Architecture As Symbol and Self Identity PDF

The Aga Khan A ward for Architecture
Architecture as
Symbol and Self-Identity
Proceedings of Seminar Four

in the series
Architectural Transformations in the Islamic World
Held in Fez, Morocco
October 9-12, 1979
Contents
Seminar Participants IV
Introduction viii
Renata Holod
1 Form: A Vocabulary and Grammar of Symbols
Symbols and Signs in Islamic Architecture 1

Oleg Grabar
Symbolism in its Regional and Contemporary Context 12
Dogan Kuban
The Visual Language of Symbolic Form:
A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture 18
Nader Ardalan
Comments 36
2 Function: Concepts and Practice
Islamic Philosophy and the Fine Arts 43

Muhsin S. Mahdi
Comments 49
Islam, Urbanism and Human Existence Today 51
Mohammed Arkoun
Comments 53
The Rab': A Type of Collective Housing in Cairo
During the Ottoman Period 55
Andre Raymond
Comments 62
The View from Within 63
Hildred Geertz
Comments 70
Fez: The Ideal and the Reality of the Islamic City 74
Personnel of the Fez Master Plan and Editors
Comments 77
3 Fragmentation: The Search for Identity
Comments
81
In Search of an Islam-Initiated Architectural Identity in Indonesia
87
Ahmad Sadali
The Internal Dialogue of Islam in Southeast Asia
91
Abdurrahman Wahid
4 Formulation: A Discussion of Criteria
Comments 92
Concluding Remarks 101

His Highness the Aga Khan
Resume 102
Editor and
Production Manager .. Jonathan G. Katz
Contributing Editor ........ Robert Miller
Production Consultant ....... Linda Safran
Editorial Consultants ....... Renata Holod
Hasan-Uddin Khan
Cover Illustration Detail of inscription and mosaic Graphic Consultants Herman and Lees Associates,
design from the madrasa al-'A!{iirin ("the perfumers' Cambridge, Mass
quarter"), built in 1323 in Fez Photograph by Printed by Smith-Edwards-Dunlap Co , Philadelphia, Pa
Deborah Allen
© The Aga Khan Awards 1980

iv Seminar Participants
His Highness the Aga Khan Professor Najm'oud- Sociologist Mr. Anthony Bradford Information Officer
Dine Bammate AFGHANISTAN UK.
Her Highness the Begum Aga Khan
198, Rue de Rivoli Secretariat of H. H. the Aga Khan
His Highness Prince Amyn Aga Khan 75001 Paris, France Aiglemont
60270 Gouvieux, France
Professor of Islamic Sociology, Universite de
Mr. Nader Ardalan Architect Paris. Special Assistant for Communications to His
IRAN Deputy Assistant Director, Culture and Highness the Aga Khan.
Communication Sector of UNESCO.
75 Fisher Avenue Author of many publications on Islamic culture.
Brookline, MA 02146 U.S.A
Professor Titus Philosopher/
Member, Award Steering Committee. Burckhardt Architectural
Mr. Amir A. Bhatia Management Historian
Principal in Mandala International.
Consultant
Past lecturer at Harvard School of Architecture SWITZERLAND
U.K.
and Planning.
Author with L. Bakhtiar of A Sense of Unity, 1, Chemin d'En-Vaux
High Holborn House
1973, and a number of architectural papers 1093 La Conversion S/Lutry, Switzerland
50-54 High Holborn
London WC1, England Member, Award Master Jury
Advisor to the Fez Master Plan.
Professor Mohammed Historian Resident Governor, The Institute of Ismaili
Author of The Art of Islam: Language and
Arkoun ALGERIA Studies, Ltd.
Meaning, 1976, and Fes, Stadt des Islam,
Chairman and Managing Director of Forbes
1960.
3, Place de !'Etoile Campbell Group, an export finance organi-
91210 Draveil, France zation of fourteen companies.
Professor of Arabic and Arabic Literature at

the Sorbonne, Paris.
Numerous books and articles on Islamic history
and thought including Pelerinage a Ia Mecque,
1977.
Seminar Participants v
Mr. Garr Campbell Landscape

Architect/
Planning
Consultant
U.S A
Secretariat of H. H. the Aga Khan

Aiglemont
60270 Gouvieux, France
Member, Award Steering Committee

Various site design and planning projects in
France, U.S.A., Pakistan, India, Iran.
Sir Hugh Casson Architect

U.K.
35 Victoria Road
London W8 4RH, England
Member, Award Steering Committee.

