp. 43-44. Emphasis mine.
84
SALES, IDL, p. 44.
85
See 4.2.1.9.4
371
person-oriented.86 Although there are some differences in what these terms mean, one thing is
clear: it is the person who is at the centre of the action and the action is oriented towards the
person.

In the person-centred approach of Carl Rogers, the client has the power – he has the power to
decide, he has the power to take the necessary course of action in therapy and he alone has the
power to take decisions that affect his life. The therapist is only a helper or a ‘midwife’ who
accompanies him and creates the right climate for growth.87 My survey also produced a similar
result: 77.11% responded that they found non-directiveness useful in their ministry.88

By giving up on power and influence - which normally a therapist enjoys- he tries to come closer
to the inner feelings and the inner frame of reference of the client. The therapist has to be a
person with certain qualities that helps the healing process in the client. The client perceives
them and is enabled to help himself. The therapist should also be at home with his own faith and
beliefs. Through his authenticity and congruence he can be a witness, without being aggressively
catechetical, moralising or ‘missionary’. Bäumer and Plattig discourage the ‘extra dose of
religion’ in counselling or spiritual direction.89

In spiritual direction and pastoral counselling, the counsellor/director should believe that it is
primarily the Holy Spirit who is at work. The director/counsellor is only an agent of God’s grace.
It is indeed a challenge to his faith and trust (in God) as well as his faith in the other to believe
that they can grow of their own. In this sense, this experience of the counsellor is one of God’s
grace and goodness. God is at work at both sides of every spiritual conversation or direction or
pastoral counselling. He is on the side of the client as well as that of the pastor.90

In the person-oriented approach of Francis de Sales, the spiritual director is a companion or a

friend on the way. True, compared to person-centred approach, in spiritual direction the
companion plays a more directive role. However, he is only a companion and his actions are
oriented to the directee whom he helps in love, gentleness and patience. In guiding people,
Francis de Sales was very careful in dealing with each person according to his life-situation,
environment, vocation and personal qualities. Francis respected the freedom of the persons who
came to him for direction and guidance. Therefore, we could still stay, that directee is still the

86
See 3.4.4 ff. and 4.2.1.2 ff.
87
Cf. 4.2.1.2.1
88
See Survey, Q. 12.
89
Cf. BÄUMER / PLATTIG, Aufmerksamkeit ist das natürliche Gebet der Seele, p. 125
90
Cf. Ibid., p.125.
372
centre of all his actions. It is a way of being person-centred.91 Francis was also very personal
and took into account the uniqueness of every individual. He believed that the uniqueness and
diversity in human beings was the handiwork of God.92 Taking into account the uniqueness of
the individuals and guiding them accordingly involved being very personal with them, getting to
know them well and accepting the differences in them.

As noted above, Francis’ method of guiding was very personal, too. It was characterised by inner
freedom and personal closeness. This closeness can be seen even in his letters. Even today,
reading his letters makes one feel that the saint is speaking to him directly. How much for
personal and warm he must have been in direct person-to-person encounters! Such an approach
of Francis helped the directees, in turn, to open themselves to him. Such was his personal
warmth and personable nature.93

It is a very relevant point in the context of India, a country characterised by diversity and
difference. In such a scenario it is very important to respect diversity and at the same time to
appreciate the uniqueness of individual and his culture.

5.3.5 Mystical Dimension

Can mysticism be a common element between the deeply spiritual Salesian approach and the so-
called ‘secular’ PCA? It may sound absurd to state that a school of psychotherapy is mystical.
Schools of psychology and psychotherapy are believed to be strictly secular and non-religious.
However, many who follow PCA have discovered a mystical dimension to it.

Christian life is basically a call to mystical life. Every Christian is invited to it.94 This clarion call
becomes more emphatic, louder and meaningful with every passing day. In today’s post-modern
society, Christians have to take this call seriously. It is intimately connected to the call to
holiness.95 In the second half of the last century Karl Rahner appealed to all Christians in the
world that that a Christian of the following decades had to be a mystic or no Christian at all.96
The mysticism that Francis de Sales’ advocates is one that is perfectly in tune with the daily life

91
See 3.4.4
92
Cf. PERUMALIL, Perfection. A Salesian Perspective, p. 34.
93
See 3.4.4 ff.
94
Cf. Wojciech ZYZAK, Call of Lay People to Mystical Life in The Person and the Challenges, Vol.1, No.2, 2011,
Cracow: The Pontifical University of John Paul II, pp.137-148.
95
Cf. LG, Nos. 39-42 exhort every baptised Christian to holiness. This holiness has to be lived in the world with a
mystical dimension.
96
Cf. Karl RAHNER, Frömmigkeit heute und morgen, in: Geist und Leben , 1966, No. 39 pp, 326-342, see esp. p.
335. (See also Frömmigkeit früher und heute, in Schriften zur Theologie, Bd. 7, Einsiedeln: 1966, pp. 11-31).
373
of a Christian. Francis de Sales always emphasized in his spiritual direction the mystical
dimension of daily living.97

The modern understanding of mysticism is more practical and simpler. It is different from that of
the earlier centuries where only someone who had unusual, and sometimes, unnatural mystical
experiences and visions was considered a mystic. It is not anymore flight from the world, but
living the daily life in a mystical spirit.98 As Francis de Sales understands it, it is about personal
experience of God and living out this experience in daily life.99 In this sense, it is very much
connected with the subject matter of PCA – personal experience, subjective experience, person-
centred experience.

No wonder, PCA has also been considered mystical by many. In the recent years there have been
many efforts to see person-centred approach from a mystical point of view. Spearheading this
view is Brian Thorne, an experienced person-centred therapist and author of numerous books on
person-centred therapy. Thorne says, “The future of the person-centred approach may well
depend on its capacity to embrace the world of spiritual reality.”100 He speaks about the use of
tenderness, compassion, and the effectiveness of praying for the client in PCT. He also
recommends meditation and even devotion to the Eucharist for counsellors.101

In the recent years therapists have become increasingly aware of the challenge to respond to the
spiritual dimension of the client. Many clients do have spiritual experiences and they bring them
to therapy. If the therapist takes the experience of the client seriously, as it is the case in PCA,
then the therapist cannot neglect the spiritual dimension of the client’s experience. William West
is also convinced of this fact and argues against neglecting the spiritual dimension of the clients:
“As it turns out both clients and therapists continue, like the rest of the population, to have
spiritual experiences, though many clients remain too inhibited to raise such matters with their
therapists. The process of therapy itself can, at times, have an overtly spiritual dimension to it:
indeed, it is possible to view therapy as a spiritual experience.”102 Bäumer and Plattig are of the
opinion that PCT, because of its open-ended approach - although criticised by other

97
See 3.4.8
98
Cf. Wojciech ZYZAK, Call of Lay People to Mystical Life, pp. 142-144.
99
Cf. John W. CROSSIN, Everyday Holiness (Collection of Essays) Washington DC: De Sales School of Theology,
1994. (Unpublished material).
100
Brian THORNE, Person-Centred Counselling: Therapeutic and Spiritual Dimensions, London: Whurr, 1991, p.
127.
101
Cf. THORNE, Counselling and Spiritual Accompaniment, pp. 40, 52, 149, 239, 243. (There are numerous
references in this book where Thorne narrates the usefulness of spiritual activities and exercises in PCT).
102
Cf. WEST, Psychotherapy and Spirituality, p. 1.
374
psychologists as naïve and unscientific - gives a chance for theology to bring in the
transcendental dimension into it.103

Being spiritual and mystical is not against the spirit of PCA. Towards the end of his life Rogers
began to be ‘spiritual’ - however, not in a religious sense of the word. But he was open to
spiritual and transcendental experiences, mystical dimension of human life, universal
consciousness and so on. In fact, Rogers emphasized the need of having spiritual experiences.
Speaking about the ‘person of tomorrow’ in his book, A Way of Being, Carl Rogers tells that
being spiritual is a quality of the person of tomorrow: “A yearning for the spiritual. These
persons of tomorrow are seekers. They wish to find a meaning and purpose in life that is greater
than the individual. … They wish to live a life of inner peace. Their heroes are spiritual persons
– Mahatma Gandhi, Martin Luther King, Teilhard de Chardin…”104

Biographers like Kirschenbaum and Thorne who were closely associated with Rogers believe
that Rogers had a spiritual dimension.105 Thorne argues that Carl Rogers believed in the mystical
dimension of persons and of PCA, but he did not elaborate much on these topics in his works. He
believed being a mystic is more of being than employing techniques, just like PCA emphasises
that being the therapist is than applying techniques. Perhaps he did not want to risk his reputation
as a psychologist, too.106 In an interview shortly before his death, he said, “Another time, a group
of young priests were trying to pin me to the wall, saying that I must be religious. I finally said to
them and it is something I still stand by – I am too religious to be religious – and that has quite a
lot of meaning for me. I have my own definition of spirituality…”107

When one considers mysticism from a person-centred viewpoint, then one has to be also open to
the fact that people make personal experience of things differently. A non-religious person may
also make experience in his own way - he may have transcendental or spiritual experiences
which he may not relate to any religious phenomena. People who are religious are more likely to
have religious experiences and may connect their experiences to God. If one values subjective
experience, then one should also admit that the experiences of persons have their own validity.
So a Christian may have a ‘Christian mystical experience’.108 PCA which lays stress on

103
Cf. BÄUMER / PLATTIG, Aufmerksamkeit ist das natürliche Gebet der Seele, p. 133.
104
ROGERS, A Way of Being, p. 352. (See also 4.1.2.5.10). Interestingly, it sounds very close to what Karl Rahner
said about Christian mystical living.
105
Cf. THORNE, Counselling and Spiritual Accompaniment, pp. 220-228.
106
Cf. Ibid., pp. 78-79.
107
As quoted by KIRSCHENBAUM in The Life and Works of Carl Rogers, p. 490.
108
Cf. Steven PAYNE, The Christian Character of Christian Mystical Experiences’ in Religious Studies, Vol. 20.3,
Sept 1984, pp. 417-427.
375
subjective experience has to be open to the personal experiences of persons, even if they are
religious and mystical in nature.

Salesian spirituality presents a very practical understanding of mysticism. For Francis de Sales,
mysticism is to be practised not only in the monasteries or cloistered convents; nor is to be lived
out only in the deserts or mountain tops, but in the world - in the midst of our daily activities and
in our loving relationship with others. Salesian understanding of mysticism is not only about
direct God-experience, but of constant awareness of God and concrete living out of this
experience in one’s life situation and relationship with others especially through the practice of
the small virtues which make this relationship easier and meaningful.109

5.4 Some Major Differences

In spite of some of the stunning similarities between the Rogerian and Salesian approaches, and
the striking resemblances that one finds between them, it would be naïve and a gross mistake to
neglect the differences. There are not only differences, but there is also a constant tension
between psychotherapy and ministry, each claiming that the other is one-sided and prejudiced.
From its inception, psychology has been accused of deliberately neglecting religion and
spirituality.110Critics say it takes no cognizance of the spiritual and transcendental dimension of
human persons. It offers only worldly help. Psychology, on the other hand, claims that religion,
spirituality and faith are unscientific and irrational and those who are responsible for religion and
faith, cannot be good therapists. In this sense we can say that both are competing fields.111

Another point of digression is that psychology in itself does not often feel the need of values and
morals. The Christian/pastoral counsellors cannot neglect the moral values, says Brian
Thorne.112Over-emphasizing psychological ideas leads to loss of values in the society. The
misplaced emphasis on individual freedom, unrealistic ideas of personal power and self-
actualization have had severe drawbacks. Paul Vitz argues, “It is already clear that psychology
has systematically pushed antireligious values, especially antifamily values, for many decades …
In the name of self-actualization and related notions, psychology has, over the years,

109
See 3.4.8 . (Salesian idea of mysticism is dealt with in detail in this part).
110
Cf. RICHARDS / BERGIN, A Spiritual Strategy for Counseling and Psychotherapy, pp. 29-31. See pp. 29-48 for
a detailed description the interaction between psychotherapy and religion. (See also 1.4 ff).
111
Cf. BÄUMER / PLATTIG, Aufmerksamkeit ist das natürliche Gebet der Seele, p. 124.
112
Cf. THORNE, Person-Centred Counselling: Therapeutic and Spiritual Dimensions p.11.
376
systematically pushed for divorce, for open marriage, for sexual permissiveness of all kinds, for
pornography, for abortion, even for incest ("intergenerational" sex)…”113

Most of those who responded to my survey- although most of them were open to the use
psychology in pastoral field- also expressed many cautions regarding the application of
psychological principles in pastoral ministry.114

Whatever be the efforts made to integrate psychotherapy into ministry, it should be admitted that
there are many point of divergence. Some of the major differences between Salesian spirituality
and PCA in the light of this work are the following.

5.4.1 Anthropological Differences

In spite of all the similarities and common elements we find in the anthropology of Rogers in
comparison with Francis de Sales, there are some incompatible and irreconcilable elements in
the anthropology of Rogers. The too optimistic idea of Rogers which does not recognize sin and
the fallen nature of human beings. The idea of self- redemption as propagated by Rogers and
other humanistic psychologists are contrary to Christian theological views on sin, grace and
redemption. Pastoral psychologist Isidor Baumgartner argues that in such an anthropology there
is no need for God, no scope for the reality of sin and responsibility for the evil that human
beings cause.115 It is not the intention of Christian theology to suppress or rule out human
freedom, but to accept the reality of human weakness and sin and to receive the salvation in
Christ. Christian anthropology is realistic and directed at redemption in Christ. It is a realistic
optimism oriented towards healing in Christ (Heilsoptimismus).116

The anthropology of Francis de Sales is Christian humanistic anthropology which acknowledges

sin and the need of grace for human salvation. Salesian Christian anthropology acknowledges the
transcendental reality of God. It is more realistic in the sense that it accepts the wounded nature
of human beings and admits that without God’s help human beings can easily go astray.
Whatever the efforts we make to integrate the two, a purely psychological anthropology cannot

113
Paul C. VITZ, The Dilemma of Narcissism. in Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology, Vol. 3.1, (9-14), 1985,
p. 11.
114
See Survey, Q. 21
115
Cf. BAUMGARTNER, Pastoralpsychologie, pp. 478- 482.
116
Cf. Ibid., p. 479.
377
perfectly agree with Christian anthropology. Although Francis de Sales emphasized the positive
nature of human beings, he did not deny the reality of sin and human frailty. 117

Unlike psychological anthropology, Christian anthropology is based on the existence of a

personal and loving God with whom human beings can relate. God seeks communion with his
people through his Son and the Spirit. The Church is the concrete expression of this
communion.118 To quote Paul Vitz again, “A Christian interpretation of personality begins by
assuming that God exists and that He is a person with whom one is in relationship. This
relationship has psychological consequences. … The assumption of theism is no less rational
than the assumption of atheism.”119 Salesian anthropology also places great emphasis on the
relationship aspect of Christian anthropology. Francis de Sales is optimistic that every human
being can love God and relate to Him as we relate to fellow human beings. Pocetto argues,
“Francis de Sales’ spirituality is rooted in a very positive and optimistic Christian
anthropology.”120 This relational dimension of Christian and Salesian anthropology is very
relevant for Indian context which is generally characterised by less ‘ego-feeling’ than in the
West and more interconnectedness in the society, church and in the families.

