LECTURE NO.

1
A. Measuring Units

The international system ϑ units (SI)

1.1.Length : meter (m)

1 m = 100 cm = 1000 mm
1.2. Mass: kilogram (kg)
1 kg = 1000 g
1.3. Force: N/m2 = 1 Pascal (Pa)
Mega Pascal M = 1 * 106 Pa
1 bar = 50 MN / m2 or 50 MPa
1.4. To convert the following:
N (Newton) = kgf * 9.8066
Pascal (Pa) = kgf / m2 * 9.8066

B. Introduction To Strength Θ Materials

The field ϑ mechanics covers the relations between forces acting on rigid
bodies, in statics, the bodies are in equilibrium, where as in dynamics, they are
accelerated but can be put in equilibrium by applying correctly placed …….
Forces.
The field ϑ strength ϑ materials (or mechanics ϑ materials) deal with the
relations between externally applied loads and their internal effects on bodies.
Thus the properties ϑ the material ϑ which a structure or machine is made affect
both its choice and the dimensions that will satisfy the requirements ϑ strength
and stiffness rigidity other properties ϑ materials.

LECTURE NO. 2
1
Simple Stress

2.1. Tension & Compression Stress

Stress is expressed symbolically as
σ = P / A N / m2
Where: σ (sigma): is stress or per unit area N/m2
P: is applied load N (network)
A: cross- selection at area over a section normal to the load in m2.

Examples:
A. The bar shown in the fig. Below has a constant width ϑ 35 mm and a
thickness ϑ 10 mm. Determine the maximum average normal stress in the
bar when it is subjected to the loading shown :

Solution :
By inspection the internal axial forces in regions AB, BC, and CD are all
constant let have different magnitudes, the largest loading is in region BC,
where PBC = 30 kn thus the largest average normal stress occurs with in this
region ϑ the bar
( 30 ∗ 103 )
σBC = PBC /A = (0.035 ∗ 0.01 = 85.7 Mpa

2
B.. the 80 kg lamp is supported by two rods AB & BC as shown in fig. if AB
has a diameter ϑ 10 mm, and BC has a diameter ϑ = 8 mm, determine which rad
is subjected to the greater average normal stress

Solution :

+ ∑ Fx =0 or FBC * (4/5) – FBA cos 60 = 0 ……(1)

+ ∑ Fy =0 or FBC * (3/5) + FBA sin 60 – 784.8 = 0 ……(2)

From equations 1&2

FBC = 395.2 N , FBA = 632.4 N

By Newton's third law ϑ action, equal but opposite reaction, these forces
subject the rods to tension throughout their length.

Average normal stress:

FBC 395.2
σBC = = = 7.86 MPa
ABC π (0.004)2

FBA 632.4
σBA = = = 8.05 MPa
ABA π (0.005)2

Thus rod BA is subjected to max. Stress.

3
2.2. Shearing Stress:
Shearing stress differs from both tensile & compression stress in that it is
caused by forces acting along or parallel to the area resisting the forces,
whereas tensile and compressive stresses are caused by forces perpendiculars to
the areas on which they act. For this reason tensile and compressive stresses are
frequently called normal stress, whereas a shearing stress may be called a
tangential stress.

The shear stress may be:

*Direct shear (simple shear) : this occurs over an area parallel to the applied
load.

*Induced shear: this occurs over sections inclined with the resultant load.

Example ϑ the above types are:

Both direct shear and induced shear may be:

1. Single shear:

2. Double shear:

4
 V
τavg = A
Where:

τavg : Average shear stress at the section.

V: internal resultant force at the section determined from the equation ϑ

equilibrium.

A: area at the section.

Examples:
A. A hole is to be punched out ϑ a plate having an ultimate shearing stress ϑ
300 MPa. (a) if the compressive stress in the punch is limited to 400 MPa
determine the maximum thickness ϑ plate from which a hole 100 mm in
diameter can be punched. (b) it the plate is 10 mm thick compute the smallest
diameter hole which can be punched?

a.
P
σ=
A
P
400= 0.1
( )2 π
2

P = 3.14159 MPa
P 3.14159
τ= or A= = 0.01047 M2
A 300

A = t * d * π or

5
 A 0.01047
t= = = 0.0333 m = 33.3 mm
(d∗π) 0.1∗π

b.
P
τ=
A

A=t*d*π
Or P = 300 * 0.01 * d * π …… (1)
P
σ= or
A

d2
P = 400 * π * …… (2)
4

From equation 1 & 2

300 * 0.01 * d * π = 400 * π * (d2/4)

So d = 0.03 m = 30 mm
B. A bar has a square cross-section for which depth and thickness are 40 mm. if
an axial force ϑ 800 N is applied along the centroidal axis ϑ the bar's cross-
sectional area, determine the average normal stress and average shear stress
acting on the material along(a) section plane a-a and (b) section plane b-b.

Solution:

The loading consists only an axial force for which p= 800 N

The average normal stress is determined from:

6
 P 800
σ= = = 500 kPa
A 0.04∗ 0.04

No stress exits on this section, since the shear force at the section is zero.

τavg= 0
b.

Free body diagram shows a normal force (N) and shear force (V)

+ ∑ Fx = 0 , -800+N sin60 + V cos60 = 0 ……(1)

+ ∑ Fy = 0, V sin60 – N cos60 = 0 ……..(2)
From equation 1 & 2

N = 692.8 N
V = 400 N
At section b-b the area has a thickness = 40 mm & depth ϑ 40/sin60 = 46.19
mm
N 692.8
Average normal stress σ = = = 375 kPa
A 0.04∗0.04619
V 400
Average shear stress τavg= = = 217 kPa
A 0.04∗0.04619

2-3. Bearing Stress:

Bearing stress differs from compressive stress in that the latter is the internal
stress caused by a compressive force whereas the former is a contact pressure
between separate bodies.

7
Pb = Ab σb
= ( t d ) σb

Note: bearing stress at is various from

zero ϑ the hole to max. Directly in back ϑ
the rivet.

Examples:
The lap joint shown in the fig. fastened by three 20 mm diameter rivet ,
determine the maximum safe load p which may be applied if the shearing stress
in the rivets is limited to 60 MPa, the bearing stress in the plates is 110 MPa,
and the average tensile stress in the plate to 140 MPa.

Solution:

We must check the tensile force, shearing force in the rivets, and in the plate.

Bearing force in the plate, and then taking the min. force:
P
σp= or P = σp * A
A

P = 140 * 103 * ( 0.13*0.025)

= 459 kN

8
 V
τp= or V= τp * A
A

V = 60 * 103 * (0.01)2 * 3
= 56.5 kN
Pb = Ab * σb
= ( 0.02 * 0.025) * 3 * 110 * 103
165 kN
So the min. P is 56.5 kN

LECTURE NO. 3
Thin Walled Cylinders
Cylinders or spherical vessels are commonly used in industry to serve as boilers
or tanks.

When under pressure, the material ϑ which they are made is subjected to a
loading from all directions.

Although this is the case, the vessel can be analyzed in a simpler manner
provided it has a thin wall.

In general, "thin wall" refers to a vessel having an inner radius-to-wall

thickness ratio of 10 or more ( r/t ≥ 10).

9
A cylindrical tank carrying a gas or fluid under pressure of P N/m2 is subjected
to tensile force which resists the bursting forces developed across longitudinal
and transverse section.

Consider atypical longitudinal section A-A through the pressure-loaded

cylinder in the following figure:

The elementary force acting normal to an element ϑ the cylinder located at

angle θ from the horizontal is :
D
dF=pdA=pL dθ
2

A similar force (not shown) acts on the symmetrically placed element on the
other side ϑ the vertical center since the horizontal components of such pairs ϑ
forces cancel out the bursting force. F is the summation ϑ the vertical
component ϑ these elementary forces:
π D
F = ∫0 (PL ( 2 ) dθ ) sinθ
D
= P L [−cosθ]π0
2

∴F=PDL
∴ The stress in the longitudinal section that resists the bursting force is:
𝐹 PDL PD
σ= or σ1= = …….(1)
A 2tL 2t

Where

P: is the applied pressure inside the cylinder in N/m2 .

10
D: diameter ϑ the cylinder m.

t : thickness ϑ the cylinder m.

σ1 : normal stress.

Note: the normal, stress could be called tangential

stress because it acts tangent to the surface ϑ the
cylinder. Others common names are circumferential
stress, hoop stress and girth stress.

If we consider the free-body diagram ϑ a transverse section.

The bursting force acting over the end of the cylinder is

resisted by the resultant p ϑ the tearing forces acting over the
transverse section.

The transverse area:

Π ( D + t) t
If t small compared to D

∴ A= π D t
π D2
P=F or π D t σ2 = P
4
PD
∴ σ2 = ………..(2)
4t

Where

σ2: longitudinal stress (because it acts parallel to the longitudinal axis ϑ the
cylinder) N/ m2

P: is the pressure inside the cylinder N / m2

D: inside diameter ϑ the cylinder m

t: thickness ϑ the cylinder m

Comparing equations 1 and 2

11
 1
σ1 = 2 σ2 .......... (3) or σ2 = σ1
2

Longitudinal stress is one half the value ϑ the normal.

Stress or tangential stress.

For spherical tanks or vessels

Pr
σ= .......(4)
2t

Where:

σ = stress

P = pressure inside the spherical vessels

r = radius ϑ the vessel

t = thickness ϑ material used.

Example:
A cylindrical pressure vessel is fabricated from steel plates which have a
thickness ϑ 20 mm. The diameter ϑ the pressure vessel is 500 mm and its length
is 3m. Determine the max. Internal pressure which can be applied if the stress
in the steal is limited to 140 MPa.

Solution:
PD 2 t σ1
σ1 = or P=
2t D

2 ∗ 140 ∗ 103 ∗ 0.02

Or P =
0.5

= 11.2 MPa
PD 4 t σ2
σ2 = or P =
4t D

4 ∗ 140 ∗ 103 ∗ 0.02

Or P =
0.5

= 22.4 MPa

12
∴ The max. Internal pressure = 11.2 MPa
Example:
A cylindrical pressure vessel has an inner diameter ϑ 150 cm and a thickness ϑ
13 mm. determine the maximum internal pressure it can sustain so that neither
it circumferential nor its longitudinal stress component exceeds 138 MPa.
Under the same conditions, what is the max. internal pressure that a similar-size
spherical vessel can sustain?

Solution:
The max. stress occurs in the circumferential direction ( tangential stress):
PD 2 t σ1
σ1 = or P=
2t D
2 ∗ 0.013 ∗ 138 ∗
=
1.5

= 23920 kPa
= 23.92 MPa
For spherical vessel:
Pr
σ=
2t
2tσ
Or P =
r
2 ∗ 0.013 ∗138
= 1.5
2

= 47.84 MPa
The spherical pressure vessel will carry twice as much internal pressure as a
cylindrical vessel.

13
 LECTURE NO. 4
Simple Strain
4.1. Stress Strain Diagram .
The properties ϑ materials such as stiffness, hardness, toughness and ductility
are determined by making tests on materials and comparing the results with
established standards.

One ϑ these tests → the tension test for steal.

For example:

14
[The curve or relation is first postulated by Robert Hooke in 1678]
A. Proportional Limit:
The stress stain diagram to be a straight line ( i.e. from zero up to this point ),
beyond this limit or point, the stress in no longer proportional to the strain. The
proportional limit is important because all subsequent theory involving the
behavior ϑ elastic bodies is based upon a stress-strain proportionality. Also this
limit indicates the max. stress to which a material may be subjected.