Senior Partner in architectural firm.
President, Royal Academy of Arts, U.K.
Formerly Professor of Interior Design at the Mr. Hassan Fathy Architect Professor Oleg Grabar Architectural
Royal College of Art. EGYPT Historian
U.S.A.
4 Darb el Labbana
Mr. Charles Correa Architect Citadel Fogg Museum of Art
INDIA Cairo, Egypt Harvard University
Cambridge, MA 02138 U.S A.
9 Matthew Road Member, Award Steering Committee.
Bombay 400 004, India Work on indigenous building and Islamic Member, Award Steering Committee.
architecture Chairman, Department of Fine Arts, Harvard
Member, Award Steering Committee. Publications include Architecture for the Poor, University.
Chairman, Housing Renewal and Housing 1973. Specialist in Islamic art and architecture.
Bureau, Bombay; consulting architect for Publications include The Formation of Islamic
New Bombay. Art, 1973 and The Alhambra, 1978.
In private practice since 1958. Professor Hildred Anthropologist
Author of many publications, including Archi- Geertz U.S.A.
tecture in Dry Hot Climates, 1973. Professor Renata Architectural
Visiting lecturer at several universities. Department of Anthropology Holod Historian
Princeton University CANADA
Princeton, NJ 08544 U.S.A.
Mr. Michael Curtis Journalist The Aga Khan Award for Architecture
U.K. Professor, Department of Anthropology, Prince- 3624 Science Centre
ton University. Philadelphia, PA 19104 U.S.A.
Secretariat of H. H. the Aga Khan Extensive Field Research in Indonesia and
Aiglemont Morocco First Award Convenor (1977-79).
60270 Gouvieux, France Co-author of Meaning and Order in Moroccan The History of Art Department, University of
Society, 1979. Pennsylvania
Executive Aide to His Highness the Aga Khan Specialist in Islamic architecture and urban
for Education, Health and Housing. history.
vi Seminar Participants
Mr. Muzharul Islam Architect/Teacher Professor Dogan Architectural Professor Andre Historian
BANGLADESH Kuban Historian Raymond FRANCE
TURKEY
Vastakulabid Universite de Provence
3, Paribagh, Ramna Dolay Bagi Department d'Etudes Islamiques
Dacca-2, Bangladesh Anadoluhisari 29, Avenue Robert Schuman
Istanbul, Turkey 13621 Aix-en-Provence, France
Member, Award Master Jury
In private practice since 1964; projects include Professor at the Department of Restoration and Professor, Universite de Provence.
Government Institute of Arts, Public Library Preservation, Istanbul Technical University Numerous publications on eighteenth-century
and polytechnic institutes Author of several books on Turkish and Islamic Cairo.
Closely involved in the realization of the New architecture
Capital, Dacca. President of the Institute of History of Archi-
Past President of Pakistan Institute of Archi- tecture and Restoration.
tects and Bangladesh Institute of Architects. Ms. Mildred F. Schmertz Architect/Journalist
U.S.A.
Professor Aptullah Architect/ Architectural Record Magazine
Mr. Hasan-Uddin Khan Architect/Planner Kuran Architectural 1221 Avenue of the Americas
PAKISTAN Historian New York, NY 10020 U.S.A.
TURKEY
The Aga Khan Award for Architecture Executive Editor
3624 Science Centre Bogazi~i Universitesi Writes frequently on contemporary Islamic
Philadelphia, PA 19104 U.S A. Bebek P K 2 architecture
Istanbul, Turkey 1977 Recipient of National Magazine Award of
Second Award Convenor (1979-80) the Columbia University Graduate School of
Practiced in the U.K. and operated own firm in Member, Award Master Jury Journalism, for outstanding achievement in
Karachi. Chairman, Department of Humanities, specialized journalism.
Work in Pakistan on low income settlements. University of Bosphorus
Author of The Mosque in Early Ottoman
Architecture.
Currently writing a book on the life and works Dr. Ismail Serageldin Planning Specialist
of the architect Sinan EGYPT
The World Bank

1818 H Street, N.W
Professor Muhsin S. Specialist in Washington, D.C. 20433 U.S.A
Mahdi Islamic Philosophy
USA. Chief, Technical Assistance & Special Studies
Division, The World Bank.
Center for Middle Eastern Studies Has identified, managed and appraised
Harvard University numerous projects throughout the Gulf
1737 Cambridge Street States.
Cambridge, MA 02138 U.S A.
James Richard Jewett Professor of Arabic and

Director of the Center for Middle Eastern Dr. Mona Anis Architect/Planning
Studies, Harvard University. Serageldin Consultant
EGYPT
27 A Fayerweather Street
Professor William Architect/ Cambridge, MA 02138 U.S.A.
Porter Urban Planner
U.S.A. Senior
Associate, Nash-Vigier, Inc., Planning
M.I.T. School of Architecture and Planning Consultants
77 Massachusetts Avenue Current projects include low cost housing
Cambridge, MA 02139 U S.A. schemes in Egypt, Sudan and Saudi Arabia.
Member, Award Steering Committee
Dean of the School of Architecture and
Planning at Massachusetts Institute of Tech-
nology.
Seminar Participants vii
Mr. Soedjatmoko Diplomat/Cultural Mr. Abdurrahman Educator/ Proceedings Contributor