Psychological view of human beings is not based on values, but on drives, instincts and inner
forces. Paul Vitz argues that psychology has distorted even the very concept of person which
was basically a Judaeo-Christian idea. He believes that even the concept of person central to
many schools of therapy has a spiritual and sacred meaning. The loss of this spiritual dimension
or replacing it with a modern secular and psychological meaning has given rise to the loss of
respect for persons in the recent times. There are many differences in Christian understanding of
person and the psychological understanding of this concept. Paul Vitz argues that
psychology/psychotherapy should turn to religion as a plausible source of values.121

Another major anthropological difference we find is that of personal responsibility and the
formation of conscience. Personal freedom involves personal responsibility. For Rogers, it is not
a matter of consideration to answer before God for one’s actions, as Christian theology believes.
117
Cf. John W. CROSSIN, Reflections on Salesian Anthropology, originally published in With Mind and Heart
Renewed ... Essays in Honors of Rev. John Harvey, OSFS, Lanham, MD: University Press of America, 2001.
Available online http://web1.desales.edu/assets/salesian/PDF/Crossin-Anthropology.pdf (19.1.16). For more details
see also 3.3.4 ff.
118
Cf. LG, Nos. 1-8.
119
Paul C. VITZ, Reconceiving Personality Theology from a Catholic Christian Perspective in Edification: A
Journal of Christian Psychology, Vol. 3.1, (42-50), 2009, pp. 42-43. (The journal Edification is renamed as
Christian Psychology. A Transdisciplinary Journal from 2013, Volume 7.1).
120
Alexander T. POCETTO, Positive Psychology, Francis de Sales and Character Formation: An Introduction in
Studies in Religion/Sciences Religieuses, Vol. 43.4 (575-591), 2014, p. 577.
121
Cf. VITZ, The Dilemma of Narcissism, pp.12-13
378
It is true that Rogers’ anthropology gives people enough freedom, it does not manipulate, it does
not try to interfere with their inner processes or free choice - because everyone has the tendency
to actualize - but it does not speak about personal responsibility. Christian theology, especially
Catholic theology, believes in the formation of the conscience. Pastoral Counselling has a great
role to play in the formation of conscience, especially in countries/contexts when the clients
request for it. But this should be done in a person-centred and person-oriented way.

The Christian concept of human person is much broader and deeper than that of the
psychologists which is fixed only on the material and the empirical. Unfortunately, each school
of psychology/psychotherapy has its own version of human anthropology, each limited and
skewed in its own way and very often totally different from one another. Psychologists need a
sound common conception of human beings. In this scenario the scope of Christian anthropology
is very great.122Christian anthropology deals with many topics which psychology neglects, but
which are part of the core of human life and experience. Christian anthropology and Christian
philosophical and theological truths:

(… ) provide a normative cosmological, ontological, and eschatological backdrop

for situating human existence in a disordered world. They provide answers to
weighty transcendent questions such as the origin, nature, and destiny of the human
person and the problem of evil, which are relevant to a profession that deals daily
with the gravest disorders of the human soul. And they provide an epistemological
foundation, as stated above, for psychology’s underlying assumption of the basic
goodness of the human person as well as grounds for hope in the universe.123

In my survey, too, many expressed the concern that Psychology has a tendency to negate the
transcendental dimension of human beings.124

5.4.2 Divine Role and the Following of God’s Will

Divine role is an unavoidable element in Christian guidance. In fact, in the Christian

understanding, the Spirit is the third person invisibly present in every encounter between the
client and the counsellor. The approach of Francis de Sales lays stress on the importance of the
divine, without which human beings are nothing. Discerning God’s will and following it is one
of the major goals of Salesian spiritual direction. This sometimes means detaching oneself from

122
Cf. Christian E. BRUGGER, Psychology and Christian Anthropology, in Edification: Journal of the Society of
Christian Psychology, Vol. 3.1, 2009, pp. 5-18.
123
Ibid., p.15.
124
See Survey, Q. 21.
379
the world and attaching oneself to God.125 In Salesian tradition God’s will has primacy over
human will.126 Sometimes discerning God’s will and following it can be seen as foolishness from
a psychological perspective. For example, a rich businessman leaving his business to become a
priest, a young person committing himself lifelong to a life of chastity, poverty and obedience,
someone taking up penitential practices like abstinence, fasting etc. are meaningless seen from a
purely psychological point of view. Sometimes, the director has to help the directee to discern
such apparently ‘preposterous’ steps in order to follow the will of God.

Discerning God’s will is one of the most important tasks in spiritual guidance. Sometimes it can
take a long and painful period of time; for example, it took many years in the case of Jane de
Chantal to discern her vocation and his future mission. That calls for patience, perseverance,
humility and understanding on both sides. The director has to stand by the directee in this
sometimes-agonizing process. Francis de Sales says that by doing God’s will and delighting in it,
we become more like God: “By delighting in God we become like God. Our will transforms
itself into that of the divine majesty by the delight which it takes in the divine will. Love, said St
Chrysostom, either finds similarity or makes its resemblance. For example, those who love have
a gentle, unnoticeable influence and authority over us. It is necessary either to quit them or to
imitate them.”127

Although psychotherapy is becoming increasingly open to spirituality, many schools do not give
any direct importance to God or religious practices. The undue emphasis placed on the capacity
of the person and the over-dependence on the self can lead to dangerous limits. Christian
psychologists like Paul C. Vitz argue that some good Christian practices like self-acceptance and
altruism are neglected by psychotherapy. Many schools of psychotherapy, especially the
humanistic school, are often accused of promoting unhealthy ‘centrality of self-centredness’,
selfishness and narcissism.128 Rogers’ psychotherapy does not recognise anything called Divine
Will. Following the precepts of Christianity is not a goal in his therapy.

125
See 3.2.1.1.3.4 & 3.2.1.1.3.8.
126
See 3.4.2.
127
SALES, TLG, Bk. 8, Ch.1, p. 389.
128
Cf. VITZ, The Dilemma of Narcissism, pp. 9-14.
380
5.4.3 Directive Elements in Salesian Guidance

Although the method of Francis de Sales was based on love and freedom, one also finds some
directive elements in his spiritual direction.129 It is not totally person-centred in today’s
understanding of the term. One has to understand it from the context. He was guiding people at a
time when most people were illiterate and inexperienced. In most cases the spiritual directors
were more educated, learned and experienced and it was quite natural for the directees to ask for
specific instructions. Francis was a well-known guide and director of souls among the people. As
a well-known and experienced guide, people expected concrete and practical guidelines from
Francis de Sales as to how they should deal with a particular situation. In many of the letters of
spiritual direction ones finds the writers asking him for very concrete advice that could be
helpful in their particular situation. People expected it from him and they were happy when
Francis obliged them. Therefore, in many instances Francis de Sales gives very concrete
guidelines as requested by his directees based on his experience and knowledge.

In his guidance Francis de Sales tried to lead people to holiness and to a life of devotion.
Devotion, love of God in action, should permeate the whole life of the person. So he stressed that
devotion and moral life cannot be separated from each other. Therefore, the aspect of catechesis
and instruction in faith and virtues are also visible in the guidance of Francis de Sales.130

Self-actualization in a Christian sense should invariably involve also character formation and
cultivations of virtues. This type of ‘self-actualization’ can be seen in Francis de Sales where he
tirelessly helped people in the cultivation of virtues. Francis helped the directees with the
cultivation of virtues that were needed for day-to-day living - especially gentleness, patience and
humility.131

5.4.4 The Use of the Scripture

Another important factor that differentiates Christian approach from that of the psychological is
the use of the Holy Scripture in the process of guidance.132 Secular therapy rarely makes use of
the Scripture. For them, guidelines are to be solely found in psychology guidebooks and research

129
In fact, the whole content of the book, An Introduction to the Devout Life is directive and instructive in nature.
This book was meant as a guide for spiritual direction of lay people. Francis de Sales explains in detail what
concrete steps should be taken to grow in holiness.
130
Cf. BÄUMER / PLATTIG, Aufmerksamkeit ist das natürliche Gebet der Seele, p.119.
131
Cf. POCETTO, Positive Psychology, Francis de Sales and Character Formation: An Introduction, pp. 585-591.
132
See 1.4.2 and 1.4.5 (See also 1.3.4, 1.3.8.1.4, 1.3.8.2.2, 1.3.8.2.4, 1.4.6 for more details).
381
and diagnostic manuals. Pastoral counselling, Christian counselling and spiritual direction make
use of God’ Word. Experienced Christian therapists find inexhaustible, reassuring source of
wisdom, insights and hope in the Bible. Arnold Mettnitzer, a well-known Austrian
psychotherapist and author admits, “The comforting power of Bible passages is a recurring
feature of my therapeutic work.”133 As Hebrews 4:12 states, “For the word of God is living and
active, sharper than any two-edged sword, piercing to the division of soul and spirit, of joints and
marrow, and discerning the thoughts and intentions of the heart.” The Bible helps us to change
our perspectives and offers us new perspectives and courage to go new ways. Mettnitzer says, if
used properly, the Holy Bible can become a ‘healing Bible.’ The passages in the Bible have such
an amazing healing power and are ever new. They offer new insights for life. 134 Sometimes the
parables and stories of the Bible can have an ‘explosive’ and catalytic effect on the reader.135 In
India the pastoral counsellors make very free use of the Bible passages and the clients are more
open to it.

We find generous use of the Scripture in Francis de Sales. He wonderfully crafted quotations and
examples from the Holy Bible into his writing to strengthen his ministry of guidance – in his
books, preaching and letters. He used the Scripture to console, comfort and to enkindle hope and
optimism in the directees. This was done also to show that it was not his personal views that he
expressed, but in was in line with the Holy Scripture. This gave a divine dimension to his
ministry. Francis de Sales was a master craftsman in the use of images and similes. His deep
knowledge of theology and scripture enabled him to make creative and copious use of the
Scripture.

5.5 An Integration is Possible: The Factors that Contribute

Now that I have presented some of the major similarities and differences between the two
approaches, the fundamental question to ask is: is an integration possible? If so, how should it
be? How should a person-centred and person-oriented Salesian approach to pastoral counselling
in the context of India look like?

133
Arnold METTNITZER, Steh auf und geh. Die therapeutische Kraft biblischer Texte, (= Get up and go. The
therapeutic power of Bible passages), Vienna: Styria Premium, 2013, p. 13. „Die ermutigende Kraft biblischer Texte
ist seit Jahren eine immer wieder auftauchende Begleitmelodie meiner therapeutischen Arbeit.“ Translation mine.
134
Cf. METTNITZER, Steh auf und geh, p. 12 (‚Die Heilige Schrift – Heilende Schrift‘)
135
Cf. Ibid., p. 19. (‚Biblische Geschichten wie Sprengstoff wirken können‘)
382
As I have already noted in the first chapter, psychotherapy and spiritual direction have common
goals, to a great extent.136 Both aim at healing of the human person. They aim at better
functioning of the person – be it in his personal life or in his relationship with other human
beings or with God. So the common goals include: healing of the human person, better
functioning, better relationship (with God, with others..,) to be fully-functioning etc. 137

In the recent decades social and human sciences have had definitive influence on pastoral
theology and the pastoral ministry of the Church. However, one is often disappointed to find a
kind of scepticism on the one side and exaggerated enthusiasm on the other. 138 This was also
clearly visible in my survey. Although many of the respondents believed that psychotherapy can
be successfully applied in a pastoral field, they expressed numerous reservations, cautions and
caveats.139

Many therapists in the recent times have called for a healthy integration of spirituality and
psychotherapy. In fact, different schools of psychotherapy help and equip the ministers/
pastors/pastoral counsellors with knowledge and insights regarding human nature and behaviour
which could be helpful in preaching, meaningful celebration of the sacraments and above all, in
their encounter and conversation with the faithful. Bäumer and Plattig believe that an integration
of PCT into spiritual direction – pastoral counselling, for that matter – is possible because both
have similar goals. In PCT the ultimate goal is, as Rogers says, to be the person that one really is.
It is also one of the main goals of spiritual direction.140 Mettnitzer believes that the Bible
encourages everyone to be one’s real self (Selbstwerdung). It is a fundamental concern of the
Bible narratives. The Bible encourages the journey into one’s inner self to be what one truly
is.141

Francis de Sales puts it succinctly in his letters, ‘Be what you are and be that at its best.’ This is
one of the primary ends of spiritual direction - to help the person to be or to become what he
truly is in the eyes of God, or what God wants to him to be. This intention of Francis de Sales
can be seen very clearly in his spiritual guidance of Jane de Chantal. It took long time for her to

136
See 1.3.6 ff.
137
See 1.2 and 1.3.6 ff. Chapter one deals with this topic in detail.
138
Cf. SCHMID, Personale Begegnung, p. 209.
139
See Survey, Q. 21.
140
Cf. BÄUMER / PLATTIG, Aufmerksamkeit ist das natürliche Gebet der Seele, pp. 111-112.
141
Cf. METTNITZER, Steh auf und geh, pp. 19ff. Here Mettnitzer speaks of Selbstwerdung- ein biblishes
Grundanliegen (= Self-realization, a fundamental concern of the Bible).
383
decide what God wanted from her. Francis accompanied her in this long journey and in the
process of discernment.142

Seen from this perspective, one can say the goals of PCT and spiritual direction, especially in the
spirit of Francis de Sales, are very similar. In addition, the relationship between the directee and
the spiritual director in the Salesian tradition is in many ways similar to that of the relationship
between the client and the therapist in PCT. Both relationships could be characterised as
therapeutic – because both aim at positive change in the person – one from the perspective of
search for God and God’s will, the other mainly from the perspective of one’s psychological
well-being. There are enough similarities that provide a strong common ground. At the same
time, as we have seen in the previous part, we should also make a clear-cut difference between
the two. If they work within their legitimate limits, PCA can enrich spiritual direction and vice
versa.143

Pastoral counselling today has come a long way and is not understood as just moral lessons or
catechetical instruction, as considered decades earlier. Pastoral counselling today makes use of
the modern knowledge and developments in the field of psychology and counselling.144
Depending on the school of psychology that the counsellor follows, his approach also will be
different. Many of the respondents of the survey (76.83%) agreed with the view that Salesian
spirituality can be combined with person-centred approach.145 But almost all of them had
reservations and cautions.146

I consider the following points important for integrating PCA into Salesian spirituality for a
combined approach to develop a method of pastoral counselling in the context of India. In
proposing these points I have kept in mind the pastoral context of India - especially that of
Kerala - which is drastically different from that of the West. My conclusions are arrived at in the
light of the preceding research, hermeneutic study and have been reinforced by the survey.

5.5.1 The Positive Idea of Human Being

First of all, a concept of pastoral counselling for India should emphasis the basic positive value
of human beings. India is a land where the value of human beings is much less respected than in

142
See 3.2.1.3 ff., esp. 3.2.1.3.4.
143
Cf. BÄUMER / PLATTIG, Aufmerksamkeit ist das natürliche Gebet der Seele, pp. 111-112.
144
See 1.4 ff.
145
See Survey, Q.22
146
See Survey, Q.21.
384
the West. Although India makes progress in human rights, India is far behind many developed
societies in this aspect.147 Every human being is a child of God, precious in the eyes of God and
valuable to the society. Even in the pastoral field, there is so much of self-damaging negativism
which does not help people to grow. Unfortunately, sometimes even the ecclesiastical hierarchy
exploits this situation to exercise undue control over the faithful. In pastoral counselling it is of
paramount importance to instil a sense of worth, dignity and honour in the person that he can see
himself as a child of God, basically positive in nature gifted with abilities and having innate
power oriented to growth.

I have tried to make it amply clear in this work that this positive approach to human beings was
one the basic principles in Francis de Sales and Carl Rogers. This is also one of the urgent needs
of Indian pastoral scenario today. As Francis de Sales and Carl Rogers emphasize, human beings
are human beings in spite of all their failures and brokenness and are basically positive. As
Rogers says, there is only man in a man, and not a beast. The innate capacity of human beings to
move towards God, to get up again when he has fallen, to start all over again, this capacity has to
be stressed in pastoral counselling in Indian context. The authoritarian and extremely clericalized
pastoral climate in the country necessitates this step. It requires the spirit of Salesian
anthropology and optimism.

To accept this basic dignity and positive nature of human beings is a challenge in the Indian
pastoral context. It demands from the counsellor that he treat every client who seeks his help
with utmost respect and believe that he has within himself the capacity to grow. As Francis de
Sales believed, his growth can take place only in an atmosphere of freedom and love.

As one becomes more aware of the positive nature of human beings and their capacity to grow,
there will be less emphasis on authoritarianism, moralization and the tendency to judge. As
Mettnitzer advocates, the doctors (for that matter therapists, too) and pastors are not gods in
white coats or black cassocks. Their call is to be the ‘advocates of human beings’ and they
should be sensible to the afflicted fellow human beings and their sufferings. They should be able
to see ‘with the eyes of the other’ and ‘feel with the heart’ of the other.148

147
See Human Rights World Report 2014 by Human Rights Watch, pp. 334-341. Available online:
https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2014 (10.1.16).
148
Cf. Arnold METTNITZER, Couch & Altar. Erfahrungen aus Psychotherapie und Seelsorge, (= The Couch and
the Altar. Experiences from Psychotherapy and Pastoral Care) Vienna: Styria, 2008, p. 63.
385
A positive image of human beings, of the clients in particular, promotes more acceptance,
empathy and congruence. This helps to promote Salesian optimism and confidence which
believes in the power of God as well as that of every human person.