B. The elastic limit, that is, the stress beyond which the material will not return
to its original shape when unloaded but will retain a permanent deformation
called permanent set.

C. Yield point, at which there is an appreciable elongation or yielding ϑ loads,

the load may actually decrease while the yielding occurs.

D. Ultimate strength: or ultimate stress, is the highest ordinates on the stress-

strain curve.

E. Rupture strength, the stress at failure.

15
Comparative stress-strain diagram for different materials.

Yield strength; closely associated yield point. For materials which do not have
a well defined yield point, yield strength is determined by the offset method.
This consists ϑ drawing a line parallel to the initial tangent ϑ the stress-strain
curve, this line being started at an arbitrary offset strain, usually ϑ 0.2 % or
0.002 m/m, the intersection ϑ this line with stress strain curve is called the yield
strength, see the figure.

E = δ / L ……….. (1)
Where

E : strain , δ : elongation , L : length

Equation (1) determines the average strain in a

length; the strain must be constant over the
length. However, under certain conditions the
strain may be assumed constant and its value computed from equation (1) under
the following conditions:

1.The specimen must be ϑ constant cross section.

2.The material must be homogeneous.

3.The load must axial that is, produce uniform stress.

Allowable stress : is the maximum safe stress a material may carry.

σYP σult
σW = or σw = …….. (2)
NYP Nult

16
Where N: factor ϑ safety.

N = 4 for materials that are known to be quite uniform and homogeneous.

For other materials, like wood, in which unpredictable no uniformities may

occur, larger factor ϑ safety are desirable.

4.2. Hooke's Law: Axial Deformation

The slop ϑ the line (i.e. the straight-line portion ϑ the stress-strain diagram) is
the ratio ϑ stress to strain is called the modulus ϑ elasticity (E):

E=σ/ϵ or σ = E ϵ ……… (3) Hooke's Law

Where :

E: modulus ϑ elasticity or young modulus

ϵ for steel = 200 * N/m2 (Pa)

= 200 GPa GPa = 109 Pa G (giga)
σ=Eϵ
δP
=E
LA
PL
δ= ……….. (4)
AE

where:

δ : total deformation

P : applied load

A : cross-sectional area

E : modulus ϑ elasticity

Example:
Compute the total elongation caused by an axial load ϑ 100 kN applied to a flat
bar 20 mm thick, tapering from a width ϑ 120 mm in a length of 10 m as shown
below, assume E=200*109 N/m2.

17
Solution:
Since the cross-sectional area is not constant, therefore, it may be used to find
the elongation in a differential length for which the cross-sectional area is
constant. Then the total elongation is the sum ϑ these infinitesimal elongation.
60−20 y−20
= or y= (4x+20)………(1)
10 x

The area at the section is

A= 20 * 2y
∴ A= 160x + 800
PL
δ= PL /AE
AE

100∗103 dx
dδ =
(160x+800)(200∗109

0.5dx
=
160x+800

∴ The total elongation is

10 𝑑𝑥
δ = 0.5 ∫0
160𝑥+800
0.5
= [ln(160x + 800)]10
0
160
2400
= (3.13*10-3) ln (2400/800)
800

= 3.44 mm ans
H.W (singer)

18
205, 211, 213

4.3. Shearing Deformation:

Shearing forces cause a shearing deformation, just as axial forces cause
elongations, but with an important difference: an element subject to tension
undergoes an increase in length; an element subject to shear does not change
the length ϑ its sides, but undergoes a change in shape from rectangle to
parallelogram.

The average shear

δs
Strain ɣ =
L

Applied Hooke's law

τ=Gɣ
Where :

G: modulus ϑ elasticity in shear (modulus ϑ

rigidity)
VL
∴ δs = V L/ As G ……. (5)
As G

Where:

V: shearing force

As: shearing area

Example:
The plate shown in the fig. below is held in the rigid horizontal guides at its top
and bottom, AD and B. if the right side CD is given a uniform horizontal
displacement ϑ 2 mm, determine:

19
A. The normal strain along the diagonal AC.

B.The shear strain at E relative to the x-y axes.

a.When the plate is deformed, the diagonal AC becomes AC', the length ϑ
diagonals AC & AC' can be computed from the Pythagorean Theorem:

AC=√(0.15)2 + (0.15)2

= 0.21213m

AC'=√(0.15)2 + (0.152)2

= 0.21355m
∴The average normal strain along the diagonal is
AC′−AC
(EAC) avg=
AC
0.21355−0.21213
=
0.21213

= 0.00669 mm/mm
To find the shear strain at E relative to x & y axes, it is necessary to find the
angle θ':
∅′ 76
tan =
2 75
π
∴θ'= 90.759° = (90.759)
180

= 1.58404 rad.

20
 π
ɣ= − θ'
2
π
∴ɣxy = − 1.58404
2

= -0.0132 rad.
The negative sign indicates that the angle θ' is greater than90°.

4.4. Poisson's Ratio; Biaxial & Triaxal Deformation:

Another type ϑ elastic deformation is the change in transverse dimensions
accompanying axial tension or compression.

Experiments show that if a bar is lengthened by axial tension, there is a

reduction in the transverse dimensions.

Simeon D. Poisson showed in 1811 that the ratio ϑ the unit dimensions or strain
in these directions is constant for stresses within the proportional limit.
𝜖𝑦 𝜖𝑧
V= - = …………. (6)
ϵx ϵx

Where:

V: Poisson ratio

ϵx = strain in x-direction

ϵy = strain in y-direction

ϵz = strain in z-direction

Note; minus sign indicates a decrease in transverse dimension positive as in the

case ϑ tensile elongation.

Tensile stress in x and y direction thus; (biaxial)

σx σy
ϵx = –V ……... (7)
E E
σy σx
ϵy = –V ……… (8)
E E

or

21
 (ϵx +Vϵy )E
σx = ;
1− V2

(ϵy +Vϵx )E
σy = ; ……(9)
1− V2

Tensile stress in x, y, and z (triaxial tension stress);

1
ϵx = [σx – V (σy+σz)]
E
1
ϵy = [σy – V (σz+σx)]
E
1
ϵz = [σz – V (σx+σy)] ……… (10)
E
E
G= …… (11) for a given material
2(1−V)

Where:

G: modulus ϑ elasticity in shear

E: modulus ϑ elasticity

V: Poisson's ratio

V for steel from 0.25 to 0.3

V for most material ≅ 0.33

V for concrete ≅ 0.2

Example:
A solid aluminum shaft 80 mm diameter fits concentrically in hollow steel tube.
Compute the minimum internal diameter ϑ the steel tube so that no contact
pressure exists when the aluminum shaft carries an axial compressive load ϑ400
KN. Assume V=1/3 and Ea=70*109 N/m2

Solution:
The axial compressive stress in the aluminum is
P 400∗ 10−3
G= = π = - 79.6 Mn/m2
A
4
(0.08)2

22
For uniaxial stress, the transverse strain is
σx
ϵy = -V ϵx = - V or
E

1 (−79.6∗106 )
ϵy = - ( )
3 70∗109

= 379*10-6 m/m
δy = ϵ L = 379* 10-6 * 80
= 0.0303 mm
The internal diameter required for steel tube is

D = 80 + 0.0303 = 80.0303 mm ANS.

4.5. Thermal Stresses:

The change in temperature cause bodies to expand or contract, the amount of
the linear deformation, δT , being expressed by the relation

δT = α L ∆ T ……….(12)
Where:

δT: linear deformation due to heat

α: the coefficient ϑ linear expression m/m.T

L: length m

∆T: temperature change

The result ϑ temperature deformation is internal forces which the material

resists them. The stresses caused by these internal forces are known as internal
forces are known as thermal stresses.

A general procedure for computing the loads and stresses caused when
temperature deformation is prevented is outlined in these steps;

1. Imagine the structure relieved ϑ all applied loads and constraints so that
temperature deformations can occur freely.

23
Represent these deformations on a sketch, and exaggerate their effect.

2. Now imagine sufficient load applied to the structure to restore it to the

specified conditions ϑ restraint. Represent these loads and corresponding load
deformations on the sketch for step1.

3. The geometric relations between the temperature and load deformations on

the sketch give equations which, together with the equations ϑ static
equilibrium, may be solved for all unknown quantities.

Example:
A steel rod 2.5 m long is secured between two walls. If the load is zero at 20°
C, compute the stress when the temperature drops to -20°. The cross-sectional
area ϑ the rod is 1200 mm2, α=11.7μm/m.C° and E=200GN/m2. Solve,
assuming:

a. That the walls are rigid

b. That the walls spring together a total distance ϑ 0.5mm

as the temperature drops.

Solution:
Part (a)

Imagine the rod is disconnected from the right wall.

Temperature deformations can then freely occur. A
temperature drop cause the contraction represented by δT. To reattach the rod to
the wall will evidently require a pull p to produce the load deformation δP.

∴ δ T = δP
PL σL
α(∆T)L = =
AE E

∴σ = E α (∆ T)
σ= (200*109)*(11.7*10-6)*40
= 93.6*106 N/m2
= 93.6 MN/m2 ANS.

24
Part (b)

When the walls spring together, the free temperature contraction is equal to the
sum ϑ the load deformation and the yield ϑ the walls. Hence:

δT = δP +yield
σL
αL (∆T) = + yield or
E

6∗2.5
(11.7*10-6)*2.5*40 = +0.5*10-3
200∗ 106

∴σ = 53.6 MN/m2 Ans.

Example:
A rigid block having a mass ϑ 5 Mg is supported
by three rods symmetrically placed as shown in
figure below.

Determine the stress in each rod after a

temperature rise ϑ 40°C.

The lower ends ϑ the rods are assumed to have

been at the same level before the block was attached and the temperature
changed.

Each steel rod Bronze rod

2
Area (mm ) 500 900
E (N/m2) 200*109 83*109
α (μm/m.°C) 11.7 18.9

The free-body diagram ϑ the block represents the equal

and opposite effects ϑ the force exerted by the rods upon
the block.

δTs + δPs = δTb + δPb

25
 PL PL
(α L ∆ T)s + (A E)s = (α L ∆ T)b + (A E)b

(11.7*10-6)*0.5*40+
Ps ∗0.5
(500∗10−6 )∗(200∗109 )

(18.9*10-6)(1)*40+ =
Pb ∗1
(900∗10−6 )∗(83∗109 )

- 2.68Pb = 104 * 103 N ……(1) Ps

From free-body diagram εY=0

+ Pb = 5000*9.81 = 49.05*103 N 2Ps

……(2)
From equations 1 & 2

Ps = 37kn & Pb = -25kn

The stresses are:
37∗103
σs = = 74 MN/m2 (tension)
500∗10−6

25∗103
σb = = 27.8 MN/m2 (compression)
900∗10−6

LECTURE NO. 5
TORSION
Torque is a moment that tends to twist a member about its longitudinal axis. Its
effect is of primary concern in the design of axles or drive shafts used in
vehicles and machinery.

