Notes PDF
Notes PDF
(CMA), US
PART 1 – FINANCIAL REPORTING,
PLANNING, PERFORMANCE, AND
CONTROL
STUDY NOTES
EFFECTIVE TILL 31 DECEMBER 2019
MUHAMMAD ZAIN
CPA, CMA, CIA
FOUNDER OF ZAIN ACADEMY
Clifton Block 5, Karachi, Pakistan
Call (US & Canada): + 1 646 979 0865
Call (Pakistan & International): + 92 311 222 4261
Whatsapp (Messaging & Call): +92 311 222 4261
Hangouts: [email protected]
Email: [email protected]
Web: www.zainacademy.us
CERTIFIED MANAGEMENT ACCOUNTANT (CMA) -
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07 October 2018
Dear CMAs,
Muhammad Zain
CPA, CMA, CIA
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INDEX
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44. What value should Inventory should be recorded in the books at the amount that
inventory be recorded at includes all of the costs paid for getting the inventory ready and
when it is purchased? available for sale.
Costs include the cost of the inventory, shipping costs to receive the
inventory, insurance, taxes and tariffs, duties, and all other costs
related to receiving the inventory to sell to the customer.
45. Are in-transit goods The owner of the goods at year-end is determined by the terms of
included in inventory? shipping.
• Goods sent FOB Shipping Point belong to the buyer from the
moment the seller gives them to the shipping company.
• Goods sent FOB Destination belong to the seller until the
buyer receives them.
46. When are consigned goods Consigned goods are included in the inventory of the company has
included in inventory? the goods out on consignment.
Ownership of the consigned goods transfers directly from the
producer of the goods to the final purchaser.
47. What are the cost flow 1) First in First Out (FIFO)
assumptions for inventory? 2) Last in First Out (LIFO)
3) Average Cost
4) Specific Identification
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53. Under Lower of Cost or The floor value is the net realizable value minus a normal profit
Market, what is the floor margin.
value
and how it is calculated?
54. What are the three 1) Fair value method – used when the investor owns less than
methods 20% of the investee company’s stock
used to account for 2) Equity method – used when the investor owns 21-50% of the
investments and when are investee company’s stock
they used? 3) Consolidation - used when the investor owns 51% of the
investee company’s stock
55. What are the three 1) Trading
classifications of debt 2) Held-to-maturity
securities using 3) Available-for-sale
the fair value method?
56. What are the two 1) Trading
classifications 2) Available-for-sale
of equity securities using
the fair value method?
57. Where is the holding gain On the income statement.
or loss reported for trading
securities?
58. Where is the holding gain On the statement of other comprehensive income.
or loss reported for
available-for-sale
securities?
59. What are the main 1) Eliminating intercompany receivables and payables
adjustments in the 2) Eliminating the effect of intercompany sales of inventory
consolidation process? 3) Eliminating the effect of intercompany sales of fixed assets
4) Eliminating the parent’s investment account
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60. Fixed assets are recorded Fixed assets are recorded at historical cost, which is the amount paid
using what cost? for the asset and all other costs that are necessary to get the asset
ready for use.
61. What is depreciation? Depreciation is the systematic and rational allocation of the costs of a
fixed asset over its expected useful life.
This is the process by which the expense of the asset is matched with
the revenue it generates.
62. What are the 1) Straight-line
methods of depreciation? 2) Double declining balance
3) Sum-of-the-years’-digits
4) Units of production
63. When are intangible assets Whether an intangible asset is amortized or not depends on its useful
amortized? life:
• If the asset has a determinable, limited life, it is amortized
over that useful life.
• If the asset does not have a determinable useful life, the
asset is not amortized, but it must be tested regularly for
impairment.
64. What is goodwill and how Goodwill is the amount that a purchaser has paid for a company that
is it reported on the is greater than the fair value of the net identifiable assets.
balance sheet? Purchased goodwill must be reported as a separate line item on the
balance sheet.
65. What are the two 1) An expense warranty is a manufacturer’s warranty given
types of warranties? along with the sale of the product. It requires no additional
payment from the customer.
2) A sales warranty is an extended warranty that is sold
separately from the product. Sales warranties may be sold by
the manufacturer, a reseller, or a third party.
66. What are common types of 1) Operating leases
off-balance sheet 2) Selling of receivables
financing? 3) Joint ventures
4) Non-consolidated subsidiaries
5) Variable interest entities
67. What is book income and Book income is the company’s income as calculated according to US
what is taxable income? GAAP.
Taxable income is the income on which the company must pay taxes
as calculated according to the tax code.
68. How do temporary timing Temporary timing differences arise when an item is not recognized for
differences arise? both book and taxable income in the same period.
69. What is a deferred tax A deferred tax asset is in essence an “overpayment” of taxes when
asset taxable income is higher than book income.
and how does it arise? A deferred tax asset is created by either of the following:
• An item that is taxable revenue in the current period but is
not included in book revenue.
• An expense that is reported on the income statement for the
current period but is not deductible for tax purposes.
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70. What is a deferred tax A deferred tax liability is in essence an “underpayment” of taxes
liability because taxable income is lower than book income.
and how does it arise? A deferred tax liability is created by either of the following:
• An item included in revenue for book purposes but not
included in revenue for tax purposes.
• An expense that is deductible for tax purposes but is not an
expense for book purposes.
71. How is the deferred It is calculated as the amount of change in the total deferred tax asset
income tax or expense and liability position of the company during the period.
calculated?
72. How are deferred tax Deferred tax assets may be current or non-current and deferred tax
assets liabilities may also be current or non-current.
and liabilities presented on An individual deferred tax liability or asset is classified as current or
the balance sheet? non-current based on the classification of the related asset or
liability for financial reporting purposes.
A deferred tax item that is not related to an asset or liability for
financial reporting is classified as current or non-current according to
when the reversal is expected to occur.
73. What is a permanent Permanent timing differences are items that cause differences
timing difference? between taxable income and book income that do not reverse over
time.
Permanent differences do not give rise to deferred tax assets or
liabilities because a permanent timing difference will be recognized
for either book or tax purposes, not both.
74. How are net operating The company may elect to carry back the net operating loss two years
losses treated? and receive refunds for up to 100% of income taxes paid in those
years.
Any loss that remains after the 2-year carryback may be carried
forward up to 20 years to offset future taxable income.
75. What is a lease? A lease is an agreement between a lessor (the owner of an asset) and
a lessee (the entity that is going to use the asset) that conveys the
right to use specific property for a stated period of time in exchange
for a stated payment.
76. What are the two 1) Operating leases – a rental agreement
classifications of leases? 2) Finance leases – a purchase/sale agreement
77. What are the criteria for If any one of these four criteria is met, it is a capital lease.
a capital lease? 1) Ownership transfers at the end of the lease.
2) The lease includes a written bargain purchase option.
3) The PV of the minimum lease payments is equal to or more
than 90% of the fair market value of the asset at the time the
lease is entered into.
4) The lease term is 75% or more of the remaining estimated
economic useful life of the asset at the time the lease is
entered into.
78. What are the types of 1) Cash dividend
dividends that a company 2) Liquidating dividend
can pay? 3) Property dividend
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4) Stock dividend
79. How is a stock dividend A small stock dividend (less than or exactly 25%) is valued at the fair
valued? value of the shares.
A large stock dividend (more than 25%) is valued at the
par value of the shares.
80. What are the two types of 1) Noncumulative
dividends for preferred 2) Cumulative
shares?
81. What are cumulative • A cumulative dividend is one that is earned each year by
preferred dividends? preferred shares.
• For those years when the dividend is not paid, the amount not
paid is “in arrears.”
• Dividends in arrears must be paid in full before common
dividends are paid.
82. What is treasury stock? Treasury stock is shares of a company that have been sold to other
parties and then reacquired by the company.
83. What are the three 1) Authorized shares
classifications of shares on 2) Issued shares
the balance sheet? 3) Outstanding shares
84. When is revenue Revenue is recognized when it is:
recognized? 1) Realized or realizable and
2) Earned
85. When may revenue be 1) The item is readily saleable as soon as it is completed.
recognized at the 2) There is a known market price for the item and there are
completion of production? minimal selling costs.
3) The units are homogeneous (that is, identical to each other).
86. When is the installment The installment method is used when an item is sold on credit, it will
method be paid over a period of time in the future, and the amount that will
of profit recognition used? actually be collected is not certain.
87. When is the cost recovery It is used when the company makes a credit sale and there is no basis
method of profit to determine the collectability of the future payments.
recognition used? The cost recovery method is the most conservative method of
income recognition.
88. What are the 1) Completed contract method
two methods of accounting 2) Percentage-of-completion method
for long-term contracts?
89. What are the three steps of 1) Calculate the amount of the total expected profit on the
the percentage-of- project.
completion method? 2) Determine what percentage the project is completed, based
on costs incurred to date.
3) Determine how much of the profit should be recognized in
the current period.
90. How is the expected profit Contract price
calculated for a long-term − Costs actually incurred to date
contract? − Costs expected to be incurred in the future
= Expected profit (loss) on the project
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91. How is the Total Costs Incurred to Date (including prior periods)
percent complete Costs Incurred to Date + Estimated Cost to Complete
calculated?
92. How is the profit to be Expected Profit
recognized under the × Percentage Complete
completed contract
= Total Profit to Be Recognized to Date
method calculated?
– Profit Previously Recognized
= Profit to Recognize This Period
93. How are expected losses Under both methods, losses are recognized in full as soon as there is
recognized in long-term an expected loss on a contract.
contracts?
94. How are gains or All gains or losses that are incurred by the discontinued segment
losses from discontinued are reported in the period in which the gain or loss occurred and the
operations reported? gains or losses are reported net of associated taxes.
95. How are short-term For financial statement presentation, short-term receivables are
receivables valued for the valued and reported at net realizable value, or the net amount of
financial statements? cash expected to be received. The net amount the firm expects to
receive is most likely different from the amount that is legally due.
This difference between these two amounts is because some
customers will not pay what they owe and there may be returns
expected in the future.
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100. How is double declining In double declining balance (DDB) method we use a rate that is two
balance times the percentage that would be recognized under the straight-
depreciation calculated? line method. In addition, that percentage is applied to the net book
value of the asset at the beginning of each year. The annual
depreciation expense is calculated as:
Double declining rate × book value of the asset at the beginning of the
year
101. How is straight-line Straight-line depreciation (STL) is the simplest method and results in
depreciation calculated? an equal amount of depreciation expense charged to the income
statement each period. It is calculated as:
105. What are authorized The number of authorized shares is the total number of shares that
shares, issued shares, the company has registered. The number of authorized shares is the
and outstanding shares? maximum number that can be sold. Authorized shares can be issued
or unissued, or outstanding or not outstanding.
The number of issued shares is the number of shares that have been
sold to an outside party at any point in the past. Issued shares may
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Money market accounts in banks and money market mutual funds are
included in the definition of cash equivalents because they are
immediately accessible.
108. What are convertible These shares may be converted into common shares at the option of
preferred shares? the shareholder. If they are converted, the newly issued common
shares are recorded at the book value of the preferred shares that
were converted. There is no gain or loss recorded on this transaction,
as the newly issued common shares replace the preferred shares on
the books.
109. What are discontinued A discontinued operation is defined as a disposal of a component or
operations? group of components that is either disposed of or held for sale and
represents a strategic shift that has or will have a major effect on the
entity’s operations and financial results. A strategic shift that has or
will have a major effect on operations and financial results could
include disposing of operations in a major geographical area or
disposing of a major line of business, a major equity investment, or
other major parts of the entity.
110. What are dividends? Dividends are the distribution of current profits and/or the retained
earnings of the company to its owners. The declaration of cash or
property dividends reduces total stockholders’ equity as a result of
either the distribution of an asset (cash or other property) or the
incurrence of a liability (dividends payable if the dividend is not
immediately distributed).
111. What are equity Equity securities are accounted for using the fair value method when
securities? the investor owns less than 20 percent of the investee company’s
outstanding common stock and has little or no influence over the
investee. Equity securities under the fair value method are classified
as either trading securities or available-for-sale securities. Equity
securities cannot be classified as held-to-maturity since equity has
not maturity date.
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113. What are fixed assets Property, plant, and equipment (PP&E) are tangible assets used in
(property, plant, and operations and which will continue to be used beyond the end of the
equipment)? current period. When the fixed assets are purchased, they are
recorded at their cost, including installation costs needed to bring the
asset to usable condition. The cost is then expensed over the life of
the asset through depreciation, amortization, or depletion (except for
land, which is not depreciated).
114. What are four potential 1. A revenue item is recognized as taxable income before it is
events that will cause recognized in the accounting records as revenue.
a difference between book 2. An expense item is deductible from taxable income before it
and taxable income? is deducted in the accounting records as an expense.
3. A revenue item is recognized in the accounting records as a
revenue before it is recognized as taxable income on the tax
return.
4. An expense item is deducted in book income as an expense
before it is deductible in taxable income.
115. What are intangible Intangible assets do not have physical substance but they provide
assets? benefit to the firm over a period of time. Intangible assets may be
either purchased or developed internally. However, because an asset
that is recorded on the balance sheet comes about only as a result of
a prior transaction, internally-generated intangible assets are
generally not recorded on the balance sheet.
116. What are leasehold Leasehold Improvements are additions a lessee makes to a building
improvements and how or property that the lessee cannot remove when the lease period is
are they accounted for? over. For example, if a lessee purchases an air conditioning system for
a leased building, it is considered a “leasehold improvement” and
cannot be uninstalled and taken away once the lease expires.
The cost of leasehold improvements should be amortized over
the shorter of the following: the remaining lease term or the useful
life of the improvements.
117. What are liquidating Liquidating dividends are those dividends that are a return of capital
dividends? rather than a return on capital. These occur when the dividend
distributed is greater than the amount in retained earnings. Any
dividend paid in excess of the balance in retained earnings will be
classified as a liquidating dividend because there are no profits to
distribute.
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118. What are permanent Permanent accounts are not closed out at the end of each accounting
accounts? period but rather their balances are cumulative. They keep on
accumulating transactions and changing with each transaction, year
after year.
119. What are permanent Permanent timing differences are items that cause differences
timing differences with between taxable income and book income but do not reverse over
regards to income tax? time. Permanent differences do not give rise to deferred tax assets
or liabilities because of the fact that by definition a permanent timing
difference is something that will be recognized for either book or tax
purposes, but not both.
120. What are redeemable These preferred shares may be sold back to the company at a
preferred shares? specified price at the option of the shareholder.
121. What are temporary The accounts that record revenues, expenses, gains and losses
accounts? are temporary accounts. They are also closed to a permanent
account (that is, retained earnings on the balance sheet) at the end of
each period (that is, for a fiscal year). At the beginning of each fiscal
year, the balances in the income statement accounts are zero.
122. What are the criteria for 1. Unusual nature. The event or transaction should be highly
classification abnormal and be clearly unrelated to the ordinary and typical
as extraordinary items? activities of the company.
2. Infrequency of occurrence. The event or transaction should
be something the company does not reasonably expect to
recur in the foreseeable future.
123. What are the four main 1. First in First Out (FIFO), in which we assume that the item sold
inventory cost flow to the customer is the earliest unit purchased by the seller
assumptions? that has not yet been sold (that is, the oldest item in
inventory).
2. Last in First Out (LIFO), in which we assume that the item sold
to the customer is the latest unit purchased by the seller (that
is, the newest item in inventory).
3. Average Cost, in which we sum the costs paid for all the
individual units of a given item in inventory and divide by the
number of units purchased to find the average cost for each
unit.
4. Specific Identification, in which we actually keep track of
each unit of inventory individually. The specific identification
method is used for low quantity, high value inventory items,
such as merchandise in a jewelry store or serialized electronic
merchandise where records are kept by serial number.
124. What are the limitations of Measurements are made in terms of money, so qualitative
financial statements? aspects of a firm are not included. Only transactions recorded
in the accounting records are in the financial statements.
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125. What are the main Eliminating intercompany receivables and payables
adjustments that need to Eliminating the effect of intercompany sales of inventory
be made to eliminate Eliminating the effect of intercompany sales of fixed assets
intercompany Eliminating the parent’s investment account
transactions?
126. What are the six categories Capital stock. The par or stated value of the shares issued.
of equity? Additional paid-in capital. The excess of amounts
contributed by owners from the sale of shares over and above
the par or stated value of the shares issued.
Retained earnings. Profits of the company that have not been
distributed as dividends.
Accumulated other comprehensive income items. Specific
items that are not included in the income statement but are
included in equity and adjust the balance of equity, even
though they do not flow to equity by means of the income
statement as retained earnings do.
Treasury stock. The amount of shares repurchased (that is, a
contra-equity account that reduces equity on the balance
sheet).
Non-controlling interest. A portion of the equity of
subsidiaries that the reporting entity owns but does not own
wholly. (Formerly known as “minority interest”).
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128. What are the specific Purchasing and selling property, plant, and equipment (that
items classified is, fixed assets)
as investing activities? Making and collecting loans to other parties
Acquiring and disposing of available-for-sale or held-to-
maturity securities (such as equities and debt instruments)
129. What are the specific Cash received from customers and cash paid to suppliers in
items classified the course of the company’s primary business activity.
as operating activities? Interest paid on bonds and other debt (such as loans, leases,
and mortgages).
Interest received and dividends received from debt and
equity investments.
Cash paid to the government for taxes and cash received
back from the government as tax refunds are generally
operating activities.
Cash flows from the purchase, sale, and maturity of trading
securities usually will be classified as operating activities, not
investing activities.
130. What are the steps in 1. Calculate what the ending balance in the allowance account
the percentage of should be using some percentage of ending accounts
receivables method of receivable.
calculating allowance for 2. Determine what the “plug figure” in the allowance account
doubtful accounts? needs to be in order for the ending balance in the account to
be as calculated in Step 1. This “plug figure” is the bad debt
expense for the period.
3. Debit bad debt expense for the amount calculated as bad
debt expense in Step 2 and credit the allowance for doubtful
debts account for the same amount.
131. What are the steps in 1. Calculate the bad debt expense for the period as a percentage
the percentage of sales of total credit sales. When the company makes this
method of calculating calculation, it ignores any previous balance in the allowance
allowance for doubtful account or any previously recognized bad debt expense. The
accounts? company is calculating the amount of this period’s credit sales
that it will not collect and that should therefore be recognized
as expense for this period.