For the pastoral counsellor to have a positive image of human beings in the light of the Gospels
and Christian theology and dealing with the client in light of this positive outlook is vital to
facilitate a positive change in the client. The client should see himself positive and accept
himself. He should consider himself worthy and capable of rising again with God’s help,
whatever be the situation he is in – sin, failures, personal problem etc. For him to take the first
step to recovery, he should accept himself as positive, unconditionally loved by God. Only a
counsellor who holds a positive image of human being and accepts him with unconditional love
can help the client in this regard.

5.5.2 Therapeutic Conditions & Personal Qualities

A major concern of this work was to find out the role played by the therapeutic conditions in
causing positive changes in the personality of the client and to advocate the application of the
same in pastoral ministry. We have seen how important the core conditions are in PCA. In the
same way, we have also seen the personal qualities of Francis de Sales that played a significant
role in his pastoral ministry, especially in his spiritual direction. It goes without saying that a
pastoral counsellor should strive to hone his skills and abilities and work constantly towards
acquiring the additional personal qualities that he requires to be effective in counselling.

In the biographical sketch and later in the comparison of the two persons it was made clear that
one of the fundamental determinants of their effectiveness was their personal qualities. In the
same way, a person who takes up pastoral ministry should have a liking for it, nurture his talents
and get trained in the field. In the early church a lot of emphasis was laid on the personal
suitability of the minister.149This is particularly true of pastoral counselling. The counsellor
should have basic suitability and additionally the personal qualities required.

In both Francis de Sales and Carl Rogers one sees, how personally suited they were for their
particular profession. Empathy, gentleness, immense capacity to listen and to understand,
compassion for all that is human and utmost respect for human persons characterised their
conduct and activities. In the same way one who takes up a ministry in the Church, should make

149
Cf. Friedrich WULF, Kriterien der Eignung. Ein geschichtlicher Überblick, in Hermann STENGER (Ed.),
Eignung für die Berufe der Kirche. Klärung –Beratung – Begleitung, Freiburg in Breisgau: Herder, 1988, pp. 11-30.
386
himself suitable for the ministry.150 Hermann Stenger, basing himself on Erik Erikson, says the
capacity to love, the capacity to care for the other and the capacity to be level- headed or prudent
are basic qualities required of someone aspiring to a be a minister.151 It does not, however, mean
that everyone who feels called to a ministry in the Church should be perfect and completely
professional. But it does mean that the person should have the basic orientation, suitability and
the willingness to perfect his God-given skills.

Developing therapeutic conditions and personal qualities can help the counsellor not only in his
ministry but also in his life. These qualities can also enrich his day-to-day life. Is it possible for a
true counsellor to be empathic, accepting, gentle and genuine during the counselling sessions and
to be something else outside? In which case, it means that these qualities have not been
sufficiently internalised in the therapist. Thus, a counsellor learns to live these qualities not only
during his sessions but in all his interactions with persons.

William A. Barry and William J. Connolly believe that a ‘surplus of warmth’ is a necessary
quality for a spiritual director: “How does this “surplus of warmth,” this love for people as they
are, show itself in spiritual direction? It appears in three attitudes: commitment, effort to
understand, and spontaneity.”152 Interestingly, that sounds very close to UPR and empathy in
PCA.

Francis de Sales considered knowledge as one of the essential qualities of a spiritual guide.
Regarding the qualities required of a good spiritual director, he says, “For those who are fit for
such a task are very few indeed. He must be full of charity, of knowledge and of prudence. If he
lacks any of these three qualities, there is danger.”153 One who takes up the field of guiding
others should have genuine love for others, have sufficient prudence to distinguish and to
discern, and he should keep himself updated on the field and seek necessary training.

Canon Law, Nos. 242 §1, 245 §1 emphasize that those called to priestly ministry should be
sufficiently trained during their period of formation for ministry. They should also develop
human qualities required for their ministry: “They are to learn that ministry is always carried out
in living faith and charity fosters their own sanctification. They also are to learn to cultivate

150
Cf. Hermann STENGER (Ed.), Eignung für die Berufe der Kirche. Klärung –Beratung – Begleitung, pp.100-111.
This book explores in details some of the necessary qualities and competence required for someone who wishes to
do a pastoral ministry in the Church.
151
Cf. Ibid.
152
BARRY / CONNOLLY, The Practice of Spiritual Direction, p. 133. The chapter nine of this book titled,
‘Becoming a Spiritual Director’ deals with many aspects of this particular topic.
153
SALES, IDL, Part 1, Ch. 5, p. 44.
387
those virtues which are valued highly in human relations so that they are able to achieve an
appropriate integration between human and supernatural goods.”154 This holds true not only of
priestly candidates but of any ministry in the Church. Canon Law here makes it clear that human
qualities that are required from human relations are very important for the ministry of a priest.
Canon Law further states that they are to constantly update their knowledge required for pastoral
ministry: “They are also to acquire knowledge of other sciences, especially of those which are
connected with the sacred sciences, particularly insofar as such knowledge contributes to the
exercise of pastoral ministry.”155

Presbyteroroum Ordinis (PO), the decree on the ministry and life of priests states that priests are
bestowed with, “the spirit of grace and counsel, so that with a pure heart he may help and govern
the People of God, just as in the desert the spirit of Moses was spread abroad in the minds of the
seventy prudent men and using them as helpers among the people, he easily governed countless
multitudes.”156 The same number further states that the bishop has the responsibility to provide
continual formation to the priests. The decree adds that hospitality, kindliness, solicitous
approach towards the needy should be characteristic of a priest.157 Priests should hold the laity in
high honour and in freedom. Priests should also develop an attitude of listening to the other.158

Francis de Sales demanded that knowledge be the eight sacrament of a priest and knowledge is,
in his opinion, one of the prerequisites for direction of souls. He said to his priests, “My very
dear Brothers, I implore you to attend seriously to study, because knowledge, to a priest, is the
eighth sacrament of the hierarchy of the Church. [Without it] a greater misfortune happens to the
priest than when the Ark [of the Covenant] is found in the hands of men who were not Levites”
159

In the case of pastoral counselling empathy, willingness and capacity to listen, openness to
accept persons who are different and holding back judgement are indispensable qualities. These
qualities are seen in Francis de Sales and Carl Rogers. A pastoral counsellor should also radiate
the power of gentleness and humility. As Francis de Sales said, with a spoon of honey one would

154
CIC 245 §1
155
CIC 279 §3
156
PO, No. 7.
157
Cf. PO, No.8.
158
Cf. PO, No.9.
159
SALES, Exhortation to Clerics: That They Should Apply Themselves to Study, Tr. by Thomas F. DAILEY,
(Original: AE, Tome XXIII, pp. 303-305). English version available online:
http://web1.desales.edu/assets/salesian/PDF/ExortationstoClerics.pdf (10.1.16).
388
be able to move more hearts than barrels of vinegar.160 Herman Stenger argues a certain ability to
guide people is part of personal suitability for a pastoral ministry.161

Rogers’ therapeutic conditions are basically human qualities. These qualities, empathy, UPR and
congruence, have changed- and continue to change- the lives of thousands of people in the
world. These qualities can also be part of day-to-day lives of ordinary human beings. They have
the power to change the way we relate to clients and the whole extent of our lives – in the family,
society, school, office, friendship and even international relationships.

In addition to therapeutic qualities, basic human qualities like gentleness, patience and humility
can contribute a lot to human relationships and pastoral ministry. Joe Mannath, priest, preacher,
spiritual guide and well-known author in India says, “The human comes first…What matters
most is to become a really good human being. The measure of religion and holiness is how
deeply human it helps us to become. Whatever makes a person less human (less loving, less
compassionate, less creative, less honest, less courageous…) cannot come from God. What is
from God will make us more human.”162

All these statements above explicate sufficiently the importance of therapeutic conditions and
human qualities in inter-personal relationship and in effecting behaviour change. One of the
classic examples of this today is Pope Francis. His personal warmth, welcoming and accepting
nature and non-judgemental attitude have changed the impression of many towards the Church
and has created a many bridges. These personal and human qualities are greatly desired of one, if
he one to be effective in the social and pastoral situation of India.

5.5.3 The Need for a Healing Relationship

Closely connected with the previous point is the need for a really ‘therapeutic’ or healing
relationship in pastoral counselling. It is not enough to have a positive anthropological
foundation and the necessary qualities and conditions, but these have to be lived out and made
tangible to the client in a healing relationship. Enough has been spoken about the importance of
relationship in Salesian approach and in PCT. The emphasis placed on relationship is a major
160
Cf. Jean Pierre CAMUS, The Spirit of St Francis de Sales, Kindle Edition, 2012, p. 76. The original quote goes
like this: “Always be as gentle as you can, and remember that more flies are caught with a spoonful of honey than
with a hundred barrels of vinegar.”
161
Cf. STENGER, Eignung für die Berufe der Kirche, pp.146-152.
162
Joe MANNATH, A Radical Love: A Path of Light. The Beauty and Burden of Religious Life, (3rd Edition), New
Delhi: CRI House, 2014, p. 111. This books has been a bestseller in India ever since it was published in India in
2013. It looks very critically, but constructively, at many of the unpleasant realities present in the Indian
ecclesiastical scenario with special reference to the Religious.
389
point of convergence between the two approaches. The quality of relationship is one of the most
important factors contributing to the success of spiritual direction as well as psychotherapy. It
has been sufficiently proved by research. Michael Lambert et al. established 1994 through meta-
research four major factors that contribute to effectiveness and grouped in the following way: 163

Quality of relationship – 30%

Extra-therapeutic factors – 40 %
Expectancy ( placebo) factors -15%
Specific techniques – 15%

Ten years later, in 2004 Lambert’s detailed research once again established that therapeutic
relationship is one of the important factors that contribute to the success of therapy:

I should come as no surprise that helping others deal with depression, inadequacy,
anxiety, and inner conflicts, as well as helping them form viable relationships and
meaningful directions for their lives, can be greatly facilitated in a therapeutic
relationship that is characterized by trust, warmth, understanding, acceptance,
kindness and human wisdom. These relationship factors are probably crucial even
in the more technical therapies that generally ignore relationship factors and
emphasize the importance of technique in their theory of change. This is not to say
that techniques are irrelevant but their power of change is limited when compared
with personal influence.164

These empirical research findings vindicate great emphasis placed on relationship by Francis de
Sales and Rogers. The research in this field points out that greater attention is to be paid to the
quality of relationship in pastoral counselling and in pastoral activities in general.

What makes person-centred relationship unique is the presence of the therapeutic conditions.
The six therapeutic conditions, more importantly the three core conditions, make PCT effective.
It has been established that empathic listening, total acceptance of the person through UPR and
being authentic (genuine) give a totally new dimension to relationships. It holds true in the case
of pastoral relationships, too. As noted earlier, Barry & Connolly call for a ‘surplus of warmth’
in spiritual relationships. In the same way the gentleness, warmth, acceptance and love radiated
by Francis de Sales in the relationship played a curative factor. Many pastors in India still behave
like autocrats towards the faithful, showing extreme lack of gentleness, human respect.165 It has

163
Cf. Michael J. LAMBERT / Allen E. BERGIN, The effectiveness of psychotherapy in Allen E. BERGIN / Sol
Louis GARFIELD (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy and behaviour change (4th ed.), Oxford: John Wiley & Sons,
1994, pp.143-189.
164
Michael J. LAMBERT / Benjamin M. OGLES, The Efficacy and Effectiveness of Psychotherapy in Michael J.
LAMBERT (Ed.), Bergin and Garfield’s Handbook of Psychotherapy and Behaviour Change, (5th ed.), New York:
John Wiley & Sons, (139-193), 2004. Here pp.180-181. Italics mine.
165
Cf. MANNATH, A Radical Love: A Path of Light, pp. 22, 117, 165-167,
390
partially to do with clericalism and the special status enjoyed by the priests in India as ‘God’s
special representative.’

A combination of Salesian and Rogerian approach could be ideal for Indian pastoral context. A
gentle, warm, listening and accepting pastor can work more effectively with the client than a
dominating, ‘lecturing’ and ‘all-knowing’ pastor. This inner attitude should also be shown not
only in counselling but also in daily pastoral activities. The above-mentioned qualities and
attitudes can give a new dimension of compassion and human touch to the service of the
minister/pastor. Experienced guides and authors in India advocate that in the pastoral context of
India as well as in the area of religious formation, importance should be given to qualitative
therapeutic relationship and love. Reflecting on the situation in India, Joe Mannath advocates,
“Most human beings are wounded, and need healing. This can happen in counseling or group
therapy, in spiritual direction, in retreats and in loving relationships.”166

5.5.4 The Role of Love

An attempt to combine spirituality with psychotherapy cannot sidestep the element of love, the
core of Christian identity. It is love that characterises Christian life and all Christian activities.
As St Paul says, without love Christian life is meaningless.167

As highlighted in the section 5.3.2, love is an important element in PCT. As Brian Thorne says,
“In the last analysis it is love with understanding that heals.” 168 It is not only the experience of
Brian Thorne, who combines spirituality with person-centred therapy, but it has also been the
experience of many experienced pastors and spiritual directors. Peter F. Schmid, well-known
Austrian person-centred expert and a friend and follower of Carl Rogers, believes the core
conditions of Rogers’ therapy converge in a Christian concept of love. This kind of creative love
leads to communion; it offers new possibilities in life and is diaconal in nature.169 Father
Bernhard Vosicky, a Cistercian monk and well-known spiritual director and confessor in Austria,
reveals the secret of his ministry: “To heal with love became my programme of life. As priest I

166
MANNATH, A Radical Love: A Path of Light, p. 70.
167
Cf. 1Cor. 13:1-3.
168
THORNE, Counselling and Spiritual Accompaniment. Already cited in this work. (See 5.3.2)
169
Cf. SCHMID, Personale Begegnung, pp. 395-397.
391
have experienced time and again how love can heal human beings. Only love heals.”170 Love
was also the main tool employed by Francis de Sales, the ‘doctor of love.’171

As Jean-Luc Marion argues – already mentioned in this work - any attempt to integrate faith and
science should, therefore, follow the lead of love. Love is the connecting bridge between
psychology (psychotherapy) and spirituality. The integration automatically takes place when one
practices psychology with love.172 Joe Mannath says in his bestseller, “Genuine love brings out
the best in people.”173 And he believes religious formation is basically teaching people to love.174

Love also means accepting a person in his uniqueness and giving him undivided attention. In the
language of the person-centred approach it means unconditional positive regard for the person
and being in the ‘process of empathy’175with him as a genuine person. To quote confessor and
spiritual director Bernhard Vosicky again, “It is all about that the person who comes to me
should be aware that in the confessional he is the only important thing for me at the moment.”176
Such love and acceptance in a relationship of freedom can surely put a person into an inner
process and effect healing and growth. Love can also be understood as nurturing another’s
growth and in the process of doing so, one nourishes oneself spiritually. Well known
psychotherapist and author Scott Peck says, “I define love thus: The will to extend one’s self for
the purpose of nurturing one’s own or another’s spiritual growth.” 177

Offering the clients/directees, the therapeutic conditions for their growth in effect means to love
them. To accept the client, to prize him, to be genuine with him, to listen to him with empathy, to
be extremely gentle and patient with him – that is nothing other than offering him love in
concrete form. Counsellors who are spiritually oriented are convinced that all person –centred
therapeutic conditions can be summarised as love. Thorne says, “I recognised instantly that to
offer clients the kind of relationship characterised by the presence of the core conditions was, in
practice, to love them.”178 Swizz psychoanalyst with a deep catholic orientation, Stefan Blarer