5.1. Torsion ϑ Circular Members:

26
In driving the torsion formulas the following assumption must be taking in
consideration:

1. Circular section remain circular

2. Plane sections remain plane and do not warp.

3. The projection upon a transverse section of straight radial line in the section
remains straight

4. Shaft is loaded by twisting couples in planes that are perpendicular to the

axis ϑ the shaft

5. Stresses do not exceed the proportional limit. Thus the length ϑ deformation
due to torque (T) is the arc ϑ a circle whose radius 𝒮 and which is subtended by
the angle of θ radius; the length is given by

δs = D E = P θ ……..(a)
the unit deformation is:
δs Pθ
ɣ= = …….(b)
L L

the shearing stress is:

Gθ
τ=Gɣ = ( ) P ……(c)
L

∑M=0 (to satisfy the condition ϑ static equilibrium)

M = Tr = δ dp where p is the load

∴ T = Tr = ∫ δ dp = ∫ p (τ dA)
Sub-equation c in the above equation gives:
Gθ
T= ∫ δ2 dA
L

Since ∫ δ2 dA = J, the polar moment ϑ interia ϑ the cross section,

Gθ
∴T= J or
L

27
 TL
Θ= ……..(1)
JG

Where:

twist Θ: angle ϑ

T: torque

L: length ϑ shaft

J: polar moment ϑ interia ϑ cross-section

G: modulus ϑ elasticity in shear

Tr
τ= ……(2) torsion formula (shear stress)
J

Max. Shearing stress:

Tr
Max τ = …….. 2a
J

Where r: shaft radius

Using the values ϑ J from the following figure, we can obtain the following
modification ϑ the torsion formula:
2T 16 T
Shold shaft: max.τ = = ……. 2b
π r3 π d3
2TR 2𝑇𝑅
Hollow shaft: max.τ = = ....... 2c
π (R4 − r4 ) 𝜋(𝐷4 −𝑑4 )

πr4 πd4 π π
J= = J = (R4 - r4) = (D4 - d4)
2 32 2 32

P=TW
Where:

28
P: power (transmit power)

T: torque

W: angular speed

But w = 2πf
Where f: shaft rotation revolution /unit time

∴ P = T2πF
P
T= ……. (3)
2πf

For equation no.3 if P measured in watts (1w =1 N.m/sec) and f in revol./s or

(r/s) this equation will determine the torque T in Newton-meters.

Example:
A solid shaft in a rolling mill transmits 20 kw at 2 r/s. Determine the diameter
ϑ the shaft if the shearing stress is not to exceed 40 MN/m2 and the angle of
twist is limited to 6° in a length ϑ 3m.

Use G=83 GN/m2.

Solution:
Q 20∗103
T= ∴T= = 1590 N-m
2πf 2π∗2

16 T 3 16∗1590
τ= or d= √ = 58.7mm
π d3 π∗40∗106

Check for angle ϑ twist:

TL TL
Θ= * 57.3 or J = ∗57.3
JG θG

Where:
1590∗3∗57.3π d2
=
6∗83∗109 32

Or d = 48.6 mm

29
∴ The larger diameter, d=58.7 mm. will satisfy both strength & rigidity.

Note:

1 degree = 1.74539*10-2 = 1 rad.

Or 1 degree = 57.29378 = 57.3 rad.

Example:
Two solid shafts ϑ different materials are rigidly fastened together and attached
to rigid supports as shown in the figure. The aluminum segment is 75 mm in
diameter, and Ga= 28*109 N/m2. The steel segment has a diameter ϑ 50 mm and
Gs=83*109 N/m2.

The torque, T=1000N-M, is applied to the junction ϑ the two segments-

compute the max. shearing stress developed in the assembly.

Static equilibrium:

∑ M =0 Ts + Ta = 1000 ……..(1)
each segment has the same angular deformation, i.e:

θ s = θa
TL TL
=( )a ( )
JG JG s

𝑇 Ts ∗1.5
= π (0.075)𝑎∗3
4 π(0.05)4
∗28∗109 ∗83∗109
32 32

From which Ts = 1.17 Ta ……. (2)

From equation 1&2

30
∴ Ta = 461 N-m & Ts = 539 N-m
16 T
Τ=
π d3

16∗461
∴ τa = = 5.57 MN/m2
π (0.075)3

16∗539
τs = = 22 MN/m2
π (0.05)3

5.2. Flanged Bolt Coupling

A commonly used connection between two shafts is a flanged bolt coupling. It
consists of flanges rigidly attached to the ends ϑ the shafts and bolted together,
the torque is transmitted by the shearing force (p) created in the bolts.

Assuming that the stress is uniformly distributed, the load in any bolt is given
by:

π d2
P =Aτ = τRn …….(4)
4

Where:

P: load on a bolt.

R: radius ϑ the bolt circle

n: number ϑ bolt

d: bolt diameter

5.3. Torsion Of Thin-Walled Tubes

31
Where:

t: wall thickness

τ: tensional stress

q: shear follow

F1 = q1∆L & F2 =q2∆L ……(a)

q1∆L = q2∆L or q1 = q2 ……(b)

T = ∫ rqdL …… (c)

From a,b&c

T = 2Aq …….(5)
The average shearing stress across any
thickness t is given by:
𝑞 T
τ= = ……(6)
t 2At

Where A: area ϑ the section

Example:
A tube has a semicircular shape. If
stress concentration at the corners is
neglected, what torque will cause a
shearing stress ϑ 40 MN/m2?

T = 2Atr
πr2
=2 tτ
2
π
= 2[ (0.025)2]*0.002 *40*106
2

= 157 N.m
32
5.4. Helical Spring
Where:

d: wire diameter

P: load

R: helix main radius

Pr: spring resistance = P

T: torque

τ1: direct shearing stress

τ2: max. torsional shearing stress.

The magnified view ϑ the cross-section shows the stress distribution that
created the resisting
force. Two types ϑ
shearing stress are
produce:

1. Direct shearing stress

like τ1, uniformly
distributed over the
spring section and
creating the resisting load Pr that passes through the centroid ϑ the section.

2. Variable torsional shearing stress like τ2 caused by the twisting couple T=PR.

The torsional stresses τ2 vary in magnitude with their radial distance from the
centroid and are directly perpendicular to the radius, as at A. the result shearing
stress is the vector sum ϑ the direct and torsional shearing stresses. At B. the
stresses are oppositely directed, and the resultant stress is the difference
between τ2&τ1.

33
At the inside fiber c, however, the two stresses are collinear and in the same
scene; their sum produces the maximum stress in the section.

T = PR

τ1 = P/A

τ2 = Tr/J
4P 16 P R
τ = τ1 + τ2 = 2 + …….(7)
πd π d3

16 P R d
τ= ( +1) …….(7a)
π d3 4R

The ratio d/4r is small for a spring composed of a wire ϑ relatively small
diameter wound on spring ϑ large radius.

Wahl has developed the following formula:

16PR 4m−1 0.615

Max. τ = ( + )
πd3 4m−4 m

Where m=2r/d = D/d, the ratio of the mean diameter ϑ the spring to the
diameter ϑ the spring wire. In light springs, where the ratio m is large, the first
term in the parentheses approaches unity.

Compare with equation(7), which may be rewritten in the following form:

16PR 0.5
Max τ = (1 + ) (9)
πd3 m

5.4. Spring Deflection:

64PR3 n
δ= ……(10)
Gd4

Where:

n: number ϑ coils

8PRn
δ= Gd2
…….(11)

34
Notes:

Equation (10) is the general for computing spring deflection with direct shear
and torsional shear stresses while equation (11) neglected the deformations
caused by direct shear.

Example:
A load P is supported by two steel springs arranged in series as shown in the
figure. The upper spring has 20 turns ϑ 20 mm diameter wire on a mean
diameter of 150 mm. the lower spring consists ϑ is turns of 10 mm diameter
wire on a mean diameter of 130 mm. determine the max. Shearing stress in
each spring if the total deflection is 80 mm and G=83GN/m2.

Solution:
The total deflection is the sum ϑ the deflection in each spring;

64 PR3 n
δ =∑
Gd4

64P (0.075)3 ∗20 (0.065)3 ∗15

0.08 = [ + ]
83∗109 (0.02)∗4 (0.01)∗4

P = 233 N

The stress for upper spring, m=2 R/d =2(0.075)/0.02

= 7.5 ; 4 m = 30 .
Applying Wahl's formula:

16PR 4m−1 0.615

Max.τ = [ + ]
πd3 4m−4 m

Or

16(223)(0.075) 30−1 0.615

Max.τ = [ + ]
π(0.02)3 30−4 7.5

= 12.7 MN/m2 …. Ans

Similarly for lower spring where m=2(0.065)/0.01

35
 = 13 & 4m =52
16(223)(0.065) 52−1 0.615
∴ max.τ = [ + ]
π(0.01)3 52−4 13

= 81.9 MN/m2

If we used equation(7a) to compute these max shearing stresses, the result

would have been 11.4 MN/m2 in the upper spring and 76.7 MN/m2 in the lower
spring. Thus the approximate formula gives results that are ∓10.2 %, thus the
Wahl formula gives more precise result.

H.W. (singer) ; 343,346,348

LECTURE NO. 6
Shear & Moment In Beams
6.1. Methods & beam supporting:
1. Simple beam:
A simple beam is supported by a hinged reaction at
one end and a roller support at the other end.

2. Cantilever beam:
This type is supported at one end only, with a
suitable restrained to prevent rotation of that end.

3. Overhanging beam:
The overhanging beam is supported by a hinge and a
roller reaction. With either or both ends extending
beyond the supports.

Note:

36
The above beams are all statically determinate their reactions can be
determined directly from the equations ϑ static
equilibrium.

4. Propped beam:

5. Fixed or restrained beam:

6. Statically indeterminate beams

6.2. Shear & Moment:

The figure shows a simple beam that carries a
concentrated load P and held in equilibrium by
reactions R1 & R2 neglect the mass of the beam itself
and consider only the effect ϑ the load P.

Assume that a cutting plane a-a at a distance x from

R1 divided the beam into two segments.

For left segment;

….. No forces in x- direction.∑ Fx = 0

∑ Fy = 0 ,
the vertical unbalance caused by R1 requires a resisting force Vr(also called the
resisting shearing force), opposite in direction to R1;

R1 = Vr or v= (∑Fy)L …….(1)
Note; Vr is determined from the summation ϑ the vertical components ϑ the
external load acting on either side ϑ the section.

37
Mr = R1 * X

Bending moment is defined as the summation ϑ moments about the centroidal

axis ϑ any selected section ϑ all the load acting either to the left or to the right
side ϑ the section, and is expressed as;

M =(∑M)L = (∑MR) …….(2)

Where:

L: moment acting to the left ϑ the section.

R: moment acting to the right ϑ the section.

Up-ward acting external forces cause positive bending moments with respect to
any section; down-ward forces cause negative bending moments as shown in
the figures below:

Example 6.1:
Write shear and moment equations for the beam loaded as shown in the figure
and sketch the shear and moment diagrams:

Solution:

Calculation the reaction at A & B;

↱+ ∑Mc = 0

R1*10-20*5*7.5+30*4=0

38
∴ R1 = 63 kN

+↑∑ Fy = 0; 63+R2-30-20*5=0

∴ R2 = 67 kN
The section ϑ zero shears between A & B occurs because the downward force
due to x meter ϑ load applied at 20 kN/m must balance the vertical shear ϑ 63
kN at A. hence;

63 = 20x or x = 3.15 m
Force at (∵ shearing force) point B=5*20-63=37kN↓

Shearing force at c=67-37=30↑ kN

Shearing force at D=30kN↓

Moment at; A=0 kN-m

Max. Moment at zero shear i.e. at point E=

3.15
↱+∑ME = 63*3.15-20*3.15*
2

= 99.225 kN-m
Or calculating the shear force area i.e.;
1
63*3.15* = 99.225 kN-m
2

↱+∑MB = 63*5-20*5*2.5 = 65kN.m

Or calculating from the summation ϑ shearing force area i.e.;
3.15 (5−3.15)
63* - 37 * = 65 kN-m
2 2

↱+∑Mc = 63*10 – 5*20*7.5 = -120 kN-m

3.15 1.85
Or 63* - 37* - 5*37 = -120kN-m
2 2

39
↱+∑MD = 63*14-20*11.5+67*4

= 0 KN-m.