2. Debit bad debt expense for the calculated bad debt expense
amount and credit the allowance for doubtful debts for the
same amount.
3. Calculate the ending balance in the allowance account.
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132. What are the three 1. Trading: Securities bought and held principally for the
categories of debt purpose of selling them in the near term (generally within
securities? hours or days) with the objective of generating profits from
short-term price changes. These are accounted for at fair
value.
2. Held-to-Maturity: Debt securities that are purchased with
the intent to hold them to maturity. These are accounted for
at amortized cost.
3. Available-for-Sale: Securities not classified as either trading
or held-to-maturity. These are accounted for at fair value.
133. What are the three Raw materials – the individual parts and pieces that will be
classifications of assembled to make the finished goods.
inventory for a Work-in-process – units of inventory for which production
manufacturing company? has started, but has not yet been completed.
Finished goods – units that have been completed but not yet
sold.
134. What are the three 1. The fair value method, used for marketable debt and equity
methods of accounting for securities. The fair value method is used for debt securities
investments? and for certain equity securities.
2. The equity method, used generally when an investor
corporation owns less than 50% of the outstanding stock of
the investee but has the ability to exercise significant
influence over the operations of the investee company.
3. The consolidation method, used when the investor
corporation owns more than 50% of the investee
corporation’s outstanding common stock. With greater than
50% of the outstanding common stock, the investor
corporation has a controlling interest in the investee and the
investee is a subsidiary of the investor. The investor
consolidates the financial results of the investee with its own
financial results and prepares consolidated financial
statements.
135. What are the three types 1. To write off a specific receivable when it becomes
of journal entries made uncollectible.
that involve the allowance 2. To collect a previously written-off receivable.
account? 3. To record the bad debt expense for the period.
136. What are the two Completed contract method: Under the completed contract
methods for recognizing method, profit is recognized only at the completion of the
contract. Any expected losses that may be incurred must be
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profit earned on a long- recognized in the period when they become known. This
term contract? method is prohibited under IFRS.
Percentage-of-completion method: Under the percentage-
of-completion method, profit is recognized as it is earned
throughout the process of completing the project. Like the
completed contract method, any expected losses that may be
incurred must be recognized in the period when they become
known.
137. What are the two 1. In the periodic system, average cost is called the weighted
systems for the frequency average method. At the end of the period, the company
of making inventory determines the total number of units that it had available for
entries? sale (beginning inventory + purchased during the period) and
also the total cost that it paid for all of the units available for
sale.
2. Under the perpetual system, the calculation of the cost of the
unit of inventory sold is made after each individual sale. For
LIFO and the average cost methods, the perpetual system
leads to a larger number of calculations. While the
calculations are not difficult, it is important to keep track of
all of the necessary information for these types of questions.
The effects of the perpetual method on the three main
methods of tracking physical units of inventory are outlined
below.
138. What are two important A company not paying dividends on the preferred shares in a
differences between prefer certain period does not constitute a default. While preferred
red shares and bonds? shares have a preference in dividends over common shares,
the receipt of dividends is not guaranteed for preferred
shareholders.
Preferred shares do not have a face amount that needs to be
repaid at a maturity date in the future the way bonds do.
139. What are unappropriated All retained earnings start out classified as unappropriated retained
retained earnings? earnings. The term “unappropriated” simply means that the dividends
are available to be distributed to shareholders in the form of
dividends.
140. What is a cumulative A cumulative dividend is one that is earned each year by the
preferred dividend? preferred share. This does not mean that company actually
distributes the dividend each period; rather, the shareholder has
earned the dividend and has a right to receive that dividend in the
future. If the dividend is paid, it is accounted for just like a common
cash dividend.
For those years when the dividend is not paid, the amount not paid is
“in arrears,” meaning that the company is behind schedule in the
payment of preferred, cumulative dividends and has missed at least
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141. What is a deferred tax An item that causes taxable income in the current period to be greater
asset and how is one than book income in the current period creates a deferred tax asset.
created? Because taxable income is higher than book income, the company has
had to pay more in taxes than its book income indicates. Therefore,
for book purposes the “overpayment” is a prepaid tax, or a deferred
tax asset.
142. What is a deferred tax An item that causes taxable income in the current period to be lower
liability and how is one than book income in the current period creates a deferred tax liability.
created? Because taxable income is lower than book income, the company
does not pay as much in taxes as its book income indicates it should
pay in the current period. However, because the company knows that
these temporary timing differences will reverse, it understands that
the tax that was not paid this year will need to be paid in the future.
Therefore, for book purposes this difference is recorded as a deferred
tax liability.
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143. What is a property A property dividend refers to an asset other than cash being
dividend? distributed as the dividend. For example, the company may distribute
inventory, fixed assets, or shares in another company that it holds. To
declare a property dividend does not mean that a company does not
have cash. A property dividend may be declared because the
company is using its cash to finance an expansion or some other
investment opportunity.
In a stock split, the par value of each share of the stock is also reduced
in the same ratio.
148. What is a the date of The date of declaration is the day the board formally declares the
declaration in a stock dividend. The board also announces the date of record and the date
dividend? of payment. On the date the dividend is declared, the first journal
entry is made. In this entry the retained earnings account is debited,
thus reducing the retained earnings balance, and a liability is set up.
The amount in the journal entry is an estimated number because the
exact number of shares to which the dividend will be paid is not yet
known.
149. What is an impaired asset? If the asset’s book value > undiscounted future cash flows, then the
asset is considered to be impaired. An impaired asset is written down
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to its fair value. The amount by which the asset is written down is
reported as a loss during that period.
150. What is comprehensive Comprehensive income includes all transactions of the company
income? except for those transactions that are made with the owners of the
company (such as distribution of dividends or the sale of shares). It is
a little closer to being an economic measure of income than net
income is.
151. What is contributed Contributed capital consists of the assets that are put into the
capital? company by the owners in return for their share of ownership of the
company. The fair value of what is received in exchange for the shares
(whether it is cash or another asset) will be recorded in two different
equity accounts.
152. What is fair value? Fair value is the price that would be received to sell an asset or paid
to transfer a liability in an orderly transaction between market
participants at the measurement date. Therefore, fair value is market-
based. US GAAP has increasingly recommended the use of fair value
to measure items in financial statements, particularly financial
instruments.
153. What is goodwill and how Goodwill is defined as the amount that a purchaser has paid for a
is it accounted for? company that is greater than the fair value of the net identifiable
assets. Purchased goodwill must be reported as a separate line item
on the balance sheet. Generally, other intangibles are combined and
reported as one figure on the balance sheet.
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factor) has no recourse against the seller—the loss is the factor’s loss.
Some companies factor their receivables to transfer the bad debt risk
in this manner. However, the greater the risk of bad debt, the less
cash the selling company will receive from the factor.
157. What is factoring? Factoring is selling accounts receivable to a third party. A commercial
finance company, called a “factor,” essentially makes a loan
guaranteed (that is, collateralized) by the receivables to the seller of
the receivables. The factor notifies the seller’s customers that they
should begin remitting their payments directly to the factor, which
receives repayment of the loan as it collects the receivables.
158. What is preferred stock? Even though preferred shares do not have the right to vote, there are
three preferences over common stock that make stock "preferred:"
159. What is solvency? Solvency refers to the company’s ability to pay its obligations when
they are due. A company with a high level of long-term debt relative
to its assets has lower solvency than a company with a lower level of
long-term debt.
160. What is the date of The date of payment is the date on which the dividend is paid. On this
payment in a stock date, the liability is eliminated and the cash account is decreased.
dividend?
161. What is IFRS? IFRS stands for “International Financial Reporting Standards,” a
widely accepted set of accounting principles used in many countries
around the world. IFRS is primarily a principles-based set of
accounting standards with few practical examples and limited
interpretative guidance. Neither acting as a tax standard nor applying
to government organizations, IFRS is intended for multiple countries
with different cultural, legal, and commercial standards.
162. What is liquidity? Liquidity refers to the time expected to elapse until an asset is
converted into cash or until a liability needs to be paid. The greater a
company’s liquidity is, the lower its risk of failure.
163. What is matching? Expenses should be recognized not when payment is made but when
the work for which the payment is made contributes to revenue. That
is to say, expenses should be matched with revenues.
164. What is off-balance sheet Off-balance sheet financing is any form of funding that avoids placing
financing? owners' equity, liabilities or assets on a firm's balance sheet. Off-
balance sheet financing can be accomplished through the use of:
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Operating leases
Selling receivables (factoring)
Joint ventures
Non-consolidated subsidiaries
Variable interest entities
165. What is [Costs Incurred to Date ÷ (Total Casts Incurred to Date + Estimated
the formula for profit to Costs to Complete) × Expected Profit] - Profit Previously Recognized
recognize in the current
period under
the percentage-of-
completion method?
166. What is the full disclosure The full disclosure principle states that companies should provide
principle? information that is of sufficient importance to influence the judgment
and decisions of an informed user. The full disclosure principle
recognizes that the information included in financial reports reflects
judgment and trade-offs. These trade-offs attempt to provide
sufficient detail to disclose information that will make a difference to
users while providing sufficient condensation so that the information
is understandable, keeping in mind the costs of preparing the
information and using the information.
167. What three main items are The three main items that are classified as cash and are included as
classified as cash? cash on the balance sheet are:
168. What is the date of The date of record is the date that is used to determine who actually
record in a stock dividend? will receive the dividend. Anyone who owns shares on the date of
record receives the dividend when it is paid. Theoretically, no journal
entry is made on this date because the entry on the date of
declaration recognized the liability and the reduction in retained
earnings. However, a company may need to make an entry on the
date of record to correct the estimate that was made regarding the
number of shares that will receive the dividend.
169. What is the equity The equity method is used when the investor has significant
method for investment influence over the investee. Owning between 20% and 50% of the
in equity securities? outstanding voting stock usually indicates significant influence.
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33. What are operating Operating budgets are used to identify the resources that will be
budgets and what do they needed to carry out the planned activities during the budget period,
include? such as sales, services, production, purchasing, marketing, and R&D.
The operating budgets for individual units are compiled into the
budgeted income statement.
34. What are financial budgets Financial budgets identify the sources and uses of funds for the
and what is included in budgeted operations.
them? Financial budgets include the cash budget, budgeted statement of
cash flows, budgeted balance sheet, and the capital expenditures
budget.
35. What is the The capital expenditures budget is the budget for long-term capital
capital expenditures expenditures such as property, plant, and equipment.
budget? Unlike the other budgets, the capital budget usually covers a period
of several years and thus is often prepared years in advance of the
budget year it affects.
36. What is the order of the 1) The sales budget
budgets being prepared in 2) Production budgets
the annual budget process? 3) Ending inventory budgets
4) Cost of goods sold budget
5) Nonmanufacturing budgets
6) Cash budget
37. What budgets are prepared 1) Direct materials usage budget
from the production 2) Direct materials purchases budget
budget? 3) Direct labor costs budget
4) Factory overhead budget
38. What is a flexible budget? A flexible budget is a budget that is prepared after the actual level of
activity is known.
• A flexible budget for a production department will be
adjusted to the actual volume of units produced.
• A flexible budget for an income statement will be adjusted to
the actual volume of units sold.
39. What is zero-based Under zero-based budgeting, the budget is prepared without any
budgeting? reference to, or use of, the current period’s budget or the likely
operating results for the current period.
Every planned activity must be justified with a cost-benefit analysis.
40. What are the six steps of 1) Establish the budget or standards of performance.
the budget control loop? 2) Measure the actual performance.
3) Analyze and compare actual results with the budgeted
results (this is the budget report).
4) Investigate unexpected variances.
5) Devise and implement any necessary corrective actions.
6) Review and revise the budget or standards if necessary.
41. What is the formula to Units needed for use in the current period
determine how many units + Units needed for this month’s ending inventory
need to be purchased or = Total units needed this period
produced in a period? − Units in this period’s beginning inventory
= Units to produce or purchase this period
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The price standard for direct labor, or the standard wage rate, is
provided by the personnel department and is a function of the
competitive labor market and any labor contracts that may exist. The
standard wage rate varies according to the type of employees needed
and the skill level required.
55. How are estimated Estimated cumulative average time per unit for all units produced =
cumulative average time Time required for the first unit × LCn
per unit and estimated
total time calculated? Where:
Estimated cumulative average time per unit required for all units
produced =
Estimated total time required for all units produced ÷ Total number
of units produced
57. How are pro forma A pro forma financial statement is used to compare the
financial statements used company’s anticipated performance with its target
internally? performance and with investor expectations.
Pro forma statements are used for “what if” analysis in order
to forecast the effect of a proposed change.
They are used to determine in advance what the company’s
future financing needs will be.
Various cash flow projections and sets of pro forma
statements may be prepared using different assumptions for
different operating plans. They are used to forecast the
capital requirements of the plans in order to select the plan
that maximizes shareholder value.
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58. How can superior Taking advantage of economies of scale and the effect that
efficiency be increased? learning has on efficiency.
Using flexible manufacturing technologies.
Reducing customer loss rates.
Adopting just-in-time inventory systems.
Designing new products that are easy to manufacture.
Training employees.
Utilizing self-managing teams.
Linking pay to performance.
Making use of technology such as web-based information
systems to reduce the costs of coordination between the
company and its suppliers and the company and its
customers.
Building a commitment to efficiency throughout the
organization.
Designing facilities that will foster cooperation among the
various functions in order to improve efficiency.
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63. What Efficiency is the attempt to fulfill the goals and objectives of the
are efficiency and effective company while using the least amount of inputs. On the other hand,
ness and how are they effectiveness has to do with the actual accomplishment of goals.
related? Though both efficiency and effectiveness are important, effectiveness
is of ultimate importance. If a company is efficient but does not
accomplish what is needed, then the efforts and resources used are
wasted.
64. What are opportunities? Opportunities arise when companies can leverage external conditions
to develop and implement strategies that will make them more
profitable.
65. What are overheads? Overheads are indirect costs that cannot be traced to any particular
unit produced. They include:
66. What are pro forma Pro forma financial statements, prepared for internal use in the
financial statements? planning process, are financial statements containing projected
amounts that are expected if a particular course of action is followed.
Pro forma financial statements are used in order to see what the
financial statements of the firm will look like if something that is under
consideration or forecasted actually happens. Pro forma financial
statements are often used to evaluate the effects on the company’s
finances if a particular sales forecast is realized, although they can be
used for other “what if” scenarios as well.
67. What are resources? Resources are factors that enable a company to create value for its
customers. They can be financial, physical, social/human,
technological, or organizational factors. Resources can
be tangible or intangible.
68. What are single-purpose Single-purpose plans are developed for a specific item such as
plans? construction of a fixed asset, the development of a new product, or
the implementation of a new accounting system. These are also
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70. What are some of Current ratio: Total current assets / Total current liabilities
the ratios that can be used Inventory turnover: Annual cost of sales / Inventory
in analysis of pro forma Days sales in inventory: 365 / Inventory turnover or
financial statements? Inventory / (Cost of goods sold / 365)
Accounts receivable turnover: Annual net credit sales /
Accounts receivable
Days sales in receivables: 365 / Accounts receivable turnover
or Accounts receivable / (Annual net credit sales / 365)
Interest coverage ratio: EBIT / Interest expense
Asset turnover: Net sales / Total assets
Debt to equity ratio: Total liabilities / Total equity
Gross profit margin: Gross profit / Net sales
Net profit margin: Net income / Net sales
Return on assets: Net income / Total assets
Return on equity: Net income / Total equity
71. What are some of Focus on all four generic building blocks of competitive
the tactics managers can advantage: superior efficiency, quality, innovation,
use to avoid failure? and responsiveness to customers.
Practice continuous improvement and continuous learning.
Things change so quickly that the only way to maintain a
competitive advantage over time is to continually improve
the four generic building blocks.
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72. What are standard costs? Standard costs are the estimated manufacturing costs for direct
materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead that
are predetermined or estimated as they would occur under the
conditions in the budget.
73. What are standing-purpose Standing-purpose plans have relevance and use for many different
plans? items. Plans such as marketing and operation plans fall into this
category.
74. What are strategic Strategic alliances are an alternative to vertical integration. They are
alliances? long-term cooperative relationships between two or more companies
to work together to develop a new product that will benefit all of the
parties to the strategic alliance.
75. What are strategic control Strategic control systems are goal-setting, measurement, and
systems and what are feedback systems. They have two functions:
their two functions?
1. To monitor how well the firm is using its resources to build its
distinctive competencies and to monitor how well it is
performing.
2. To create incentives to keep its employees focused on the
important problems in the organization so they will work
together to resolve them.
76. What are tall A tall structure has several levels of authority between the lowest-
structure and flat level employees and the top of the organization. A flat structure has
structure? fewer levels of authority. The taller the hierarchy, the less flexible the
organization’s structure is and the more slowly the organization is
able to respond to changes in the competitive environment.
77. What are Budgets are no longer done just once a year.
the advantages of continu A budget for the next full period (usually 12 months) is always
ous budgeting? in place.
The budget is more likely to be up to date, since the addition
of a new quarter or month will often lead to revisions in the
budget for the repeated periods.
Managers are more likely to pay attention to budgeted
operations for the full budget period.
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Projects must be planned over their entire life spans and thus
they should be viewed as special commitments.
Budgeted amounts for projects must be integrated into the
master budget of the company for the relevant period or
periods. Unless that is done, the project budget cannot be not
fully utilized.
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84. What are the five steps in 1. Defining the company’s mission and addressing the key
the formal strategic corporate goals.
planning process? 2. Analyzing the organization’s external competitive
environment in order to identify opportunities and threats.
3. Analyzing the internal operating environment to identify
strengths, weaknesses and limitations of the organization.
4. Formulating and selecting strategies that, consistent with the
organization’s mission and goals, will optimize the
organization’s strengths and correct its weaknesses and
limitations for the purpose of taking advantage of external
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85. What are the four basic 1. Global standardization focuses on the cost reductions from
strategies for international economies of scale and location economies. This business
operations? model pursues a low-cost strategy on a global scale.
2. Localization strategy works to increase profitability by
offering goods or services that are customized for each
different national market. Localization works when consumer
tastes vary among nations and when cost pressures are not
too intense.