170
Bernhard VOSICKY as quoted by Hinrich BUES in Pater Bernhard: Nur die Liebe heilt!. Erzählungen über das
Wirken Gottes in meinem Leben, Heiligenkreuz, Austria: Be & Be – Verlag, 2015, p. 29.
171
See 3.4.3
172
See 5.3.2.
173
MANNATH, A Radical Love: A Path of Light, p. 65.
174
Cf. Ibid., p. 68-73.
175
Carl Rogers sees empathy as a process. See 4.2.3.1.3 ff. See especially 4.2.3.1.3.3 (Empathy as a Process).
176
Bernhard VOSICKY as quoted by Hinrich BUES, in Pater Bernhard: Nur die Liebe heilt, p.182. („Mir geht es
darum, dass die Menschen, die zu mir kommen wissen, dass sie im Beichtstuhl die einzig Wichtigen in diesem
Moment sind.“) Free Translation done by me.
177
M. Scott PECK, The Road Less Travelled. A New Psychology of Love, Traditional Values and Spiritual Growth,
Ebury Publishing, Kindle Edition, p. 69. Part II of this bestseller makes a detailed study of love from a
psychological and spiritual point of view.
178
THORNE, Counselling and Spiritual Accompaniment, pp. 75, 87, 132.
392
says, “Effective psychotherapy demands ‘therapeutic love’; likewise genuine pastoral care,
‘pastoral love.’”179

Morton T. Kelsey, spiritual author and minister, argues that practically all forms of modern
therapy acknowledge the value of love in the healing process and use it as a tool in the process of
therapy:

I have learnt more about the importance of love from modern psychologists than I
have from modern theologians or my religious teachers. Except for those who
believe that we can best be changed through the kind of conditioning with which
we train dogs or pigeons, psychologists repeatedly emphasise the nature and
quality of love as part of the therapeutic process. We modern Western Christians
are more likely to take love seriously once we realize that most clinical
psychologists find it a necessary ingredient in the healing process.180

If psychotherapy as well as spiritual direction involves paying attention to another person,

offering him the climate for growth and facilitating it, then it can be understood as loving and
caring for the person. Psychotherapist M. Scott Peck says paying attention to the other is an act
of love. It helps his growth:

The principal form that the work of love takes is attention. When we love another
we give him or her our attention; we attend to that person’s growth. When we love
ourselves we attend to our own growth. When we attend to someone we are caring
for that person. The act of attending requires that we make the effort to set aside
our existing preoccupations (…) and actively shift our consciousness. Attention is
an act of will, of work against the inertia of our own minds.181

Love is at the heart of Salesian spirituality and Salesian method of guiding people. As seen
above, Francis de Sales is not along in his thinking. One cannot think of a Salesian (or any)
method of pastoral counselling or spiritual direction that does not incorporate love as its essence.
Love should invariably be at the centre of a person-centred and person-oriented pastoral
counselling in the spirit of Francis de Sales.

179
Stefan BLARER, Die Kunst seelsorglicher Liebe, Plädoyer für einen erneuerten Zölibat, Freiburg (CH):
Topos/Paulus Verlag, 2012, p. 61. („Wirksame Psychotherapie erfordert die „therapeutische Liebe.“ Ebenso
verlangt echte Seelsorge die „seesorgliche Liebe.“) Although the major topic of the book is defence of priestly
celibacy, the author at many places explores the similarities between pastoral ministry and psychotherapy.
180
Morton T. KELSEY, Companions on the Inner Way. The Art of Spiritual Guidance, New York: Crossroad
Publishing, 1983, p. 202. Italics mine.
181
PECK, The Road Less Travelled, pp.108-109. Emphasis mine.
393
5.5.5 The Spiritual and Mystical Dimension

In line with Brian Thorne, William West and others, I argue that pastoral counselling for the
present times and for the future should take the spiritual and mystical dimension seriously.
People in India are generally spiritual and religious. Many people, especially in the context of
India, who seek pastoral counselling and spiritual guidance, have an earnest desire to grow in
spirituality. It could be partially because of the general spiritual tradition of India and the
religious upbringing of the faithful in India. Moreover, people in India are open to insights from
the Scripture and the teachings of the Church. In many cases, that is what they are looking for.
Many are keen to know how they can deal with their problems being true to their faith. In this
respect, the pastoral context of India is totally different from that of the West.

The value of praying together, meditation, reading of the Scripture and such spiritual
interventions can have its appropriate place in pastoral counselling if the counsellee desires it.
Such spiritual interventions are sometimes even recommended. Richards and Bergin say, “These
practices have endured because, in different ways, they express and respond to people’s deepest
needs, concerns, and problems. Research indicates that there is significant healing power in some
of them.... Spiritual practices can be used as adjunctive interventions in therapy to assist clients
in their efforts to cope, heal, and grow.”182As explained in the preceding pages, many other
therapists like Thorne, West, Mettnitzer,183 have found them useful, too. Latest research also
tends to subscribe to this fact.184

As Thorne opines, praying for the client, holding the client in our thoughts and prayers can be
very helpful.185 Christians believe in the power of prayers. It is all the more true in a strongly
religious culture like the one in India. Our prayers for the other have such a value and effect. It
also increases the therapist’s perception of the client and his understanding of the situation.
182
P. Scott RICHARDS / Allen E. BERGIN, A Spiritual Strategy for Counseling and Psychotherapy, (2nd ed.),
American Psychological Association: Washington D.C, 2005, p. 251. In the 9 th chapter of this book, Religious and
Spiritual Practices as Therapeutic Interventions, pp.251-279 Richards and Bergin undertakes a study of some of the
spiritual practices as therapeutic interventions such as prayer, meditation, repentance and worship and their
effectiveness based on large empirical research. In following chapter of this book, Spiritual Interventions Used by
Contemporary Psychotherapists, pp.281-309, they make a detailed study of the spiritual interventions used by the
psychotherapists today and come to the conclusion that in the recent times many of them have been integrated into
therapeutic practice by the licensed mental health professional and practitioners and found to be effective. At the
same time, they suggest more research in this field.
183
Three books from Mettnitzer are worth mentioning at this point. 1.Couch & Altar. Erfahrungen aus
Psychotherapie and Seelsorge, (2008) 2. Klang der Seele. Sinn suchen, trösten, ermutigen in Psychotherapie und
Seelsorge, (2009) 3. Steh auf und geh. Die therapeutische Kraft biblisher Texte (2013) All from Styria Publishers
Vienna.
184
Cf. Spiritual Interventions: Research on Prayer and Healing, in Harvard Health Publication, 01.12.2006. See
also Easing Grief Through Religion and Spirituality, in Harvard Health Publication, 25.08.2015.
185
Cf. Brian THORNE, Counselling and Spiritual Accompaniment, pp.146-149.
394
Letting God work is an integral part of pastoral counselling. Psychotherapist Mettnitzer is
convinced that prayer has such value in our lives. He says, “It is my personal conviction that the
most decisive factor is not to which religion one belongs, but whether or not one is a praying
person.”186

However, religious and spiritual exercises should not be used or promoted aggressively in any
form of counselling. If done so, it can have a quite contrary effect. Aggressive form of
spirituality is a contradiction in itself. The counsellors should also be able to take into account
the situation of the client and see what spiritual interventions are useful in a particular context.
To quote Richards and Bergin again, “There may be some therapeutic religious practices that are
unique to individual religious traditions. We hope that the therapists who have an expertise in
specific traditions will identify and apply in therapy those religious and spiritual practices that
have the greatest therapeutic value for clients from those traditions.”187 This requires good
discernment on the side of the therapist and, as I would say, a person-centred and person-
oriented approach.

William West argues that therapists need training in dealing with spiritual issues because it is not
unlikely that clients of psychotherapy have mystical experiences. Clients generally tend to avoid
topics which the therapists turn a deaf ear to. Many clients, especially who have grown up in
religious families, are influenced by religion and spirituality and the therapist cannot just ignore
this essential dimension of their personality.188

Human beings have a desire and tendency for transcendence. St Augustine referred to it as
‘human restlessness’ and human longing for God. Blaise Pascal would speak in terms of ‘man
goes beyond himself’. Thomas Acquinas, Danish philosopher Søren Kierkegaard, C.S Lewis –
and many others- spoke of this ‘transcendent urge’ in man.189 Christian theology emphasises the
transcendental dimension of man. It is the duty of practical theology to show sensitivity and
sensibility in the face of human pain and other human conditions and to instil deep desire for

186
Arnold METTNITZER, Klang der Seele. Sinn suchen, trösten, ermutigen in Psychotherapie und Seelsorge,
Vienna: Styria, 2009, p. 113. Translation mine. („Nach meiner persönlichen Überzeugung ist es nicht entscheidend,
welcher Religion ein Mensch angehört; entscheidend ist vielmehr, ob ein Mensch betet oder nicht.“)
187
RICHARDS / BERGIN, A Spiritual Strategy for Counseling and Psychotherapy, p. 279.
188
Cf. WEST, Psychotherapy and Spirituality, pp.16-18.
189
Cf. John COTTINGHAM, Human Nature and the Transcendent in C. SANDIS / M. CAIN (Eds.), Human Nature
(Royal Institute of Philosophy, Supplement 70), (233-254), Cambridge: University Press, 2012, pp. 233-234).
395
human transcendence. One sees in Rogers this openness for transcendence especially in his later
years.190

Man is nothing before the majesty of God. In spite of his ‘smallness’ God has given him such a
lofty position in the universe. God wants man to communicate with Him through prayer, silence
and wonder. Therapists believe that in counselling a believer, spiritual practices like prayer,
silence, wonder and blessing can play a healthy and healing role.191

Human life is less human when human beings forget their mystical and transcendental
dimension. Francis de Sales helped his directees to be mystical in the midst of the world, not
losing the transcendental dimension, being fully immersed in the mundane day-to-day activities.
Salesian idea of mysticism is characterised by its practicality and its inseparability from day-to-
day life. By helping the directee to live always in the presence of God through acts of love, short
prayers, raising the heart and mind to God etc. the counsellor/director gives a mystical dimension
to his life. Francis de Sales encourages daily meditation as a means to self-purification and
growth in devotion.192 Modern therapists also encourage the use of meditation in the process of
healing and personal growth.193 Not forgetting this mystical dimension helps us sometimes to
see the events of life in the proper perspective and with equanimity, inner freedom and trust.

The mystical dimension of human beings cannot be neglected by science, psychology or any
form of psychotherapy. As Teilhard de Chardin says, “We are not human beings having a
spiritual experience; we are spiritual beings having a human experience.”194

5.5.6 Person-Oriented and Person-Centred

Having seen what it means to be person-oriented and person-centred,195 I feel the need of
concrete application of these concepts in the pastoral situation of India. Pastoral counselling has
to be person-oriented because each person is unique and has specific needs. Each human being is
a mystery.196 Each person is formed by his genetic endowment, his environment and his cultural

190
Cf. BÄUMER / PLATTIG, Aufmerksamkeit ist das natürliche Gebet der Seele.132.
191
Cf. METTNITZER, Klang der Seele, pp. 111-133
192
Cf. SALES, IDL, Part 1, Ch.8, pp. 49-50. (See also 3.4.8)
193
Cf. Mary Anne LA TORRE, Meditations and Psychotherapy: An Effective Combination in Perspectives in
Psychiatric Care, Vol. 37.3, 2001, pp.103-106.
194
As quoted by RICHARDS / BERGIN, A Spiritual Strategy for Counselling and Psychotherapy, p. 5.
195
See 3.4.4 ff. See also 4.2.1.1 - 4.2.1.4 , 5.3.4
196
Fyodor DOSTOYEVSKY, cited in Bruce CRANE (compiled) Man is a Mystery. It must be unraveled…A
collection of Dostoyevsky’s Thoughts on Human Condition from Anger to Youth, Lincoln, NE: Writers Club Press,
2001, p. xiii, (The original quote goes like this: “ Man is a mystery. It must be unraveled, and if it takes a whole
lifetime, don’t say it is a waste of time”. F Dostoyevsky to his brother Mikhail Dostoyevsky in a letter in 1839).
396
milieu. Therefore, it is not possible to follow a method that fits all.197 Taking into account the
present situation of India, a more person-centred approach is helpful.198 The counsellors and
directors should be more open to the person, believe in his - the client’s - power to take
appropriate decision for him. Pastors should learn to relinquish their power over the other and
empower the other to ‘be what he really is and to be that at its best’. Francis de Sales and Rogers
believed this ‘empowering’ can take place only in an atmosphere of freedom and love.

In counselling and spiritual direction it is important to pay attention to the personal qualities of
each individual and to provide a healthy climate to help him to find healing and growth rather
than to make him ‘fit into a mould’. Then the world would be a ‘garden of different flowers’ in
different colours, sizes, fragrance and appearance, as Francis de Sales says. 199 This demands
from the pastors - in an overly clericalized and authoritarian pastoral climate like in India - to be
servants and facilitators rather than masters. One should keep in mind the truth that any form of
pastoral ministry is primarily service and not dominance.200 It requires of the ministers to
abandon their bossing and moralizing attitude towards those who seek their help and to be
willing to respond to the person from his point of view and trying to understand his reality from
his phenomenological aspect. He has to also pay attention to the client’s subjective experience
and accept them as valid for the client. Taking seriously the subjective experience of the client is
essential to understand the client and his experience.201 That does not, however, mean
subjectivizing or relativizing the truth. From the experience of many mystics in the Church it is
clear that spirituality and mysticism allow room for subjective experience. Accepting a person
does not also mean endorsing him and all his actions. It means accepting his as a ‘child of God in
need’ and treating him with the respect due to him. Such an attitude is in line with the spirit of
the Gospels. Mettnitzer argues that Jesus received such people with tenderness – he touched
them, allowed them to touch, caress and kiss him, shared meal with them etc. This aspect of
tenderness disappeared in the course of time from Christian traditions and is regrettably
associated with sexuality. 202

Indian society remains deeply conservative and traditional. It is true of Indian pastoral scenario,
too. There is, in general, openness to spirituality and religion. Although many people today do

197
For details, see 3.4.4
198
For details, see 4.2.1.1 - 4.2.1.4 and 5.3.4
199
See 3.4.4.3 (See also 3.4.4. ff.).
200
Cf. SCHMID, Personale Begegnung, p. 217-222. In this part Schmid develops the idea that pastoral ministry is
service. He states, „Seelsorge ist immer ‘Dienst’ nicht Herrschaft“ p. 218
201
See 4.2.1.4
202
Cf. METTNITZER, Steh auf und geh, pp. 60-63. The Gospels are full of examples wherein we find that Jesus
receives the needy and the downtrodden with special love, tenderness and care.
397
not like to be indoctrinated as in the earlier times and tend to resist the moralizing and pedantic
attitude of the counsellors/ministers/priests, there is a general openness to the teachings of the
Church in the Indian context. Very often people seek clarification on controversial issues like
abortion, divorce and pre-marital sex. The Catholics in India expect to get a clear direction from
pastoral counsellor or the minister on these matters. A totally non-directive approach would not
be helpful in this context wherein people seek information and clarification sensitive matters.
Here comes the importance of the method of Francis de Sales, who clearly and directly explained
the teachings of the Scripture and the Church to his directees.203

Openness to religion and spirituality, however, does not mean that pastoral counselling should be
reduced to mere moral and advice-giving sessions. It should be more of an encounter of two
persons based on God’s relationship with the human beings.204 The old model of an ‘all-
knowing’ priest or parish priest who always had ‘ready-made’ answers to all the problems of the
faithful who come to him is already outmoded and totally pointless today. Such a priest-centred
ministry is passé today – not only in the West but also in the East.205 What people are looking for
in a pastoral counsellor today, very specially in a priest, is loving acceptance, patient listening,
willingness to help and the assurance of spiritual assistance. They expect him to be genuine and
want him to understand them with empathy. To achieve this goal, a non-directive approach, as
proposed by PCA is highly helpful. The pastoral counsellor has to treat his client as a person of
dignity, as a child of God. To treat a person who seeks help in a pastoral context as patient would
be totally counter – productive.206 There are enough doctors in the world outside to treat a
patient, but very few to help a psychologically and spiritually suffering person. Therefore, the
pastoral counsellor’s duty lies in accepting, understanding and accompanying him and not in
manipulating or to ‘programming’ him. Their duty is to be companions and ‘midwives’ on the
journey. As Paul Wilkins says, “In this and related forms of practice, clients formulate their own
goals and therapist are companions on the journey, not leaders.”207

In this respect, the therapist has to be more person-oriented and person-centred than sticking to
the strict rules and psychological guidelines. Sometimes the pastoral counsellor has to see what

203
See 5.4.4
204
Cf. SCHMID, Personale Begegnung, p. 231. (See also pp. 231-254).
205
Cf. Paul M. ZULEHNER, Zulehner zum Laienapostolat:‘Priesterkirche’ ist passe, 09.11.15, in Katholische
Presseagentur Österreich. Available online: http://www.kathpress.at/goto/meldung/1315688/zulehner-zum-
laienapostolat-priesterkirche-ist-pass (06.1.16).
206
See 4.2.1.1
207
WILKINS, Person-Centred Therapy: 100 Key Points, p.146. (‘In this and related’… means, in PCT and related
forms of therapy).
398
the counselee at that particular moment requires, what his expectations are and what can help
him. The counsellor should hold the person as the centre of his actions.