Example 6.2:
Write the shear and moment equation for
the cantilever beam carrying the uniformly
varying load and concentrated load show in the figure. Also sketch the shear
and moment diagrams.

Solution:
For the region AB
y 𝑥
=
6 6
y= x

[ V = ∑Fy ]L ,
x2
VAB = - kN
2

36
=- = -18 kN = 18 ↓kN
2

[ M = ∑ M ]L ,
x2 x x3
MAB = - * =- kN − m
2 3 6

For the region BC

[ v = ∑ Fy ]
For the region BC; in which x varies between 6 and 8

[ V =∑ Fy ]

VBC = - 18 kN = 18 kN↓

40
[ M = ∑ M ]L

MBC = - 18(x-4) = -18x+72 kN

For the region C & D in which x varies from 8 to 10, we obtain.

0 [ V = ∑ Fy ]

VCD = -18-20 = -38 kN

[ M = ∑ M ]L

MCD = -18(x-4)-20(x-8)

= -18(x-4)-20(x-8)

= (-38x+232) kN-m
The direct solution:
6∗6
Shearing force at B = - = -18 kN
2

=18
kN ↓

Shearing force at c = -18-20 = -38 kN

= 38 kN ↓

↳+∑ MB = -18*2 = - 36 kN-m

↳+∑ Mc = -18*4 = - 72 kN-m

↳+∑ MD = -18*6-20*2 = -148 kN-m

6.3. Interpretation Of Vertical

Shear & Bending Moment
The beam in the figure carries a uniformly
distributed load as well as concentrated load.

41
The external effects ϑ each load acting to the left or right ϑ section b-b could be
reduced to a single force and a moment at that section. See the fig. below;

For example the moment at section c-c

w z2
Mc = Mb + Vb z –
2

6.4. Relations Between Load, Shear And Moment:

Consider the beam shown above, which is assumed to carry any general
loading. The force-body diagram ϑ a segment ϑ this beam ϑ length dx is shown
with shearing forces & moments. Applying the condition ϑ static equilibrium to
the segments:

[ ∑ F y = 0]

V+ wdx - (v+dv) = 0

dv =wdx …..(a)

[ ∑ MB = 0]
dx
M + vdx + (wdx) - (M + dm) = 0
2

dM = V dx ……(b)
dx
Note: (wdx) is negligible compare with the other term because it is a square
2
ϑ a differential integrating equation(a), we obtain
v2 x2
∫v1 dv = ∫x1 w dx

Yield to

v2 –v1 = ∆ v = (Area)load ……..(3)

i.e. shaded area in the _______ integration ϑ equation b yield
M2 𝑥2
∫ dM = ∫ 𝑣 𝑑𝑥
M1 𝑥1
42
M2 – M1 = ∆ M = (Area) shear …..(4)
Equation (4) shows that the change in bending moment ∆M between any two
sections is equal to the area ϑ the shear diagram for this in terval.

The following principles suggest the following procedure for construction ϑ

shear and moment diagrams:

1. Compute the reactions.

2. Compute values & shear at the change of load points, using either v = (∑ FyL)
or ∆v = (area) load

3. Sketch the shear diagram

4. Locate the point's ϑ zero shear

5. Compute values ϑ bending moment at the change ϑ load points and at the
point's ϑ zero shear

6. Sketch the moment diagram through the ordinates ϑ the bending moments
computed in step.5

Example 6.3:
Using the semi graphical method, sketch shear and moment diagrams for the
beam shown in the fig. computing the values at all change ϑ loading points and
the maximum shear and maximum moment.

Solution:

↱+∑MD = 0

-(2*12)*9+R1*12-8*3=0

R1 = 20 kN ↑

↑∑ Fy = 0

20-2*12-8+R2 = 0

R2 = 12 kN

43
Calculation the moment by shear area method

14 = 2 * d
14
d= =7m
2

6∗3
∑ MB = −
2
= - 9 kN-m

6 ∗ 3 14 ∗ 7
∑ ME = − +
2 2
= 40 kN-m

6 ∗ 3 14 ∗ 7
∑ Mc = − +
2 2
4∗2
−
2

=36 kN-m

Example 6.4:
Sketch shear and moment
diagrams for the beam shown
in the fig. :

Solution:

↱+ Ma = 0

-2+1-10*Rc+0.5*3^11.5

Rc = 1.625 kN

↑∑ Fy = 0

RA+1.625-0.5*3=0

44
RA = - 0.125kN

LECTURE NO. 7
Bending Stress In Beams
The behavior ϑ any deformable bar subjected to a bending moment
causes the material within the bottom portion ϑ the bar to stretch and
the material within the top portion to compress. Consequently,
between these two regions there must be a surface, called the neutrals
surface, in which longitudinal fibers ϑ the material will not undergo a
change in length.

45
Assume an isolate segment ∆x located at distance x along the beam's
length. This segment was taken to study the effect ϑ bending on the
material ϑ the beam.

∆x is located on the neutral surface,

Does not change its length, whereas any line

segment ∆s, located at the arbitrary distance y
above the neutral surface, will contract and
become ∆s' after deformation.

By definition, the normal strain along ∆s is

determined from

∆s′ − ∆s
ϵ = lim … … (1)
∆s→0 ∆s

Before deformation ∆s=∆x. After deformation ∆x has a radius ϑ

curvature P, with center curvature at point o'.

∆x = ∆s = P∆θ …..(2)

∆s' = (P-y) ∆θ …..(3)

Sub. Equations (2) & (3) into (1)

(P−y)∆θ−P∆θ
ϵ = lim
∆θ→0 P∆θ

or
y
ϵ=- … ….(4)
P

This result indicates that the longitudinal normal strain will vary
linearly with y from the neutral axis.

A contraction (-ϵ) will occur in fibers located above the neutral axis
(+y) whereas elongation (+ϵ) will occur in fibers located below the

46
axis (-y). The maximum strain occurs
at the outermost fiber, located at
distance c from the neutral axis.
Since
c
ϵmax = p

ϵ −𝑦/𝑝
∴ϵ =
max 𝑐/𝑝

Then
y
ϵ = - (c) ϵmax ……(5)

According to Hooke's Law σ = E ϵ equation (6) can be written as:

y
σ = - (c) σmax …..(7)

dF acts on the arbitrary element dA

dF = σ dA

FR = ∑ Fx; 0=∫A dF

= ∫A σ dA

47
 y
= ∫A − ( c) σmax dA
σmax
=- c
∫A y dA
σmax
Since is not equal to zero, then
c

∫A y dA = 0 … … . (8)

This means that the first moment ϑ the member's cross-sectional area
about the neutral axis must be zero. This condition can only be
satisfied if the neutral axis is also the horizontal centroidal axis for
the cross section.

M = moment produced by the stress distribution about the neutral

↑ axis

For internal moment

(MR)z = ∑ Mz ;

M = ∫A y dF
y
= ∫A y (σ dA) = ∫A y (– σmax ) dA
c

Or
σmax
M=
c
∫ y 2 dA ……(9)

MC
σmax = (flexure formula) ….(10)
I

Where

y2 dA: moment ϑ ineria ϑ the beam's cross-sectional area, computed

about the neutral axis. (I)

48
σmax : the maximum normal stress in the member, which occurs at a
point on the cross sectional area farthest way from the neutral axis.

M: moment about the neutral axis.

C: the perpendicular distance from the neutral axis to the point

farthest away from a neutral axis, where σmax acts.

Also we can prove that (from equation 7)

My
σ=- (fexure formula) ……(11)
I

Example 7.1:
A beam 150 mm wide by 250mm deep supports the loads shown in
fig. determine the maximum flexural stress.

Solution:
↱+∑MA = 0

15*2+6*3*1.5-RC*3=0

RC=19 kN

∑ Fy = 0

RA +19-15-18=0

RA= 14 kN

The S.F.D shows that zero shear occurs at x = 2 m, at this point the
maximum bending moment.
12∗2
Mmax = + 2*2 = 16 kN-m
2

1 1
I = Iy = b h3 = * 0.15 *(0.25)3 = 0.195312*10-3 m4
12 2

49
 MC 16∗0.125
σmax = =
I 0.195312∗10−3

= 10.24 MPa

Note:
MC
σmax = can be put in this way:
I

M
σmax =
S

I
Where S is the section modulus =
C

Example 7.2:

A beam 100 mm wide by 300 mm height and 8 m long carries the

loading show in fig. if the maximum flexural stress is 9 MP a , for
what maximum value ϑ w will the shear be zero under P. and what is
the value ϑP?

Solution:

↱+∑ MR2 =0

R1 *8-P*2-8w*4=0
P
R1 = 4w+
4

50
The maximum value ϑ w to
reduce the shear to zero is:
P
4w+ = 6 w
4

P=8w

The maximum bending

moment occurs under p or at
zero shear:
P 1
M. max. = 1/2 (4w+ ) * 6 =
4 2
* 6w*6 =18 w N-m
1 1
I= b h3 = *0.1*(0.3)3 = 0.225*10-3 m4
12 12

MC σmax∗I
σmax = or M =
I C

9∗106 ∗0.225∗10−3
18 w =
0.15

W = 750 N/m

P = 8 w = 8 * 750 = 6000 N

Example 7.3:
Compute the maximum tensile and compressive stresses developed in
the beam that is loaded and has the cross-sectional prosperities shown
in the fig.

Solution:
↱+∑ MR1 =0

10*4*2+8*5-R2*4=0

R2 = 30 kN
51
∑ Fy = 0

30+R1-40-8=0

R1 = 18 kN
Sections ϑ zero shears are:

x = 1.8 and x = 4 m
18∗1.8
Mx=1.8 = = 16.2 kN-m positive moment the curvature concave
2
upwards the upper fiber in compressive and the lower fiber in tension.
22∗2.2
Mx=4 = - + 16.2 = -8 kN-m negative bending moment the curvature
2
concave downward, so that the upper fibers are in tension and the lower ones in
compression.
My
σA = ;
I

At A
(16.2∗103 )∗0.12
σc = = 97.2 MPa
20∗10−6

(16.2∗103 )∗0.05
σt = = 40.5 MPa
20∗10−6

At B
My
DB =
I

(8∗103 )∗0.12
Dt = = 48 MPa
20∗10−6

(8∗103 )∗0.05
Dc = = 20 MPa
20∗10−6

Hence the max. Compressive stress is 97.2 MPa occurring at x =1.8

m, and the max. Tensile stress is 48 MPa occurring at x=4 m.

52
Example 7.4:
A cast-iron beam carries a uniformly distributed load on a simple
span. Compute the flange width b ϑ the inverted T section so that the
allowable stresses σt = 30 MPa and σc = 90 MPa reach their limits
simultaneously.

Solution:
The beam concave upward so that the upper most fibers are in
compression the lower most fiber in tension.