Affairs Expert Wahid Sociologist
INDONESIA INDONESIA Professor Ahmad Sadali Art Historian
INDONESIA
National Development Planning Agency Lembaga Studi Pembangunan
2, J alan Taman Suropati 17th Floor, Gedung Arthaolka Jl. Bukit Dago Utara 119
Jakarta, Pusat, Indonesia General Sudierman Avenue 2 Bandung, Indonesia
Jakarta, Indonesia
Member, Award Master Jury Chairman of the Indonesian Alumni of the Fine
Advisor, Social and Cultural Affairs, National Director, Pesantren Ciganjur, Jakarta. Arts and Designers at the Institute of Tech-
Development Planning Agency, Indonesia. Consultant on community development at the nology, Bandung
Former Indonesian Ambassador to the United Institute of Economic and Social Research, Former Deputy Vice Chancellor of the Institute
States. Jakarta. of Technology, Bandung.
Rector, The United Nations University.
vm Introduction
Renata Holod
The task of the architect is to create a tion and requires extensive elaboration. historic Islamic architecture and to what
physical environment readily identifiable Already observable is the fact that the extent this principle is recognized as
by a society as its own. Building within regional traditions of Islamic architecture familiar are questions which received con-
contemporary societies sets before the tend to repeat several particular forms and siderable attention in the course of the
professional the challenge of identifying, signs. In the course of the seminar, some seminar. Many participants, however, ad-
understanding and creating forms and of these were identified and examined vocated more detailed observation of con-
spaces which are at once new and familiar, from the perspectives of both the historian temporary uses of space. The internal
which convey a sense of specific identity and the practicing architect. Attention was vocabularies for architectural, spatial and
and which are non-alienating. To do so drawn to such elements as the minaret, the general aesthetic phenomena were dis-
within the Islamic world today is very dome, calligraphy or epigraphy, and in- cussed as well.
difficult indeed. On the one hand, there is ternally oriented plan types. Further validation, support or criticism for
little in the realm of architectural theory, many of the investigations into the mean-
The minaret, for example, was shown to
history and criticism dealing with Islamic ings of architectural forms was sought
have a number of formal and stylistic
environments and monuments which might variations. Moreover, the range of inscrip- within Islamic thought-philosophy as well
provide guiding principles and insight. On as the Koranic sciences. What valid di-
tions found on minarets provides evidence
the other, the discontinuities and disrup- rectives they can provide for the assess-
that individual monuments may have
tions of modernization within Islamic so- ment of architecture in its historical as
several different levels of significance or
cieties make the ready application of well as contemporary context was a ques-
meaning. The minaret's ostensible function
whatever principles of space and form that tion which occupied both the social scien-
as a platform for the call to prayer was
one may extract a problem. tist and the scholar of Islamic philosophy.
and often is not exclusive to it: roofs,
The fourth seminar of the Aga Khan stairways and especially balconies were The conditions for the continued signifi-
Award series, "Architectural Transforma- and are also places for the muezzin. Yet cance of a building or a whole built
tion in the Islamic World," represented an the minaret, the tall, vertical form, has environment need to be further elucidated.
attempt to outline those aspects of archi- become a crucial element within the If a building or complex continues to be
tectural history which could be useful for repertory of forms in the traditions of used through time, what new forms, if
the architect. It further sought to indicate Islamic architecture. It is, in a way, any, are introduced during its campaign of
those areas of the Islamic sciences and symbolic of Islam's presence in a place. It extension and rebuilding? Functional and
philosophy which could provide necessary has come to serve as a landmark for formal revalidations are numerous in the
cultural background, and to note those orientation and for identification, and it history of Islamic architecture. The major
methods and observations of the social marks the aural and spatial centre of a congregational mosques in the historic
sciences which could adequately character- neighl;JOurhood. It has also been used as centres of Islamic civilization show such
ize attitudes towatd space and buildings an element in design, to balance and processes quite clearly. Whether in Isfahan
within contemporary Islamic societies. anchor domical forms or to balance eleva- or in Cordoba, in Cairo or in Fez, the
tions and entrances. The repetition of the body of the original hypostyle mosque did
Architectural criticism and theory has vertical form twice or more times may also not remain unchanged. While simple ex-
developed a rather sizable literature on signal the political or religious importance tensions of the roofed areas may be
the symbolism of architectural forms. The of a building. explained by the need for more space, the
methodology of investigating the processes addition or insertion of major and dif-
through which forms become symbols has The inclusion of inscriptions on buildings
enhances the meaning and perhaps the ferentiated forms such as the dome, min-
borrowed heavily from the vocabularies aret or eyviin may allude to the develop-
and theories of linguistics and structur- symbolism of its forms. In themselves they
are also signs and symbols. The content of ment of a more elaborate and precise
alism. However, the material under scru- architectural landscape. Very early mos-
tiny has, for the most part, been drawn an inscription gives its initial, specific
meaning to a building, but its very pres- ques did not appear to have these ele-
from examples of Western architecture: ments, but by the tenth century A.D., one
Roman, Renaissance, Neoclassical or ence provides the obligatory sign which
validates a building within a socio- or more of these forms seem to have been
International Modern. While the observa- extensively introduced. Why this should
tions generated through such approaches religious context.
have happened is still an object of in-
may indeed be universal, it seems con- The extent to which a particular arrange- vestigation and, indeed, speculation. Yet,
ceivable that at least some of the observa- ment of space-for example, the courtyard by the fourteenth century, the dome, the
tions and principles may be culturally plan--carries an extensive series of per- minaret and, to a lesser extent, the
specific. ceptual and cultural meanings is somewhat monumental eyviin signalled the existence
The search for symbolism within the forms more difficult to ascertain. To what extent of a mosque or other religious public
of Islamic architecture is still in its incep- interiority can be defined as a principle of building on the urban horizon.
Introduction ix
Transferring the question of the develop- The anthropoligist's techniques of indirect the functional or symbolic significance of
ment of symbols in architecture to more questioning and individual map drawing particular arrangements and a need to
contemporary periods, one must ask the show a different awareness and knowledge respond sensitively to the client's aspira-
following series of questions. Which are of an urban environment depending on the tions but there is a need, above all, to
the obligatory and desirable functional and needs and aspirations of the individual. create forms and spaces that evoke a sense
formal elements in the mosque, or any Thus a rural trader and an urban teenager of belonging which is not verbalized.
other building? What was the role of this respond to and know different features of
type of building within the urban land- an urban landscape, not only those of
scape and within the life of the city? Does immediate use to each but also those
this role continue or has it been usurped which have an expressive symbolic value.