A person-oriented and person-centred approach also means more non-directivity. Non-directivity

is not just about ‘reflecting’ or meditating over what the client has said or just repeating it back
to the client. Much more, intense listening and reflection of feelings helps the client feel
accepted, appreciated and loved. It helps him to go deep into himself and to explore himself. It is
also one of the means of appreciating and showing empathy for the client. It also involves
intense listening, listening with empathy and understanding, to the client- a quality which the
pastors in India have to pay special attention to. However, non-directivity has its own limits.
Many therapists, from all forms of therapy, believe that a totally non-directive therapy is not
effective. They pitch for a more eclectic approach.208 There are times when the therapist has to
intervene because of his experience, expertise and professional qualifications for the sake of the
client. This is very much true of pastoral counselling and spiritual direction. The counsellor has
to take into account that the client is in distress or in incongruence and he is duty-bound to help
him. But that does not give room for restriction on personal freedom and choice. It goes without
saying that a fully directive and authoritarian method is neither desirable nor salutary even in
pastoral counselling.

Concluding Remarks

Drawing from the foregoing discussion, I come to the conclusion that any form of pastoral
guidance – pastoral counselling, spiritual guidance and spiritual direction – in Indian context
requires a more optimistic and realistic anthropology which accentuates the positive and creative
nature of human beings. To be effective, the counsellor should exhibit and live out the
therapeutic conditions in a genuine relationship which provides a climate conducive to healing
and growth. Francis de Sales and Carl Rogers stand out as good models in this regard.

It should, however, be stressed that undue emphasis on psychology which neglects the spiritual
and transcendental dimension of human beings and which promotes unhealthy and unrealistic
anthropology and expectations are to be avoided. As Francis de Sales believed, virtue lies in the
middle – in the healthy integration of the two.

208
Cf. Denis A. KENSIT, Rogerian Theory: A Critique of the effectiveness of the pure client-centred therapy in
Counselling Psychology Quarterly, 2000, Vol.13.4, pp. 345-351.
399
One important point to be kept in mind is that the Western Psychology and its methods cannot be
applied in the Indian context. After decades of blind acceptance of western psychology, the
psychologists in India in the recent years, have come to this realization, there has to be an
indigenous psychology that the aspects of indian culture and spirituality. 209 Experienced
counsellors in India caution against any such naïve acceptance: “Because of cultural differences
between Eastern and Western countries, a direct application of Western approaches to persons of
Eastern descent may have negative consequences.”210 Soundarajan and Balachandra further
argue for the introduction of spiritual intervention and traditional practices in counselling:
“Incorporating indigenous methods of healing has a therapeutic value for Indians. Thus mental
health clientele need to incorporate traditional modes of healing into their counselling practices
(…) to increase counselling effectiveness and to ensure client satisfaction.”211

Pastoral counselling, as a ministry of the Church, should never neglect the diaconal dimension of
it. As a form of pastoral service/ ministry, it is her primary duty to stand by the suffering person
and to lend a helping hand than moralising or catechising. It requires enormous faith on the part
of the pastoral counsellor to trust that the God can work with this particular person in need and it
is his duty to be a channel of God’s love and grace to facilitate healing and growth in this person
in need. The therapeutic conditions of PCA are effective tools for achieving this goal. As Arnold
Mettnitzer suggests, the doctors and pastors are not gods in white coats or black cassocks. To be
the ‘advocates of human beings’ should be their prime motive; and as such to be sensible to the
suffering and afflicted fellow human beings is their part of their primary duty. They should be
able to see ‘with the eyes of the other’ and ‘feel with the heart’ of the other. 212

Along with Brian Thorne, William West, Peter F. Schmid, Bäumer and Plattig and many other
person-centred oriented therapists/counsellors I believe, that PCA can be applied in the pastoral
context. Moreover, I believe that it can be integrated with Salesian spirituality for a method
pastoral counselling suitable for Indian pastoral scenario.

209
Cf. Radhika SOUNDARARAJAN / Aruna BALACHANDRA. Urgent need for indigenous models of counselling
in Counselling: Theory Research and Practice, Nov Rattan SHARMA / Ashok K KALIA / Akbar HUSAIN (Eds.),
New Delhi: Global Vison, 2008, pp. 205 – 211.
210
Radhika SOUNDARARAJAN / Aruna BALACHANDRA, Ibid., p. 205.
211
Ibid., pp. 208-209.
212
Cf. METTNITZER, Couch & Altar. Erfahrungen aus Psychotherapie und Seelsorge, p. 63.
400
 GENERAL CONCLUSION

My hypothesis that there are some similarities between Salesian spirituality and the person-
centred approach (PCA) to counselling was the starting point of this study. It was based on the
initial reading of available literature on both these topics. My initial thinking that the humanistic
roots and the optimistic outlook of both Francis de Sales and Carl Rogers could pave the way for
developing a strategy to confront the challenges of the Indian pastoral scenario became stronger
and inevitable with the passage of time. In my interaction with scholars in India, Europe and in
the US in the field of Salesian spirituality and PCA during the course of this study, I was also
greatly encouraged and ably supported in my undertaking.

In order to ascertain the thinking of people in the field, a survey was conducted. Although the
conclusion of the study is not based on the outcome of the survey, it gave me a glimpse into the
thinking of the people who are actively engaged in the field. The survey surprised me with the
discovery that many people who are familiar with Salesian spirituality have been trying to apply
it in their ministry of guidance. Most of the respondents were in some way or other related to the
field of guidance. Salesian spirituality helped treat the client/directee/person with more human
dignity and to show more empathy. Surprisingly, Salesian spirituality also helped them accept
human beings as they are and to be more person-oriented. I hope this study will be a valuable
contribution to this field.

Most respondents answered positively regarding the application of psychological methods and
insights in pastoral ministry. The vast majority - 85.37 % - of the respondents believed that there
are similarities between these two approaches and that PCA can profitably be applied in spiritual
direction and pastoral ministry.213 That was indeed an eye-opener. On the other hand, the same
respondents vehemently cautioned against integrating imprudently and unwisely the methods of
psychology/psychotherapy into pastoral counselling. The long ‘danger-list’214 is a clear
indication of this apprehension.

In drawing my conclusions, I have based myself on the vast Salesian literature, and the still more
copious literature on PCA, the research findings available in the field, my own study and
personal interview with experts in the field. As mentioned earlier, the survey results have
corroborated my conclusions.

213
See Survey, Q. 23. (See also Q. 22).
214
See Survey, Q. 21. (See also Q. 24).
401
At the end of this dissertation, based on the considerations carried out till now, the following
conclusions may be drawn.

There is a Need for a Healthy Psychological Approach.

A pastoral counsellor, since his ministry is all about dealing psychologically and spiritually with
human beings, should possess a profound knowledge of human persons. It calls for sound and
sufficient knowledge of topics like the workings of the human mind, personality development,
knowledge of personality theories and the handling of emotions. He should also have deep
knowledge of common psychological illnesses like anxiety disorders, depression, stress-related
problems etc. and how to deal with them. Such knowledge is important in pastoral counselling.
A pastoral counsellor also has to familiarise himself with problems associated with the stages of
growth, gender-specific problems, problems related to aging, etc. to deal effectively with the
people who seek his help. For example, a counsellor who is not familiar with the physical and
psychological effects of bodily developments in puberty cannot understand the problems of
teenagers or deal competently with them. Another classic example: psychological insights into
human pain and sorrow can help a pastoral counsellor/priest to deal with bereavement. Such
psychological knowledge and insights can add a new dimension to pastoral counselling and
make it more human, humane and effective. Such knowledge also makes one aware of one’s own
limitations, of how far one can handle situations, and where one should gracefully make way for
more mature experts. Failure in this area can result in the pastoral counsellors becoming
fanatical, narrow-minded know-alls who only preach, pre-judge and moralise.

As provost, Francis exhorted his priests to learn continuously, because he believed that
knowledge was the eighth sacrament for a priest. This exhortation of Francis de Sales is still
valid today. It is applicable not only to the spiritual realm, but all relevant fields of knowledge. It
is to be understood as a call to acquire knowledge and skills, to apply them and to update them
from time to time.

A pastoral counsellor has to grow familiar with developments in the field of psychology and
psychotherapy if he has to deal effectively with the rapidly changing social situation of today.
Knowledge of how human beings behave, their way of thinking and how they react to and are
affected by developments in the society is important to deal successfully with human beings.
Special attention is to be paid to the research findings and insights of indigenous psychology as
human behaviour varies from region to region and country to country. This knowledge is not to
judge or to categorise people, but to understand them and their problems – in order to help them.
402
The Church should not hesitate to integrate the findings of psychology into her pastoral ministry
as advocated by numerous Church documents. Jesus’ attitude of openness should be an
inspiration for pastoral counsellors: ‘But Jesus said to him, you must not stop him: anyone, who
is not against you is for you’ (Lk 9:50). When psychology does not go against faith but works for
humanity, it stands ready to serve humanity and cannot be against Christian faith. After all, the
Church should have no reservations against integrating the methods of psychotherapy into her
pastoral care. She should have the confidence that psychology/psychotherapy cannot destroy her
ministry or even weaken it. Compared to the long tradition of the Church - which is almost two
thousand years old in the care of the needy and the suffering - psychotherapy is still in its
infancy. The Church has no reason to feel threatened by it. Paul’s advice to the Thessalonians
could be applied here: ‘Test everything and hold on to what is good and shun every form of evil’
(1 Thess 5:21-22).

Pastoral Counselling Is a Basic Ministry

This dissertation has to a large extent explored the relationship between the Church and
psychology/psychotherapy. One cannot fail to notice a conspicuous openness on the part of the
Church in recent decades. This openness to psychology and psychotherapy in recent times is a
welcome sign. It opens up opportunities for pastoral counsellors. Thousands of priests, nuns and
pastors around the world today serve as psychotherapists. The Church does not any more feel
threatened by psychology. On the other hand, the Church has come a long way to successfully
integrating it into her pastoral ministry. Today this is a self-evident fact. Not unsurprisingly, as
noted at several places in this work, many practising psychotherapists now realize the role of
spirituality in people’s lives and without hesitation incorporate religious practices/interventions
in their therapy.

Pastoral counselling is to be viewed as an essential ministry of the Church in continuation of the

healing ministry of Jesus. As a basic element of the pastoral ministry of the Church, it is an
integral part of practical theology. Pastoral counselling should be seen as a diaconal service in
the spirit of Jesus who was compassionate, merciful, and non-judgemental in his dealings with
people. Taking into account the complicated current situation in Indian society, one can
fearlessly assert that pastoral counselling has become a pressing need in the Church in India at
this time.

403
Be Inspired by the Two Giants

The detailed biographies of both St Francis de Sales and Carl R Rogers in the earlier part of this
dissertation had twin purposes. It was done firstly to delineate their personalities in order to
understand them better and to study the influences that shaped their lives and thoughts. The
second purpose was to trace the evolution and development of their ways and methods which
were closely connected with their lives. Both Francis and Rogers were deeply influenced by their
culture and background, and, in turn, they exerted their personal influence on their times and
successive periods to come.

Both men were motivated by an intense desire to be of help to others. The fundamental question
that motivated Rogers was: how can I be of help to this person? Rogers was consistently
motivated by human considerations. Francis de Sales, on the other hand, felt irresistibly drawn
by the love of God and neighbour. The desire to help, the inner drive to alleviate human
suffering, to lend a helping hand to the suffering person has been a fundamental Christian trait. It
is also an expression of the Christ-like compassion and mercy which the world today stands
desperately in need of.

Several other elements in their personal characteristics too were in common. Both were
susceptible to novel ideas and constantly kept improving their manner of guiding people. Both
alike absorbed and incorporated fresh insights and useful information from different sources into
their fields of service. In the case of Francis de Sales, the tradition of the Church contained a vast
reservoir of useful ideas to adapt from.

Rogers is credited with revolutionising the field of counselling with scientific and empirical
methods. As the first therapist to make audio and video recordings of counselling sessions,
Rogers meticulously evaluated the outcome of such projects. His new inspirations and insights
were brought out in a large number of books and numerous scientific articles. As a gifted writer
and speaker, Rogers’ style of communicating was characterised by a penetrating personal touch.

One notices a similar attitude in Francis de Sales who too was rather unhappy with the traditional
practice of spiritual direction, characterized as it was by authoritarianism and based on strict
obedience and dehumanizing practices. Francis opted for a new approach based on freedom and
human qualities. He believed that one should try to be fully human before trying to be an angel;
hence the importance he attached to human qualities. Unlike other spiritual directors of the time,
Francis considered the mortification of the heart more important than corporal austerities. As a

404
divinely gifted preacher and voluminous writer, he was singularly personal and thoroughly
person-oriented in his writings that made the reader feel that Francis was directly speaking to
him/her. Almost four centuries later, one who reads his letters gets the same feeling today.

Humanistic thinking was another feature that made them birds of a feather. Both appreciated and
promoted the good and positive qualities of human beings. These two great souls possessed
endearing personal qualities that helped them in their respective profession/ministry – personal
touch, gentleness, empathy, patient listening, and a deep understanding of human nature, to list
just a few. These qualities are all too important even today – perhaps more sine qua non than
ever before. As highly reputed humanists, Francis de Sales and Carl Rogers encourage pastoral
counsellors to concentrate on the positive characteristics of human persons, in the Church and in
the society at large.

The Need for Human Qualities

Anyone who wishes to deal with human beings should acquire the above-cited fundamental
human qualities before one goes for more difficult psychological techniques and complicated
methods of psychotherapy. Rogers' therapeutic conditions are highly efficient means of dealing
with human beings. One who desires to enter into or is called to the field of helping ministry – be
it personal counselling, pastoral counselling, priestly ministry, spiritual direction – requires an
abundance of these human qualities. These qualities – gentleness, patience, empathy,
understanding, genuineness – are essential not only in a pastoral and psychotherapeutic context
but even in day-to-day life. From a Christian point of view these qualities can be seen as a
concrete expression of love. They can make a huge difference to the entire gamut of any human
relationship. Church teachings demand that pastors acquire basic human qualities.

Francis de Sales and Rogers call for more empathic listening. This can never be overemphasized
in the pastoral context of India. Contemporary Indian pastoral context is often characterised by
authoritarianism, clericalism and rigidity. The time has come for a healthy change: to treat every
human being with respect, love and understanding. Each person deserves to be respected – even
the worst of sinners. Pastors and pastoral counsellors need to imitate the merciful and
compassionate Jesus. Pastors must learn to be totally empathic and understanding, without
moralizing and sitting in judgement. Church documents on pastoral and priestly ministry and
priestly formation underline this point. This has to be put into concrete action in the Indian
context. In the survey conducted by me most of the respondents underlined the need for human

405
qualities like empathy, gentleness, genuineness and patience in pastoral ministry and
counselling.

It can axiomatically be stated that those who take up the counselling ministry or the vocation of
guidance need to keep themselves constantly updated. That calls for keeping abreast of the latest
developments in the field, acquiring and honing requisite skills, informing oneself of the quick
changes in society, and studying how the developments in the society affect individual persons
and families, etc. One could assert that this learning and training is the ‘eighth sacrament’ [as
proposed by Francis de Sales] for a pastoral counsellor/spiritual director.