3. Transnational strategy can be used when requirements for
local responsiveness are high and, at the same time, cost
pressures are strong. It is not easy to combine high local
responsiveness with low cost structure, and few if any
companies have actually been able to accomplish it.
4. International strategy is used by companies that do not have
great pressure to produce low-cost goods and do not have
great pressure to be locally responsive. This would be the case
if the company is selling a product that serves universal needs
and if the company does not face significant competition.
86. What are the four A star is in an industry that has a high market growth rate, and
categories in the BCG the product has a high share of the market. A star generates
Matrix? a lot of cash because it has a high share of its market.
However, because the market is growing rapidly, the star’s
sales are also growing rapidly.
A question mark is a product in an industry with a high
market growth rate, but the product has a low share of the
market. Because the market is growing rapidly, the question
mark’s sales are also growing rapidly, so it will consume a lot
of cash for investment.
A cash cow is in an industry with a low market growth rate,
but the product has a high share of the market. Cash cows are
in mature markets in which the growth rate has slowed, but
they are market leaders. Cash cows generate more cash than
they consume.
A dog is in a mature industry with a low market growth rate,
and it has a low share of the market. A dog does not consume
much cash, but it does not generate much cash, either.
87. What are the four 1. Theoretical or ideal capacity is the level of activity that will
choices for occur if the company produces at its absolute most efficient
determining budgeted level at all times.
output or activity level?
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88. What are the four 1. A statement of the company’s “reason to be.”
components of a 2. Its vision, or a statement of a desired future stat.
company's mission 3. A statement of the organization’s values.
statement? 4. A statement of its major goals.
89. What are the four steps in 1. Analyze historical ratios that will be used for the projections.
forecasting using the 2. Forecast the income statement.
Forecasted Financial 3. Forecast the balance sheet.
Statement Method? 4. Construct a pro forma statement of cash flows.
90. What are the general Functional-level strategy, for the purpose of improving
classifications of operations inside the company. These operations include
strategies under SWOT areas such as manufacturing, marketing, materials
analysis? management, product development, and customer service.
Business-level strategy, which includes the position of the
business in the marketplace as well as different positioning
strategies that could be used. Some examples are (1) cost
leadership, (2) differentiation, (3) focusing on a particular
marketing niche or segment, or (4) a combination of more
than one of these.
Global strategy, or considering how to expand operations
outside the home country.
Corporate-level strategy, considering what business or
businesses the company should be in so as to maximize its
long-run profitability and profit growth.
91. What are the limitations of The limitations of flexible budgeting include:
flexible budgeting?
If sales decline below the planned level, the decline does need
to be addressed and a flexible budget will not be useful for
pinpointing a decline in sales below what was planned.
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92. What are Learning curve analysis is appropriate only for labor-
the limitations of learning intensive operations involving repetitive tasks where
curve analysis? repeated trials improve performance. If the production
process primarily relies on robotics and computer controls,
little repetitive labor is involved and thus little opportunity
exists for learning to take place.
The learning rate is assumed to be constant. In real life, the
decline in labor time might not be constant. For example, the
time required might decline at the rate of 70% for the first
75,000 units, followed by 80% for the next 50,000 units, and
95% for the next 25,000 units.
The reliability of a learning curve calculation can be
jeopardized because an observed change in productivity
might actually be associated with factors other than
learning, such as a change in the labor mix, the product mix,
or other factors. If some factor or factors other than learning
are affecting productivity, a learning model developed using
the affected historical data will produce inaccurate estimates
of labor time and cost.
93. What are To use regression analysis, historical data is required for the
the limitations of regressio variable that is being forecast or for the variables that are
n analysis? causal to this variable. If historical data is not available,
regression analysis cannot be used.
Even when historical data is available, its use is questionable
for predicting the future if a significant change has taken
place in the conditions surrounding that data.
In causal forecasting, the usefulness of the data generated by
regression analysis depends upon the choice of independent
variable(s). If the choice of independent variable(s) is
inappropriate, the results can be misleading.
The statistical relationships that can be developed using
regression analysis are valid only for the range of data in the
sample.
94. What are the main steps in 1. Budget guidelines are set and communicated.
the budget development 2. Initial budget proposals are prepared by responsibility
process? centers.
3. Negotiation, review, and approval.
4. Revisions.
5. Reporting on variances.
6. Use of the variance reports.
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95. What are the methods that Activity analysis involves identifying and evaluating all the
can be used to input factors and activities that are required to complete a
establish usage and cost job, a project, or an operation efficiently. Activity analysis is
standards? the most accurate way of determining standard costs if it is
properly executed.
Historical data uses data from the manufacture of a similar
product in prior periods to determine standard costs,
assuming accurate data is available.
Target costing is used when a firm has a specific selling price
at which it desires to sell its product in order to be
competitive. The target cost is the cost that yields the
required profit margin for the product, given a set selling
price.
Strategic decisions can affect a product's standard cost, such
as setting challenging goals that will lead to continuous
improvement.
Benchmarking uses industry information about current
practices of other firms or current practices of the best-
performing divisions within the same company.
97. What are the most Economic growth leads to more consumer spending and
important macroeconomic gives companies the opportunity to expand their operations
factors in planning and and increase their profits. Economic recession leads to a
budgeting? reduction in consumer spending and, in a mature industry,
may cause price wars.
The level of interest rates can affect a company’s sales and
net income if the company is in an industry where demand is
affected by interest rates, such as the housing market or the
manufacture of capital goods.
Changes in currency exchange rates affect the
competitiveness of companies in international trade.
Both inflation and deflation cause businesses to be less
willing to make investments in new projects. When inflation
increases, it is difficult to plan on what the real return will be
from an investment. Deflation also causes a lack of stability in
the economy, because when prices are deflating, companies
with a high level of debt and the obligation to make regular
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98. What are the steps in 1. The company budgets its costs for fixed or variable overhead
calculating for the coming year.
the predetermined 2. The company decides how much output it will produce during
overhead allocation rate? the coming year and, as a function of that output, how many
machine hours or how many direct labor hours it plans to use
during the year.
3. The budgeted dollar amount of fixed or variable overhead is
divided by the planned activity level (number of hours) to
determine the amount of overhead to allocate to each hour
allowed for production of each unit.
4. Alternatively, the budgeted dollar amount of fixed or variable
overhead can be divided by the number of units budgeted to
determine the amount of overhead to allocate to each unit
produced.
99. What are the three kinds Integrating mechanisms are methods of increasing communication
of integrating and coordination among functions and divisions. There are three basic
mechanisms? kinds of integrating mechanisms:
100. What are the three main 1. Successful companies have values that promote action. They
values that emphasize autonomy for their employees as well as for their
are characteristic of managers. Autonomy is the freedom to make one’s own
successful organizations? decisions and to take action.
2. The company’s business model is focused on its mission. The
company sticks with what it is there to do and does not
pursue opportunities outside its area of expertise regardless
of how attractive they might seem.
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101. What are the three A participative budget is developed from the bottom up. All the
methods of developing the people affected by the budget are involved in the budget
budget? development process, even lower-level employees. This type of
budget development involves negotiation between lower-level
managers and senior managers.
103. What are the three 1. Experience: Because sales, expenses, or earnings have grown
primary at a particular rate in the past, we assume they will continue
approaches to forecasting? growing at that rate in the future. This leads to trend
projections.
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104. What are the two basic 1. Time series methods, which look only at the historical pattern
forecasting methods? of one variable and generate a forecast by extrapolating the
pattern using one or more of the components (or patterns)
of the time series, and
2. Causal forecasting methods, which look for a cause-and-
effect relationship between the variable we are trying to
forecast (the dependent variable) and one or more other
variables (the independent variables).
105. What are the two basic 1. The probability values assigned to each of the possible
requirements of outcomes must be between 0 and 1; and
probability? 2. The probable values assigned to all of the possible outcomes
must total 1.
106. What are the two opposing 1. The market theory gives management a passive role and
philosophies with respect views its function basically as making reactive decisions in
to the role of response to environmental events as they occur.
management in reaching 2. The planning and control theory views the role of
profit growth? management as an active one that emphasizes the planning
function of management and its ability to control the
activities of the business.
107. What are the two 1. Distinctive competencies and the superior efficiency, quality,
requirements for a innovation and customer responsiveness that result from
company to have them.
a competitive advantage? 2. The profitability that is derived from the value customers
place on its products, the price that it charges for its products,
and the costs of creating those products.
108. What are The learning curve will always be less than 100%, because if
the upper and lower the learning curve is 100% then no learning and no decrease
limits for learning curve in time required is taking place. This upper limit applies to
percentages? both the cumulative average-time learning model and the
incremental unit-time learning model because both assume
that the time required to perform a task decreases as the task
is performed multiple times.
When the cumulative average-time learning model is being
used, the learning curve percentage must be greater
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109. What are threats? Threats include conditions in the external environment that pose a
danger to profitability.
110. What are trend A time series that has a long-term upward or downward trend can be
projection and regression forecasted by means of trend projection. A trend projection is done
analysis? with simple regression analysis, which forecasts values using
historical information from all available past observations of the
value.
111. What are values and what A company’s values define how managers and employees should
is organizational culture? behave and do business. A company’s values are the foundation of
its organizational culture. The organizational culture consists of the
values, norms and standards that govern how the company’s
employees work to achieve the company’s mission and goals.
112. What The variance and standard deviation both give an idea of
are variance and standard the variability of the possible values about the mean. The variance
deviation? and the standard deviation measure how far from the mean (the
expected value) the various possible values lie.
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113. What decisions must be Decisions about customers' needs and what needs are to be
made when a satisfied.
company defines its Decisions about what products should be offered and to
business? which customer groups.
Decisions about how customer needs are to be satisfied, using
the company's distinctive competencies.
114. What factors should be The magnitude of the variance. What constitutes a material
considered for variance will vary depending on the size of the budget line
investigating variances in item. If the budgeted amount is $1,250, a $1,000 variance
the flexible budget? would represent 80% of the budgeted amount and would be
important to investigate. But if the budgeted amount is
$1,000,000, a $1,000 variance would be only 0.10% of the
budgeted amount and would not be material.
The trend of the variance over time. If an unfavorable
variance has been ongoing for several months and is getting
larger, then it needs to be investigated, even if its magnitude
is not large.
The likelihood that an investigation will eliminate future
occurrences of the variance. This is a cost-benefit
determination. If an investigation would not result in any
changes that could eliminate future occurrences of the
variance, then the benefit to be gained from investigating the
variance would not be worth the cost of the investigation.
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117. What is a deviation in On a graph, the difference between each point and its corresponding
linear regression? point on the regression line is called a deviation. When the position of
the regression line is calculated mathematically, the line will be in the
position where the deviations between each graphed value and the
regression line have been minimized.
118. What is a goal and what is A goal is a precise and measurable future state that the company
the purpose of goal- wants to achieve. The purpose of goal-setting is to specify what needs
setting? to be done in order to attain the company’s mission and vision. Well-
constructed goals provide a means for managers’ performance to be
evaluated.
119. What is a life-cycle A life-cycle budget plans incomes and expenses for one specific
budget? product throughout its entire life cycle, from its development through
its decline. This enables a company to see the cash flows that will
result from the product over its entire life. When all the lifetime
development and production costs are set forth in the life-cycle
budget, management can set a price that will cover not only the
company’s costs but also its required return on investment.
120. What is a profit plan? A profit plan is generally prepared for a set period of time, commonly
for one year, and the annual profit plan is subdivided into months or
possibly quarters. Usually the profit plan is developed for the same
time period covered by a company’s fiscal year.
121. What is a project budget? As the name suggests, a project budget is a budget for a specific
project. As such, the time frame of the budget may be very short or
more long-term, depending upon the length of the project.
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are identified and a budgeted level of activity for each of the drivers
is determined based on a budgeted level of production. A budgeted
cost pool (budgeted overhead costs) is developed for each activity.
Budgeted overhead costs per unit of each activity are determined by
dividing the total budgeted overhead costs for the activity by the total
budgeted units of the activity. Overhead costs are allocated to
products on the basis of the budgeted levels of each activity for each
product. The company may have several different overhead cost
pools, each with a different cost driver and a different cost allocation
to the units produced. Thus several different overhead allocations
may be made to each product.
127. What is an industry An industry analysis involves assessing the company’s industry as a
analysis? whole, the company’s competitive position within the industry, and
the competitive positions of its major rivals. The nature of the
industry, the stage the industry is in, the dynamics and the history are
all part of this analysis.
128. What is capacity and what Capacity is the ability of the company to produce its products or
are capital resources? services. Capital resources are the company’s fixed assets. In the long
term, the company will need to make certain that its capacity will be
able to meet the expected demand and also decide how to obtain this
capacity.
129. What is centralization of Centralization of authority means that upper management retains
authority? authority to make the important decisions. When decisions are
centralized, management can be sure that they will fit the
organization’s broad objectives.
130. What is contingency Contingency planning is planning that a company develops to prepare
planning? for possible future events (especially negative events). This is “what
if?” planning. Preparing different plans for different situations is more
expensive because it entails developing multiple plans. However,
multiple plans for different situations enable the company to be
better prepared for what may occur. Companies do this when they
think that the contingency planning will eventually lead to greater
savings than the cost of the planning itself.
131. What is correlation Correlation analysis determines the strength of the linear
analysis? relationship between the x values and their related y values. The
results of the correlation analysis tell the forecaster whether the
relationship between the dependent variable (sales, for example) and
the independent variable (the passage of time, for a time series) is
reasonable.
132. What is decentralization of Decentralization of authority means that decision-making authority
authority? has been delegated to divisions, functions, and employees further on
down the hierarchy in the company. Delegation of day-to-day
decisions to middle and lower-level managers gives top management
more time to spend on strategic decisions.
133. What is diversification? Diversification is entering one or more new industries to take
advantage of the company’s distinctive competencies and business
model.
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134. What is expected value? The expected value of an action is found by multiplying the probability
of each potential outcome by its payoff. Therefore, expected value, or
expected return, is a weighted average of the possible returns, with
the weights being the probabilities of occurrence.
135. What is fixed Fixed manufacturing overhead is indirect manufacturing costs that do
manufacturing overhead? not vary in response to changes in activity as long as the activity
remains within the relevant range. The types of overhead that go into
the calculation of budgeted total fixed overhead are salaries for plant
supervisors and depreciation on equipment, to mention just two
examples.
136. What is goal congruence? Goal congruence is defined as “aligning the goals of two or more
groups.” As used in planning and budgeting, it refers to the aligning of
goals of the individual managers with the goals of the organization as
a whole.
137. What is horizontal Horizontal integration is a corporate-level strategy that involves
integration? acquiring or merging with competitors to achieve competitive
advantages such as economies of scale.
138. What is included in The financial budget includes:
the financial budget?
Capital expenditures budget
Cash budget
Budgeted balance sheet
Budgeted statement of cash flows
139. What is included in Amounts for nonmanufacturing costs come from the various areas of
the nonmanufacturing the company that are not involved in production. Those budgets
budgets? include:
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140. What is included in The operating budget includes the income statement and all the
the operating budget? budgets that support it, including:
Sales budget
Production budget
Direct materials usage budget
Direct materials purchases budget
Direct labor budget
Manufacturing overhead costs budget
Ending inventories budget (finished goods and direct
materials)
Cost of goods sold budget
Nonmanufacturing budget
141. What is meant by a A company's vision is what the company would like to achieve, and it
company's vision? should be challenging. A good vision statement should challenge the
company by stating an ambitious future state that will (1) motivate
employees at all levels and (2) drive the strategies that the company’s
management will formulate and implement in order to achieve the
vision.
142. What is meant The durability of competitive advantage is how long any competitive
by durability of advantage that a company has will last.
competitive advantage?
143. What is meant by the The term “learning curve” refers to the idea that efficiency increases
term learning curve? the more experience a person has with a given task. As a result, the
time required for performing the task decreases as increases occur in
the number of times the task has been performed.
144. What is multiple Multiple regression analysis is used when more than one independent
regression analysis? variable is known to impact a dependent variable to forecast the
dependent variable. Multiple regression analysis is another type of
causal forecasting.
145. What is organizational Organizational design involves determining how a company should
design? create, combine and use three elements to pursue its business model
successfully. These three elements of organizational design are the
company’s organizational structure, control systems and culture.
146. What is PEST analysis? PEST analysis is another type of situation analysis. “PEST” stands
for Political, Economic, Social, and Technological factors that are
examined in the process of doing strategic planning for an
organization.
147. What is planning? Planning in general refers to the process that provides guidance and
direction regarding what an organization needs to do throughout its
operations. It determines the answers to the “who, what, when,
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Some of the external factors are the economy, labor market, domestic
and international competition, environmental issues, technological
developments, developing new markets, and political risk in other
countries (or the home country).
150. What is the BCG Growth- The BCG Growth-Share Matrix is a method of analyzing a company’s
Share Matrix? portfolio of products to determine where each product is in its life
cycle. It was developed by the Boston Consulting Group in the 1970s
to assist corporations in analyzing the life cycles of their product lines
in order to make better decisions about allocation of resources in
planning.
151. What is The budget or profit-planning manual details the budgeting process.
the budget or profit It is written and maintained by the department in charge of
planning manual? coordinating the development of the profit plan and it is their
guidebook for the whole budget development process. It outlines
what needs to be done and when.
152. What is the budgeting The budgeting cycle is a process that goes on throughout the year,
cycle? even though the budget is probably completed before the year
begins. The budgeting cycle consists of more than just the
development of the annual profit plan, although that is a big part of
the cycle. Throughout the budget year, actual results need to be
compared with planned results and variances investigated. Without
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154. What is the cash budget? The cash budget (also called the cash management, cash flow or
working capital budget) draws upon information from all other
budgets. Because it uses information from the other budgets, it is
the last budget prepared. It is also one of the most important budgets
developed. The cash budget tracks the inflows and outflows of cash
on a month-by-month (possibly even week-by-week or day-by-day)
basis.
The cash budget is similar to but not exactly the same as a budgeted
statement of cash flows. The cash budget must be
prepared before the planned balance sheet can be prepared. On the
other hand, the budgeted statement of cash flows is
prepared after the planned balance sheet and income statement are
prepared. The cash flows in the budgeted statement of cash flows are
segregated according to operating, investing, and financing cash flows
and the cash flows are presented as net amounts. In contrast, the cash
flows in the cash budget are segregated according to receipts and
disbursements.