Flexure stresses vary directly with their distance from the neutral
axis. i.e.
yt 30 1 yt 𝜎𝑡
or = = =
yc 90 3 yc 𝜎𝑐
….(1)
yt + yc = 140 mm ……(2)
Consider the T section to
consist ϑ two shaded
rectangles. Since the neutral axis coincide with the centroidal axis.
Take the moment ϑ area with respect to x axis through the base ϑ
flange:

from equation 1&2:

yt = 35 mm & yc = 105 mm
A y̅ = ∑ a y

(120*20+b*20) yt = (120*20)(20+60)+(b*20)(10)

But yt = y̅ = 35 mm sub this value in the above equation gives:

b = 216 mm
53
Example 7.5:
A beam has a rectangular cross-section and is subjected to the stress
distribution shown in the fig. determine the internal moment M at the
section caused by the stress distribution

a. Using the flexure formula.

b. By finding the resultant ϑ the stress distribution using basic

principles.

Solution:
The neutral axis is N-A

C = 6 in

σmax = 2 ksi
1
a. I = b h3
12

1
= ∗ 6 ∗ (12)3 = 864 in4
12

MC
σmax =
I

M∗6
2= or
864

M = 288 kip.in = 24 kip.ft

First we will show the resultant

force ϑ the stress distribution is
zero.

The stress on the arbitrary element strip dA= 6 dy located y from the
neutral axis is:
−y
σ=( )*2
6

54
but dF = σ dA and thus:
6 −y
Fr = ∫A σ dA = ∫−6 [( ) ∗ 2] ∗ 6 ∗ dy
6

Fr = (−1 ∗ y2 ]6−6

=0

The result moment ϑ the stress distribution about neutral axis (z axis)
must equal M.

The magnitude ϑ the moment of dF about axis is

dM = y dF dM is always positive.
6 y
M = ∫A σ dA = ∫−6 y [( ) ∗ 2] ∗ 6 ∗ dy
6

2
= y 3 ]6−6
3

= 288 kip.in = 24 kip.ft

Example 7.6:
The simply supported beam shown in the fig. determine the absolute
maximum bending stress in the beam and draw the stress distribution
over the cross section at this location.

Solution:

55
↱
∑ MG
=
0

+
∑ RH ∗
6−
5∗
6∗3

RH = 15 kN

∑ Fy = 0

15 + RG – 5*6 =0

RG = 15 kN
15∗3
Max. B. M. at point k = =
2
22.5 kN-m

I = ∑ (? + Ad2)
1
= 2[ (0.25)(0.02)3 +
12

(0.25)(0.02)(0.16)2 ] +
1
[ (0.02)(0.3)3 ]
12

= 301.3 *10-6 m4

Applying the flexure formula, with c = 170 mm

MC
σmax = I

22.5∗0.17
σdmax = 301.3∗10−6 = 12.7 MPa
56
 M yB
σB = I

22.5∗0.15
σB = 3011.3∗10−6 = 11.2 MPa

stress distribution

Example 7.7:
The beam has a cross-sectional area in the shape ϑ a channel as
shown in the figure. Determine the maximum bending stress that
occurs in the beam at section a_a.

Solution:
To find the location ϑ the neutral axis, the cross-sectional area is
subdivided into three composite parts as shown in fig. b, since the
neutral axis passes through the centroid.

I = ∑ ( I ̅ + A d2 )

57
 ∑y
̅A
= ∑A
y̅

2(0.1)(0.2)(0.015)+(0.01)(0.02)(0.25)
= 2(0.2)(0.15)+(0.02)(0.25)

= 0.05909 m = 59.09 mm

↳∑ MN_A = 2.4*2+1*0.05909 –M =0

= 4.859 kN-m

The moment ϑ inertia about neutral axis is determined using the

parallel axis the ?
1
I=[ (0.25)(0.02)3 + (0.25)(0.02)(0.05909 − 0.01)2 ] +
12
1
2[ (0.015)(0.2)3 + (0.015)(0.2)(0.1 − 0.05909)2 ]
12

= 42.26(10-6) m4

Maximum bending stress occurs at points farthest away from N-A

C = 0.2 - y̅ = 0.2 – 0.05909 = 0.1409 m thus

MC 4.859∗0.1409
σmax = = = 16.2 MPa
I 42.26∗10−6

58
 LECTURE NO. 8
A – Composite Beams
Beams constructed of two or more different
materials are referred to as composite beams.
Examples include these made of wood with
straps ϑ steel at the bottom or top, or more
commonly, concrete beams reinforced with
steel rods. Engineers purposely design beams
in this manner in order to develop a more
efficient means for carrying applied loads. For example, concretes are
excellent in resisting compressive stress but are very poor in resisting
tensile stress. Hence, the steel reinforcing rods shown in fig. have
been placed in the tension zone of the beams cross-section so that
they resist the tensile stresses that
result from the moment M.

Since the flexure formula was

developed for beams whose material
is homogeneous ((lecture no. 7)) this
formula cannot be applied directly to
determine the normal stress in a
composite beam. However a develop
method for modifying or
"transforming" the beams cross-
section into one made ϑ a single
material.

Once this has been dine, the flexure

formula can then be used for the stress analysis.

59
Consider the composite beam to be made ϑ two material; (1) and (2),
which have the cross-sectional area shown in the fig. if a bending
moment is applied to this beam, a simpler to calculate the normal
stresses, is to transform the beam into one made ϑ single material.

For example, if the beam is thought to consist entirely ϑ the less shift
material (2), then the cross-section would have to look like the shown
in fig. below.

Here the height (h) ϑ the beam remains the same, the upper portion ϑ
the beam must be widened in order to carry a load equivalent to that
carried by the stiffer material (1).
If dF acting on the area dA = dz dy , ϑ the beam (fig. A)

∴ dF = σ dA = (E1ϵ)dz dy

For (fig. B) dF' =σ' dA' = (E2 ϵ) n dz dy

But the moment is the same.

∴ dF' = dF and E1ϵ dz dy = E2ϵ n dz dy

Or
E1
n= …….(1)
E2

Where n = transformation factor.

In the same manner, if the less stiff material (2) is transformed into
the stiffer material (1) then
E
n' = E2 …….(2)
1

where n' must be less than one since E1 > E2 and the cross section ϑ
the beam will look like shown in fig. (c).

60
once the beam has been transformed into one having a single
material, the normal stress distribution over the transformed cross-
section will be linear, consequently, the centroid(neutral axis) and
moment ϑ inertia the transformed area can be determined and the
flexure formula applied in the usual manner to determine the stress at
each point on the transformed beam. Thus;

dF = σ dA = σ' dA'

σ dz dy = σ' n dz dy

σ = n σ' ……..(3)

Example 8.1:
A composite beam is made ϑ wood and reinforced with steel strap
located on its bottom side. It has the cross-sectional area shown in the
fig. if the beam is subjected to a bending moment ϑ M= 2 kN-m,
determine the normal stress at points B and C. take Ew = 12 GPa and
Est = 200 GPa.

Solution:
Transform the section into one made entirely of steel. Since steel has
a greater stiffness than wood (Est > Ew), the width ϑ the wood must be
reduced to an equivalent width for steel.
E
n = Ew
st

12
= 200 = 0.06

bst = n bw = 0.06*150 = 9 mm
∑y
̅A
= ∑A
y̅

61
 (0.01)(0.02)(0.15)+(0.095)(0.009)(0.15)
= (0.02)(0.15)+(0.009)(0.15)

= 0.03638 m
I = ∑( I ̅ + 𝐴 𝑑 2 )
1
INA = [ (0.15)(0.02)3 + (0.15)(0.02)(0.03638 − 0.01)2 ] +
12
1
[ (0.009)(0.15)3 (+(0.009)(0.15)(0.095 − 0.03638)2 ]
12

= 9.36*10-6 m4
MC 2∗(0.17−0.03638)
σb' = = = 28.6 MPa
I 9.36∗10−6

MC 2∗0.03638
dc = = 9.36∗10−6 = 7.77 MPa
I

The normal stress in the wood located at in fig. (b)

σB = n σB'
12
= 200 ∗ (28.6) = 1.71 MPa

B. Reinforced concrete beams

All beams subjected to pure bending must resist both tensile and
compressive stresses. Concrete, however is very susceptible to
cracking when it is in tension and therefore by itself would not be
suitable for resisting a bending moment. In order to circumvent this
shortcoming engineer place steel reinforcing rods within a concrete
beam at a location where the concrete is in tension.
The stress analysis requires locating the neutral axis and determining
the maximum stress in the steel and concrete. To do this, the area ϑ
steel as is first transformed into an equivalent area ϑ concrete using

62
the transformation factor n = es/ec . This ratio, which gives n>1, is
chosen since, a" greater" amount ϑ concrete is needed to replace the
steel. The transformed area is nas and the transformed section looks
like the shown in fig. (b).

h' = is unknown distance from the top ϑ the beam to the neutral axis.
h' can be obtained using the fact that the centroid C of the cross-
sectional area ϑ the transformed section lies on the neutral axis, with
the reference to the neutral axis, therefore, the moment ϑ the areas,
∑ ỹ A must be zero, since
∑ 𝑦̃ 𝐴
y̅ = ∑𝐴
=0

thus,
h′
b h' ( ) − n As (d − h′ ) = 0
2

or
b
h'2 + n As h' - n As d = 0 ......(4)
2
once h' is obtained from this quadratic equation, the solution proceeds
in the usual manner for obtaining the stress in the beam.

Example 8.2:
63
The reinforced concrete beam has the cross sectional area shown in
the fig. If it subjected to a bending moment ϑ m = 60 kips.ft,
determine the normal stress in each ϑ the steel reinforcing rods and
the maximum normal stress in concrete. Take est = 29*103 ksi and
ec = 3.6*103 ksi.
Solution:
Neglect the tensile stress ϑ concrete.
As = 2 ( π (0.5)2)
= 1.571 in2
29∗103
A' = n As = ∗ 1.571 =
3.6∗103
12.65 in2
We require the centroid to lie on the
neutral axis. Thus ∑ y
̃ a = 0 , or
h′
12 (h') - 12.65 ( 16 - h' ) = 0
2

h'2 - 2.1 h' - 33.7 = 0

h' = 4.85 in (solving for the positive root)
The moment ϑ inertia of the transformed section,
computed about the neutral axis, is
1 4.85 2
I = [12 (12)(4.85)3 + 12 ∗ 4.85 ∗ ( ) ] +
2
12.65 ∗ (16 − 4.85)2 = 2029 in4
The normal stress (max.) In the concrete is

64
 MC 60∗12∗4.85
( σconc)max. = =
I 2029

= 1.72 ksi
The normal stress resisted by the "concrete" strop, which replaced the
steel, is
60∗12∗(16−4.85)
σ'conc. = = 3.96 ksi
2029
The normal stress in each ϑ the two reinforcing rods is therefore:

29∗103
σst. = n σ'conc. = ∗ 3.96
3.6∗103

= 31.9 ksi

65
 LECTURE NO. 9

Shear Stress In Beams

In this lecture we will developed a method for finding the shear stress
in beam having a prismatic cross section and mode from
homogeneous material that be haves in a linear elastic manner.
if a beam is generally subjected to transfer loadings, these loading not
only cause an internal moment in the beam but also an internal shear
force, cause a transverse shear stress distribution that acts over the
beams cross section. as a result ϑ the shear stress, shear strain will be
developed and these will tend to distort the cross section in a rather
complex manner.

9.1. The Shear Formula

Consider the shaded top segment ϑ the element that has been
sectioned a y̅ from the neutral axis fig.(b). This segment has a width t
at the section, and the cross sectional sides each have an area A' .