Pastoral counselling, as a branch of practical theology, has to keep itself open to further research,
especially in psychology and psychotherapy, and constantly update itself for ministry.
Psychological insights can enrich ministry, and vice versa. Pastoral counsellors should have
knowledge of their clients and their ways of behaviour and should be able to identify problem
behaviour without ‘diagnosing’ them. Knowledge of the common mental and psychological
problems of the people, in order to keep the pastor abreast of the developments in the field of
spiritual direction, counselling and psychotherapy is essential.

Precious little research has been done in the Indian context concerning the country’s pastoral
needs and problems. The time has come to do serious research in the Indian pastoral context so
that problems can be solved based on ground realities rather than on the utopian estimation and
evaluation of the hierarchy.

The Primary Place of Relationship

When comparing the two approaches, one is struck by the emphasis both Francis de Sales and
Rogers place on relationships. It is hardly enough to possess the above-mentioned qualities; they
should be concretely expressed in relationships.

Why is relationship so important? It is precisely because it is in the very nature of human beings
to be related. A relationship where these qualities and conditions are lived out is indeed
therapeutic and provides the right atmosphere for recovery, growth and healing. This
comparative study makes it amply clear that both Francis de Sales and Carl Rogers were
convinced that the manner of dealing with human beings does matter.

‘Be genuine, masquerading does not help!’ – is the warning given by these two eminent guides.
In the helping professions, especially in pastoral ministry and counselling, sooner or later people
406
discover/unmask the real nature of the counsellor and what motivates him; hence, ‘be what you
are, but try to be the best you can; be your real self.’ Although PCA might appear to
overemphasize the conditions or to be naïve about the causes of psychological problems, there is
a lot of truth in its view that incongruence is a major cause of psychological problems. Lack of
genuineness in life can lead persons to debilitating mental insecurity.

A healing relationship should always respect the uniqueness of the person. It is God’s plan that
each person is uniquely different. Each individual is called to be as God wants him/her to be. It
is the moral obligation of the pastoral counsellor to help one, as Francis de Sales says, to ‘be that
and to be that at its best’ or, as Rogers states, to ‘be the self that one really is.’ A pastoral
counsellor should never manipulate his client, but should help him/her to use the immeasurable
resources within – they are gifted by God to that person – through this loving, therapeutic
relationship. Respecting the uniqueness also means that there cannot be an established pattern of
dealing with human persons. Each person has to be helped, taking into account his/her unique
life-situation. Such an approach has to be totally person-oriented.

The process of therapy involves self-evaluation. The conditions and therapeutic relationship
should facilitate this process. Francis de Sales often advocated regular self-evaluation especially
at the beginning of a spiritual direction relationship.

Lay Emphasis on the Spiritual Aspect

As has been sufficiently described in this Dissertation, undue stress on psychology and its
methods is unhealthy in the pastoral context of India where people still are religious-minded and
tradition-bound. Admittedly, a blind acceptance of Western methods is neither prudent nor
effective in the Indian pastoral context where deep spirituality, strong traditional attitudes, and
orthodoxy still hold sway.

Pastoral counselling in the Indian context can also include spiritual interventions. It can include
praying with the client, reading the Word of God, thinking of, and praying for the client –
‘holding the client’, as Thorne would say. Francis de Sales often did it. He frequently wrote short
letters to his directees to let them know he was thinking of and praying for them. The importance
of prayers and spiritual interventions cannot be overruled in the Indian context as the clients are
susceptible to them and, in fact, desire them. Non-classical PCA shows great openness in this
regard. In a pastoral context, PCA, or any school of psychology, has to be approached with much
prudence and extreme caution.

407
As already seen in the earlier parts of this dissertation, there exist obviously irreconcilable
differences between PCA and the Salesian approach – the role of faith and transcendental
dimension, God’s presence, acceptance of the fallen nature of humans, the need for grace, etc.
Rogers’ extreme emphasis on the self as the ultimate judge of everything leads to moral
relativism.

Psychological methods, no doubt, are helpful. One should, at the same time, not forget that
‘grace can do much more’ than psychology. Psychology/psychotherapy alone cannot heal/save
people. It may help them solve their problems and function better. Spirituality, on the other hand,
shows ways for humans to be saved. God’s grace alone saves people.

Pastoral counselling is a ministry of the Church. It is a service to the faithful, to humanity. This
diaconal dimension should always be kept in mind. Too much professionalism at the expense of
the spiritual dimension can prove counter-productive.

A Solution to the Challenge: Person-Oriented and Person-Centred Approach

At the end of this dissertation what emerges is the conviction that a combination of person-
centred approach and the approach of Francis de Sales (Salesian approach) is ideally suited to the
Indian pastoral context. What is required in contemporary Indian pastoral context is a model of
counselling based on freedom, uniqueness of individuals and respect for persons. To be
denounced is authoritarianism, clericalism and male chauvinism in the pastoral context – the
malaise of the Indian pastoral scene. A person-oriented and person-centred approach is a solution
to the pastoral challenges of India today. The survey conducted in this connection also
corroborates these convictions.

408
 APPENDIX: SURVEY

Survey: Pastoral Counselling in the Spirit of St Francis de Sales

This online survey was done through LimeSurvey (www.limesurvey.org) through the
official portal of the Katholisch Theologische Fakultät (KTF), Universität Wien. The
survey was conducted from June 2015 to December 2015.

83 persons responded to the survey, either fully or partially. The entries in the column
‘other,’ where the respondents were free to enter their own points are given - unedited
and in original wording - at the end of the table.

A few questions that deal with personal details are withheld to ensure privacy.
Please note that question 21 has been placed at the end, as it has many entries.

Survey table name: lime_survey_61974

Title: Pastoral Counselling in the Spirit of St Francis de Sales (ID

61974)

Survey
URL
http://umfragen.ktf.univie.ac.at/index.php?sid=61974&lang=en
(English):

Field summary for 001

Please enter your full name
Count Percentage
Answer 82 98.80%
No answer 0 0.00%
Not completed or Not displayed 1 1.20%

Results
Number of records in this query: 83
Total records in survey: 83
Percentage of total: 100.00%

409
 Field summary for 002
Your gender
Answer Count Percentage
Female (F) 6 7.23%
Male (M) 76 91.57%
No answer 0 0.00%
Not completed or Not displayed 1 1.20%

Results
Number of records in this query: 83
Total records in survey: 83
Percentage of total: 100.00%

Field summary for 003:

Your age
Calculation Result
Count 82
Sum 4073
Standard deviation 12.48

Average 49.67
Minimum 29
1st quartile (Q1) 40
2nd quartile (Median) 46.5

3rd quartile (Q3) 58

Maximum 88

Results
Number of records in this query: 83
Total records in survey: 83
Percentage of total: 100.00%

410
 Field summary for 004
Your profession/ vocation
Answer Count Percentage
Priest (SQ001) 70 84.34%
Nun/Sister (SQ002) 2 2.41%
Consecrated person ( Brother, secular 10 12.05%
Sister etc) (SQ003)
Lay person/lay faithful (SQ004) 6 7.23%
Other 2 2.41%

Results
Number of records in this query: 83
Total records in survey: 83
Percentage of total: 100.00%

Field summary for 005

Your field of work/ministry
Answer Count Percentage
Counsellor/ Therapist/ Pastoral 14 16.87%
Counsellor (005a)
Educator/ Teacher/ Professor (005b) 40 48.19%
Formator (005c) 35 42.17%
Spiritual Director/Guide (005d) 19 22.89%
Preacher (005e) 18 21.69%
Pastoral Ministry (005f) 34 40.96%
Other 14 16.87%

Results
Number of records in this query: 83
Total records in survey: 83
Percentage of total: 100.00%

411
 Field summary for 006
Your nationality
Answer Count Percentage
India (006A1) 59 71.08%
Austria (006A2) 6 7.23%
USA (006A3) 7 8.43%
England (006A4) 2 2.41%
Germany (006A5) 2 2.41%
other (006A6) 5 6.02%
No answer 1 1.20%
Not completed or Not displayed 1 1.20%

Results
Number of records in this query: 83
Total records in survey: 83
Percentage of total: 100.00%

Field summary for 008A

Are you in some way familiar with Salesian Spirituality?
Answer Count Percentage
very well (008A1) 17 20.48%
well (008A2) 45 54.22%
somewhat (008A3) 16 19.28%
very little (008A4) 3 3.61%
not at all (008A5) 0 0.00%
No answer 1 1.20%
Not completed or Not displayed 1 1.20%

Results
Number of records in this query: 83
Total records in survey: 83
Percentage of total: 100.00%

412
 Field summary for 008B
Have you ever thought that Salesian Spirituality could be applied in guiding
people?
Answer Count Percentage
very often (008B1) 42 50.60%
often (008B2) 30 36.14%
occasionally (008B3) 6 7.23%
rarely (008B4) 2 2.41%
never (008B5) 1 1.20%
No answer 1 1.20%
Not completed or Not displayed 1 1.20%

Results
Number of records in this query: 83
Total records in survey: 83
Percentage of total: 100.00%

Field summary for 009

Have you ever tried in any way to use Salesian Spirituality in your spiritual
direction/guidance/counselling?
Answer Count Percentage
Yes (Y) 73 87.95%
No (N) 8 9.64%
No answer 1 1.20%
Not completed or Not displayed 1 1.20%

Results
Number of records in this query: 83
Total records in survey: 83
Percentage of total: 100.00%

413
 Field summary for 009A
Have you found it useful?
Answer Count Percentage
very useful (009A1) 47 56.63%
useful (009A2) 24 28.92%
somewhat (009A3) 2 2.41%
not useful (009A4) 0 0.00%
No answer 0 0.00%
Not completed or Not displayed 10 12.05%

Results
Number of records in this query: 83
Total records in survey: 83
Percentage of total: 100.00%

Field summary for 009B

Please specify how?
Answer Count Percentage
in assuring human dignity given by 42 50.60%
God (009B1)
in giving hope and confidence (009B2) 41 49.40%
in being more person-oriented (009B3) 31 37.35%
to be more empathic and 39 46.99%
understanding (009B4)
to listen patiently without judging 46 55.42%
(009B5)
to be more human (009B6) 50 60.24%
to accept human beings as they are 39 46.99%
(009B7)
Other 11 13.25%

Other
compassion39start all over again40to be joyfully available41to be joyfully available42to be joyfully
available55to think positively even when the circumstances do not suggest so57in knowing that everything
takes place in accordance with God\'s Will in life81Encouraging the person to connect with the goodness of
God and goodness of the human person91to be practical98Experience God112To make the people
understand that their life is meaningful and they are important as they are children of God and loved by
God

Results
Number of records in this query: 83
Total records in survey: 83
Percentage of total: 100.00%

414
 Field summary for 010
Have you found gentleness useful in your guiding of people?
Answer Count Percentage
very often (010a1) 48 57.83%
often (010a2) 29 34.94%
occasionally (010a3) 4 4.82%
rarely (010a4) 0 0.00%
never (010a5) 0 0.00%
Other 0 0.00%
No answer 1 1.20%
Not completed or Not displayed 1 1.20%

Results
Number of records in this query: 83
Total records in survey: 83
Percentage of total: 100.00%

Field summary for 011

What Salesian attitudes/virtues/approach have you found most useful in
spiritual direction/ guidance/counselling? Please specify.
Answer Count Percentage
Gentleness (011a1) 52 62.65%
Patience ( with oneself and the client) 53 63.86%
(011a2)
Love and freedom ( as the basis of all 36 43.37%
human actions) (011a3)
Avoidance of coercion or manipulation 23 27.71%
of human beings (011a4)
Use of gentle persuasiveness (011a5) 30 36.14%
Empathic listening (011a6) 49 59.04%
Other 8 9.64%

Other

humility40equanimity and surrender41equanimity and surrender42equanimity and surrender91humility;

practical application of Salesian Spirituality for everyday living103genuineness124Self examination /
Awareness of personal feelings / Congruence / Counter-transference128Being non judgmental or merciful

Results
Number of records in this query: 83
Total records in survey: 83
Percentage of total: 100.00%

415
 Field summary for 012
Do you find allowing personal freedom/ liberty ( = not using force) and
applying non-directiveness useful in your ministry/ field of work?
Answer Count Percentage
very often (012a1) 22 26.51%
often (012a2) 42 50.60%
occasionally (012a3) 14 16.87%
rarely (012a4) 1 1.20%
never (012a5) 0 0.00%
Other 0 0.00%
No answer 2 2.41%
Not completed or Not displayed 2 2.41%

Results
Number of records in this query: 83
Total records in survey: 83
Percentage of total: 100.00%

Field summary for 013

Do you think that there is any simlarity between congruence, unconditional
positive regard (UPR) and empathy in person-centred approach and
gentleness, warmth, kindness and genuineness in salesian approach?
Answer Count Percentage
I think so strongly (013a1) 22 26.51%
I think so (013a2) 43 51.81%
I don't know (013a3) 7 8.43%
I do think so (013a4) 1 1.20%
I don't think so at all (013a5) 0 0.00%
No answer 8 9.64%
Not completed or Not displayed 2 2.41%

Results
Number of records in this query: 82
Total records in survey: 82
Percentage of total: 100.00%

416
 Field summary for 014
What aspects, do you think, of person-centred approach could be most
useful in spiritual direction and pastoral counselling?
Answer Count Percentage
Congruence ( Genuineness on the part 43 52.44%
of the counsellor) (014a1)
Unconditional Positive Regard ( UPR) 39 47.56%
(014a2)
Empathy (014a3) 46 56.10%
Non-directiveness (014a4) 7 8.54%
Non-judgemental approach (014a5) 44 53.66%
Leaving the decision-making entirely to 22 26.83%
the client (014a6)
Positive picture of humang being 39 47.56%
(014a7)
Respecting and valuing the client 37 45.12%
(014a8)
Other 5 6.10%

Other
love for prayer87Valuing the client I am doubtful. It depends on when we are valuing the client , not
necessarily all the time. If there are descripencies in sharing skill confrontation(care-fronting) does not
value client.88Valuing the client differs when and where. During discrepancies care-fronting is to be
used.98Guidance when needed124Reflective dialogue

Results

Number of records in this query: 82

Total records in survey: 82
Percentage of total: 100.00%

417
 Field summary for 015
There is often the complaint that many priests lack understanding and
empathy in dealing with people and are often too authoritarian in their
approach. Do you agree?
Answer Count Percentage
I agree strongly (015a1) 4 4.88%
I agree (015a2) 45 54.88%
I don't know (015a3) 13 15.85%
I disagree (015a4) 13 15.85%
I disagree strongly (015a5) 0 0.00%
Other 5 6.10%
No answer 0 0.00%
Not completed or Not displayed 2 2.44%

Other
depends on place. In Cameroon I feel Priests are often too authoritarian in their approach.84Anecdotally,
you hear everything91This is a tough question to assess. I want to say that religious priests are probably
more empathetic and understanding due to their charisms. I confidently feel that The OSFS are this way in
their pastoral approach as it is such a part of Francis and our charism. I have had contact mostly with
religious (especially the Augustinians) who seem to possess a unique charism thst is part of religious life
whose approach is not authoritarian. I would conclude that I view religious as less authoritarian than
diocesean priests. I base this on peoples\' comments about our genuiness in contrast to that of the diocesean
clergy. However, there are certainly wonderful, pastoral and non-authoritarian members of the diocesean
clergy. This question is difficult. It is certainly one that Pope Francis seems to be combating with the clergy
and hierarchy in genewral.98I agree to some extent125sometimes

Results
Number of records in this query: 82
Total records in survey: 82
Percentage of total: 100.00%

418
 Field summary for 016
Do you think that love, freedom and acceptance seen in every director-
directee relationship are in some way similar to genuineness, unconditional
positive regard (UPR) and empathy in a therapeutic relationship?
Answer Count Percentage
I think so strongly (016a1) 17 20.73%
I think so (016a2) 48 58.54%
I don't know (016a3) 11 13.41%
I don't think so (016a4) 1 1.22%
I don't think so at all (016a5) 0 0.00%
Other 3 3.66%
No answer 0 0.00%
Not completed or Not displayed 2 2.44%