155. What is the coefficient of The coefficient of correlation measures the relationship between two
correlation? variables. The coefficient of correlation is a number that expresses
how closely connected, or correlated, the two variables are and the
extent to which a change in one variable has historically resulted in a
change in the other.
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1. The estimated average time per unit for the entire quantity
produced, from the very first unit to the very last unit
produced. This is the “cumulative average.”
2. The estimated total time required for the entire quantity
produced, from the very first unit to the very last unit
produced.
3. The estimated total production time required for a certain
block of units can be calculated by finding the total time
required for all the units produced through the end of that
block and subtracting from that the total time required for the
units up to that block. This calculation is possible only if the
block of units represents the units that are produced in a
doubling of production.
158. What is the equation of The equation of a linear regression line is: ŷ = ax + b
a linear regression line?
Where:
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The FFS method produces a forecast of the entire balance sheet and
income statement. The pro forma balance sheet and income
statement can then be used to create the pro forma statement of cash
flows.
160. What is the major The disadvantage and major limitation of zero-based budgeting is that
limitation of zero-based it can require a nearly impossible amount of work to review all of a
budgeting? company’s activities every year. As an alternative, a company could
schedule zero-based budgeting on a rotating basis, with only a few
different departments or divisions being subject to an in-depth review
of their activities each year.
161. What is the master The master budget is the culmination and the goal of the budgeting
budget? process. The master budget is also called the comprehensive budget.
The master budget is a summarized set of budgeted financial
statements, including the budgeted balance sheet, budgeted income
statement, and budgeted statement of cash flows.
162. What is the primary The primary advantage of flexible budgeting is that it enables
advantage of flexible management to focus its attention on variances caused by factors
budgeting? other than differences between actual and budgeted volumes.
163. What is the production After determining the sales budget, the production budget is
budget? developed so that it incorporates the company’s sales budget along
with its capacity and inventory objectives.
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167. What is time series Time series data reflects historical activity for one variable over a
analysis? sequence of past time periods. A time series method of
forecasting uses only these historical values in an attempt to find a
pattern that can be used in forecasting the future. Only one set of
historical time series data is used in time series analysis and this
historical data is not compared to any other set of data.
174. When a company's sales 1. When inventory increases, accounts payable will increase
increase, what are because more inventory is being purchased and/or
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the three ways to fund the manufactured. Accrued liabilities (such as accrued salaries
expected increase in and wages and accrued taxes) will also increase because of
assets? the increased activity. This increase in liabilities, called
a spontaneous liability increase, will fund a portion of the
increase in assets. These increases in liabilities are called
spontaneous liability increases because they occur naturally.
2. Profits from additional sales will provide some of the funding.
Any profits not paid out in dividends increase retained
earnings. The additional retained earnings increase equity
and provide a source of funds.
3. The remainder of the funding beyond what can be supplied
by items 1 and 2 will need to be provided through external
financing such as bank loans (short-term and/or long-term) or
issuance of securities (stock or bonds).
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4. How is the direct material (Actual Quantity − Standard Quantity for Actual Output)
quantity variance × Standard Price
calculated?
5. How is the direct material (Actual Price − Standard Price) × Actual Quantity
price variance calculated?
6. How is the direct labor rate (Actual Rate – Standard Rate) × Actual Hours
variance calculated?
7. How is the direct labor (Actual Hours − Standard Hours for Actual Output)
efficiency variance × Standard Rate
calculated?
8. How is the material price (or The price (or rate) variance is calculated for each input individually
labor rate) variance and then added together.
calculated when there is
more than one input?
9. How is the material quantity The quantity (or efficiency) variance is calculated for each input
(or labor efficiency) variance individually and then added together.
calculated when there is
more than one input?
10. When there is more than 1) The mix variance
one material input or labor 2) The yield variance
class, what are the two
quantity sub-variances?
11. How is the sales mix The Sales Mix Variance measures the effect of the difference
variance for a multiple- between the proportions of total units sold represented by each
product firm calculated? product as planned compared to what actually occurred.
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(waspAM – waspSM) × AQ
12. How is the sales quantity The Sales Quantity Variance measures the effect of the difference
variance for a multiple- between the actual total units sold of all products and
product firm calculated? the budgeted total units of all products expected to be sold. The
Sales Quantity Variance does not take into consideration variances
due to differences in the mix of products sold.
15. How is the variable overhead Actual total variable overhead incurred (money actually
spending variance spent) (AP x AQ)
calculated? – Budgeted variable overhead based on inputs actually
used (SP x AQ)
= Variable overhead spending variance
or
(AP − SP) × AQ
16. How is the variable overhead Budgeted variable overhead based on inputs actually
efficiency variance used (AQ x SP)
calculated? − Standard variable overhead allowed for
production/applied to production (SQ x SP)
= Variable overhead efficiency variance
or
(AQ − SQ) × SP
17. How is the total fixed Actual fixed overhead incurred (money actually spent)
overhead variance – Standard fixed overhead applied (standard rate × standard
calculated? usage for actual output)
= Total fixed overhead variance
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19. How is the fixed overhead Budgeted Fixed Overheads (the flexible budget OR the
production-volume static budget amount)
variance calculated? – Standard fixed overhead applied (standard rate × standard
input for actual output)
= Fixed Overhead Production-Volume Variance
20. What are the variances in 1) The volume variance is equal to the production-volume
3-way variance analysis? variance as calculated for fixed overhead.
2) The efficiency variance is equal to the variable overhead
efficiency variance.
3) The spending variance is equal to the variable overhead
spending variance plus the fixed overhead spending
variance.
21. What are the variances in 1) The volume variance is equal to the production-volume
2-way variance analysis? variance for fixed overhead.
2) The controllable variance is equal to the sum of the
remaining three variances, which are the variable spending
variance, variable efficiency variance, and fixed spending
variance.
22. How are sales variances Sales variances are calculated in much the same way as input
calculated in comparison to variances, except that sales variances should use contribution per
the input variances? unit instead of sales price per unit (if that information is available).
This is also the case when sales variances for multiple products are
calculated.
23. What are the four types of 1) Cost center – the incurrence of costs
responsibility centers and 2) Revenue center – generating revenues
what is each responsible for? 3) Profit center – both costs and revenues
4) Investment center – both profit and a return on investment
24. What are the two ways of 1) Stand-alone allocation
allocating common costs? 2) Incremental cost allocation
25. How is the contribution Net revenues
income statement - Variable manufacturing costs
prepared? = Manufacturing contribution margin
- Variable nonmanufacturing costs
= Contribution margin
- Controllable fixed costs
= Controllable margin
- Non-controllable, traceable fixed costs
= Contribution by strategic business unit
- Non-controllable, untraceable fixed costs
= Operating income
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35. How is residual income Operating income before taxes for the division, project, or
calculated? investment opportunity
– (Target return in dollars: Employed assets of the business
unit × required rate of return)
= Residual Income
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(AP – SP) × AQ
In the formula above, the “AP” stands for the actual average
revenue or cost per item sold, the “SP” stands for the budgeted
average revenue or cost per item sold, and the “AQ” stands for the
actual number of units sold.
38. How are sales Sales variances are used to explain the differences between actual
variances used? and budgeted amounts of revenue, variable costs, and the
contribution margin. Revenues, variable costs, and the contribution
are the line items that are most affected by the changes in the
amount of each product that is sold, the price each unit is sold for,
and the cost of each unit sold.
39. How are sales volume The Sales Volume Variances on a Sales Variance Report represent
variances on a sales variance the variances caused by the number of units sold having been
report calculated? different from the number of units budgeted to be sold. The Sales
Volume Variance can be calculated using the same formula that is
used for manufacturing input Quantity Variances, where the “AQ”
stands for the actual quantity sold, “SQ” stands for the static budget
quantity budgeted to be sold, and “SP” stands for the budgeted
average price per unit (for revenue) or average variable cost per unit
(for variable costs):
(AQ – SQ) × SP
40. How should Transactions between subsidiaries of multinational corporations
transactions between are supposed to be priced as “arm’s-length” transactions. In other
subsidiaries of multinational words, the prices should be the same as they would be if the two
corporations be priced? parties were not related and should not be adjusted simply to shift
income between countries to reduce the overall tax payment.
41. What are avoidable costs An avoidable cost is a cost that can be avoided if a particular option
and unavoidable costs and is selected. It is a cost that would go away if sales to a particular
how are they relevant in the customer stopped or if the company stopped manufacturing a
decision-making process? product. Avoidable costs are relevant costs to the decision-making
process because they will continue if one course of action is taken
but they will not continue if another course of action is taken.
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would not be used if the product were discontinued but that the
company could not dispose of.
Only costs that would be avoided (i.e., costs that would go away) if
the product or customer is dropped are relevant to the decision of
whether or not to drop the product or customer.
42. What are common costs? Common costs are costs of operating a business that cannot be
allocated to any specific user or users on any cause-and-effect basis.
Examples of common costs are the chief executive officer’s salary,
the costs of the financial reporting function of the accounting
department, and the costs of the budget department.
43. What are cost drivers? Cost drivers are costs that are the result of activities that are
undertaken to create products or render services.
44. What are key performance Key performance indicators are the few critical metrics that are
indicators? most relevant to a company's specific business strategy, and a
company should track these measures rigorously rather than using
many different measurements. Key performance indicators are
measures of the aspects of the company’s performance that are
essential to its competitive advantage and therefore its success.
45. What are lagging Financial measures that focus on short-term financial performance
indicators and leading are in fact lagging indicators of how the company is doing.
indicators?
Nonfinancial measures focus on performance that should
ultimately result in improved long-term financial performance. Thus
nonfinancial measures are leading indicators of performance.
46. What are Level 1 variances? Level 1 variances are the most global variances. Static budget
variances are Level 1 variances. They are based on the income
statement and merely compare the actual results with the static
(master) budget. Since they are based on the income statement,
Level 1 variances report variances in revenue and cost of sales for
sold units only. They do not report detailed cost variances for all
units produced.
47. What are Level 2 variances? Each of the static budget variances can be further broken down into
two sub-variances: the flexible budget variance and the sales
volume variance. These are Level 2 variances, because they give us
more information about the static budget variances. These
variances are also in income statement format. Because they are
based on the income statement and thus report on revenues and
costs for items sold, these variances are also called sales variances.
The term “sales variances” distinguishes them from manufacturing
input variances, which are based on items produced.
48. What are Level 3 variances? Level 3 variances can give us more information about the causes of
the variances. Level 3 variances include manufacturing input
variances, sales variances, sales quantity variances, and sales mix
variances.
49. What are levels in variance Variances can be classified in terms of level. A level denotes the
analysis? amount of detail that is provided by the variance. A low-level
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51. What are shared services? Shared services are used by internal departments and usage of the
service by the individual departments or products can be allocated
to user departments in a meaningful way based upon a cost driver
that represents their usage of the service.
52. What are the advantages of The primary advantage of RI is that a project beneficial to the
residual income? company is more likely to be selected, even if its ROI is lower than
the unit’s existing ROI. (Using RI as a performance measure instead
of ROI overcomes the tendency of managers to reject projects that
would be profitable to the company but that would lower the
business unit’s current ROI.)
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54. What are The main problem with ROI as a performance measurement that
the disadvantages of it measures return as a percentage rather than as a dollar amount.
using ROI for performance If the expected ROI of a new project under consideration is lower
measurement? than the division’s present ROI but higher than the target rate, the
manager may reject a profitable project because it would lower the
division’s overall ROI, even though the project would be beneficial
for the company. While it is good to have a higher rate of return,
the company is ultimately interested in the amount of the return.
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57. What are the four levels 1. Level 1: Manufacturing Contribution Margin (Net Revenue
used for evaluation on the Less Variable Manufacturing Costs). The manufacturing
contribution income contribution margin of the company is the amount of
statement? money that is available to cover nonmanufacturing variable
costs, all fixed costs, and then flow to profit.
2. Level 2: Contribution Margin (Manufacturing Contribution
Less Variable Nonmanufacturing Costs). The contribution
margin of the company is the amount of money that is
available to cover fixed costs and then flow to profit after
all variable costs are covered.
3. Level 3: Controllable Margin (Contribution Margin Less
Controllable Fixed Costs). The controllable margin (also
called short-term segment manager performance) is
important because it is a measurement of all the revenues
and expenses (variable and fixed) that are controllable by
the individual managers on a short-term (that is, less than
one year) basis. The controllable margin is a useful measure
of a manager’s short-term performance.
4. Level 4: Segment Margin (Controllable Margin Less Non-
controllable, Traceable Fixed Costs). The segment margin
(also called contribution by strategic business unit, or
contribution by SBU) is a measure of the performance of
each business unit. It may also be used as a measure of the
long-term performance of the manager, if the manager can
control the non-controllable traceable fixed costs over a
long-term period. However, in many cases, decisions that
affect non-controllable traceable fixed costs are made by
others.
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58. What are the limitations of Variances caused by more or fewer sales than planned are
Level 1 variances? not segregated from variances caused by other factors.
Comparison of actual with the master budget focuses on
short-term performance instead of long-term success.
Managers should be evaluated on performance measures
other than just whether or not they have met short-term
financial targets. Meeting financial targets is only part of
the measurement of performance. Manager evaluation
should include not only financial measures but also non-
financial measures.
59. What are the main The main classifications of centers, listed in order of the most
classifications of fundamental (or basic) to the most complex, are:
responsibility centers?
1. A Cost Center is responsible only for the incurrence of
costs. A cost center does not earn any revenue and
therefore generates no profit.
2. A Revenue Center is the opposite of a cost center in that it
is responsible only for revenues.
3. A Profit Center is a department responsible for both
revenues and expenses.
4. An Investment Center is responsible for profit (revenues
and costs) and for providing a return on the capital that has
been invested into it by the larger organization to which it
belongs. Because it is responsible for a return-on-
investment, this type of department is the most like a
regular and complete business by itself. However, it is still
part of a larger organization.
60. What are the main The main purposes for responsibility centers and responsibility
purposes for responsibility accounting are the evaluation of subunits’ performance and to
centers and responsibility contribute to measuring the performance of the subunits’
accounting? managers. Manager performance measurement provides
motivation for managers of the subunits, which in turn benefits the
company as a whole. The manager of a responsibility center should
have the ability to control, or at least significantly influence, the
results of the center over which he or she has control.
61. What are the mix The mix variance shows the portion of the quantity variance that
variance and yield variance? resulted because the actual mix was different from the standard
mix (that is, more of one ingredient was used and less of another
ingredient was used). The yield variance shows the portion of the
quantity variance that resulted because the total actual amount of
all ingredients used was different from the total standard amount.
62. What are the most common The goals of the company and what method will best
factors when deciding which enable those goals to be met (goal congruence), and
transfer pricing method to Factors relating to the capacity of the producing division,
use? its ability to sell the product on the open market, and the
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64. What are the problems with It is difficult to use scorecards for comparisons across
the balanced scorecard? business units because each business unit has its
individualized scorecard. Scorecard evaluation is more
effective when it is used to judge the progress of an
individual business unit relative to the prior year or relative
to its goals rather than when used to compare a manager’s
performance with that of other managers or a segment’s
performance with that of other segments.
In order to implement balanced scorecard performance
measurement, a firm must have extensive enterprise
resource planning systems to capture the required
information.
Non-financial data is not subject to control or audit and thus
its reliability could be questionable.
The efficacy of the balanced scorecard in achieving the
organization’s strategic goals must be monitored closely. If
all of the non-financial targets are achieved but the financial
targets are not achieved, then probably a strong causal
relationship does not exist between the non-financial
indicators chosen for monitoring and the financial goals.
The non-financial indicators may need to be re-evaluated
and changed.
If the balanced scorecard is used as a “command and
control” document that is used to control behavior,
employees may “make the numbers” but not be committed
to achieving the organization’s goals. Instead, the balanced
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65. What are the two ways to 1. The stand-alone cost allocation method determines the
allocate common costs? weights for cost allocation by considering each user of the
cost as a separate entity. When the stand-alone method is
used, total common costs are distributed among the
operating units based on each unit’s proportion of the
entire organization, using an appropriate basis. Advocates
of the stand-alone method maintain that it is fairer than the
incremental cost-allocation method because each
responsibility center bears a proportionate share of total
costs.
2. The incremental cost-allocation method ranks units
according to their size or on some similar basis. The largest
unit is called the primary party. The primary party is charged
for costs up to what its cost would be if it were the only unit.
The remaining cost is allocated to the other unit or units,
called incremental parties. The effect of the incremental
method is that the largest unit bears all the fixed common
costs plus an allocation of the variable common costs,
whereas the incremental parties bear only an allocation of
the variable common costs.
66. What are the weaknesses of First, it focuses on the dollar amount of the return. Although a $1
residual income? return might be beneficial for a company, the amount of the return
may be so small in comparison to the amount invested that the
return is not worth the effort.
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80. What is three-way In three-way analysis, the three variances are the volume,
analysis of overhead? efficiency, and spending variances.
81. What is two-way analysis of Two-way analysis uses the same information as calculated for four-
overhead? way analysis, but we are going to combine it in a slightly different
manner than we do under three-way analysis. The two variances
involved are called the volume variance and the controllable (or
budget) variance.
82. What is variance analysis? Variance analysis is the process of comparing the actual expenses
and revenues during a certain period to the budgeted amounts for
that same period. With variance analysis we are able to determine
the reasons why our actual results were different from the
budgeted amounts. Knowing the reasons will enable us to focus our
efforts on the areas that have been operating less efficiently than
planned.
83. What other Nonrecurring items: Nonrecurring charges or revenues can
transactions affect prevent operating income of a given business unit from
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the measurement of being comparable to that of prior periods and from being
operating income and ROI? comparable to operating income of other business units.
Income taxes: Income taxes may affect various units
differently, especially if the units are located in different
countries with different tax rates and varying tax treaties.
Even within one country, there may be different local or
regional taxes.
Foreign exchange: Operating income and value of
investments in foreign countries can vary due to
fluctuations in currency exchange rates.
Joint asset sharing: Costs for common facilities or services
need to be allocated on a fair basis, as discussed in
Allocation of Common Costs. Different methods of
allocating the common costs will result in different costs for
each unit and thus will affect the units’ operating income.