←+∑ Fx i = 0 ;

∫ σ′ dA − ∫ σ dA − τ(t dx) = 0
A′ A′

M + dM
∫( ) y dA
A′ I
𝑀
− ∫ ( ) 𝑦 𝑑𝐴 − 𝜏(𝑡𝑑)
𝐴′ 𝐼
=0

66
 .....(1)(dM
I
) ∫A′ y dA = τ (t dx)

solving for τ (t dx), we get:

1 dM
τ= ( ) ∫A y dA
It dx

This equation can be simplified as:

dM
V= and the integral represent the first moment of the area A'
dx
about the neutral axis. we will denote it by Q.
̅ A′ ......(2)
Q = ∫A′ y dA = y′

and thus:
VQ
τ= .......(3)
It

Where:
τ: the shear stress in
the member at the
point located a
distance y' from the
neutral axis fig. (b).
this stress is assumed
to be constant and therefore averaged across the width t ϑ the member
fig(d).
V: the internal resultant shear force, determined from the method ϑ
sections and equilibrium equations.
I: the moment ϑ inertia ϑ the member's cross-sectional area, measured
or computed about the neutral axis .
t: the width ϑ the member's cross-sectional area, measured at the
point where τ is to be determined.
67
Q = ∫ A′ y dA′ = y′
̅ A′ ,
where A' is the top (or bottom) portion ϑ the member's cross-sectional
area, defined from the section where t is measured, and y′ ̅ is the
distance to the centroid ϑ A', measured from the neutral axis.

7.2. Shear Stresses In Beams:

In order to develop some insight as to the method ϑ applying the
shear formula and also its limitations on some ϑ common types ϑ
beam cross-section:

A. Rectangular cross-section beam.

̅ A'
Q = y′
1 h h
= [y + ( − y)] [( − y) b]
2 2 2

1 h2
= ( − y 2 )b
2 4
h4
VQ V(1/2)( − y2 )b
τ= = 1
4
It ( b h3 )(b)
12

or
6V h2
τ= ( − y 2 ) ......(4)
b h3 4
This result indicates that the shear stress
distribution over the cross section is
parabolic see fig. C, the intensity varies from
zero at the top and bottom, y = ± h/2, to a
maximum value at the neutral axis y=0, since

68
the area ϑ the cross section is a= bh, then at y = 0 we have, from
equation 4:
V
τmax = 1.5 ......(5)
A
For other cross section see the following examples:

Example 9.1:
The beam shown in the fig. is made ϑ wood and is subjected to
resultant internal vertical shear force ϑ V = 3 kip.
a. determine the shear stress in the beam at point P.
b. compute the maximum shear stress in beam.

Solution:
The moment ϑ the inertia ϑ the cross-sectional area computed about
the neutral axis is:

(a)
1 1
I= b h3 = (4)(5)2 = 41.7 in4
12 12

̅ A'
Q = y′
1
= [ 0.5+ (2) ] 2*4
2

= 12 in2
VQ 3∗12
τp = =
It 41.7∗4

= 0.216 ksi
(b)
69
the max. shear stress occurs at the neutral
axis.
̅ A'
Q = y′
2.5
= ( ) *4*2.5
2

= 12.5 in2
VQ 3∗12.5
τmax = =
It 41.7∗4

= 0.225 ksi
or it could be calculated from:
V 3
τmax = 1.5 = 1.5*
A 4∗5

= 0.225 ksi
Example 9.2:
A steel wide flange beam has the dimension shown in the figure, if it
is subjected to a shear-stress distribution acting over the beams cross-
sectional area, and B determine the shear force resisted by the web.

Solutions:
(a)
The stress (shear-stress)distribution will be parabolic and varies in the
manner show in fig.

(b)
Due to symmetry, only stresses at points B', B, & c have to be
computed.

70
 1 1
I=[ (0.015)(0.2)3 ] + 2[
12 12
(0.3)(0.02)3+(0.3)(0.02)(0.11)2]
= 155.6*10-6 m4
For point B', tb' =0.3, and A' is the dark shaded area shown in
fig. C . Thus.
̅ A'
QB' = y′
= [0.11][(0.3)(0.02)]
= 0.66*10-3 m3
V QB′
τB' =
I tB′

80∗0.66∗10−3
= = 1.13 MPa
155.6∗10−3 ∗0.3

for point B, tB = 0.015 and QB =

QB'
V QB
τB =
I tB

80∗0.66∗10−3
= = 22.6 MPa
155.6∗10−6 ∗0.015
For point c, tc = 0.015 m and A' is the dark
shaded area shown in fig.(d). Considering
this area to be composed of two rectangles
we have:
̅ A′ =
Qc = ∑ y′
(0.11)(0.3)(0.02)+(0.05)(0.015)(0.1)

71
 = 0.735 * 10-3 m3
V Qc
τc = τmax =
I tc

80∗0.735∗10−3
= = 25.2 MPa
155.6∗10−6 ∗0.015

(B)
The shear force in the web will be determined by first computing the
shear force in each flange and then subtracting this result from v= 80
kn. To obtain the shear force in a flange, we must first determine the
shear stress at the arbitrary location y, fig. e:

I = 155*10-6 m4
t = 0.3 m
A' = (0.3)(0.12-y) m2
1
̅
= y+2(0.12-y) y′
1
= 2(0.12+y)m

̅ A' = (0.15)[ (0.12)2 _ y2]

Q = y′
VQ (80)[0.15][(0.12)2 −(y)2 ]
τ = =
It 155.6∗10−6 ∗0.3

= 257((0.12)2 _ y2 ) MPa
This shear acts on the area strip da=0.3*y show in fig. e, and
therefore the shear force resisted by the top flange is:
0.12
Vf = ∫A τ dA = ∫0.1 257(106 )[(0.12)2 − y 2 ]300 dy
f

= 3.496 kN

72
By symmetry, this force also acts in the bottom flange. Thus the shear
force in the web is.

Vw = V - 2Vf = 80-2(3.496) = 73 kN
Example 9.3:
The beam shown in the figure (a) is made from two boards.
Determine the maximum shear stress in the glue necessary to hold the
boards together along the seam where they are joined. The supports at
b and c exert only vertical reactions on the beam.

Solution:

↱+∑ 𝑀𝐵 = 0
26*6 - Rc *8 = 0
Rc = 19.5 kN

∑ Fy = 0

= 26-29.5 = 6.5 kN RB
The centroid and
therefore the neutral axis
will be determined from the
reference axis placed at the
bottom ϑ the cross-sectional area see fig. a :

73
 ∑y
̃A
= ∑A
y̅
(0.075)(0.15)(0.03)+(0.165)(0.03)(0.15)
= (0.15)(0.03)+(0.03)(0.15)

= 0.12 m
The moment ϑ inertia, computed about the neutral axis:
1
I=[ (0.03)(0.15)3+(0.03)(0.15)(0.12-0.075)2
12
1
]+[ (0.15)(0.03)3+(0.03)(0.15)(0.165-0.12)2 ]
12

= 27*10-6 m4
A' : is top board area
̅ A'
Q = y′
= (0.18-0.12-0.015)(0.03*0.15)S.F.D
= 0.2025*10-3 m3
VQ
τmax = It

19.5∗0.2025∗10−3
= 27∗10−6 ∗0.03

= 4.88 MPa

LECTURE
NO.10
74
Beam Deflection
Several methods are available for determining beam deflections.
Although based on the same principle, they differ in technique and in
their immediate objective.

10.1 The Elastic Curve

The deflection diagram of the longitudinal axis that passes through
the centroid ϑ each cross-sectional area ϑ the beam is called the
elastic curve. For most beams the elastic curve can be sketched
without much difficulty. After that it is necessary to know how the
slope or displacement is restricted at various types of supports. In
general, supports that resist a force, such as a pin, restrict
displacement and those that resist a moment, such as a fixed wall,
restrict rotation or slope.
With this in mind, two typical examples of the elastic for loaded
beams (or shafts) shown in fig. (1)
If the elastic curve for a beam seems difficult to establish, it is
suggested that the moment diagram for the beam be drawn first.
Using the beam sign, a positive internal moment tends to bend the
beam concave upward, like wise a negative moment tends to bend the
beam concave downwards see fig(2). Therefore, if the moment
diagram is known, it will be easy to
construct the elastic curve.

10.2. Double Integration Method

75
the elastic curve ϑ a beam is shown in fig. (3), to determine the
equation ϑ this curve, i.e., how to determine the vertical displacement
y ϑ any point in term of it x coordinate.
select the left end ϑ the beam. the deflection are assumed to be so
small that there is no appreciable difference between the original
length ϑ the beam and the projection of deflected length.
thus the elastic curve is very flat and its slope at any point is very
small.
dy
tan θ = and hence
dx
dy
θ = dx ......(a) and

d2 y dθ
= dx2 ......(b)dx

ds = p dθ ......(c)
where p is the radius ϑ curvature over the length ds.
because the elastic curve is very flat, ds is practically equivalent to dx
, so from eqs. (c)&(b) we obtain
dθ dθ 1
= ≅ orp
dx ds
d2 y 1
= dx2 .......(d)p

1 M
but p = E I .......(e)

from eqs. (e)&(d)

d2 y
E I dx2 = M ....(1)

This is know as the differential equation ϑ the elastic curve ϑ a beam.

76
E I; called the flexural rigidity ϑ the beam, it is usually constant along
the beam.
dy
EI = ∫ M dx + c ......(2) by integration ϑ eq.(1)
dx

E I y = ∬ M dx + c1 x + c2 .....(3)
Equation (3) is the deflection equation ϑ the elastic curve specifying
the value ϑ y for any value ϑ x.
c1 and c2 are constant ϑ integration which must evaluated from a
given boundary conditions ϑ the beam and its loading.

Example 10.1:
The cantilevered beam shown in fig. a is subjected to a vertical load p
at its end. determine the equation ϑ elastic curve. E I is constant.

Solution:
The load tends to deflect the beam as show in fig. a . by inspection.
the internal moment can be represented throughout the beam using a
single x coordinate. from the
free-body diagram, with M
acting in the positive direction
fig. b,

M=-Px
d2 y d2 y
E I dx2 = M or E I dx2 = - P
x ....(a)
dy P x2
E I dx = - + c1 .......(b)
2

P x3
EIy=- 6
+ c1 x + c2 .......(c)

77
 dy
using the boundary condition =0 at x=L and y=0 at x=L, equations
dx
b&c become:
P L2
0=- + c1
2

P L3
0=- + c1 L + c2
6
p L2 − PL3
thus, c1 = and c2 = sub. these values into eqs. b&c with θ =
2 3
dy
, we get
dx

P
θ = 2 E I (L2 - x2 )
P
y = 6 E I (- x3 +3 L2 x - 2 L3 )

max. slope and displacement occur at A when x=0 for which:

P L2
θA = 2 E I .......(d)
P L3
yA = - 3 E I ........(e)

The positive result for θA indicates counter clockwise rotation and

negative result for yA indicates that yA is downward.

Example 10.2:
For the same beam in example 10.2 , consider the beam have a length
(L) ϑ 15 ft support a load p ϑ 6 kip, and be made ϑ A-36 steel having
Est = 29*103 ksi, assuming the allowable normal stress is equal to the
yield stress σallow = 36 ksi, I = 204 in4. calculate max. slop and
displacement.
P L2 6∗(15∗12)2
θA = 2 E I = = 0.0164 rad.
2∗(19∗103 )(204)

78
 P L3 6∗(15∗12)3
yA = - 3 E I = - = -1.97 in
3(29∗103 )(204)

Example 10.3:
The simply supported beam shown in fig.(a) supports the triangular
distributed loading. determine its ma. deflection. E I is constant.