Other
It is much more than that. It is good to deal clearly with terms in psychology like transference and counter
transference .88yes. But transference and counter transference are important even in spiritual direction.
Please make note of it124It depends on the view of what it means to be a person

Results
Number of records in this query: 82
Total records in survey: 82
Percentage of total: 100.00%

Field summary for 017

Do you think love, gentleness and patient acceptance of oneself and the
other is necessary spiritual direction and pastoral counselling?
Answer Count Percentage
I think so strongly (017a1) 48 58.54%
I think so (017a2) 28 34.15%
I don't know (017a3) 1 1.22%
I don't think so (017a4) 0 0.00%
I don't think so at all (017a5) 0 0.00%
Other 2 2.44%
No answer 1 1.22%
Not completed or Not displayed 2 2.44%

I want to answer \"I think so strongly\" but what is meant by love? If it is \"willing the good for the other as
other,\" then \"yes.\" If it is a strong emotional attachment, I am not sure tnnis is a necessary component for
these two relationships (spiritual direction and pastoral counselling).124Yes, but there must be room for the
encounter to be fiercely authentic even when respectful, loving and non-judgemental

Number of records in this query: 82

Total records in survey: 82
Percentage of total: 100.00%

419
 Field summary for 018
Do you agree that to be salesian in approach in spiritual direction and
pastoral counselling, it is important to strengthen the directee's confidence
in God & in oneself and to encourage the directee to persevere, even if the
methods are not fully non-directive?
Answer Count Percentage
I agree strongly (018a1) 34 41.46%
I agree (018a2) 42 51.22%
I don't know (018a3) 2 2.44%
I disagree (018a4) 0 0.00%
I disagree strongly (018a5) 0 0.00%
Other 1 1.22%
No answer 1 1.22%
Not completed or Not displayed 2 2.44%

Confidence cannot be given, it can be cultivated under the right conditions of growth. The notions of \'God\'
and \'oneself\' can vary from person to person in the peron-centred approach. PCA is not dogmatic. I am not
sure about any organised spirittual tradition being free to dogma

Results
Number of records in this query: 82
Total records in survey: 82
Percentage of total: 100.00%

Field summary for 019

People who come to pastoral counselling/spiritual direction often expect

from the counsellor/director concrete directions and guidelines in the light
of the Gospels and the teachings of the Church. Do you agree?
Answer Count Percentage
I agree strongly (019a1) 14 17.07%
I agree (019a2) 51 62.20%
I don't know (019a3) 4 4.88%
I disagree (019a4) 9 10.98%
I disagree strongly (019a5) 1 1.22%
No answer 1 1.22%
Not completed or Not displayed 2 2.44%

Results
Number of records in this query: 82
Total records in survey: 82
Percentage of total: 100.00%
420
 Field summary for 020
Do you think that the psychology of self-actualising tendency and that of
self-healing as proposed by Carl Rogers - if it is accepted as it is- can go
against Christian Theology of sin, grace and salvation and human
dependence on God?
Answer Count Percentage
I think so strongly (020a1) 2 2.44%
I think so (020a2) 17 20.73%
I don't know (020a3) 21 25.61%
I don't think so (020a4) 27 32.93%
I don't think so at all (020a5) 3 3.66%
Other 6 7.32%
No answer 4 4.88%
Not completed or Not displayed 2 2.44%

I AM NOT SO FAMILIAR (in depth) with Carl ROGERS\' Thesis; and so am unable to judge49My
Knowledge of Carl Rogers is very much limited so I am not in a position to give a response to this
question57I am not sure, since I do not have the full understanding of Roger\'s theory. But certainly, any
theory which denies God\'s Grace and human dependance on God, would be unacceptable91Iam not
steeped enough with Carl Rogers\' understanding of these two concepts to answer adequately. I fear they
might leave out God and/or the power of the religious experience.93could be124Rogers did not talk about
self-actualisation. This is a common misunderstanding. Rogers talked about organismic actualisation.

Results
Number of records in this query: 82
Total records in survey: 82
Percentage of total: 100.00%

421
 Field summary for 022
Do you think the person-centred approach gives one chance for its
application in spiritual direction and pastoral counselling without
compromising on Christian Theology, with the possiblity of incorporating
Christian values and methods into it?
Answer Count Percentage
I think so strongly (022a1) 14 17.07%
I think so (022a2) 49 59.76%
I don't know (022a3) 7 8.54%
I don't think so (022a4) 1 1.22%
I don't think so at all (022a5) 0 0.00%
Other 5 6.10%
No answer 0 0.00%
Not completed or Not displayed 6 7.32%

depend on situation/ person74I don\'t know91Again, not knowing Rogers handicaps me in answering.
While I view spiritual direction as seeing the hand of God in one\'s life and it is the individual who is
central to the dynamic, I think the spiritual life is more about being God-centered than person centered. The
person needs to become singularly focused on God.124I am not sure. I guess this would depend upon the
values and aspirations of the client, and the genuine person-centredness of the spiritual guide

Results
Number of records in this query: 82
Total records in survey: 82
Percentage of total: 100.00%

422
 Field summary for 023
Do you think that the apparent similarities between the salesian approach
and the person-centred approach could provide useful insights for spiritual
direction as well as pastoral ministry?
Answer Count Percentage
I think so strongly (023a1) 23 28.05%
I think so (023a2) 47 57.32%
I don't know (023a3) 4 4.88%
I don't think so (023a4) 0 0.00%
I don't think so at all (023a5) 0 0.00%
Other 2 2.44%
No answer 0 0.00%
Not completed or Not displayed 6 7.32%

St. Francis de sales is man ahead of his time. in his spiritual counselling we find underlining currents of
person centred, gestalt, logo, reality, CBT, REBT Reality therapy techniques.124Same as above

Results
Number of records in this query: 82
Total records in survey: 82
Percentage of total: 100.00%

423
 Field summary for 024
Finally, what elements in Rogers or in other psychological schools could be
contrary to Christian spirituality and values? Where should one be careful in
adopting person-centred approach or any other psychological method into
pastoral field?

Atheism - Denial of God 27 32.93%

Undue glorification of human beings 39 47.56%
Denial of Grace : over-dependence on 51 62.20%
human power
Narcissism, individualism 35 42.68%
Denial of sin and human weakness 31 37.80%
Negation of things beyond this world ( 32 39.02%
reality outside the senses, spiritual
world, life after death etc.)
Negation of the value of suffering and 33 40.24%
pain
Undue emphasis on subjectivity and 39 47.56%
negation of objective truths
Other 3 3.66%

God is the centre of life33God\'s love is the source, purpose and goal of the human creation. It cannot be
denied.9Tendency to identify oneself as spiritual not religious is not a healthy trend Eternal life is the
ultimate goal33Glory of God is man/woman fully alive.
Forgiveness and Mercy of God33Human person cannot be saved without divine mercy and
forgiveness.82AA\'s 12-steps integrates need for grace well. Person centered approach shouldn\'t leave God
out33Our basic call is to be in communion with God and one another. It is because of sin God became man.
If there is no life after death, life is meaningless No sanctification without suffering. No Easter Sunday
without Good Friday.82even sacrifice can be a hard concept for poorly trained psychologist. Relativism is a
danger33Negation of objectivity is negation of truth.

Results
Number of records in this query: 82
Total records in survey: 82
Percentage of total: 100.00%

424
 Field summary for 021-1 [1]

What, in your opinion, are the major dangers in accepting psychology into
spirituality and pastoral ministry - espeically in the field of spiritual
guidance and pastoral counselling?

There are no dangers in integrating psychology into spirituality if the counselor is integrated8 Less
importance to God in one\'s life.9 Over emphasis on psychology10self centeredness11individualism12to be
subjective13Mechanical20lack human approach21The posiblity of keeping God out27Relativism28That
Man is his own creation30 From my overall knowledge of the Rogerian Approach, I see no serious
danfer31one sided approach32too much person-centred33It may lead to imbalanced growth34There is no
danger at all37lack of listening39more technique centerd40the tendency to look at the person more as a
client/patient41tendency to overdo, to the extent psychology overhauls spirituality42tendency to
overdo43only depending on the Psycology will limit the growth of an indivitual44Psychology mainly deals
with the psycho of each person.46Client approach48dependence of Theories49Psychology is the study of
human mind50biased ideas51Making Stereotypes on the basis of prejdices of the counsellor54Today
outside we find a growing number of counsellor and people frequenting them.55If totally psychological it
can Can become very therapeutic56mixing psycosomatic with spiritual57Consideration of only human
capabilities being enough to solve all problems of life60The psychologist should be inspired and motivated
by God.65projection69there can be a tendency to misunderstand the real issue that person faces,70too much
consecration on psychology and not on God and His grace72Difficulty to distinguish certain problem as
spiritual and psychologique74This question is very vague. It depends on what aspects of a particular
psychological school of75there can be over-emphasis on psychology76It is often seen as one-
sided.77Psychology need not be always hundred percent correct79Atheism - Denial of God81Could
become problematic if the focus on God is not maintained82spirituality is larger than psychology not vise
versa84re-enforcing self-centeredness85temptation of self-redemption88Giving too much importance to
Mind power90Overinterpretation91the priority of faith over psychology93Make a confusion spiritual area /
psychological area94If the councilor is not a well balanced person he can go wrong.95in my view
psychology has to be a part of spirituality and pastoral ministry96can be too clinical an
approach98Overemphasis on psychology to99Too much Psychology will lead to in human
approaches103There could be a tendency to interpret every thing in terms of psychology105a secular
attitude107Mystery aspect is neglected108pprimacy of for god is lost109may questions the the primacy for
God112too academic113Too much reliance on individual rather than on God115If the guide is competent
in psychology and rooted in spirituality I don\\\'t find any danger.116Pathologising the
Client120psychology alone cannot solve most human problems.123relativism124The limiting notions of
\'mind\' and \'neuroscience\'125denial of god126Lack of knowing the right direction127emphasising non
Gospel values128Concentration on the body and not the soul that is spiritual.

There is danger in the counselor or the director is not integrated well.8More importance to one\'s own
feelings9Trying to explain everything in the light of psychology10loss of dependence on God11Freudian
theory12to build his own faith20more on intelligent level than heart level27less importance to Grace28He
can achieve anything if he want to30Salesian Spiritual Direction is person-centred (both Director - directee)
BOTH surrender to God\'s Wi31too much dependence on human efforts32God and Faith on the
sidelines33It may end up in one-sided or distorted approach34

They are complementary37misunderstanding39lack of holistic approach40the tendency to psychologise too

much the reality or the problems of the client,41tendency to be more problem-centred rather than person-
oriented42tendency to look at the person more as a client/patient43Trust in grace of God will help
more44Man is created with body, soul and mind. It deals wth only the mind.48dependence on
Technicalities49Spirituality the the study of the human in relation with the divine.

425
50judgemental51Projection of one\'s own weakness on to the other54Applying psychology in spirituality
we may try to make it look more secular.55The God aspect may be lost if one is not careful57Limiting
problems to having only physical factors, and not being aware of transcendental realities60Those
psychologist who are not inspired by God only dangers the life of the client.65rel.
immanentism69psychologist fails to approach the person with prayerfully and not
psychologically.72People like to treat the problem more spiritually than psychologically74thought is
utilized.75possible side-lining of God\'s grace76Psychology believes that it can interpret
everything77Psychology is only a part of Human Science.79Denial of sin and human weakness81If it
remains solely at the level of self-actualisation and doesn\'t lead to self-transcendence82psychology can
help one understand human condition and behavior - spirituality builds off this84selfish self esteem based
on material successes or imagination85psychological technique88Over emphasis on individuals
potentialities90Paternalism91a fear that some may see tham as mutually exclusive93Use psychological
skills without the appropriate formation94The personal nobility of the councilor is an important aspect.95a
danger could be in a solely immanent view of psychology excluding the transcendent dimension96can be
emphasis on \"fixing\" client rather than allowing gradual maturation98neglect of spirituality99Psychology
without spirituality can make the client suffer103Spirituality can be reduced to a mere psychological
satisfaction105Giving no importance to God107Posibility of Judging112less spiritual113Most of the time
sense of sin is not accounted for116denying differences120an integrative apaporach is desireable.123lack
of appreciation for Christian virtues124The mechanistic view of a human being\'s \'inner
world\'125negation of spiritual world127having preconditions

It negates the importance of sacrifice in one\'s life.9Forgetting the word of God10egoism11biological

aspects of human mind27Tendency to explain all28Not accepting Grace30Submission to God\'s plan is
central31overlooking the healing power of prayer33It may lead to denial of God.37proud39less onGod and
human relationshipelat40tendency to be problem-centred rather than person-oriented41tendency to
substitute spirituality with psychology42tendency to be more problem-centered rather than person-
oriented43finding balance between both44Lack a wholistic approch.48tendency to believe that one knows
everything49People are not very much aware of the psychology and its benefits here in
Cameroon.50critical51Unhealthy Conditionings54There may be some who want only biblical and up from
above solutions.55The relationship between the director and directoree can become very much a doctor
client relation60Psychologist may be prejudiced by clients past history.65narcissm69it doesn\'t help us to
understand certain very personal /spiritual/circumstantial issues.75possible over-reliance on the ability of
the guide and client on techniques than on the Holy Spirit77Possibility of reduce a human into mere
Psychology.79Denial of Grace81grace builds on nature, we must not avoid the human but we also need to
be open to God\'s action82Salesian spirituality presumes human understanding (healthy psyche)84enabling
independence rather than interdependence88Lack of distinction between humanness and divineness90Lack
of opening on the part of the client94It is not the person but the issues that are to be dealt
with.99Psychology degree is often obtained in universities who styles are far from pastoral103There could
be a tendency to belittle the role of God in personal and spiritual life.105depend only on human
resources107Possibility of manipulation124Dogmatic atheism127going away from person oriented

It often negates the importance of grace in one\'s life.13Person oriented and not God oriented27 less
importance to Scripture28Not thinking God is in charge30If the above is contrary to Rogerian Approach
then, the DANGER31looking more negatively at human experience33It may lead to egocentric
spirituality.37no simpathy39negation of human longing for God40tendency to substitute or override
spirituality with mere psychology41tendency to dichotomise between psychology and spirituality, instead
of harmonising42tendency to dichotomise between psychology and spirituality, rather than to
harmonise49Clinical psychology is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of mental
disorders51Treating clients not as persons60Psychologist pre-conceived idea of the clients life.65...69the
greatest danger is not understanding the real pastoral need of the people81self-esteem is often the issue, but
we can build a true foundation on our sense of being loved by G82Greatest gift of psychology to
spirituality: better understanding of the unconscience84loss of a sense of the divine presence and
action88Loss of sense of sin and fear of God99Many psychologists do see clients as objects103The
Sacraments will be looked down on, and could be interpreted as mental satisfaction107To categorise

426
people124The notion of psychology as a pure science - separate from philosophical and spiritual
values127not respecting others freedom

Not to emphasize that discernment of God\'s will33It may fail to lead to a well-balanced and integrated
approach.37lack of time40tendency to dichotomise between psychology and spirituality, rather than
harmonising49Where as the spirituality is concerned more about the spiritual growth.51Failure to
understand the relative value of psychology60Clients seeking for immediate result.69psychological values
are given more importance than spiritual values81if we neglect prayer and remain only with
psychological103There could be a tendency to give undue importance to human power107Determination
theory124The medicalisation of human distress.

It may overlook the need for divine grace.37lack of patience49The issues studied by psychologists cover a
wide spectrum, including learning, cognition, etc51Stubborness in terms of application60Inability to
contain psychology within spirituality.69selfish desire for fame of the counsellor is given more
importance103There will be a tendency to deny God and glorify human beings.

It may overlook the importance of prayer.49In the pastoral ministry we may not get time for such a detailed
study51Lack of openness60spiritual exercises need not solve psychological problems. It may sideline the
work of the Holy Spirit.49The methods used in psychological research include observation, interviews,
etc60psychology if not empowered spiritual life, then guidance and couselling seems mere obligation.
Danger of negating the power of intercession.49We may not be able apply these methods in the pastoral
ministry.60without knowing the clients real imbalance in humane and spiritual life.