84. What sources can be used Activity analysis involves identifying, delineating or
to set appropriate outlining, and evaluating all the activities necessary to
standards for usage and pric complete a job, a project, or an operation.
es? Historical data.
Benchmarking uses current practices of similar operations
in other firms.
Target costing sets costs based on the price that the
product can be sold for.
Strategic decisions.
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13. What are period costs? Period costs are costs for activities other than the production of the
product.
14. What are opportunity Opportunity costs are the contributions to income that are lost by not
costs? using a limited resource in its best alternative use.
15. What are sunk costs? Sunk costs are costs that have already been incurred and cannot be
recovered.
Sunk costs are irrelevant in any decision-making process because they
have already been incurred and no present or future decision can
change them.
16. What are committed Committed costs are costs for the company’s infrastructure.
costs? They are costs required to establish and maintain the readiness to do
business.
17. How is cost of goods sold Beginning finished goods inventory
calculated? + Purchases (for a reseller) or cost of goods manufactured (for
a manufacturer)
− Ending finished goods inventory
= Cost of Goods Sold
18. How is cost of goods Direct Materials Used
manufactured calculated? + Direct Labor Used
+ Manufacturing Overhead Applied
= Total Manufacturing Costs
+ Beginning Work-in-Process Inventory
− Ending Work-in-Process Inventory
= Cost of Goods Manufactured
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30. How is an immaterial Under-applied overhead is added to COGS and over-applied overhead
amount of over- or under- is subtracted from COGS.
applied overhead closed
out?
31. How is a material amount It is distributed among the WIP Inventory, Finished Goods Inventory,
of and Cost of Goods Sold accounts.
over- or under-applied The variances are pro-rated according to the amount of overhead
overhead closed out? included in each that was allocated to the current period’s production.
32. What is the formula for Units in Beginning WIP
the physical flow of goods + Units Transferred In
in process costing? Is equal to
Units in Ending WIP
+ Units Completed/Transferred Out
33. How is the number of # Units Completed
units started and – # Units in Beginning WIP
completed calculated in = Units Started and Completed This Period
process costing?
34. How is equivalent units Completion of BWIP
produced calculated in + Started & Completed
process costing under the + Starting of EWIP
FIFO method? = EUP this period
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47. What are joint products? Joint products occur when one production process leads to the
production of two or more finished products.
These products are not identical, but they share the same production
process up to what is called the split off point.
48. What are byproducts? Byproducts are the low-value products that occur naturally in the
process of producing higher-value products.
49. What are the four 1) Relative sales value at split off method (or gross market value
methods of allocating method)
joint costs? 2) Estimated net realizable value (NRV) method
3) Physical measure and average cost methods
4) Constant gross profit (gross-margin) percentage method
50. What are the two 1) The production method (inventory the byproduct costs)
methods of accounting for 2) The sales method (revenue from the byproducts)
byproducts?
51. What are the two 1) Their treatment of fixed manufacturing overhead
differences between 2) The income statement presentation of the different costs
variable and
absorption costing?
52. How are fixed factory • Under absorption costing, fixed factory overhead costs are
overheads treated under allocated to the units produced during the period according
absorption and variable to a predetermined rate.
costing? • Under variable costing, fixed factory overheads are a period
cost that are expensed in the period when they are incurred.
This means that no matter what the level of sales, all of the
fixed factory overheads will be expensed in the period when
incurred.
53. What are the relationships When Production = Sales, then Absorption = Variable
between changes in When Production > Sales, then Absorption > Variable
inventory and profit for When Production < Sales, then Absorption < Variable
absorption and variable
costing?
54. How is the income Sales revenue
statement presented − Cost of goods sold
under = Gross profit
absorption costing? − Variable nonmanufacturing costs (expensed)
− Fixed nonmanufacturing costs (expensed)
= Operating Income
55. How is the income Sales revenue
statement presented − Variable manufacturing costs of items sold
under variable costing? = Manufacturing contribution margin
− Variable nonmanufacturing costs (expensed)
= Contribution Margin
− All fixed manufacturing costs (expensed)
− All fixed nonmanufacturing costs (expensed)
= Operating Income
56. What are the two 1) A single-rate method in which fixed and variable costs are
methods of allocating allocated together.
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costs of a single service 2) A dual-rate method in which fixed and variable costs are
department to multiple allocated separately.
users?
57. What are the three 1) The direct method – all services provided by service
methods for allocating departments to other service departments are ignored
costs of multiple 2) The step (or step-down) method – some services provided by
service departments? service departments to other service departments are ignored
3) The reciprocal method – no services provided by service
departments to other service departments are ignored
58. What is supply chain The active management of supply chain activities by the members of a
management? supply chain with the goals of maximizing customer value and
achieving a sustainable competitive advantage.
59. What is lean Lean manufacturing is a philosophy and system of manufacturing that
manufacturing? focuses on cutting out waste in the manufacturing process.
Waste is anything that does not add value to the customer or anything
the customer is not willing to pay for.
60. What are the seven 1) Overproduction
primary wasteful activities 2) Delay
addressed by lean 3) Transporting parts and materials
manufacturing? 4) Over-processing
5) Inventory
6) Motion
7) Making defective parts
61. What are the five key 1) Customers
principles of lean 2) Value stream
manufacturing? 3) Flow
4) Pull
5) Continuous improvement
62. What is the goal of a just- To minimize the level of inventories that are held in the plant at all
in-time inventory system? stages of production, including raw materials, work-in-process, and
finished goods inventories while meeting customer demand in a timely
manner with high-quality products at the lowest possible cost.
63. What is a constraint, or Constraints are activities that slow down the product’s total cycle time
bottleneck? while areas and people performing other activities have slack time.
64. What are the drum, Drum-Buffer-Rope is the production planning methodology portion of
buffer, Theory of Constraints.
and rope? • The drum is the process that takes the longest time.
• The rope consists of all of the processes that lead up to the
drum, or the constraint.
• The buffer is a minimum amount of WIP waiting for the
constraint that is maintained to make sure the constraint
process is kept busy at all times.
65. What is the value chain? The company’s chain of activities for transforming inputs into the
outputs that customers will value.
66. What are the primary • Research
value chain activities? • Development
• Design
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• Production
• Marketing and sales
• Distribution
• Customer service
67. What are the support • Infrastructure
value chain activities? • Information systems
• Materials management
• Human resources
68. What are the three steps 1) Identify the activities that add value to the finished product.
in 2) Identify the cost driver or cost drivers for each activity.
value chain analysis? 3) Develop a competitive advantage by adding value to the
customer or reducing the costs of the activity.
69. What are the two 1) Costs of conformance
categories of costs of 2) Costs of nonconformance
quality?
70. What are the two 1) Prevention costs
categories of the costs of 2) Appraisal costs
conformance?
71. What are the two 1) Internal failure
categories of the costs of 2) External failure
nonconformance?
72. What is total quality TQM is the management philosophy of producing each unit properly
management? the first time. It requires that errors be detected as soon as possible
and corrected.
73. How are fixed factory Under variable costing (also called direct costing), fixed factory
overheads accounted for overheads are a period cost that are expensed in the period when they
under variable costing? are incurred. This means that no matter what the level of sales, all of
the fixed factory overheads will be expensed in the period when
incurred.
74. How have manufacturing Traditionally, manufacturing overhead costs have been allocated to
overhead the individual products based on either the direct labor hours,
costs traditionally been machine hours, materials cost, units of production, weight of
allocated? production or some similar measure that is easy to measure and
calculate. The measure used is called the activity base.
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are transferred out to finished goods (or the next department). This
will cause the cost per unit transferred in to the next department to be
higher than the cost of producing a good unit in the current
department.
77. How is over- or under- If the company is using only one account (Factory Overhead
applied factory Control), the amounts credited to Factory Overhead Control to
overhead accounted for in apply the overhead to production will decrease the balance in
period end closing the account, and only the over- or under-applied amount will
entries? remain in the account at the end of the period.
If the company is using two accounts (Factory Overhead
Control and Factory Overhead Applied), the Factory Overhead
Applied account is closed to the Factory Overhead Control
account in the closing entries. That will leave the net amount
of over- or under-applied overhead in the Factory Overhead
Control account, the same as if the company had been using
just one account all during the period.
79. How is the High-Low 1. Calculate the Variable Cost Per Unit by dividing the difference
Points between the costs for the highest production volume and the
Method calculated? costs for the lowest production volume by the difference
between the highest and lowest production volumes:
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= Operating Income
81. How is the income Sales revenue
statement presented − Variable manufacturing costs of items sold
under variable costing? = Manufacturing contribution margin
− Variable nonmanufacturing costs (expensed)
= Contribution Margin
− All fixed manufacturing costs (expensed)
− All fixed nonmanufacturing costs (expensed)
= Operating Income
82. How is the predetermined Budgeted Dollar Amount of Manufacturing Overhead
manufacturing overhead ÷ Budgeted Activity Level
allocation rate calculated
using traditional
allocation?
83. How is throughput The throughput contribution margin or throughput contribution
contribution margin per unit is the selling price minus only the totally variable costs.
margin calculated? The totally variable costs are usually only the direct materials costs.
This is called super-variable costing. The assumption is made that labor
and overheads are fixed costs because they can usually not be changed
in the short term.
In both cases, the other side of the entry goes to close out the balance
in Factory Overhead Control by reducing it to zero.
85. How the over- or under- If the amount of overhead that was over- or under-applied is material,
applied factory overhead it must be distributed among the WIP Inventory, Finished Goods
balance transferred Inventory and Cost of Goods Sold accounts.
out when the amount
is material? An under-applied amount will be added (debited) to these accounts
while an over-applied amount will be taken out of (credited to) these
accounts. The other side of the entries will bring the balance in the
Factory Overhead Control account to zero as of the end of the period.
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86. In developing a costing 1. The cost measurement method to use in allocating costs to
system, choices need to units manufactured (standard, normal, extended normal, or
be made in what three actual costing).
categories of costing 2. The cost accumulation method to use (job costing or process
methods? costing).
3. The method to be used to allocate overhead (volume-based
or activity-based).
87. Master budget Master budget capacity (expected actual capacity utilization) is best
capacity is best for for developing the master budget. The primary use of the projected
what purpose? activity level is in developing the master budget for the coming year.
The master budget capacity utilization (expected actual capacity
utilization) is the most appropriate activity level to use for developing
the master budget.
88. Normal Normal capacity is best for long-term planning. Normal capacity is
capacity is best for often used as a basis for long-term (multi-year) plans. For long-term
what purpose? planning purposes, the cost to produce one unit should not change
over the period of the long-term plan due only to changes in projected
production levels. In other words, the cost per unit should not increase
and decrease in each of the planning years due to different planned
production levels in each year caused by changing projected demand
in each year.
89. Practical Practical capacity is best for pricing decisions. If demand decreases
capacity is best for and normal capacity is being used, overhead costs will be spread over
what purpose? a smaller number of output units, causing the per-unit costs to
increase. This can result in high, noncompetitive selling prices that
cause further decreases in demand and lead to a downward demand
spiral. A downward demand spiral is a continuing reduction in demand
that occurs when costs are too high. As demand drops, the cost per
unit gets higher and higher, leading to more price increases, which lead
to more reduction in demand, and so forth.
90. The costs in a department 1. They are incurred by the department during the period (we
that require will usually have materials and con-version costs in a question).
allocation come 2. They are transferred in from the previous department.
from what three places? 3. They were in the department on the first day of the period in
the form of beginning work-in-process (BWIP).
91. Theoretical This is a trick question because theoretical capacity is just that:
capacity is best for theoretical. It has very little use in practical situations, because it will
what purpose? not be attained.
92. What are byproducts? Byproducts are the low-value products that occur naturally in the
process of producing higher value products. They are, in a sense,
accidental results of the production process.
93. What are carrying costs? Carrying costs are the costs the company incurs when it holds
inventory. Carrying costs include: rent and utilities related to storage;
insurance and taxes on the inventory; costs of employees who manage
and protect the inventory; damaged or stolen inventory; the lost
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101. What are critical success Critical success factors are the aspects of the company’s performance
factors? that are essential to its competitive advantage and therefore to its
success. Each company’s critical success factors depend upon the type
of competition it faces.
102. What are direct costs? Direct costs are costs that can be traced directly to a specific cost
object. A cost object is anything for which a separate cost
measurement is recorded.
103. What are direct Direct materials are the materials that are directly put into the finished
materials? product. The costs included in the direct material cost are all of the
costs associated with acquiring it: the item itself, shipping-in, insurance
and taxes, among others. Common examples of direct materials are
plastic and components.
104. What are discretionary Discretionary costs are costs that may or may not be spent, at the
costs? decision of a manager. In the short term, discretionary costs will not
cause an adverse effect on the business if they are not incurred, but in
the long run they do need to be spent. These are cost decisions that
are made periodically and are not closely related to input or output
decisions.
105. What are engineered Engineered costs are costs that have a definite physical relationship to
costs? the activity base or measure. They result from activities that have well
defined cause and effect relationships between inputs and outputs and
between costs and benefits. They are called “engineered costs”
because engineers specify precisely how many inputs are required to
generate a specific output.
106. What are equivalent units Equivalent units of production refer to the number of complete units
of production? that could have been completed during the period if the company had
simply produced one unit from start to finish, and then started another
unit. “Completely produced” means completed from start to finish
with all direct materials added and all conversion activities completed.
107. What are explicit costs? Explicit costs are also called out-of-pocket costs. Explicit costs involve
payment of cash and include wages and salaries, office supplies,
interest paid on loans, payments to vendors for raw materials, and so
forth.
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108. What are fixed costs? Fixed costs do not change within the relevant range of production. As
long as the production volume remains within the relevant range,
the total amount of these costs does not change with a change in
production volume.
109. What are implicit costs? An implicit cost, also called an imputed cost, is a cost that does not
involve any specific cash payment and is not recorded in the
accounting records. Implicit costs are also called economic costs. They
cannot be specifically segregated in financial reports, but they are
needed for use in a decision-making process.
110. What are indirect costs? Indirect costs are costs that cannot be identified with a specific cost
object. In manufacturing, overhead is an indirect cost. Other indirect
costs include support functions such as IT, maintenance, and security
and managerial functions such as executive management and other
supervisory functions.
111. What are indirect Similar to indirect labor, indirect materials are materials that are not
materials? the main components of the finished goods. Examples are glue, screws
and nails and other materials that may not even be physically
incorporated into the finished good (machine oils, lubricants, and
miscellaneous supplies). Indirect materials are a manufacturing
overhead cost.
112. What are joint products? Joint products occur when one production process leads to the
production of two or more finished products. These products are not
identical, but they share the same production process up to what is
called the split off point. This is the point at which the two products
stop sharing the same process and become different, identifiable
products.
113. What are manufacturing Manufacturing costs include the prime costs and manufacturing
costs? overhead applied. These are all of the costs that need to be incurred
in order to actually produce the product. Manufacturing costs do not
include selling or administrative costs, which are period costs.
114. What are marginal costs? Marginal costs are the additional costs necessary to produce one more
unit.
115. What are mixed costs? Mixed costs have both a fixed and a variable component.
116. What are non-value- Non-value-adding activities are activities that do not add any value for
adding activities in the end consumer and the company should try to reduce or eliminate
activity-based costing? them. This reduction of non-value-adding costs is an additional benefit
to the company (in addition to more accurate costing of products) and
can lead to a reduction in the cost of production. In turn, this will either
enable the company to reduce the sales price or to recognize more
profit from the sale of each unit.
117. What are normal Normal spoilage is the amount that is expected from the production
spoilage and abnormal process. Any spoiled units in excess of the expected spoilage are
spoilage? classified as abnormal spoilage. This distinction is important because
the treatment of the costs associated with normal and abnormal
spoilage is different.
118. What are period costs? Period costs, as compared to product costs, are costs for activities
other than production of the product. Even if these costs were not
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123. What are sunk costs? Sunk costs are costs that have already been incurred and cannot be
recovered. Sunk costs are irrelevant in any decision-making process
because they have already been incurred and no present or future
decision can change that fact.
124. What are When the processing of transactions is centralized, specific types of
the advantages of centrali transactions such as accounts payable, accounts receivable, and
zing the accounting general ledger can be organized along functional lines, utilizing a
processes? smaller number of highly-trained people. The result is usually fewer
errors. By reorganizing responsibilities along functional lines instead of
geographical lines, responsibility for various closing tasks can be
assigned to a smaller number of managers who are in closer proximity,
resulting in greater efficiency.
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125. What are the allocation Budgeted rate and budgeted hours to be used by the
bases for either the single- operating divisions.
rate or dual-rate method? Budgeted rate and actual hours used by operating divisions.
Limitations
Limitations
Limitations
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Limitations
130. What are the benefits of Absorption costing provides matching of costs and benefits.
absorption costing? Absorption costing is consistent not only with Generally
Accepted Accounting Principles but also with Internal
Revenue Service requirements for the reporting of income on
income tax returns.
131. What are the benefits of ABC provides a more accurate product cost for use in pricing
activity-based costing? and strategic decisions.
By identifying the activities that cause costs to be incurred,
ABC enables management to identify activities that do not add
value to the final product.
132. What are the benefits of Reduction in operational costs. Communication is improved
enterprise resource across departments, leading to greater efficiencies in
planning? production, planning, and decision-making that can lead to
lower production costs, lower marketing expenses, and other
efficiencies.
Inventory management facilitated. Detailed inventory
records are available, simplifying inventory transactions.
Inventories can be managed more effectively to keep them at
optimal levels.
Day-to-day operations are facilitated. All employees can
easily gain access to real-time information that they need to
do their jobs. Ready access by managers facilitates their
decision-making and control over the factors of production.
Resource planning as a part of strategic planning is simplified.
Senior management has access to the information it needs in
order to do strategic planning.
133. What are In addition to the benefits of normal costing, extended normal costing
the benefits of extended utilizes estimated labor rates, which may not be known until after the
normal costing? end of a reporting period. This makes it most appropriate for a
professional service business.
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134. What are the benefits of Job order costing is best for businesses that do custom work or
job-order costing? service work.
Job order costing enables the calculation of profit on individual
jobs, which can help management determine in the future
which kinds of jobs are desirable.