or taken over by other buildings, forms If such variation can be documented
and functions? within a single location, how can more
A brief survey of contemporary mosques general assertions pertaining to regions or
shows that at least one of the large formal societies in the Islamic world be made?
components (e.g., the minaret, the dome) Mention should also be made of the use
appears in every case. Whether in Mo- and development of architecture as a
rocco, Libya, Saudi Arabia or Indonesia, symbol for the nation-state. In recent
their inclusion is the obligatory identifier years, many countries of the Islamic world
of a building's function as a mosque. have been constituted or reestablished as
Whatever their actual realization--domes sovereign states. With this came the desire
can be pyramidal, minarets an assemblage to symbolize the achievement through
of vertical elements-both have become commemorative monuments, new govern-
symbols of mosques and of contemporary ment buildings, whole new capitals, na-
Islam. In some cases not only is the tional mosques, revolutionary villages and
presence of the dome and minaret desired, urban housing schemes. Some buildings
but a particular stylistic (historical) type and complexes have remained unfinished
such as the Mamluk, Mughal or Maghribi and have lost their specific meaning with
mosque carries the complete set of ele- changes of government. Others have be-
ments of identification. Individual exam- come part of the national landscape, ap-
ples should be evaluated on their design pearing on postage stamps and copied on
and architectural merits. Yet the fact smaller scale in the countryside. All repre-
remains that, for the contemporary sent the desire to embody and portray a
Muslim, a mosque is a mosque when it new entity. Often this desire led to a quick
possesses such recognizable forms as the adoption of outside models in what can be
minaret and/or the dome. called an optimistic, future-oriented
The continued role of recognizable forms, fashion-part of a particular need to sever
buildings and even built environments links with the past. In many cases the
requires further elaboration. At the results were none too notable; they served
moment, this aspect of contemporary more to disorient than to identify.
Islamic societies has been inadequately The study of the tastes and desires of
investigated. In Fez, as in many other contemporary societies is only at its begin-
cities, particular social groups created and ning. Projects which seek to involve com-
maintained the urban environment for munities or clients in the design process
many generations. For them, not only the may not be immediately successful. The
buildings but the open public spaces, the clients whom they seek to serve or from
streets and the houses held a variety of whom they seek to elicit design criteria
references and memories-a multitude of may be so disoriented by modernization
meanings. Now new groups inhabit these that they cannot express a coherent set of
built environments. Are the meanings of spatial and visual values. Thus, the role of
the building and urban forms only part of the designer/architect is perhaps even
the old social contract, or do they contain more crucial. Not only is there a need to
meanings transferable to the new? observe the contemporary uses of space,
Form:
A Vocabulary and Grammar of Symbols
Symbols and Signs in Islamic Architecture
Oleg Grabar
Le probleme central et le plus ardu reste Much of what follows consists in rambling
evidemment celui de /'interpretation. En views, opinions and interpretations
principe, on peut toujours poser Ia question developed over the years by an outsider
de Ia validite d'une hermeneutique. Par des trying to understand a world which is not
recoupements multiples, au moyen des his own. They tend, therefore, to seek
assertions claires (textes, rites, monuments general and abstract meanings in what has
figures) et des allusions a demi voilees, on been a concrete and personal experience.
peut demontrer sur pieces ce que 'veut This is not wrong by itself, but its danger
dire' tel ou tel symbole. Mais on peut aussi is that unique cultural experiences can
poser le probleme d'une autre far.;on: ceux much too easily be transformed into
qui utilisent les symboles se rendent-ils meaningless and obvious generalities. The
compte de toutes leurs implications opposite dangers are either that a unique
theoriques? Lorsque, par exemple, en experience becomes so specific as to be
etudiant le symbolisme de l'Arbre unavailable for sharing and even
cosmique, nous disons que cet Arbre se explaining or that an artificial search for
trouve au 'Centre du Monde', est-ce que presumably universal values falsifies the
taus les individus appartenant a des societes truth of any individual's culture or
qui connaissent de tels Arbres cosmiques experience. I hope I have avoided these
sont egalement conscients du symbolisme pitfalls, but my main concern is that what
integral du 'Centre'? Mais Ia validite du follows be construed as a statement of the
symbole en tant que forme de connaissance truth or of a doctrine. They are merely
ne depend pas du degre de comprehension partial and questioning signals toward the
de tel ou tel individu. Des textes et des formulation of a way to understand
monuments figures nous prouvent symbolism in a specific culture. At the end
abondamment que, au mains pour certains an "afterword" puts together some
individus d'une societe archai"que, le implications of my remarks which have
symbolisme du 'Centre' etait transparent worried me as I read and reread them. It
dans sa totalite; le reste de La societe se seems more and more evident to me that
contentait de 'participer' au symbolisme. discussions of symbols and signs are far
II est d' ailleurs malaise de preciser les more complicated than, in our managerial
limites d'une telle participation: elle varie aloofness, we imagined them to be.
en fonction d'un nombre indetermine de
facteurs. Tout ce qu' on peut dire, c' est que
I' actualisation d'un symbole n' est pas
mecanique: elle est en relation avec les The Problem
tensions et les alternances de Ia vie sociale,
en derniere instance avec les rythmes There are two reasons, one general, the
cosmiques. 1 other specific, for raising the question of
M. Eliade symbols and signs. The general reason is
that the act of symbolization and cultural to justify the consideration of any old Housing, the topic of the third seminar,
or personal attachment to whatever we remains. The concerns were or could have was a much more complicated matter. It
call "symbols" are recognized modes of been technical (is a given monument or seemed clear to me that there were two
behaving, feeling, thinking, associating ensemble accurately restored?), social extreme positions. One maintained that
and understanding. There may be now and (what should be preserved and why within there is a definable Islamic typology of
there may have been in the past more than the context of contemporary culture?), in- housing, whether its definition should
one "Islamic" symbolic or semiotic formational (how should one present and derive from historical forms created in
system, but whether one or a multitude, exchange knowledge about monuments?), order to make an Islamic way of life
they form a discrete group which must by economic (how does rehabilitation relate possible or from a prescriptive system of
definition be, at least in part, different to tourism or to urban mobility?), aes- religious and social requirements
from comparable groups at other times or thetic (what is a good restoration?), or determined by the Koran, the Traditions
in other places. The question derives from ideological (what is the purpose of pre- and Law. The other extreme maintained
nearly two years of deliberations and serving and whom does it profit?), but the that housing is independent of the pre-
discussions in the context of the Aga Khan value of the activity within the context of scriptions of the faith, either because
Award seminars about what, if anything, enhancing Muslim self-awareness was not contemporary problems require solutions