Danger of neglecting devotion to saints.49There are dangers all the same for a good spiritual direction
spirituality and psychology are a must60lack of trust and faith in the client.

427
 ABBREVIATIONS

AE Annecy Edition of the Works of St Francis de Sales (Œuvres)

APA American Psychological Association

CCC Catechism of the Catholic Church

DA Deutsche Ausgabe (Deutsche Ausgabe der Werke des Hl Franz von Sales – German
Editions of the Works of St Francis de Sales)

Ed. Editor

ed. edition

IDL Introduction to the Devout Life

GS Gaudium et Spes, The Pastoral Constitution of Vatican II

Hrsg. Herausgeber (Ger.), Editor/Publisher

IJS Indian Journal of Spirituality

LG Lumen Gentium, Vatican II Dogmatic Constitution on the Church

LThK Lexikon für Theologie und Kirche

NJB The New Jerusalem Bible

OT Optatam Totius, Vatican II Decree on Priestly Training

PCA Person-Centred Approach

PCEP Person-Centered & Experiential Psychotherapies (Journal)

PCT Person-Centred Therapy

PO Presbyterorum Ordinis, Vatican II Decree on the Ministry and Life of Priests

SC Sacrosanctum Concilium, Vatican II Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy

TLG Treatise on the Love of God

428
 SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY

DOCUMENTS OF THE CHURCH

Catechism of the Catholic Church - CCC (www.vatican.va).

Gaudium et Spes (GS), Vatican II Pastoral Constitution on the Church in the Modern World.

Lumen Gentium, (LG), Vatican II Dogmatic Constitution on the Church.

Sacrosanctum Concilium (SC), Vatican II Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy.

Optatam Totius, Vatican II Decree on Priestly Training.

Presbyterorum Ordinis, Vatican II Decree on the Ministry and Life of Priests.

The Directory on the Ministry and Life of Priests by Pope John Paul II, on 31.01.1994.

Instruction on the Proper Implementation of the Constitution on the Sacred Liturgy (S.C.R., Inter
Oecumenici) 26 September 1964.

Pope Pius IX, Dives in Misericordia Deus, Apostolic Letter proclaiming St Francis de Sales a Doctor of
the Church, 16.11. 1877, (tr. Daniel G. GAMBET).

Pope Pius XI, Rerum Omnium Perturbationem, Encyclical of Pope Pius XI on St Francis de Sales on
26.01.1923, declaring him Patron of Writers and Journalists.

Pope Paul VI, Sabaudiae gemma, Apostolic Letter on the 400th Anniversary of the Birth of St Francis de
Sales on 29 January 1967, translated by Neil KILTY.

Monitum issued by Congregation of the Holy Office (Suprema Sacra Congregatio S. Officii) on
15.07.1961. AAS 53, 1961, p. 571.

PRIMARY SOURCES

FRANCIS DE SALES

SALES, Francis de, Annecy Edition of the Works of St Francis de Sales - Œuvres de Saint François de
Sales. évêque de Genève et Docteure de l’Eglise, Edition complété. (26 Volumes, prepared by the Sisters
of the Visitation), Annecy: J. Nierat et al., 1982–1932. (Referred to as AE in this work).

SALES, Francis de, Deutsche Ausgabe der Werke des Hl Franz von Sales, (The complete works of
Francis de Sales, translated, prepared, edited & published by REISINGER, Franz. 12 Volumes, 3rd ed.),
Eichstätt: 2002. (Referred to as DA in this work).

SALES, Francis de, Selected Letters, (tr. STOPP, Elisabeth, 2nd ed.,) Stella Niagra: 2011.

SALES, Francis de, Exhortation to Clerics: That They Should Apply Themselves to Study, (tr. DAILEY,
Thomas F.) The Salesian Centre for Faith and Culture: Allentown.

SALES, Francis de, On the Preacher and Preaching, (tr. RYAN, John K.), Washington: 1964.

SALES, Francis de, Thy Will be Done. Letters of St Francis de Sales, Manchester (USA): 1995.
429
SALES, Francis de, Spiritual Conferences Vols. I & II (tr. CARNEIRO, Ivo), Bangalore: 1995, 1998.

SALES, Francis de, Introduction to the Devout Life, (tr. & ed. MOOKENTHOTTAM, Antony /
NAZARETH, Armind / KOLENCHERRY, Antony, 4th ed.), Bangalore: 2005.

SALES, Francis de, Treatise on the Love of God, (tr. & ed. by MOOKENTHOTTAM, Antony /
NAZARETH, Armind / KODIKUTHIYIL, Henry Jose), Bangalore: 2012,

SALES, Francis de, Letters to Persons in the World, (tr. MACKEY, Henry Benedict), London: 1894.

SALES, Francis de, Letters (unpublished) to Antoine Favre, (tr. POCETTO, Alexander T. & ed. by
BURNS, Marie-Patricia), published online: http://web1.desales.edu/assets/salesian/PDF/Letters-Favre.pdf
(Stand: 14.1.2016).

SALES, Francis de / CHANTAL, Jane de, Letters of Spiritual Direction, (tr. THIBERT, Peronne Marie
selected and introduced by WRIGHT, Wendy M. / POWER, Joseph F.) New York: 1988.

SALES, Francis de, Exhortation to Clerics: That They Should Apply Themselves to Study, Tr. by Thomas
F. DAILEY, (Original: Œuvres de François de Sales, Edition Complete, Annecy ( AE), Tome XXIII, pp.
303-305). English version: http://web1.desales.edu/assets/salesian/PDF/ExortationstoClerics.pdf (15.1.16).

CARL R. ROGERS

BOOKS

ROGERS, Carl R., Counselling and Psychotherapy, Massachusetts: 1942.

ROGERS, Carl R., Client-Centered Therapy, London: Constable, 1951, (2003 ed.).

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Unpublished Materials

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445
 ABSTRACT (English)

This dissertation, as the title suggests, is an attempt to develop a strategy for pastoral
counselling in the context of India today. In this attempt, the effort is to integrate the
person-oriented approach of Francis de Sales with the person-centred method of Carl
Rogers. The similarity lies in their humanistic approach. Both were influenced by
humanism – the former by Christian humanism, and the latter by psychological-
philosophical humanism.

As pastoral counselling is still in its infancy in India, the need to contribute to its growth
without neglecting its specific pastoral and social context is urgent. The rapidly changing
economic, social, and pastoral scenario of India demands that the Church help the needy
in their spiritual, emotional, psychological, and social needs. In this process of drastic
socio-political changes, individuals and families remain vulnerable. Many become
disoriented and end up suffering undue stress and mental problems. Unlike in the West
where people consult psychotherapists without hesitation, in India, many Catholics still
consider the Church their primary haven of refuge and the priest the first person to
consult. The Church has to adequately respond to this challenge. Unfortunately, the
Indian pastoral scene is largely authoritarian and from top to bottom clericalised. Many
priests are neither suited nor qualified to deal satisfactorily with such situations and to
treat their flock empathically and insightfully.

Francis de Sales has been one of the outstanding spiritual directors in the history of the
Catholic Church. In addition to guiding many people personally, – some for several
decades at a stretch! – he is credited with having written over 20,000 letters to different
persons, mainly for the purpose of spiritual direction. Even as the bishop of a vast
diocese, he looked on spiritual direction as his principal ministry. His letters, books and
talks provide glimpses into his personalized way of direction. He was a totally person-
oriented director. Moreover, with his deep insight into human nature and through his
personal qualities like goodness, gentleness, patience, kindness and understanding of
human nature, he could guide numerous people. This topic is one of the major concerns
of this dissertation.

Carl Rogers is the founder of the person-centred approach (PCA) in counselling and
psychotherapy. Through his ground-breaking approach, he laid the foundation for the
counselling movement, to which the origin of pastoral counselling is closely connected.
The person-centred approach of Carl Rogers has a number of similarities to the way of
spiritual direction practised by Francis de Sales: the humanistic influence, emphasis on
the freedom, dignity and worth of persons, avoidance of manipulation of persons, trust in
the dynamism of inner human capacities, etc. Both were convinced that through
establishing healthy relationships, the spiritual director/therapist could help the other.

The therapeutic conditions, of which Rogers speaks – congruence, empathy and

unconditional positive regard (UPR), – could be understood from a Christian point of
view as concrete expressions of love. Both Rogers and de Sales place great emphasis on
human qualities in the process of guidance and believe that it is ultimately the healing
446
climate provided by a relationship characterised by the above-mentioned qualities that
initiates healing in the person who seeks help. Researches have also shown that the
acquisition of therapeutic qualities contributes substantially to the effectiveness of
spiritual direction, too.

There are factors common to both approaches that facilitate a combined approach –
humanistic basis, positive idea of human being, emphasis on personal qualities, insistence
on freedom, the central role of relationship, etc. Moreover, therapeutic conditions can be
seen as concrete expressions of love from a Christian point of view. At the same time,
however, there are also obviously irreconcilable differences between the two – the role of
faith and transcendental dimension, God’s presence, acceptance of the fallen nature of
humans, the need for grace, etc. The human person has a transcendental dimension.
Physical well-being alone is not the final goal of life. Besides, humans cannot save or
redeem themselves. Only God’s grace can save them.

This dissertation at the same time warns that a blind acceptance of Western methods is
neither prudent nor effective in the Indian pastoral context where deep spirituality, strong
traditional attitudes, and orthodoxy still hold sway. What is needed is a way of providing
pastoral counselling based on freedom, uniqueness of individuals and respect for persons.
A person-centred and person-oriented approach to pastoral issues is a felt need in India.
To be denounced is authoritarianism, clericalism and male chauvinism in the pastoral
context – the malaise of the Indian pastoral scene.

Pastoral counselling, as a branch of practical theology, has to remain open to further

research, especially in psychology and psychotherapy, and constantly update itself for
ministry. Psychological insights can enrich ministry, and vice versa. One must, however,
be prudent. This dissertation highlights the need for more intensive training, further
research and development in the field of pastoral counselling in the context of India.

The inevitable conclusion is that a holistic integration of Salesian spirituality and person-
centred therapy is a fitting response to the pastoral challenges in India today. The survey I
conducted also corroborates these conclusions.

447
 ABSTRACT (German)

Diese Dissertation versucht eine Strategie des Pastoralgesprächs (Pastoral Counselling)

für den pastoralen Kontext Indiens zu entwickeln. Dabei versucht der Autor den person-
zentrierten Gesprächsansatz nach Carl Rogers mit dem person-orientierten Ansatz von
Franz von Sales zu verbinden. Die Gemeinsamkeit liegt in ihren humanistischen
Wurzeln. Beide waren humanistisch geprägt.

Pastoralgespräch ist ein dringendes Bedürfnis in Indien heute. Die Gesellschaft in Indien
befindet sich in einem ständigen Fluss aufgrund sehr rascher Entwicklungen. Das hat
auch ihre negativen Auswirkungen, wodurch vor allem Einzelpersonen und Familien
betroffen sind. Viele geraten in Orientierungslosigkeit, Stress und psychische Probleme.
Anders als in der westlichen Welt, wo viele Menschen in ihren Problemen den
Psychotherapeuten aufsuchen, ist in Indien (zumindest für die Katholiken) noch zumeist
die Kirche die erste Anlaufstelle und der Priester der erste Ansprechpartner für die
Betroffenen. Leider ist das indische Pastoralszenario sehr autoritär und klerikalisiert.
Viele Priester sind weder geeignet noch qualifiziert und ausgebildet, in solchen
Situationen adäquat zu handeln und einfühlsam mit den Menschen umzugehen.

Franz von Sales ist einer der wichtigsten Geistlichen Begleiter in der Geschichte der
Kirche. Er hat über 20.000 Briefe zu diesem Themenfeld geschrieben. In seiner
Lebenszeit hat er viele Menschen begleitet – manche viele Jahrzehnte lang! Sogar als
Bischof hat er die geistliche Begleitung als seine Hauptaufgabe angesehen. Seine Briefe,
Bücher, Gespräche usw. hinterlassen einen tiefen Einblick in seine Art. Er war ganz und
gar ein person-orientierter Begleiter. Außerdem konnte er durch seine persönlichen
Eigenschaften wie Güte, Milde, Sanftmut, tiefe Einsicht in die menschliche Natur und
Verständnis für das Menschliche, viele Menschen bewegen. Dieses Thema stellt den
Schwerpunkt dieser Dissertation dar.

Carl Rogers ist der Begründer des person-zentrierten Ansatzes in der Psychotherapie. Er
hat einen bahnbrechenden Ansatz entwickelt, der die Grundlage für das Pastoralgespräch
(Pastoral Counselling) gelegt hat. Der person-zentrierte Ansatz von Carl Rogers und die
Art der geistlichen Begleitung bei Franz von Sales haben viele Gemeinsamkeiten: die
humanistische Prägung, den Akzent auf der Freiheit und Würde der Menschen, den
Verzicht auf Zwang und Manipulation, das Vertrauen auf die Fähigkeit der Personen
usw. Beide sind auch überzeugt, dass man nur durch eine heilsame Beziehung dem
Anderen helfen kann.

Die therapeutischen Eigenschaften, von denen Carl Rogers spricht – Echtheit, Empathie,
Bedingungslose Akzeptanz (UPR) –, kann man im christlichen Sinne als konkreten
Ausdruck der Liebe verstehen. Die beiden legen in ihrer Begleitung sehr viel Wert auf
menschliche Qualitäten. Franz von Sales und Carl Rogers glauben, dass letztendlich eine
Beziehung, die durch die oben genannten Eigenschaften gekennzeichnet ist, Heilung
wirkt.

448
Dennoch gibt es auch einige deutliche Unterschiede zwischen den beiden. Als
Psychologe übersieht Carl Rogers die Wichtigkeit der geistlichen Dimension der Person.
Der Mensch hat auch eine transzendente Dimension. Und der Mensch kann sich im
Übrigen nicht selbst erlösen. Nur durch Gott und durch seine Gnade kann er gerettet
werden. Körperliches Wohlbefinden und psychische Gesundheit allein sind nicht das
letzte Ziel des Lebens.

Forschungen haben deutlich gezeigt, dass das Erwerben von therapeutischen

Eigenschaften wesentlich zur Wirksamkeit der Geistlichen Begleitung beiträgt. Diese
Dissertation plädiert für mehr Ausbildung, weitere Forschungen und eine
Weiterentwicklung im Bereich der Pastoralen Begleitung im indischen Pastoralszenario.

Die Dissertation warnt zugleich vor einer unbedachten Übernahme der westlichen
Methoden und Anwendungen in die indische pastorale Praxis, da der indische pastorale
Kontext in vielerlei Hinsicht anders ist als im Westen.

Der Verfasser kommt zu dem Schluss, dass die Verbindung zwischen den beiden
Ansätzen möglich und erwünscht ist, und er ist überzeugt, dass es eine konkrete Antwort
auf das pastorale Bedürfnis in Indien in der heutigen Zeit darstellt.

449
Curriculum Vitae – Mag. Sen VELLAKADA

12.09.1975 geb. in Paramba, Kerala, Indien.

1980-1987 Volkschule.

1988-1991 Hauptschule (High School).

1991 June Eintritt in die Missionare des Hl Franz von Sales (MSFS).

1992-1994 Pre-University Studies (Higher Secondary School).

1994-1995 Noviziat in Belgaum, Indien.

1995-1998 Studium der Philosophie (B Ph) Suvidya College, Bangalore, Indien.

1995-1998 Studium – Bachelor of Arts (BA), in Bangalore.

1998-1999 Praktikum in der Schule & Pfarre in Chintamani, Kolar, Karnataka, Indien.

1999-2001 Diploma in Journalism, Mysore, Karnataka.

1999-2002 Studium der Theologie ( B Th) St Peters Pontifical Institute, Bangalore.

26.12.2002 Priesterweihe in Kerala.

2003 -2004 Pastorale Arbeit in der Mission, Maski, Karnataka, Indien.

2004-2008 Professor und Geistlicher Begleiter in SFS Seminary Ettumanoor, Kerala.

2005-2007 Magister Studium der Psychologie (MSc. psych.), Madras University.

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