Solution:

Due to symmetry, only one x coordinate is needed for solution.

L
0≤x≤2

from fig.(b)
wo ∗L/2 wo L
RA = =
2 4

The distribution load at any point is :

2 wo x
w=
L

‫غير مفهومة‬note
hence,

+↳∑ MNA = 0;
wo x2 x wo L
M+ (3) - (x) = 0
L 4
79
 − wo x3 wo L
M= + x
3L 4

d2 y
E I dx2 = M

d2 y − wo wo L
E I dx2 = x3 + x
3L 4
dy − wo wo L
E I dx = x4 + x2 + c1
12L 8
− wo wo L
EIy = x5 + x3 +c1 x +c2
60L 24

Apply the boundary conditions:

dy
when y=0 at x=0 also due to symmetry = 0when x = L/2 . this
dx
leads to
− 5 wo 𝐿3
c1 = & c2 =0
192

hence,
dy − wo 4 wo L 2 5 wo 𝐿3
E I dx = x + x -
12L 8 192

− wo 5 wo L 3 5 wo 𝐿3
EIy = x + x - x
60L 24 192

The max. Deflection at x = l/2 sub. This value in equation (a).

1 Wo L 𝑤𝑜 𝐿 𝐿 5 𝑤𝑜 𝐿3 𝐿
y = E I [ - 60 L ∗ (2)5 + ∗ (2)3 − ∗ 2]
24 192

1 wo L4 𝑤𝑜 𝐿4 5 𝑤𝑜 𝐿5
y = EI [ - + − ]
1920 192 384

5 𝑤𝑜 𝐿5
=- 120 𝐸 𝐼

Example 10.4:
80
The beam in fig. (a) is
subjected to a load p at its end.
Determine the displacement at
c. Ei is constant.

Solution:
Due to the loading, two x
coordinates will be considered,
0 ≤ x1 < 2a
0 ≤ x2 < a
from fig. (b)
P
M1 = - x1
2

M2 = - p x2
d2 y
EI =M
dx2

for 0 ≤ x1 < 2a
d2 y1 P
EI = - x1
dx21 2

dy1 P
EI =- x12 + 𝑐1 .......(1)
dx1 4

P
E I y1 = - x13 + 𝑐1 x1+c2 ......(2)
12

for 0 ≤ x2 < a
d2 y2
EI = - P x2
dx22

dy2 P
EI =- x22 + 𝑐3 .......(3)
dx2 2

81
 P
E I y2 = - x23 + 𝑐3 x2+c4 ......(2)
6

boundary conditions:
y1 = 0 at x1 = 0
y1 = 0 at x1 = 2a
y2 = 0 at x2 = a
Also the continuity ϑ the slope at roller requires :
dy2 dy1
=- at x1 = 2a and x2 = a
dx2 dx1

applying these four conditions yields:

y1 = 0 at x1 = 0 → to equation(2)
0=0+0+c2
∴ c2 = 0
y1 = 0 at x1 = 2a → to equation (2)
P
0=- (2a)3 + 2c1 a +c2
12

P a2
∴c1 =
3

y2 = 0 at x2 = a → to equation (4)
P
0 = - a3 + c3 a + c4 ........(5)
6

dy1 dy2
also =- at x1 = 2a and x2 = a apply this condition into
dx1 dx2
equations 1&3 yield
P Pa2 P
- (2a)2 + = -(- (a)2 + c3 )
4 3 2
7
∴ c3 = p a2 sub this value into eq. 5
6

82
c4 = - P a3
sub the values ϑ c3 & c4 into equation (4) gives,
P 7 P a2 P A3
y2 = - x23 + x22 -
6EI 6EI EI

the value ϑ y2 at point c is determining by setting x2 = 0

P a3
∴ y2 = -
EI

10.3 Superposition Method.

The deflection for a series ϑ separate loadings acting on a beam may
be superimposed. for example, if y, is the deflection for one load and
y2 is the deflection for another load, the total deflection for both loads
acting together is the algebraic sum y1+y2. using tabulated results for
various beam loadings found in various engineering handbooks.

Example 10.5:
Determine the displacement at point c and the slope at support A of
the beam shown in fig. a. EI is constant.

Solution:
The loading can be separated into two component parts as shown in
figures a&b.

83
The displacement at c and slope at A are found using tables. For the
distributed loading.
3 w L3 3 (2)(8)3 24 𝑘𝑁.𝑚2
(θA)1 = 128 E I = =
128 EI EI

5 w L4 5 (2)(8)4 53.33 kN.m3

(yc)1 = 768 EI = = ↓
768 EI EI

for the 8 kN concentrated force.

P L2 8 (8)2 32 𝑘𝑁.𝑚2
(θA)2 = 16 E I = = ↲
16 EI EI

P L3 8 (8)3 85.33 kN
(yc)2 = 48 E I = 48 E I = ↓
EI

The total displacement at c and the slope at A are the algebraic sums
ϑ these components. Hence
56 kN.m2
θA = (θA)1 + (θA)2 = ↲
EI

138.66 kN.m3
yc = (yc)1 + (yc)2 = ↓
EI

Example 10.6:

84
Determine the
displacement at the
end c ϑ the cantilever
beam shown in fig.

Solution:
Distributed loadings that are parabolic are not included in the table, in
order to solve this problem we can consider the load as an infinite
series ϑ concentrated forces
dp, and then integrate the
result over the region where
the loading acts.
dp = wdx = 0.04 x2 dx act at
a distance x from A. from the
table for single concentrated
force dp.
d px2 10 (0.04x2 )x2 400 kN−m2
θB = ∫ = ∫0 dx =
2EI 2EI EI

dpx2 10 (0.04x2 )x2 (3∗10−x)

yB = ∫ (3L − x) = ∫0 dx
6 EI 6EI

2888.9 kN.m3
= EI

The unloaded region BC ϑ the beam remains straight, as shown in fig.

Since θb is small, the displacement at c becomes:

yc = yB + θB *3
2888.9 400∗3
= +
EI EI

4098 kN.m3
= ↓
EI

85
 LECTURE NO. 11
Combined Stresses
In preceding lectures we studied three basic types ϑ loading: axial,
torsional, and flexural. Each ϑ these types was discussed on the
86
assumption that only one ϑ these loadings was acting on a structure at
a time, the present lecture is concerned with cases in which two or
more ϑ these loading act simultaneously upon a structure. The three
basic types ϑ loading may be summarized as follows:
P
Axial loading σa = A
TP
Torsional loading τ= J

My
Flexure loading σf = I

There are four possible combinations ϑ these loadings:

1. Axial and flexure
2. Axial and torsional
3. Torsional and flexure
4. Axial, torsional, and flexural, acting simultaneously.

11.1 Combined Axial & Flexural Loads

Consider a simply supports beam (the supports are hinged to the
beam at its centroidal surface) carries a concentrated load Q. The
flexure stress at point A:
My
σf =
I

87
It is tensile and is directed normal to the surface ϑ the cross-section,
as shown. The force exerted on the element at a is σf da.
From fig. (b) axial loading σa = P/A
From fig. (c) combined stress result force on point A is the vector
sum ϑ a the collinear forces σa dA & σf dA.
the stresses σ = σa + σf directed normal to the cross section similarly,
at a point B in the same section. thus the result stress at any point ϑ
the beam is given by the algebraic sum ϑ the flexural and axial
stresses at that point.

σ = σ a ± σf
⨁P My
σ= ± .........(1)
⊖A I

Note: tensile stress denoted by positive sign compressive stress

denoted by negative sign
⨁ or ⊖ uniform stress
+ or − vary with
position

Example 11.1:
A cantilever beam has
a profile shown so that
it will provide
sufficient clearance for
large pulleys mounted
on the line shaft it
supports. The reaction ϑ the line shaft is a load P= 25 kn. Determine
the resultant normal stresses at A and B at the wall.

88
Solution:
Taking moment (B.M) about the centroidal axis ϑ section A B :

[ M = (∑ Mcg ) ]
R

+↳ M = - 15*103*0.45+20*103*0.15
= - 3750 N.m
The negative sign ϑ the bending moment at AB indicates that the
beam curvature at section A-B is concave downward, thereby causing
tension at A and compression at B.
Add a pair ϑ collinear forces each equal to px as shown in fig. (b),
thereby reducing the system tb that shown in fig. (c).

The stress at A:
P MC P 6M
σ=A+ = A + bh2
I

1 bh3
note : c= 2h , I= 12

20∗ 103
σA = (0.05)(0.15) +
6∗3750
(0.05)(0.15)2

= (2.67*106)+(20*106)= 22.67 MPa

89
at B the flexural stress is
compressive:
P 6𝑀
σ=S− 𝑏ℎ2

20∗103
σB = (0.05)(0.15) −
6∗3750
(0.05)(0.15)2

= (27.67*106 ) -
(20*106) = - 17.33 MPa
11.2 Kern Θ A Section,
Loads Applied Off Axes Of Symmetry
A special case ϑ combined axial and flexural load in fig. (a), in which
a short strut carries a compressive load p applied with eccentricity e
along one ϑ the principle axis ϑ the section. P1 & P2 each ϑ magnitude
P and acting at the centroid ϑ the section, causes the equivalent
loading see fig. (b).
P
σa = A see fig. (c)
MC (P e )C
σf = = see fig. (d)
I I

if σf > σa as shown in fig. (e) the point ϑ zero.

N is the new location ϑ the neutral axis and is easily found by
computing the distance a at which the tensile flexural stress equal the
direct compressive stress.
P 𝑀𝑦 (𝑃𝑒 )𝑎
= =
A 𝐼 𝐼
when c,e

90
 I
a= . .........(2)
Ae
It is evident that there will be no tensile
stress any where over the section if the
direct compressive stress equal or
exceeds the maximum flexure stress.
Thus, for a rectangular section ϑ
dimension b & h, with p applied at an
eccentricity e (fig below), we obtain:
𝑃 ℎ
P 𝑀𝐶 𝑒( )
2
= =
A 𝐼 𝑏 ℎ3
12
The max. Eccentricity to avoid tension
is thus
h
e= ........(3)
6
For general case in which the load P is applied at any point with
respect to the principle axis x & y as shown in fig. if e x and ey
represent the eccentricities ϑ P.
The moment, ϑ P with respect to the x & y are respectively P ex and P
ey, the stress at any point ϑ the cross section is :

P (𝑃 𝑒𝑥 )𝑥 (𝑃 𝑒𝑦 )𝑦
σ=- − − ......(4)
A 𝐼𝑦 𝐼𝑥

11.3 Variation Θ Stress At A Point.

The stress acting at a point is represented by the stresses acting on the
faces ϑ the element enclosing the point, the stresses on the faces ϑ the
element vary as the regular position ϑ the element changes.