within contemporary architecture in questioned. It could have been, for the independent of religious and cultural alle-
Muslim countries can legitimately be con- argument can be made that monuments, giances or because Islam itself is pre-
sidered Islamic. Furthermore, can this like people and cultures, may best be left scriptive in behaviour, not in form. These
something be defined with sufficient clarity to die, that antiquarianism in architecture extremes allow for a very extensive range
to be used as a criterion for evaluation? is a peculiarity of a very limited Western of intermediate possibilities, but what was
elite and that preservation is a form of important about the debate itself was that
When we dealt in the second seminar with
congealing a meaningless past, at best the pertinence of Islam for housing-the
restoration and rehabilitation the problem
useful for flag-waving. But the discussion system of belief and ways of life-could be
did not arise, for the criterion of having
did not go that far. questioned, while no one questioned the
been part of Muslim history was sufficient
right of Muslims to a setting for whatever
forms their lives may take. It was interest-
ing that the texts quoted consisted either
of very general statements (usually froni
the Hadith) about good behaviour and
cleanliness or legal sources in which com-
plex local practices and traditions were
given a broad sheathing of theoretical
jurisprudence. Statements attributed to the
seventh and eighth centuries (for which we
have few available forms) and contem-
porary urban requirements are difficult to
correlate, unless one tries to delve much
more deeply into the evolution of Islamic
law over the centuries. But even if un-
answered in any way approaching coher-
ence, the correct question was asked: what
is the pertinence of Islam to architecture,
now or in the past?
While this issue was aired in very broad
terms at the first seminar and has
reappeared from time to time, this fourth
seminar seems to be the proper moment to
try to be more specific and more concrete.
But, even here, it is impossible to consider
in one swoop the impact of Islam on
architecture over fourteen centuries and
Isfahan, Iran: interior view of the Sheikh Luffalltih from Spain to the Philippines-hence the
Photo: R. Holod choice of a series of questions dealing with
3 Symbols and Signs in Islamic Architecture
only one aspect of the impact. One could at times a synecdoche (part used for except to an implied (Jungian, I guess)
have chosen something as concrete as whole) and at other times in multiple assumption that certain kinds of formal
inheritance law and the development of layers (as when a mystic headgear made of transformations (i.e., not only the visible
building space in cities, but the informa- two pieces symbolizes all binary opposites form but its finite or infinite modifications
tion would not be easily available and the like Paradise-Hell, Life-Death). It is only according to one or more logical or
subject is hardly exciting. In proposing to when dealing with mysticism that Paret, paralogical methods) are innate within the
deal with signs and symbols, the assumed under the impact of Hellmut Ritter (on psyche and often affected by certain
social and psychological need to symbolize whom more below), moves beyond the physical or cultural circumstances (e.g.,
provides a different framework within descriptive to the visual symbolism of the the land of Iran with its ecological
which to consider Islamic architecture. Arabic alphabet. He does not, however, properties, Muslims brought up in Sufi
talk about visual architectural implications. traditions).
The questions can be formulated in the
following way: The second study is by Jacques In most of these studies, just as in several
Waardenburg, "Islam Studied as a Symbol works by T. Burckhardt (Sacred Art in
1) Is there an Islamic system of visually
and Signification System," Humaniora East and West, London, 1967, and Art of
perceptible symbols and signs?
Islamica vol. II (1974). A theoretical essay Islam, London, 1976), which are not as
2) How universally Islamic is such a deeply affected by Iranian culture, I see
on method, it asks appropriate questions
system and what are its variants? three inherent difficulties:
(note in particular an interesting query
3) What are the sources of the system, the about Islam as an ideology rather than as 1) Nowhere is there an explicit statement
revealed and theologically or pietistically a religion) but loses itself by being so of the relationship between data
developed statement of the faith, or the methodologically abstract that it fails in (measurable and quantifiable in time and
evolution of visual forms over fourteen providing answers and even in indicating space) and interpretation; in other words,
hundred years? how these answers could in fact be found. as opposed to the works of philologists
4) In what fashion and how successfully Not even a nod is extended in the and even philosophers like Ritter or
were signs and symbols transformed into direction of visual forms. Corbin, there is an absence of scientific
building forms? precision. Therefore, many of the
Much more work has been done with the conclusions seem premature.
5) How valid is the experience and uniquely rich subfield of Islamic and
memory of the past for the present and especially Persian mysticism. The grand 2) The specifically Islamic character of
the future? master of the field is Hellmut Ritter, forms is rarely clear or specific enough,
whose Das Meer der Seele (Leiden, 1955) except for calligraphy which is mentioned
is one of the most elaborate and difficult as unique but never described; in other
systems of interpreting mystical thought. words the Islamic component is either
Old Approaches absent from what are basic human needs
His sutcessor, hardly less complicated, is
Henri Corbin, some of whose works exist conditioned by local limitations (no stone
The need for an approach derives from in English. An excellent introduction to all in Iran, colder weather in Anatolia than in
existing literature. To my knowledge, only mystical matters is Annemarie Schimmel, Egypt, and so on) or else it is simply a
two studies deal overtly and formally with Mystical Dimensions of Islam (Chapel Hill, sheathing, a removable skin which is an
symbolism and signs in Islamic culture and 1975). An interesting and occasionally expression of taste, not a symbol of the
claim, at least in theory, some kind of quite provocative discussion of related faith or the culture; this last point may be
completeness. issues around a single theme and with a further strengthened by the undeniable
One is Rudi Paret, Symbolik des Islam broader base than Iranian Sufism or Ibn fact that buildings (as opposed to objects
(Stuttgart, 1958). Modestly restricted to al-'Arabi: can be found in M. Arkoun and in metal or paintings) were constantly
"observation on the meaning of symbols others, L'Etrange et le Merveilleux dans repaired and refurbished to fit a prevalent
(Symbolik) within the sphere of the I' Islam Medieval (Paris, 1978), the taste and by the more debatable theory of
Muslim world" (p. 9) and limited to proceedings of a lively colloquium. The earlier decades that visual expression was
religious matter, it tends to be descriptive most interesting aspect of these studies for a sin in Muslim eyes.
rather than interpretative. Paret does, our purposes is that they extend beyond 3) The contemporary context is almost
however, make an important distinction traditional theological or esoteric interpre- always missing; we may not yet have
between primary and secondary symbols, tations into science and technology (S. H. discovered a Suger or a Procopius in
the former being direct and immediate Nasr, Islamic Science, London, 1976) and traditional Islamic culture, but we do have
transformations of whatever is being architecture (N. Ardalan and L. Bakhtiar, documents of contemporary witnesses
symbolized (a complete set or system), the The Sense of Unity, Chicago, 1973). They which would prevent the unavoidable
latter being more fragmentary or diverse, owe little to broad symbolic theories impression of modern constructs, perhaps
But-and this is a key point-the charge