Managers are able to keep track of the performance of
individuals for cost control, efficiency, and productivity.
The records kept result in accurate costs for items produced.
Management can see and analyze each cost incurred on a job
in order to determine how it can be better controlled in the
future.
Costs can be seen as they are added, rather than waiting until
the job is complete. This can enable accounting staff to detect
costs recorded to the wrong job and correct them
immediately. For long jobs, the costs can be monitored on an
ongoing basis and if the costs get out of control, management
can have time to make changes before the job is finished. Or,
with cost-plus customers, increased costs can allow
management to make customers aware in advance of cost
overruns, which can lead to negotiations.
135. What are the benefits of Quality performance, fewer defects and rework.
lean manufacturing? Fewer machine and process breakdowns.
Lower levels of inventory.
Less space required for manufacturing and storage.
Greater efficiency and increased output per person-hour.
Improved delivery performance.
Greater customer satisfaction.
Improved employee morale and involvement.
Improved supplier relations.
Lower costs due to elimination of waste leading to higher
profits.
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136. What are the benefits of Life-cycle costing provides a long-term, more complete
life-cycle costing? perspective on the costs and profitability of a product or
service when compared to other costing methods, which
typically report costs for a short period such as a month or a
year.
When long-term costs are recognized in advance, life-cycle
costing can be used to lower those long-term costs.
Life-cycle costing includes research and development costs as
well as future costs such as warranty work, enabling better
pricing for profitability over a product’s lifetime.
Life-cycle costing can be used to assess future resource
requirements such as needed operational support for the
product during its life.
Life-cycle costing can help in determining when a product will
reach the end of its economic life.
137. What are The use of normal costing avoids the fluctuations in cost per
the benefits of normal unit that occur under actual costing because of changes in the
costing? month-to-month volume of units produced and in month-to-
month fluctuations in overhead costs.
Manufacturing costs of a job are available earlier under a
normal costing system than under an actual costing system.
Normal costing allows management to keep product costs
current, because actual materials and labor costs incurred are
readily available, while the actual incurred overhead costs
would not be available until much later and so are applied
based on a predetermined rate.
138. What are the benefits of Process costing is the easiest, most practical costing system to
process costing? use to allocate costs for homogeneous items. It is a simple and
direct method that reduces the volume of data that must be
collected.
Process costing can aid in establishing effective control over
the production process. Process costing can be used with
standard costing by using standard costs as the incurred costs
that are allocated. Use of standard costing with process costing
makes it possible to track variances and to recognize
inefficiency in a specific process.
It is flexible. If the company adds or removes a process, it can
adapt its process costing system easily. Removal of a process
might occur if the company identifies a redundant (duplicative)
process, and cost savings may result. Addition of a process
could occur if the company decides to produce a slightly
different product or improve the quality of an existing product.
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140. What are the benefits of This method is the only method for allocating joint costs under
the constant gross profit which products may receive negative allocations. This may be
percentage method? necessary in order to bring the gross margin percentages of
relatively unprofitable products up to the overall average, if
that is desired.
This method allocates both joint costs and profits. Gross
margin is allocated to the joint products in order to determine
the joint cost allocations so that the resulting gross margin
percentage for each product is the same.
This method is relatively easy to implement, so it avoids the
complexities of the NRV method.
141. What are the benefits of The Net Realizable Value method can be used instead of the
the net realizable value Sales Value at Split off method when selling prices for one or
method? more products at the split off do not exist, because it provides
a better measure of the benefits received than the other
methods that could be used in this situation.
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142. What are the benefits of The physical measure and average cost methods are easy to
the physical measure and use.
average cost methods? The allocation is objective.
The methods are useful when rates or prices are regulated. In
a regulated environment when rates are regulated and the
seller is limited to a certain amount of markup over and above
its costs, using selling prices or net realizable values to allocate
the costs on which the prices are based leads to circular
reasoning. If the seller tries to allocate joint costs according to
selling prices or net realizable values of the products, it cannot
be done. The seller does not know what the selling prices of
the products will be until they know what their costs are,
because the selling price is the cost plus a regulated amount of
profit. But since the seller does not know what the selling price
of each product is, they cannot know how much joint cost to
allocate to each product. So using either the Relative Sales
Value method or the Net Realizable Value method in a
regulated environment just does not work. In that case, the
Physical Measure method and the Average Cost method can
be used to avoid the problem.
143. What are the benefits of Costs are allocated to products in proportion to their expected
the relative sales value at revenues, which is in proportion to the individual products’
split off method? ability to absorb costs.
The method is easy to calculate and is simple, straightforward,
and intuitive.
The cost allocation base is expressed in terms of a common
basis – amount of revenue – that is recorded in the accounting
system.
This is the best measure of the benefits received from the joint
processing. It is meaningful because generating revenues is the
reason why the company would incur the joint costs.
It can be used even if further processing is to be done, as long
as selling prices do exist for all the joint products. Thus, it does
not require information on processing after the split off, even
if further processing is to be done.
144. What are the benefits of The impact on profits of changes in sales volume is more
variable costing? obvious with variable costing.
By not including fixed costs in the calculation of cost to
produce, companies are able to make better and more
informed decisions about profitability and product mix.
Operating income is directly related to sales levels and is not
influenced by changes in inventory levels due to production or
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145. What are the choices for Theoretical, or ideal, capacity – the level of activity that will
the activity level to use occur if the company produces at its absolute most efficient
when calculating a level at all times. A company will not be able to achieve this
predetermined allocation level, and manufacturing overhead will be under-applied if it is
rate? used because the resulting application rate will be too low.
Practical (or currently attainable) capacity – the theoretical
level reduced by allowances for unavoidable interruptions
such as shutdowns for holidays or scheduled maintenance,
though not decreased for any expected decrease in sales
demand. Though this basis is more realistic than theoretical
capacity, it is still greater than the level that will be achieved
and will also result in an under-application of manufacturing
overhead.
Master budget capacity utilization (expected actual capacity
utilization) – the amount of output actually expected during
the next budget period based on expected demand. This level
will result in a different overhead rate for each budget period
because of increases or decreases in planned production due
to expected increases or decreases in demand.
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146. What are the costs and The reduced level of inventory carries with it an increased risk of stock
shortcomings of a just-in- out costs and can lead to more frequent trips for parts and material
time system? inputs from sister facilities or suppliers. This can contribute to traffic
congestion and environmental impacts associated with additional fuel
use and additional vehicle emissions. If the products produced have
large and/or unpredictable market fluctuations, a JIT system may not
be able to reduce or eliminate overproduction and associated waste.
And JIT implementation is not appropriate for high-mix manufacturing
environments, which often have thousands of products and dozens of
work centers.
147. What are the costs of Nonconformance costs are those costs that are incurred after a
nonconformance? defective product has already been produced. The costs of
nonconformance can be broken down into two types:
148. What are the critical They have the support and active involvement of top
factors common to all management
TQM systems? They have clear and measurable objectives
They recognize quality achievements in a timely manner
They continuously provide training in TQM
They strive for continuous improvement (kaizen)
They focus on satisfying their customers’ expectations and
requirements
They involve all employees
149. What are the different Process costing is used when many identical or similar units of
types of cost a product or service are being manufactured, such as on an
accumulation systems? assembly line. Costs are accumulated by department or by
process.
Job order costing (also called job costing) is used when units
of a product or service are distinct and separately identifiable.
Costs are accumulated by job.
Operation costing is a hybrid system in which job costing is
used for direct materials costs while a departmental (process
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Process costing and job order costing are two ends of a continuum
(with operation costing in the middle). The primary difference between
process costing and job order costing is the extent of averaging used in
computing unit costs of products or services.
150. What are the five key 1. Customers – Understand your customers and identify what is
principles that guide lean important to them. Specify value from the standpoint of the
manufacturing? customer.
2. Value stream – The value stream is the set of steps and
activities performed to deliver the product or service to the
customer. Identify the value stream for each product or
service.
3. Flow – Make the steps occur so the product or service flows
smoothly to the customer. Eliminate steps that do not create
value for the customer.
4. Pull – Producing or servicing is done based on customer
demand.
5. Continuous improvement – Seek perfection by continuing to
make improvements.
151. What are the four 1. Unit-level activities – These activities are performed for
categories of activities in each unit that is produced. Some examples are hours of work,
activity-based costing? inspecting each item, operating a machine and performing a
specific assembly task.
2. Batch-level activities – These activities occur each time
a batch is produced. Some examples are machine setup,
purchasing, scheduling, materials handling and batch
inspection.
3. Product-sustaining activities – These activities are incurred in
order to support the production of a different product from
what is currently produced. Examples include product design
and engineering changes.
4. Facility-sustaining activities – These activities are incurred
to support production in general, such as security,
maintenance, plant management, depreciation of the factory
and property taxes.
153. What are When a greater number of products are produced than are
the limitations of sold during a period, it causes Inventory to increase. Since fixed
absorption costing? overhead is charged to the units produced in absorption
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154. What are Not everything can be allocated strictly on a cost driver basis.
the limitations of activity- This is particularly true in respect to facility-sustaining costs.
based costing? ABC is expensive and time consuming to implement and
maintain. Inclusion of administrative overhead in product
costs is not in compliance with any generally accepted
accounting principles or with U.S. tax reporting regulations.
Thus a company using ABC to allocate administrative overhead
to production will need to keep two sets of records: one for
external reporting with administrative overhead costs
expensed as incurred and one for internal decision-making
utilizing administrative overhead costs included in product
costs.
155. What are Because actual costs must be computed and applied,
the limitations of actual information is not available as quickly after the end of a period
costing? as it is with standard costing.
Actual costing leads to fluctuations in job costs because the
amount of actual overhead incurred fluctuates throughout the
year.
It requires the use of subsidiary ledgers to maintain the details
of actual costs for direct materials and direct labor.
Like normal costing, actual costing is not appropriate for
process costing because the actual costs would be too difficult
to trace to individual units produced. Therefore, it is used
primarily in a job costing environment.
156. What are The limitations of extended normal costing are the same as the
the limitations of extende limitations of normal costing:
d normal costing?
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157. What are Employees are required to keep track of all the direct labor
the limitations of job- hours used and all the materials used.
order costing? The focus is on direct costs of products produced. The focus on
direct costs can allow for inefficiencies and increasing
overhead costs.
Depending on the type of costing being used, overhead may
be applied to jobs on the basis of predetermined rates. If the
overhead application rates are out of date, the costing can be
inaccurate. Charging the variances to individual jobs may not
be possible if jobs have been closed out by the time the
variances are recognized. Furthermore, if the customer is a
cost-plus customer, it may not be possible to charge the
customer for a cost overrun that is not detected until the job
has been closed out.
If overhead is applied on the basis of predetermined rates and
the rates are not calculated on any meaningful basis, the cost
of each job will not be meaningful. This can occur most easily
when overhead is allocated on the basis of machine hours or
direct labor hours. Allocation of overhead using activity-based
costing is more accurate but is also more time-consuming.
To produce meaningful results, job order costing requires a lot
of accurate data entry. There are many opportunities for
mistakes because of the massive amount of data recording
required, and if not corrected, the errors can lead to poor
management decisions.
The use of job order costing is limited to businesses that do
customer or service work. It is not appropriate for high volume
manufacturing or for retailing.
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158. What are When life-cycle costing is used to spread the cost of fixed
the limitations of life- assets over the life of a product, the assumption may be made
cycle costing? that the fixed assets will be as productive in later years as when
they were new. That may not be an accurate assumption,
because a piece of equipment may gradually slow down,
resulting in lower output and lower profitability toward the
end of its life.
Accurate estimation of the operational and maintenance costs
for a product during its whole lifetime can be difficult.
Cost increases over the life of the product need to be
considered.
Life-cycle costing can require considerable time and resources,
and the costs may outweigh the benefits.
160. What are the limitations Process costing can introduce large variances into the costing
of process costing? system if standard costs allocated to the units are not up to
date. Depending upon how the variances are resolved, these
variances could cause the product to be over- or under-costed,
which could lead to pricing errors.
Process costing can be time-consuming for management
accountants.
Calculating the equivalent units for beginning and ending
work-in-process inventory can lead to inaccuracies, since the
percentage of completion of those inventories may be
subjective (an estimate or even a guess).
Process costing cannot provide an accurate cost estimate
when a single process is used to produce different (joint)
products.
Process costing is not suitable for custom orders or diverse
products.
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161. What are If the variances from the standards are used in a negative
the limitations of standar manner, for instance to assign blame, employee morale suffers
d costing? and employees are tempted to cover up unfavorable variances
and to do things they should not do in order to make sure the
variances will be favorable.
Output in many companies is not determined by how fast the
employees work but rather by how fast the machines work.
Therefore, direct labor quantity standards may not be
meaningful.
There is more to consider than just whether a variance is
“favorable” or “unfavorable.” A favorable materials quantity
variance could result from using less materials than should be
used, which will result in substandard output. So variances
must be interpreted carefully.
There may be a temptation on the part of management to
emphasize meeting the standards without considering other
important things such as maintaining and improving quality,
on-time delivery, and customer satisfaction.
Meeting standards may not be enough. Continual
improvement is necessary to survive in a competitive
environment.
162. What are This method is complex. It requires information on the specific
the limitations of the net sequence of further processing and the separable costs of
realizable value method? further processing, as well as the point at which individual
products will be sold.
The NRV method is often implemented with simplified
assumptions. Companies assume a specific set of processing
steps beyond the split off point, but they may actually do
something else and in fact may change the steps frequently.
Selling prices of joint products may vary frequently, but the
Net Realizable Value method uses a single set of selling prices
throughout an accounting period. This can introduce
inaccuracies into the allocations.
163. What are The Physical Measure and Average Cost methods can result in
the limitations of the a product cost that is greater than their market value for some
physical measure and of the joint products. The physical measures of the individual
average cost methods? products may have no relationship to their respective abilities
to generate revenue. If weight or size is used, the heaviest or
largest product will be allocated the greatest amount of the
joint cost; but that product may have the lowest sales value.
Products with a high sales value per weight or size would show
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large profits, while products with a low sales value per weight
or size would show large losses.
Physical measures are not always comparable for products. For
example, some products might be in liquid form (i.e.,
petroleum), whereas some might be in gaseous form (i.e.,
natural gas). Or some might be measured by weight whereas
others might be measured by size. In this situation, the Physical
Measure method cannot be used.
164. What are To use this method, selling prices at the split off point must
the limitations of the exist for all of the products. If they do not, this method cannot
relative sales value at split be used.
off method? Market prices of joint products may vary frequently, but the
Sales Value at Split off method uses a single set of selling prices
throughout an accounting period. This can introduce
inaccuracies into the allocations.
165. What are Variable costing does not provide proper matching of costs
the limitations of variable and benefits.
costing? Since only variable manufacturing costs are charged to the
inventory in variable costing, this method requires separating
all manufacturing costs into their fixed and variable
components.
To prepare a complete income statement based on variable
costing, it is also necessary to separate the selling and
administrative costs into their fixed and variable components.
166. What are the major Kanban works from upstream to downstream in the
Kanban principles? production process, starting with the customer’s order. At
each step, only as many parts are withdrawn as the Kanban
instructs, helping ensure that only what is ordered is made.
The necessary parts in a given step always accompany the
Kanban to ensure visual control.
The upstream processes produce only what has been
withdrawn. This includes producing items only in the
sequence in which the Kanban are received and producing only
the number indicated on the Kanban.
Only products that are 100 percent defect-free continue on
through the production line. In this way, each step recognizes
and corrects the defects that are found before any more can
be produced.
The number of Kanban should be decreased over time. As
mentioned above, Kanban are used when the needed
components do not show up on time. As areas of needed
improvement are addressed, the total number of Kanban is
minimized. By constantly improving production control and
reducing the total number of Kanban, continuous
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167. What are the objectives of Enhanced and consistent quality of the product or service
TQM? Timely and consistent responses to customer needs
Elimination of non-value-adding work or processes, which
leads to lower costs
Quick adaptation and flexibility in response to the shifting
requirements of customers
168. What are the only two 1. Their treatment of fixed manufacturing overhead
differences between varia 2. The income statement presentation of the different costs
ble and absorption costin
g?
169. What are the physical These two methods are essentially the same.
measure and average cost
methods? In the Physical Measure method, the joint cost allocation is done
based on the weight, volume, or other physical measure of the joint
products, such as pounds, tons, or gallons.
In the Average Cost method, the joint cost allocation is done based on
the physical units of output.
171. What are the reasons for It provides accurate departmental and product costs for use in
allocating shared service making decisions, valuing inventory, and evaluating the
costs?
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172. What are the seven 1. Overproduction, or making more items than you can sell.
primary wasteful 2. Delay, or waiting for processing, parts sitting in storage.
activities addressed by 3. Transporting parts and materials from process to process or to
lean manufacturing? various storage locations.
4. Over-processing, or doing more work on a part or product
than is necessary.
5. Inventory, or committing money and storage space to unsold
parts or products.
6. Motion, or moving parts more than the minimum amount
required to complete and ship them.
7. Making defective parts, creating parts or products that are not
sellable due to defects and must be discarded or reworked.
173. What are the single- Single-Rate Method – The single-rate method does not
rate and double- separate fixed costs of service departments from their variable
rate method of allocation? costs. It puts all of the service department costs into one cost
pool and allocates the costs using one allocation base.
Dual-Rate Method – The dual-rate method breaks the cost of
each service department into two pools, a variable-cost pool
and a fixed-cost pool, and allocates each cost pool using a
different cost-allocation base.
175. What are the steps in 1. Determine the physical flow of goods
process costing? 2. Calculate how many units were started and completed during
the period
3. Determine when materials are added to the process
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176. What are Infrastructure refers to the company’s support systems that
the support value chain enable it to maintain its day-to-day activities. Infrastructure
activities? includes functions such as accounting, legal, administrative,
and general management.
Information systems are the electronic systems for
maintaining records of inventory, sales, prices, and customer
service.
Materials management is logistics. The logistics function
manages the movement of physical materials through the
value chain. Materials management controls procurement as
well as movement of the procured materials through
production and distribution.
The human resources function aids the organization in
obtaining and keeping the right mix of skilled people needed
to perform its value creation activities effectively. The human
resources function also ensures that the people are properly
trained, motivated and compensated.