91
From the figure ϑ variation ϑ stress components, applying the
conditions ϑ equilibrium to axis chosen as in figure (d) we obtain:

A σ = (σx A cosθ)cosθ + (σy A sinθ)sinθ - (τxy A cosθ)sinθ -

(τyx A sinθ)cosθ ......(a)

∑T = 0

A τ = (σx A cosθ)sinθ - (σy A sinθ)cosθ + (τxy A cosθ)cosθ -

(τyx A sinθ)sinθ .....(b)

92
since the common term A can be canceled and since τyx is
numerically equal to τxy , we use the relations
1+cos2θ
cos2 θ = ,
2
1−cos2θ
sin2 θ = also
2
1
sinθ cosθ = 2 sin2θ

sub. the above into equations a&b

σx +σy σ𝑥 − σ𝑦
σ= + cos2θ - τxy sin2θ .......(5)
2 2

and
σx − σy
τ= sin2θ + τxy cos2θ ......(6)
2

the planes defining max. or min. normal stresses:

2τxy
tan2θ = - − σ .......(7)
x −σy

the planes ϑ max. shearing stress is:

σx −σy
tan2θs = ........(8)
2 τxy

the max stresses:

σx +σy σx −σy 2
(σ)max,min = ± √( ) + (τxy )2 .......(9)
2 2

σx −σy 2
(τ)max = ± √( ) + (τxy )2 .........................(10)
2

11.4 Mohr's Circle

93
The formula developed in the preceding article may used for any case
ϑ two-dimensional stress. A visual interpretation ϑ them, devised by
the German engineers Otto Mohr in 1882. in this interpretation a
circle is used; according, the construction is called Mohr's circle.
If the construction is plotted to scale, the results can be obtained
graphically.

σx −σy 2
R = √( ) + (τxy )2
2

Where R radius ϑ the Mohr's circle.

The circle center is offset rightward a distance (c) from the origin.
σx +σy
C=( )
2

Rules for applying Mohr's circle to combined stresses:

1. One rectangular σ-τ axis, plot points having the coordinates(σx, τxy)
& (σy,τyx). these points represent the normal and shearing stresses
acting on the x & y faces. in plotting these points, assume tension as
plus, compression as minus, and shearing stress as plus when its
moment about the center ϑ the element is clockwise.
2. Join the points just plotted by a straight line, this line is the
diameter ϑ a circle whose center is on the σ axis.

94
3,4, and 5 see page 381, Singar.
Notes:
a. The notation used here defines a normal stress by means ϑ a single
subscript corresponding to the face on which it acts (σx , σy).
b. A shearing stress is denoted by a double subscript, the first letter
corresponding to the face on which the shearing stress acts and the
second indicating the direction in which it acts.

Example 11.2:
At a certain point in a stressed body, the principle stresses are σ x = 80
MPa and σy = -40 MPa. determine σ and τ on the planes whose
normal are at + 30° and +120° with the X axis. show your results on a
sketch ϑ a differential element.

Solution:
The given state ϑ stress is shown in fig. (a)

Since the normal stress component on the x face is 80 MPa and the
shear stress on the face is zero, these components are represented by
A&B
σx +σy
C=( 2
)

95
 80+40
= = 60 MPa this is the radius ϑ the circle.
2

O C = 60 - 40 = 20 MPa
2θ = 60°
σ = O F = O C + C F = 20 + 60 cos 60° = 50 MPa
τ = D F = 60 sin 60 = 52 MPa
These are the stresses component on the 30° face.
On the perpendicular 120° face area:
σ' = O G = O C - C G = 20 - 60 cos60° = - 10 MPa
τ' = G E = - 60 sin60° = - 52 MPa
Both sets ϑ the above stress components are shown in fig. (c)

Example 11.3:
A state ϑ stress is specified in fig. (a). determine the normal and
shearing stresses on (a) the principle planes, (b) the planes ϑ max.
shearing stress, and (c) the planes whose normal's are at + 36.8° and
126.8° with the x axis. show the results ϑ parts a and b on complete
sketches ϑ differential elements.

96
Solution:

Mohr's circle for the given state of stress is shown in fig. (b). the
stresses on the x face are represented by point A, which a value ϑ 32
and a negative ordinate ϑ 20. τxy is negative because it moment sense
is counter clockwise about the center ϑ the element fig. (a). the
stresses on the y face are given by point B, which has an value ϑ -10
and τyx ± 20 because the moment sense is clockwise. joining A&B
gives the diameter ϑ Mohr's circle.
ℓ + ℓ - 10 = 32
∴ 2 ℓ = 42 or ℓ = 21 MPa

R = √202 + 212 = 29 MPa Mohr's circle radius

The principle stresses are represented by points D & E, where the
shearing stress coordinates are zero. from the geometry ϑ the circle,
we obtain:
max σ = O D = 11+29 = +40 MPa
min σ = O E = 11-29 = - 18 MPa
The radius to D makes a counter clock wise angle 2θ measured from
CA.

97
tan2θ = 20/21 = 0.952 and hence 2θ = 43.6 & θ=21.8°
The principle stresses planes are shown in fig. (c).

The stresses on the planes ϑ max. shearing stress are given by the
coordinates ϑ points F and G, the values being max τ = 29 MPa and
mm τ = -29 MPa, the normal stress on each plane is +11 MPa. the
radius is 90° counter clockwise from CD, so the normal to the plane ϑ
max. shearing stress is at 45°+21.8° = 66.8° with the x axis. the result
is shown in fig. (d).
The stresses on the plane whose normal is at +36.8° with x axis are
represented by point H. located at the intersection ϑ the radius CH
with Mohr's circle, the angle between the angle between the normal
to any two faces is laid off double size on the circle; hence angle
ACH = 2*36.8 = 73.6° angle HCD =
73.6 - 43.6=30°
therefore the coordinates ϑ point H are
σ = 11+29 cos30° = 36.1 MPa
τ = 29 sin30° = 14.5 MPa
The stresses on the plane whose normal
is at +126.8° with the x axis are
represent by point I. points H and I are

98
180° a part on the circle since the planes they represent are actually
90° a part. the coordinates ϑ point I are
σ' = 11-29 cos30 = -14.1 MPa
τ' = - 29 sin30 = -14.5 MPa

LECTURE NO. 12
Buckling Of Columns
Whenever a member is designed, it is necessary that it is satisfy
specific strength, deflection, and stability requirement. some
members, however, may be subjected to compressive loadings, and if
99
these members are long and slender the loading may be large enough
to cause the member to deflect laterally or sides way. to be specific,
long slender members subjected to an axial compressive force called
columns, and the lateral deflection that occurs is called buckling.
quite often the buckling ϑ a column can lead to a sudden and dramatic
failure ϑ a structure or mechanism, and as a result, special attention
must be given to the design ϑ columns so that they can safety support
their intended loadings without buckling.

12.1 Ideal Column With Pin Supports.

The ideal column is straight, theoretically the axial load could be

increased until failure occurs by either feature or yielding of the
material. however, when the critical load Pcr is reached, the column is
on the verge ϑ becoming unstable, so that a small lateral force F, fig.
(b), will cause the column to remain in the deflected position when F
is removed, fig. (c). in order to determine the critical load and the
buckled shape ϑ the column, we will apply the equation:
d2 y
E I dx2 = M ......(1)

from figs. c & d.

100
 d2 y
E I dx2 = - P y

P d2 y
+(E I) y = 0dx2

The general solution ϑ this equation is:

P P
y = c1 sin (√E I x) + c2 cos (√E I x) .....(2)

Boundary condition\y=0 at x=0, then c2=0 and since y=0 at x=L, then

P
c1 sin (√E I L ) = 0 this equation is satisfied if c1=0 the other
possibility is for

P
sin (√E I L ) = 0

which is satisfied if

P
√ L =𝑛𝜋
EI

or
n2 π 2 E I
P= n=1,2,3,......
L2

The smallest value ϑ P is obtained when n=1, so the critical load ϑ the
column is therefore:
πEI
Pcr = .........(3) 'Euler Formula'
L2

For purpose ϑ design equation (3) can also be written in a more useful
form by expression I= Ar2 where A is the cross sectional area

101
 π E ( A r2 )
Pcr = L2
P πE
(A)cr = (L/r)2

πE
σcr = (L/r)2 ...............(4)

where:
Pcr : critical or max. axial load on the column just before it begins to
buckle.
L: un supported length of the column, whose ends are pinned.
σcr : critical stress, which is an average stress in the column just
before the column buckles.
r: smallest radius ϑ gyration ϑ the column.

Example 12.1:
A 24- ft long A-36 steel tube having the cross-sectional shown in the
fig. Is to be used as a pin-ended column. Determine the max.
Allowable axial load the column can support so that it does not
buckle.

Solution:
π2 E I
Pcr = L2
1 1
π2 (29∗103 )[( π(3)4 − π (2.75)4 ]
4 4
= (24∗12)2

= 64.5 kip
This force creates an average compression stress in
the column of

102
 Pcr 64.5
σcr = = [π(3)2 − π(2.75)2 ] = 14.3 ksi
A

since σcr < σelastic = 36 ksi

Example 12.2:
The A-36 steel w 8*31 member shown in fig. is to be used as a pin-
connected column. determine the largest axial load it can support
before it either begins to buckle or the steel yields.

Solution:
From the table cross-sectional
area
A = 9.13 in2
Ix = 110 in4
Iy = 37.1 in4
σyield = 36 ksi
By inspection, buckling will
occur about the y-y axis.
π2 E I π[29(10)3 ](371)
Pcr = = = 512 kip
L2 12∗(12)2

when fully loaded, the average compressive stress in the column is:
Pcr 512
σcr = = 9.13 = 56.1 ksi
A

Since this stress exceeds the yield stress (36 ksi), the load P is
determined from simple compression.
P
36 = 9.13 ∴ P = 329 kip

103
In actual application, a factor ϑ safety would be placed on this
loading.

12.2 Columns Having Various Types Θ Supports.

A. Columns fixed at its base and free at the top.
π2 E I
Pcr = ..............(5)
4 L2

By comparison with equation (3) it is seen that a column fixed-

supported at its base will carry only one-fourth the critical load
that can be applied to a pin-supported column.
Note: L in equations above represents the unsupported distance
between the points ϑ zero moment. this distance is called the
column's effective length (Le) for example:
for pin-ended column Le = L
for fixed ends column Le = 0.5L
for fixed and free ends Le = 2L
for fixed and pinned ends Le = 0.7L
thus
Le = K L ......(6)
where K= effective-length factor.
therefore for general Euler's formula could be written as:
π2 E I
Pcr = (K L)2 ..............(7)

π2 E
σcr = (K L/r)2 ..............(8)

KL/L is the column's effective-slenderness.

104
Example 12.3:
A w 6*15 steel column is 24 ft long and is fixed at its ends as shown
in fig. (a), its load capacity is increased by bracing it about the (y-y)
weak axis using struts that are assumed to be pin connected to its mid
height. determine the load it can support so that the column does not
buckle nor the material exceed the yield stress. take Est =29*103 ksi
and σy = 60 ksi.

Solution:
The buckling behavior ϑ the
column will be different about the
x and y axis due to the y-y axis
bracing. the buckling shape for
each case is shown in figs. b&c.
from fig. (b) the effective length
for the x-x axis is (KL)x = 0.5*24
= 12 ft
from fig. (c) for y-y axis
(KL)y = 0.7(24/2) = 8.4 ft.
from the table for a w 6*15:

Ix = 29.1 in4
Iy = 9.32 in4
πEI
(Pcr)x = (KL)x2
x

π2 (29∗103 ∗29.1)
(Pcr)x = = 401.7
(12∗12)2
kip

105
 π2 (29∗103 ∗9.32)
(Pcr)y = = 262.5 kip
(8.4∗12)2

By comparison, buckling will occur about y-y axis.

The area ϑ the cross-section is 4.43 in2
Pcr 262.5
σcr = = = 59.3 ksi
A 4.43

Since this stress is less than the yield stress, buckling will occur
before the material yields.
Thus:
Pcr = 26.3 kip …………..Ans

106