was of low voltage. The Dome of the
Rock, the mosque of Damascus, the north
dome of Isfahan's Friday Mosque, the
Alhambra and the Taj Mahal-buildings
for which a highly intense meaning can be
provided for the time of their creation-all
lost their specific meaning soon thereafter.
It is indeed as though Islamic culture as a
whole consistently rejected any attempt
to compel specific symbolic meanings in
architecture comparable to those of
Christianity and Hinduism (with their
symbolic connotation in plan, elevation
and decoration).
3) It is precisely this low symbolic charge
of Islamic monuments which made it so
easy for them to be copied and imitated
elsewhere (Ettinghausen's argument). A
corollary would be that the same low
charge made it possible for an Indonesian
pagoda or a Roman temple to become a
mosque. In reality there is a somewhat
more complicated intellectual and
Jerusalem: Dome of the Rock methodological problem involved in this
Photo: R Holod reasoning, as I have tried to suggest in
several unsatisfactory essays (AARP 13,
1978; "An Art of the Object," Artforum,
1976; "Das Ornament in Der Islamischen
Kunst," Zeitschrift der Deutschen
valid to modern man, applied to tradi- eses can be summed up and slightly Morgenliindischen Geselleschaft, suppl. III,
tional forms. enlarged in the following manner: 1977). The problem is that a low charge of
If we turn to media other than 1) There are in Islamic art certain themes forms easily leads to ambiguity, and it is
architecture, the matching of literary such as the whirl, the lion, the bull and doubtful to me whether any culture can
evidence with works of art or the investi- the signs of the zodiac which are operate with an ambiguous visual system.
gation of symbolic themes and ideas have historically older than Islam and which, Is it not, perhaps, once again a question of
been more thorough and more specific. with vagaries of no concern to us here, insufficient thinking and insufficient data-
The most conspicuous examples are vari- have been maintained in the new culture. gathering?
ous studies by Schuyler Cammann on rugs Most of the identifiable symbols deal with Let me try to sum up this rapid and
(in The Textile Museum Journal 3, 1972, secular themes or with what may be called probably incomplete survey of the mostly
and in P. J. Chelkowski, ed., Studies ... "basic" religious symbols (earth, fire, life). recent literature (there may be much value
in honour of R. Ettinghausen, New York, 2) The one obvious new theme is writing; in surveying the texts and notes of the
1974) and much of R. Ettinghausen's work it is not merely an ornamental feature but great scholars of old like Herzfeld, van
over the last thirty years (best examples in either iconographic (Dodds, "The Word of Berchem, von Kremer). No one has tried
Ars Orienta/is 2, 1957, and in J. Schacht God," Berytus 18, 1969, with the argu- to identify an Islamic visual sign-symbol
and C. E. Bosworth, The Legacy of Islam, ment that it replaces images) or vectorial system in any serious way, with the partial
Oxford, 1974, pp. 274-291). Over the (Grabar, The Alhambra, 1978, or the exception of an Iranian and Sufi-oriented
years several other scholars have made "Dome of the Rock," Ars Orienta/is 3, system. Part of the reason is the factual
specific contributions to this general theme 1957; W. E. Begley; "The Taj Mahal," and intellectual underdevelopment of a
(Hartner, Baer, Dodds). The Art Bulletin 61, 1979) in the sense field of study, but a more important
Ettinghausen's conclusions or (as he would that it charges neutral forms with concrete reason lies perhaps in two aspects of
have probably agreed) working hypoth- and sometimes very elaborate meanings. Islam's historical destiny. First, it inherited
many symbolically rich cultural traditions of Semiotics, Bloomington, 1979, and can be anything from an ornament to a
but could only preserve symbols which "Semiotics of Architecture," Via 2, 1973; potential incitement to hatred and
were not religiously charged and, to avoid G. Friedmann, "Une rhetorique des destruction. Then, while a symbol is
the temptations of idolatry, preferred to symboles," Communications 7, 1966; R. physically identifiable, it is itself not
restrict or even to stifle the growth of its Barthes, "Elements de Semiologie," clearly circumscribed. As a tower for the
own visual symbolism. Second, secular art Communications 4, 1964). A very call to prayer, the minaret is but a sign
was less affected by this restriction, but interesting critical summary of several suggesting a function; it becomes a symbol
then secular art is by its very nature books is Abdul-Hamid el-Zein, "Beyond when it reminds one of Islam, when it
definable for the most part in social rather Ideology and Theology," Annual Review appears on stamps identifying a specific
than cultural terms. of Anthropology 6, (1977). country (the spiral minaret of Samarra-its
The hypotheses stated above are not fully spiral quality is much more an Iraqi
My overwhelming reaction to nearly all of national symbol than an Islamic one), or
satisfactory, in part for the very reasons I these often brilliant and always fascinating
have used to criticize the opinions of when it serves to design a space (the
works is one of despair. This despair has Kalayan minaret in Bukhara, organizing
others. They are abstract constructs for two components. The first is the non-
which archeological data exists, to my open space between a mosque and a
commutability of abstraction; by this I madrasa redone several times). In other
knowledge, only in the seventh to ninth mean that, even though specific observa-
centuries, and I am not certain how far it words, while the sign attribute is fixed, the
tions and concrete reasonings about symbol attribute is a variable which
is legitimate to generalize from a few individual subjects led to the theory, I
references and monuments. Mostly these depends on some "charge" given to it or
rarely saw an instance which would allow on the mood or feeling (Langer's termi-
hypotheses lack contemporary evidence; me to move backwards from the theory to
they have not made Muslims speak. nology) of the viewer ("referant").
some hitherto unstudied subject of Islamic Theory, therefore, compels us to identify
Finally, all these hypotheses lack a clearly architecture. The second component is
stated methodological premise. In what and isolate the triple component of sign,
that all these works hover between a symbol, referant. Of the three, symbol is
follows, I try to provide the latter by requirement of nearly infinite and usually
suggesting three methods of approaching the one which depends on predetermined
not available precision of information conventions, habits or agreements which
the question with which we began. (particularly true of semiology; I dread are not in the object but in those who
trying to do a semiological analysis of a share it. Our problem then becomes one
monument of architecture) and an of defining the semantic field of a symbol
obviousness of conclusions (the wall of a by finding the area in time or space of its
Approach One: Pure Theory
holy building is a symbol or a sign of the contractual agreement with a social group.
separation between sacred and profane,
From Plato to Wittgenstein, philosophers restricted and public spaces). In many
have talked about symbols and signs, and ways the data of the anthropologist is too
it is difficult not to be fascinated with St. commonly spread in the segment of Approach Two: Islamic Written Evidence
Augustine's uses of the word "sign" culture he studies to explain an acci-
(T. Todorov, Theories du symbole, Paris, dentally preserved major monument, and There are many different ways of
1977) or with E. Cassirer's Philosophy of questions of taste rarely appear in dealing imagining how written evidence could be
Symbolic Forms 3 vol. (New Haven, with architecture as opposed to painting or used. Others with a better knowledge of
1953-57) and S. Langer's Philosophy in a objects (for a fascinating example see texts than I will be able to provide
New Key (Cambridge, Mass., 1953). These James C. Faris, Nuba, Personal Art, examples or even answers to the following
are all weighty and difficult works which London, 1972). set of questions accompanied by brief and
rarely, if ever, attend to visual forms partial comments.
(music, literature and dance predominate). How can these theories be useful even if
Less intellectually compact and they do not provide an automatic model or Is there an indication that visual symbols or
conceptually abstract are anthropological paradigm? First, there are certain semantic signs were, at any time, generally accepted
works which I have consulted: R. Firth's distinctions which are consistent enough ways of identifying functions, defining
Symbols (London, 1973), M. Eliade's that they can be used as premises for our one's own as opposed to alien aims, or
Images and Symbols (New York, 1961), purposes. For instance, a symbol is providing qualitative judgments?
and a few more concrete studies by different from a sign, which indicates Looking over major classical and very
C. Geertz or V. Turner (The Forest of something, and an image, which represents different texts like Muqaddasi's Geography
Symbols, Ithaca, 1967), or semiological it; a symbol defines something and (seeP. Wheatley, "Levels of Space
ones (for our purposes the most useful connotes it but does not circumscribe it as Awareness," Ekistics, Dec. 1976), Ibn
ones are the works of U. Eco, A Theory does a sign or an image; thus a swastika Nadim's Fihrist (tr. B. Dodge, 2 vols.,
New York, 1964), and Ibn Khaldiin's