177. What are the three 1. Completed (beginning work-in-process inventory that has
amounts of work that been completed) meaning that some of the work was done in
may apply to an individual the previous period.
unit during the period? 2. Started and Completed, meaning that the unit was started on
or transferred in during the period and was completely
finished during this period.
3. Started, meaning that these are units that were started on or
transferred in during the period, but were not finished at the
end of the period and thus have not yet been transferred out
of the process.
Manufacturing Costs
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Purchasing
Direct and indirect manufacturing costs (labor, materials and
overhead)
179. What are the three 1. Indirect materials – materials not identifiable with a specific
categories of product or job, such as cleaning supplies, small or disposable
costs included tools, machine lubricant and other supplies.
in manufacturing (factory) 2. Indirect labor – salaries and wages not directly attributable to
overhead? a specific product or job, such as those of the plant
superintendent, janitorial services and quality control.
3. General manufacturing overheads, such as facilities costs
(factory rent, electricity and utilities) and equipment costs,
including depreciation and amortization on plant facilities and
equipment.
181. What are the three 1. The direct method: under the direct method the reciprocal
methods of services that are provided by the different shared service
allocation when costs are departments to each other are ignored. The company will
allocated simply allocate all of the shared service departments’ costs
to multiple service or directly to the production departments. The allocation is made
support departments? on a basis that is reasonable and hopefully equitable to the
production departments.
2. The step (or step-down) method: in the step-down method
we only make one allocation of the costs of each service
department. After a particular service department has had its
costs allocated, it will not receive any costs from other service
departments. This leads to a stair step-like diagram of cost
allocations as below. All costs ultimately end up allocated to
the production departments. The order of allocation can be
any order management chooses.
3. The reciprocal method: this is the most complicated and
advanced of these methods because it recognizes all of the
services that are provided by the shared service departments
to the other shared service departments. Because of this
detailed allocation between and among the shared service
departments, the reciprocal method is the most theoretically
correct method to use. However, a company will need to
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182. What are the three 1. In ending WIP Inventory on the balance sheet if the item has
possible locations in the not yet been completed at the end of the period.
financial statements 2. In Finished Goods Inventory on the balance sheet if the item
for per-unit overhead has been completed but not sold.
costs? 3. As an expense in Cost of Goods Sold on the income statement
if the item has been sold.
183. What are the three 1. Identify the activities that add value to the finished product.
steps in value chain 2. Identify the cost driver or cost drivers for each activity.
analysis? 3. Develop a competitive advantage by adding value to the
customer or reducing the costs of the activity.
184. What are the two basic 1. Distinctive competencies and the superior efficiency, quality,
things required to have innovation and customer responsiveness that result from
a competitive advantage? them.
2. The profitability that is derived from the value customers
place on its products, the price that it charges for its products,
and the costs of creating those products.
185. What are the two 1. First-in-first-out (FIFO) – In FIFO we assume that in each
inventory flow period we finish what is in BWIP before starting any new units.
systems used in process 2. Weighted Average (WAVG) – In WAVG we do not assume that
costing? the units in BWIP are finished first and as a result, all of the
units (both those from BWIP and those transferred in or
started this period) will be treated the same. The costs of
beginning WIP and the work done during the current period
will be combined and averaged (this is the weighted
averaging).
186. What are the two primary 1. Volume-based methods of allocating manufacturing overhead
methods of allocating to products or jobs are also called traditional methods.
overhead? Volume-based methods allocate overhead on the basis of a
cost driver that is volume-based, such as number of units
produced, number of direct labor hours, or number of machine
hours. Assigning overhead according to number of units
assumes that every unit or job uses the same amount of
overhead. Assigning overhead according to number of direct
labor hours or number of machine hours assumes that each
product or job uses overhead based on its usage of a single cost
driver. In many companies, neither of these assumptions is
adequate to produce accurate overhead allocation.
2. Activity-based methods allocate manufacturing overhead to
units or jobs using multiple cost drivers based on cause-and-
effect criteria. Activity-based costing uses some volume-based
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187. What are value chain In value chain financial statements, all the costs for primary activities
financial statements? are considered product costs that are allocated to products and
inventoried whereas all the costs for support activities are considered
period costs that are expensed as incurred. Value chain financial
statements are significantly different from conventional financial
statements because many costs that are period costs in conventional
financial statements (research and development, product design,
marketing and sales, customer service) would be inventoriable costs in
value chain financial statements. Value chain financial statements do
not conform to any Generally Accepted Accounting Principles, so their
use is limited to internal decision-making.
188. What are value-adding Value-adding activities are activities (costs) that add value to the
activities in activity-based customer. This means that these activities add something to the
costing? product that customers are willing to pay for. Even though these
activities are value-adding activities, they must be monitored to make
certain that the costs are not excessive.
189. What are variable costs? Variable costs are costs such as material and labor that are incurred
only when a product is made. The per unit variable cost remains
unchanged as production increases or decreases.
190. What is a business A business process is a related group of activities encompassing several
process? functions that produces a specific product or service of value to a
customer or customers. It is also activities that result in higher quality
or lowered costs of a product or service.
191. What is a cause-and- A cause-and-effect diagram, or Ishikawa, diagram, organizes causes
effect and effects visually to sort out root causes and identify relationships
(Ishikawa) diagram? between causes. This idea was identified by Karou Ishikawa, who noted
that it is often difficult to trace the many causes leading to a single
problem. An Ishikawa diagram consists of a spine, ribs and bones, so it
is also called a fishbone diagram. The end of the spine is the quality
problem; the spine itself connects the main causes, the ribs — to the
effect, the quality problem.
192. What is a cost driver in A cost driver is anything (it can be an activity, an event or a volume of
activity-based costing? something) that causes costs to be incurred each time the driver
occurs.
193. What is a cost object in A cost object is anything for which costs are accumulated for
activity-based costing? managerial purposes. Examples of cost objects are a specific job, a
product line, a market or certain customers.
194. What is a cost of quality The costs of quality (conformance and nonconformance) can be
report? quantified and documented on a cost of quality (COQ) report. A cost
of quality report shows the financial impact of implementing processes
for prevention and appraisal and for responding to internal and
external failures.
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195. What is a cost pool? A cost pool is a group of indirect costs that are being grouped together
for allocation on the basis of some cost allocation base. Cost pools can
range from very broad, such as all plant overhead costs, to very
narrow, such as the cost of operating a specific machine.
196. What is a current use A current use assessment is a customer-centered approach based on
assessment? the idea that every aspect of the financial function should be traceable
to internal customer needs. Internal customers are the internal users
of the financial outputs. Current use assessment identifies the outputs
and activities that are depended on by users and that must remain a
part of the redesigned processes.
A current use assessment determines what reports are being used and
by whom, how often updates are needed, and what information in the
reports is most essential. Surveys can be utilized to find out what
reports users use, why they use them, and whether they are satisfied
or dissatisfied with them. The surveys can also be used to gather
information for a “wish list” of information the users would like to
receive.
197. What is a demand-pull In a pull system, essentially nothing is produced until a customer orders
system? it. This requires close coordination between workstations. Close
coordination between workstations can keep the flow of goods
smooth in spite of the low levels of inventory.
198. What is a histogram? A histogram is a bar graph that represents the frequency of events in a
set of data. Patterns that may not be apparent when just looking at a
set of numbers become clear in a histogram.
199. What is a normal cost In a normal cost system, direct materials and direct labor costs are
system? applied to production differently from the way they are applied in
standard costing. In normal costing, direct materials and direct labor
costs are applied at their actual rates multiplied by the actual amount
of the direct inputs used for production.
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Operational ABM uses ABC data to improve efficiency. The goal is for
activities that add value to the product to be identified and improved,
while activities that do not add value are reduced in order to cut costs
without reducing the value of the product or service.
Strategic ABM uses ABC data to make strategic decisions about what
products or services to offer and what activities to use to provide those
products and services. Because ABC costs can also be traced to
individual customers, strategic ABM can also be used to do customer
profitability analysis in order to identify which customers are the most
profitable so the company can focus more on them and on serving their
needs.
209. What is an activity in An activity is an event, task or unit of work with a specified purpose.
activity-based costing? Examples of activities are designing products, setting up machines,
operating machines, making orders or distributing products.
210. What is an actual costing In an actual costing system, no predetermined or estimated or
system? standard costs are used. Instead, the actual direct labor and materials
costs and the actual manufacturing overhead costs are allocated to the
units produced. The cost of a unit is the actual direct cost rates
multiplied by the actual quantities of the direct cost inputs used and
the actual indirect (overhead) cost rates multiplied by the actual
quantities used of the cost allocation bases.
Actual costing is practical only for job order costing for the same
reasons that normal and extended normal costing are practical only for
job order costing. In addition, actual costing is seldom used because it
can produce costs per unit that fluctuate significantly. This fluctuation
can lead to errors in management decisions such as pricing of the
product, decisions about adding or dropping product lines, and
performance evaluations.
211. What is an effective An effective operation is one that achieves or exceeds the goals set for
operation? the operation. The ultimate goal is to maximize shareholder value.
Effectiveness in reaching its goals can be measured by analyzing the
firm’s critical success factors.
212. What is an efficient An efficient operation is one that makes effective use of its resources
operation? in carrying out the operation.
213. What is an extended With an extended normal cost system (a variation on normal costing),
normal cost system? the costs for direct materials and direct labor are applied to production
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by multiplying estimated or normal rates (not the actual rates that are
used in normal costing) by the actual amount of the direct inputs
used. The estimated or normal rates are not called standard costs,
though, because this is not a standard cost system and because the
costs are applied by multiplying the estimated/normal rate by
the actual amount of the resource used, not by the standard amount
allowed as in standard costing.
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218. What is cost of goods The cost of goods manufactured (COGM) represents the cost of the
manufactured and how is units completed and transferred out of work-in-process during the
it calculated? period. For a manufacturing company this amount will be part of the
cost of goods sold calculation. COGM does not include the cost of work
that was done on units that were not finished during the period.
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221. What is customer- Customer-response time, or cycle time, is the measurement of the
response time? length of time between the order by the customer and the receipt of
the product by the customer. The components of cycle time are order
receipt time (from receipt of order until we are ready to produce
it), manufacturing cycle time (from readiness to produce to
completion of the product), and order delivery time.
222. What is departmental In departmental overhead allocation, a company has a cost pool for
overhead allocation? each department that the products pass through in production. Each
department’s overhead costs are put into a separate cost pool, and
then the overhead is allocated according to the cost basis that
managers believe is best for that department.
223. What is direct labor? Direct labor costs are the costs of labor that can be directly traced to
the production of a product. Assembly line workers are direct labor
costs for a manufacturing company.
224. What is drum-buffer- Drum-Buffer-Rope is the production planning methodology portion of
rope? Theory of Constraints. It is a tool that can be used to balance the flow
of production through the constraint. It minimizes the buildup of
excess inventory at the constraint, while at the same time keeping it
producing at all times.
Drum: The drum is the process that takes the longest time. It
is the constraint. The constraint is called the drum because it
provides the beat that sets the pace for the whole production
process. All production flows must be synchronized to the
drum.
Rope: The rope consists of all of the processes that lead up to
the drum, or the constraint. Activities preceding the drum
must be carefully scheduled so that they do not produce more
output than can be processed by the constraint, because this
creates excess inventory and its associated costs without
increasing throughput contribution margin. But at the same
time, the constraint must be kept working with no down time.
Buffer: The buffer is a minimum amount of work-in-process
inventory (a “buffer” inventory) of jobs waiting for the
constraint that is maintained to make sure the constraint
process is kept busy at all times. Production schedules are
planned so that workers in the non-constrained processes will
not produce any more output than can be processed by the
drum, the constraint process; but at the same time, they will
produce enough to keep the buffer full.
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ERP systems integrate not only production information but also the
sales, marketing, customer service and all accounting functions. ERP
systems track all of a firm’s resources (cash, raw materials, and fixed
assets, for example) as well as the status of its commitments (orders,
purchase orders, and payroll, for example).
226. What is included on A theory of constraints report conveys throughput contribution margin
a theory of constraints and selected operating data. It identifies each product’s throughput
report? contribution margin per hour required for the constraint. It also
identifies the most profitable product(s) and enables monitoring to
achieve maximum profitability given existing constraints. By
identifying the most profitable products, it can assist in making
decisions about product mix.
227. What is indirect labor? Indirect labor is the labor that is part of the overall production process
but does not come into direct contact with the product. The
maintenance department is a common example. Indirect labor is a
manufacturing overhead cost.
228. What is kaizen? Kaizen is part of the lean manufacturing philosophy. The term kaizen is
a Japanese word that means “improvement.” As used in business, it
implies “continuous improvement,” or slow but constant incremental
improvements being made in all areas of business operations.
229. What is Kanban? Kanban is a Japanese inventory system. The word “Kanban” means
“card” or “sign” or “visual record” in Japanese. Kanban is an integral
part of lean manufacturing and JIT systems. Kanban provides the
physical inventory control cues that signal the need to move raw
materials from the previous process.
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that is associated with this product during its life cycle. The life cycle
of the product may be called its value chain.
232. What is manufacturing Manufacturing cycle efficiency, or MCE, is the ratio of the actual time
cycle efficiency? spent on production to the total cycle time.
Notice that only actual manufacturing time, time when value is being
added to the product, is included in the numerator. Waiting time, time
spent on equipment maintenance and other non-value-adding time is
not included in the numerator. Companies would like their MCE to be
as close to 1 as possible, because that means very little time is being
spent on non-value-adding activities.
233. What is manufacturing Manufacturing cycle time, also called manufacturing lead
cycle time? time or throughput time, is usually defined as the amount of time
between the receipt of a customer order and the shipment of the
order. However, different firms may define the beginning of the cycle
differently. For some, it begins when a customer places an order. For
others, it can begin when a production batch is scheduled, when the
raw materials for the order are ordered, or when actual production on
the order begins.
234. What is manufacturing Manufacturing overhead costs are the company’s costs related to the
overhead? production process that are not direct material or direct labor, but are
necessary costs of production. Examples are indirect labor, indirect
materials, rework costs, electricity and other utilities, depreciation of
plant equipment, and factory rent.
235. What is manufacturing Manufacturing Resource Planning (MRPII) is a successor to Material
resource planning? Requirements Planning (MRP). While MRP is concerned mainly with
raw materials for manufacturing, MRPII’s concerns are more extensive.
MRPII integrates information regarding the entire manufacturing
process, including functions such as production planning and
scheduling, capacity requirement planning, job costing, financial
management and forecasting, order processing, shop floor control,
time and attendance, performance measurement, and sales and
operations planning.
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produced, or worked on, during that period within that process (or
department).
243. What is process mapping? Process mapping may be used to provide a visual map of the way
information, documents, and work is routed through a process.
Process maps can pinpoint problem areas such as bottlenecks within
the system, places where reports are being prepared manually due to
fragmentation of data, and rework.
244. What is rework? When spoiled goods are fixed and prepared for sale, this is called
rework. The costs incurred in rework of normally spoiled goods should
be charged to the factory overhead account and allocated to all good
units as part of factory overhead. Costs incurred in rework
of abnormally spoiled units should be expensed.
245. What is shrinkage? Shrinkage occurs when a product simply evaporates or losses some of
its quantity through time. We account for it in the same manner as
spoilage – if it is normal it is charged to good units produced and if it is
abnormal it is charged to the income statement.
246. What is spoilage? Spoilage is the term used for defective units that are not transferred to
the next process.
247. What is statistical quality Statistical quality control (SQC), or statistical process control (SPC), is a
control? method of determining whether a process is in control or out of
control. Some variations in quality are expected, but if too many units
are tested and found to be outside the acceptable range, the process
may not be in control. A control chart is used to record observations
of an operation taken at regular intervals. This sample is used to
determine whether all the observations fall within the specified range
for the operation, and the intervals are measurable in time, batches,
production runs or any other method of delineating an operation.
248. What is supply chain Supply chain management is the active management of supply chain
management? activities by the members of a supply chain with the goals of
maximizing customer value and achieving a sustainable competitive
advantage. The supply chain firms endeavor to develop and run their
supply chains in the most effective and efficient ways possible. Supply
chain activities cover product development, sourcing, production,
logistics, and the information systems needed to coordinate these
activities.
249. What is the accounting An accounting problem arises with standard costing because:
problem that arises
with standard costing? The actual costs per unit for the inputs used are usually not
exactly the same as the standard costs per unit of input, and
The number of units of inputs actually used is usually not
exactly the same as the standard amounts allowed.
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period, and at the end of the period, they are transferred out in the
closing entries.
250. What is the advantage of The advantage of a JIT system is reduction in the cost of carrying the
a just-in-time system? inventory. The cost savings include reduction in the risk of damage,
theft, loss, or a lack of ability to sell the finished goods.
251. What is the constant This method allocates the joint costs so that all of the joint products
gross profit (gross- will have the same gross margin percentage. It is done by “backing
margin) percentage into” the amount of joint cost to be allocated to each of the joint
method? products.
Step 1: Calculate the gross margin percentage for the total of both (or
all, if more than two) of the joint products to be included in the
allocation by subtracting the total joint and total separable costs from
the total final sales value and dividing the remainder by the total final
sales value. This is done for all of the joint products produced during
the period, not for all of the joint products sold during the period. This
is the total gross margin percentage.
Step 2: Calculate the gross profit for each of the individual products by
multiplying the total gross margin percentage calculated in Step 1 by
each individual product’s final sales value.
Step 3: Subtract the gross profit calculated in Step 2 and any separable
costs from each individual product’s final sales value. The result of this
subtraction process will be the amount of joint costs to allocate to each
product.
252. What is the cost Y = F + VX
function for total
manufacturing costs? Where:
Y = Total Costs
F = Fixed Costs
V = Variable Costs
X = Total Production
253. What is the cost of The cost of quality includes not only the cost of producing quality
quality? products, but it is also the cost of not producing quality products. Over
the long term, not producing a quality product is more expensive
because it means that the company will lose customers.
There are four different costs of quality and they are classified into two
larger categories, which are the costs of conformance and the costs of
nonconformance. There are two subcategories of costs within each of
these two larger categories.
254. What is the effect on Production &
profit of changing Profit
Sales
inventory levels under
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This method is essentially the same as the Relative Sales Value method,
and the allocation is done in the same way, except an estimated Net
Realizable Value (NRV) is used for the product or products that must
be or will be processed further.