Muqaddimah (tr. F. Rosenthal, 3 vols.,
New York, 1958, esp. II, pp. 233ff.,
357-367), or Ibn Fadlan's description of
the Volga Bulghars, my answer is
negative. While alien lands are at times
identified by the peculiarities of their
visual expression (for instance, nearly all
descriptions of India in classical times), I
see no evidence of concrete visual symbols
which would be considered as uniquely
Muslim. The exception of the minbar in
tenth century geographical texts indicates
a certain kind of administrative status
rather than a reference to a concrete
object. The only other exception is the
Ka'ba which by definition is a unique
monument. This is not to say that there
are no Muslim symbols and signs, but they
consist less in visually perceptible features
than in memories of men and events: the
place where something took place or
where someone did something. The
literary genre of the kittib al-ziytirat
(guidebooks to holy and memorable
places) which began in the twelfth century
only strengthens the hypothesis that the
Muslim tradition identified what is sacred
or holy to it in a denoting rather than
connoting fashion, i.e., in terms of
memorable associations and generalized
physical shapes (oval, rectangle) rather
than of concrete visual forms. In other
words, and with occasional exceptions
(like the abwab al-birr, "gates of piety" in
early fourteenth century Iran), there is no
symbolic iconography of Islamic archi-
tecture to be derived from texts, as there
is, for instance, in Christian architecture.
Is there an Koranic or early Hadith
symbolic system with visual associations?
This is a difficult question to discuss
because it is difficult to develop an
appropriate method of dealing with it.
Should one simply analyze the Koranic
text as such? Or should one seek the
frequency of use of certain passages over
the centuries? For instance, one of the
most consistently used verses both in
architectural inscriptions and in depicting Samarqand, U.S.S.R.: Giir-i Mlr
Divine Power is the magnificent Throne Photo: R Holod
Verse (II, 256). But it is not the only
instance in the Revelation of strikingly secular world. Should one interpret such symbols; there was no clearly identifiable
effective depictions either of Divine Might stories as simply stylistically Islamic, i.e., sense, even, of forms considered to be
or of God's Throne. Some of them were as universal archetypes which have one's own, culturally discrete. It may,
occasionally used on monuments, as, for acquired culture-bound details? Or are therefore, be possible to propose that
instance, VII, 52, in the north dome of they key reflections of a uniquely Muslim traditional Islamic culture identified itself
Isfahan or LXVII, 1-5, found in the Hall vision of sensuous beauty-paradisiac through means other than visual: the
of the Ambassadors in the Alhambra. In perhaps, but more likely fruits of a unique sounds of the city, the call to prayer, the
both instances the use of an unusual imagination formed by the confluence of Word of the Revelation but not its forms,
verse serves to explain the cupola's an egalitarian faith and the reality of rich the memories of men and events. If valid
meaning, but can one conclude that these and isolated dynamic centres like Samarra (and it is, I am sure, subject to criticism),
architectural meanings are inherent in the or Topkapi? this conclusion would suggest for the
Koranic passage or that the monuments contemporary scene that it is not forms
How should we interpret technical and
served to represent or otherwise symbolize which identify Islamic culture and by
especially mathematical treatises applied to
the Holy Writ? extension the Muslim's perception of his
architecture or decoration?
Another interesting passage is XXIV, architecture, but sounds, history and a
35-8, the "verses of light," which do Few of these texts have been properly mode of life.
suggest a symbolic physical setting published or translated, but, where avail- To this statement intended primarily to
reflecting Divine Presence. The passage able, as in the very recent book of M. S. promote discussion, I should like to attach
was frequently used in mi/Jrilbs, but the Bulatov, Geometricheskaia Garmonizatziia three codicils. One is that there is some
later traditional Muslim mosque v Arhitektury (Moscow, 1978), what is methodological danger in assuming too
vocabulary hardly ever used the terms of striking to me is that the subtle and easily that written sources are the
the Koranic passage. This peculiarity does complicated mathematical formulas are not paradigms by which a culture saw itself;
not preclude the existence of a Koran- presented as illustrations, symbols or signs written sources reflect in large part the
based symbolic system; it merely questions of a faith or even of a cultural identity, world of the literati, and neither St.
its consistent validity for architectural but as practical solutions to architectural Augustine nor St. Thomas Aquinas
history. and ornamental requirements. provide much information about the
We know very little about the frequency Hence, is it legitimate to suggest a formation of early Christian art or of
and consistency of Koranic quotations. I culturally accepted symbolism for visual Gothic architecture. The importance of
propose the hypothesis that the symbolic forms as long as, in the highly verbal written sources lies in the parallelism they
or iconographic use of the Koran in culture of traditional Islam, written sources provide for visual phenomena and, to a
Islamic art nearly always followed the give it explicit mention so rarely and smaller degree, in showing a time's charac-
development of a symbolic or iconographic require an esoteric approach to literature teristic concerns which contribute to the
need. Symbols, signs or meanings were for demonstration? taste and will for creating monuments. My
discovered in the Koran but, at least as far second remark is that written sources
The obvious exception lies in the art of from the early Hadith onward provide an
as the arts are concerned, do not actively writing, where, thanks to the work of
derive from it; in other words, I suggest enormous amount of information in two
A. Schimmel and F. Rosenthal among related areas: the vocabulary of making
there is no "iconography" of the Koran. others, it can clearly be demonstrated that
Matters are obviously quite different in anything from a textile to a building and
a whole range of meanings, from direct hence the basic meaningful units (the
theology or law. sign to most elaborate symbol, had been morphemes) of visual forms, an area
How culture-bound is the rich Islamic developed, thought out and accepted. I am whose study has hardly begun, and
literary tradition of opulent princely far less certain whether such matters as judgments on changes of taste. For
dwellings? theories of colour in mystical thought instance, a comparison between Ibn Jabayr
A story from the Thousand and One (Corbin), for instance, actually did cor- (twelfth century) and Ibn BaHii!a
Nights such as the "City of Brass" reflects respond to the uses of colour in artistic (fourteenth century) describing the same
an unbridled imagination about a creativity. But this, perhaps, is simply a parts of the Muslim world shows the same
magnificent palace. It contains, no doubt, matter of insufficient research. monuments and holy places in such
the esoteric meaning of a difficult quest To sum up these remarks on written different ways. Written sources do help in
for Truth or Reality through secret and sources seems fairly easy within the understanding the vernacular, the
mysterious doors (like the ubiquitous ya present state of our knowledge. Except for common, more easily than the unique in
miftal] at-abwab, "0 Opener of Doors," the Arabic alphabet, there was no art, probably because the highest literati
in later Persian miniatures), but its details coherent, consistent and reasonably pan- were often visual illiterates or at best
and its external mood are all of a brilliant Islamic acceptance of visually perceived visual vulgarians, a phenomenon which is
peculiar neither to the Muslim world nor them. Interesting though they may be to one in some areas (Fertile Crescent,
to the past. the historian, these monuments are of Arabia, Muslim West) but it also became
secondary significance for our purposes, symbolic of the introduction of Islam into
Finally, I have only alluded to written
sources as essentially synchronic because their uniqueness is more im- new areas. Early Iranian mosques (this is
documents, with the obvious exception of portant than their typological set. a somewhat controversial topic at the
the Koranic Revelation shown as a Proposition II. There are several instances moment for complex archeological reasons
constant and consistent inspiration and of what I would like to call restricted not pertinent to this discussion), early
justification of tastes, moods and function. symbolic cultural continuity in archi- Anatolian ones and early Indian ones tend
There could be a diachronic analysis of tecture. There is, for example, the large to adopt a form identified with early and
literary sources seeking to find common hypostyle mosque, a unique creation of pure Islam. Another example is the
and repeated themes and motifs; it is a the seventh century which solved several classical Ottoman mosque, whose large
dangerous kind of analysis, for it can too functional requirements of Iraqi Muslim dome flanked by minarets and usually
easily find consistency by comparing communities. This type became a regional preceded by a courtyard became a symbol
features which are not true parellels (as,
for instance, both Persian and Arabic
poetry, where I have often wondered
whether metric and thematic consistency
over the centuries is in fact what was
prized at the time of creation of a new
work of art). Such diachronic analyses,
which may have been attempted without
my being aware of them, could be of great
importance in identifying consistent
cultural threads.
Approach Three: The Monuments
I shall be briefer in discussing monuments,