256. What is the goal of just-in- The goal of a JIT system is to minimize the level of inventories that are
time manufacturing? held in the plant at all stages of production, including raw materials,
work-in-process, and finished goods inventories while meeting
customer demand in a timely manner with high-quality products at the
lowest possible cost.
257. What is the High-Low The High-Low Points Method is often used to separate fixed from
Points Method? variable costs when they are not segregated in the information we
have. For this, we use the highest and lowest observed values of the
cost driver within the relevant range.
258. What is the limitation of This method assumes that all products have the same ratio of cost to
the constant gross profit sales value, which is probably not the case.
percentage method?
259. What is the main The main issue with joint products is how to account for the joint costs
issue with joint products? (those costs incurred prior to the split off point) and how to allocate
these costs to the different products. Accurate allocation is needed
primarily for financial reporting purposes and pricing decisions. We
need to accurately determine the inventory cost of each unit of each
joint product so that the balance sheet will be accurate. And since the
inventory cost of each unit becomes its cost of goods sold when it is
sold, we need to know the amount of cost to be expensed to COGS for
each unit sold.
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260. What is the The primary benefit of using actual costing is that the costs used are
primary benefit of actual actual costs, not estimated costs.
costing?
261. What is the production In the production method, the costs that are allocated to the
method of accounting byproducts are inventoried, and the sales revenue received from the
for byproducts? sale of the byproduct is treated as a reduction of the costs of
production of the main product.
And when the main product or joint products are sold, the COGS for
the main product or joint products is lower because their inventory
cost has been decreased by the NRV of the byproduct.
262. What is the relative sales Joint costs are allocated on the basis of the sales values of each product
value at split off method? at the split off point, relative to the total sales value of all the joint
products. This method can be used only if all of the joint products can
be sold at the split off point (i.e., with no further processing). The
formula to allocate the costs between or among the products is as
follows, for each of the joint products:
263. What is the relevant The relevant range is the range of production in which the fixed cost is
range? unchanged. As long as production activity remains within the relevant
range, an increase in the number of units produced will not cause an
increase in the total fixed costs.
264. What is the sales In the Sales Method, the byproduct costs are not put into inventory
method of accounting separately from the main product or joint products. Instead, all of the
for byproducts? costs of production are allocated to the main product or joint products
in inventory. When the main product or joint products are sold, their
COGS will be higher than it would have been under the Production
Method. Since the byproduct is not put into inventory at all, when it is
sold the sale is recorded the way service revenue would be recorded,
with no associated COGS. So the company debits cash or accounts
receivable and credits revenue for the amount of the sale.
265. What is the throughput Throughput contribution margin is the rate at which contribution
contribution margin? margin dollars are being earned. Throughput contribution margin is
the revenue earned from the sale of units minus the totally variable
costs only (usually only direct materials) for those units produced
during a given period of time.
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266. What is the value chain? The value chain describes the company’s chain of activities for
transforming inputs into the outputs that customers will value. This
process of transformation includes all of the primary
activities (business functions) that add value to the product or service,
as well as support activities.
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4. What are the responsibilities of The responsibilities of the CEO are determined by the
the Chief Executive Officer (CEO)? corporation’s board of directors. A CEO’s responsibilities
and authority can be extensive, or they can be very
limited, depending upon how much authority and
responsibility the board of directors delegates to the CEO.
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9. What is internal audit's primary role? Internal audit’s primary role is assessing internal controls
over the reliability of financial reporting, the effectiveness
and efficiency of operations, and the organization’s
compliance with applicable laws and regulations.
According to IIA (Institute of Internal Auditors) Internal
Auditing Standard 2110, this includes assessing and
making appropriate recommendations for improving the
governance process in the following areas:
10. What is internal control? Internal control is a process that is carried out by an
entity’s board of directors, management and other
personnel that is designed to provide reasonable
assurance that the company’s objectives relating to
operations, reporting, and compliance will be achieved.
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13. What are the principles of risk The company’s objectives must be specified
assessment? clearly enough so that the risks to those
objectives can be assessed.
The organization identifies risks to the
achievement of its objectives and analyzes
them to determine how the risks should be
managed.
The organization considers the potential for fraud
in assessing the risks to the achievement of its
objectives.
The organization identifies and assesses changes
that could impact the organization’s system of
internal controls.
14. What are control activities? Control activities are actions established by policies and
procedures that help ensure that management’s
instructions that are intended to limit risks to the
achievement of the organization’s objectives are carried
out.
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17. What are the two methods of Monitoring can be done in two ways:
monitoring?
through ongoing evaluations that are built into
business processes during normal operations and
provide timely information, and
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19. What are commonly accepted Authorization. All transactions are approved by
transaction control objectives? someone with the authority to approve the
specific transactions.
Completeness. All valid transactions are included
in the accounting records.
Accuracy. All valid transactions are accurate, are
consistent with the originating transaction data,
and the information is recorded in a timely
manner.
Validity. All recorded transactions fairly represent
the economic events that occurred, are lawful,
and have been executed in accordance with
management’s authorization.
Physical safeguards and security. Access to
physical assets and information systems are
controlled and restricted to authorized personnel.
Error handling. Errors detected at any point in
processing are promptly corrected and reported
to the appropriate level of management.
Segregation of duties. Duties are assigned in a
manner that ensures that no one person is in a
position to both perpetrate and conceal an
irregularity.
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1. Authorizing a transaction.
2. Recordkeeping: Recording the transaction,
preparing source documents, maintaining
journals.
3. Keeping physical custody of the related asset: For
example, receiving checks in the mail.
4. The periodic reconciliation of the physical assets
to the recorded amounts for those assets.
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25. What is required by SOX Sections Section 404(a) requires each annual report required by the
404(a) and 404(b)? SEC to:
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28. What are the two types of General controls relate to the general environment within
controls within a computer system? which transaction processing takes place. They are
designed to ensure that the company’s control
environment is stable and well managed. A stable and
well-managed control environment strengthens the
effectiveness of the company’s application controls.
General controls include controls over the development,
modification and maintenance of computer programs,
segregation of duties, data security, administrative
controls, and provision for disaster recovery.
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42. What are processing controls? Processing controls are controls designed to provide
reasonable assurance that processing has occurred
properly and that no transactions have been lost or
incorrectly added. Processing controls prevent or
discourage the improper manipulation of data and ensure
satisfactory operation of hardware and software.
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43. What are output controls? Output can consist of account listings, displays, reports,
files, invoices, or disbursement checks, to name just a few
of the forms output can take. Output controls are used to
provide reasonable assurance that input and processing
has resulted in valid output. Controls should be in place to
make sure that the output is sent to the right people, that
it is accurate and complete, it is sent in a timely manner,
and that the proper reports are retained for the
appropriate time period.
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47. What are preventive, detective, Preventive controls prevent errors and fraud
and corrective controls in before they occur. Examples
an information system? of preventive controls are segregation of duties,
job rotation, training and competence of
personnel, dual access controls, authorization,
approval, endorsement and cancellation, and
preformatted input.
Detective controls uncover errors and fraud after
they have occurred. Examples
of detective controls are transmittal documents,
batch control totals and other batch transmittal
documents, completeness checks, hash totals,
batch balancing, check digits, limit checks, and
validity checks. The use of a turnaround
document is also a detective control, because it
checks on completeness of input. Completeness-
of-processing detective controls include run-to-
run totals, reconciliations, use of suspense
accounts, and error logs. Correctness of
processing detective controls are redundant
processing, overflow checks and summary
processing.
Corrective controls are used to correct errors.
Examples of corrective controls are discrepancy
reports and upstream resubmissions.
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50. What is a computer virus? A computer virus is a program that alters the way another
computer operates. Viruses can damage programs, delete
files or reformat the hard disk. Other viruses do not do
damage but replicate themselves and present text, video
and audio messages. To be considered a virus, a virus must
meet two criteria:
51. What is a denial of service attack? Denial of Service (DOS) attacks are attacks in which a
website is accessed repeatedly so that other, legitimate
users cannot connect to it.
52. What is a firewall? A firewall serves as a barrier between the internal and the
external networks and prevents unauthorized access to
the internal network. A properly configured firewall makes
a computer’s ports invisible to port scans. In addition to
protecting a computer from incoming probes, a firewall
can also prevent backdoor applications, Trojan horses, and
other unwanted applications from sending data from the
computer.
53. What are the most serious • Intrusions of the Public Switched Network (the
types of computer crimes? telephone company)
• Major computer network intrusions
• Network integrity violations
• Privacy violations
• Industrial espionage
• Pirated computer software
54. What are some defenses • Firewalls
against cybercrime? • Proxy servers
• Antisniffers
• Switched networks
55. What is a proxy server? A proxy server is a computer and software that creates a
gateway to and from the Internet. The proxy server
contains an access control list of approved web sites and
handles all web access requests, limiting access to only
those sites contained in the access control list. This
enables an employer to deny its employees access to sites
that are unlikely to have any productive benefits. The
proxy server also examines all incoming requests for
information and tests them for authenticity. In this way, a
proxy server functions as a firewall. The proxy server can
also limit the information that is stored on it to
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69. What are feedback, feedforward, Feedback controls produce feedback that can be
and preventive controls in an monitored and evaluated to determine if the
information system? system is functioning as it is supposed to.
Feedback controls are required in order to
produce usable information for end users. With
the addition of feedback controls, a system
becomes a self-monitoring, self-regulating
system.
A feedforward control system may be used in
addition to the feedback loop to provide better
controls. A feedforward system attempts to
predict when problems and deviations will occur
before they actually occur. It gives people
guidance about what problems could occur, so
they can plan the necessary changes or actions to
prevent the problem or deviation from occurring.
Or, if it is not possible to prevent the problem, it
will enable the company to minimize the effects of
the problem. A budget is a feedforward control.
Policies, procedures and rules are also
feedforward controls, because they establish the
way things are supposed to be done.
A preventive control attempts to stop a variance
or problem from ever occurring, because it is more
cost effective to prevent a problem than it is to fix
the problem after it occurs. Maintenance is often
given as an example of a preventive control. A
preventive control is slightly different from a
feedforward control, in that the feedforward
control simply tries to identify the potential
problem, whereas the preventive control
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70. What are some examples of file Labeling the contents of discs (CDs, DVDs,
security control procedures? external hard drives), tapes, flash drives or
memory cards, and any other removable media,
both externally and internally as part of the data
file.
The read-only file designation is used to prevent
users from altering or writing over data.
Database Management Systems use lockout
procedures to prevent two applications from
updating the same record or data item at the same
time.
The librarian’s function is particularly critical,
because documentation, programs and data files
are assets of the organization and require
protection the same as any other asset would. The
data files contain information that is critical to the
enterprise, such as accounting records.
Protection of program documentation is critical.
Data can be changed within a file by someone who
knows how to do it, and technical manuals
containing file descriptions are one way to get the
necessary information. Only authorized people
who have the responsibility to repair data files
that may become corrupt should have access to
technical manuals.
71. What are some examples 1. Checkpoint processing should be used to enable
of hardware controls for networks? recovery in case of a system failure. Checkpoint
control procedures are performed several times
per hour, and during that time, the network
system will not accept posting. It stops and backs
up all the data and other information needed to
restart the system. This checkpoint is recorded on
separate media. Then, if a hardware failure occurs,
the company simply reverts to the last saved copy,
and reprocesses only the transactions that were
posted after that checkpoint. The effect of this is
similar to the rollback and recovery method.
2. Routing verification procedures protect against
transactions routed to the wrong computer
network system address. Any transaction
transmitted over the network must have a header
label identifying its destination. Before sending
the transaction, the system verifies that the
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72. What are some examples of physical Have company personnel wear color-coded ID
access controls? badges with photos. People authorized to enter
the computer area are assigned an ID badge of a
particular color.
With magnetic ID cards, each employee’s entry
into and exit from the computer center can be
automatically logged.
The door can be kept locked, and a person can
enter only if “buzzed” in by the control person,
who permits only authorized people to enter.
Keys may be issued to authorized personnel, or
combination locks can be used to limit access. If
keys are used, they should be keys that cannot be
easily duplicated, and locks need to be changed
periodically. If a combination lock is used, the
combination should be changed periodically.
The location of the computer center should also
be in a place where it is protected from natural
disasters as much as possible.
The computer center should be equipped with
smoke and water detectors, fire suppression
devices, burglar alarms and surveillance cameras
monitored by security personnel.
73. What are some external factors that External factors include economic factors that impact
give rise to risks? financing availability, environmental factors such as
climate change that can lead to changes in operations,
reduced availability of raw materials or loss of information
systems, regulatory changes such as new reporting
standards or new laws, changing customer needs, and
technological changes that affect the availability and the
use of data.
74. What are some internal factors that Internal factors can include decisions that affect
give rise to risks? operations and the availability of infrastructure, changes
in management responsibilities that affect the way
controls are implemented, changes in personnel that can
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76. What are sources of threats to Errors can occur in system design.
information systems? Errors can occur in input or input manipulation
may occur.
Data can be stolen over the Internet.
Data and intellectual property, including trade
secrets, can be stolen by employees who carry it
out on very small storage media or just email it
out.
Unauthorized alterations can be made to
programs by programmers adding instructions
that divert assets to their own use.
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77. What are the benefits of a strong Lower external audit costs.
internal control system? Better control over the assets of the company.
Reliable information for use in decision-making.
78. What are the four risk responses? 1. Acceptance – No action is taken to affect the
likelihood or impact of the risk.
2. Avoidance – Exiting the activity or activities that
give risk to the risk, such as exiting a product line
or selling a division.
3. Reduction – Action is taken to reduce the
likelihood or impact of the risk. The amount of the
potential loss from each identified risk should be
estimated to the extent possible. Some risks are
indeterminate and can only be described as large,
moderate or small.
4. Sharing – Reducing the risk likelihood or impact by
transferring or sharing the risk such as purchasing
insurance or forming a joint venture.
80. What are the principles of control The organization selects and develops control
activities? activities that contribute to mitigating (reducing)
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81. What are the responsibilities of the Registering public accounting firms that audit
PCAOB? public companies.
Establishing auditing and related attestation,
quality control, ethics, independence and other
standards relating to the preparation of audit
reports for issuers.
Conducting inspections of registered public
accounting firms, annually for firms that audit
more than 100 issuers and every three years for
others.
Enforcing compliance with the Act, the rules of the
Board, professional standards, and securities laws
relating to audit reports and the obligations of
accountants for them.
Conducting investigations and disciplinary
proceedings and imposing appropriate sanctions.
Management of the operations and staff of the
Board.
82. What are the stages in systems 1. Statement of objectives phase: a clear, written
development? statement of objectives and a risk assessment at
this stage can limit the number of changes needed
later on and shorten the time required to identify
solutions and get approvals later on.
2. Investigation and feasibility study stage: the cost-
benefit analysis done at this stage is extremely
important as a control tool, as this can also reduce
changes later on that could be caused by the
discovery of unexpected costs. Furthermore, if the
project is seriously flawed, it can be rejected at
this stage before a major investment is made.
3. Systems analysis stage: if the information
required by the users is not clear, the new system
cannot possibly support the business process,
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83. What do corporate bylaws specify? The requirements for annual meetings of
shareholders.
Specifications regarding what constitutes a
quorum at a shareholders’ meeting and what
constitutes a majority vote on the part of
shareholders.
Methods of calling special shareholders’ meetings.
How directors are to be elected by the
shareholders, the number of directors and the
length of their terms, specifications for meetings
of the board of directors and for what constitutes
a quorum at a board meeting.
How officers are to be elected by the board of
directors, officer positions and the responsibilities
of each officer position.
How the shares of the corporation shall be
represented (for example, by certificates) and
how shares shall be issued and transferred.
Specifications for payments of dividends.
How the bylaws can be amended. The directors
ordinarily have the power to enact, amend or
repeal bylaws, but this authority may be reserved
to the shareholders. Bylaws must conform to all
state laws and specifications in the articles of
incorporation.
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84. What is a feedback loop? A feedback loop is a part of a control system. It uses
feedback to measure differences between the actual
output and the desired output. It then adjusts the
operation according to those differences. Thus, it self-
corrects. A self-monitoring system is sometimes called
a cybernetic system.
85. What is a turnaround document? A turnaround document is a document created by a
computer, has some additional information has been
added to it, and then is returned to become an input
document to the computer.
86. What is business continuity Business continuity planning involves defining the risks
planning? facing a company in the event of a disaster, assessing
those risks, creating procedures to mitigate those risks,
regularly testing those procedures to ensure that they
work as expected, and periodically reviewing the
procedures to make sure that they are up to date.
87. What is collusion? Collusion occurs when two or more individuals work
together to overcome the internal control system and
perpetrate a fraud. When two or more people work
together, they are able to get around the segregation of
duties that may have been set out.
88. What is dumpster diving? Dumpster diving is sifting through a company’s trash for
information that can be used either to break into its
computers directly or to assist in social engineering.
89. What is effective internal control? An effective internal control system provides reasonable
assurance regarding achievement of an entity’s objectives
by reducing to an acceptable level the risk of not achieving
an entity objective. It requires that each of the five
components and relevant principles be present and
functioning, and that the five components are operating
together in an integrated manner.
When an internal control system is effective, senior
management and the board of directors have reasonable
assurance that the organization:
90. What is electronic eavesdropping? Electronic eavesdropping can occur if computer users are
able to observe transmissions intended for someone else.
Therefore, organizations must ensure that information
sent over a network is properly protected to maintain the
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93. What is logical security? Logical security consists of access and ability to use the
equipment and data. It includes Internet security
(firewalls) and virus protection procedures, access
controls for users to minimize actions they can perform,
authentication processes to verify the identity of users,
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109. What is the role of the database The database administrator controls access to various
administrator? files, making program changes, and making source code
details available only to those who need to know.
110. What is the top-down approach to A top-down approach begins at the financial statement
internal auditing? level and with the auditor's understanding of the overall
risks to internal control over financial reporting. A top-
down approach ensures that the controls that address the
assessed risk of misstatement to each relevant assertion
are tested.
111. What is user account management? User account management is the simple process of giving
people accounts and passwords. In order for this to be as
effective as possible, the company must keep these up-to-
date. Inactive accounts should be eliminated and active
passwords changed frequently.
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