as some of them will be discussed more
fully later in the seminar. Keeping in mind
the broad questions raised at the
beginning of these remarks, I would like
to propose four points for discussion.
Proposition I. The Muslim world did
create a number of monuments of art and
architecture which are uniquely charged
with symbols: the Ka'ba, the Dome of the
Rock, the Taj Mahal, Fatehpur Sikri's
throne of Akbar, and perhaps a few others
(the mausoleum of Oljaytu in Sultaniyah,
shrine of Lutfallah in Isfahan) once some-
one undertakes to study them properly.
But, in all instances known to me so far
except the Ka'ba (which is in a way an
"uncreated" monument), the depth of
meaning with which the monument was
created did not survive the time of its
creation or was modified, as with the
Dome of the Rock, which grew in reli-
gious connotations as the centuries went Afyon, Turkey: interior of hypostyle mosque (c. 1272 A D.)
by, or with the Taj Mahal, which lost Photo: M Niksarl!
of Ottoman cultural and political prestige a symbolism of gates in cities or even

and power from Algiers and Serbia to buildings, especially palaces, but this
Egypt and Iraq. symbolism expresses itself more frequently
in the names of gates than in their forms,
The reason I used the word "restricted"
for these examples is that specific a few exceptions as in Jerusalem's Haram
notwithstanding. And anyway, I am not
historical and cultural conditions-the
certain that the symbolic meanings which
Ottoman empire or the Islamization of
can be attributed to the gates of Abassid
new lands-led to the symbolic quality of
Baghdad or Fatimid Cairo remained
these forms; it was not a matter of their
significant symbols much after their
intrinsic value. The Ottoman mosque can
creation. I am hesitant in attributing a
become a national or romantic symbol and
the building today of a hypostyle mosque symbolic rather than a socially functional
in Tunisia is merely continuing a regional meaning to traditional physical constructs
tradition. of the Muslim city like the mosque-
market-maidan unit.
Proposition Ill. There are very few
I have mentioned primarily architectural
architectural forms which are consistently
indicative of the presence of Islam. The symbols, because the seminar deals with
most obvious one is the minaret, whatever architecture. Non-architectural visual
symbols certainly existed as well, but to
actual function it has had over time and
whatever reasons led to its creation. I my knowledge none have been investi-
must admit that I am not satisfied with gated in sufficient depth to know which
any of the traditional explanations of the ones were simple signs (hand of Fatima)
minaret and its appearance, not only in and which ones acquired the kind of range
the skyline of Cairo or as the elegant which is required of a symbol (colour
green, the Crescent).
framer of Iranian fa<_<ades or Ottoman
volumes, but as a single monument in the If the proposition of the previous section
Iranian countryside, at Jam in Afghanistan that self-recognition within the Muslim
or in Delhi. The study of Koranic tradition was primarily auditory and social
quotations on minarets is very instructive is acceptable, this difficulty in defining an
as they vary considerably from building to overall Islamic visual system need not be
building or area to area. But in many considered as troubling. In fact, it may
cases both inscriptions and decoration lend simply demonstrate two secondary propo-
themselves to a range of symbolic sitions. One is that symbolic systems may
meanings which await their investigator. indeed tend to be most easily perceivable
For instance, the use of the whole Sura in time rather than across time. The other
Mariam (XIX) on the minaret of Jam Cairo, Egypt: al-Hakfm mosque minaret bears one is that in the actual perception of the
the following verses from the Koran: environment such items as clothing,
identifies this extraordinary monument as
a proclamation of Islam in its relationship And certainly We have brought them a Book objects used and spoken accent are more
to other religions, while the ornament of which We have made clear with knowledge, a significant than architecture.
guidance and a mercy for people who believe
the Kalayan minaret in Bukhara can be Proposition IV. Symbolic and sign systems
(VII, 52)
understood as an expression of the central are to be sought not in architecture but in
Muslim tenet of the Unity of God, since There is no compulsion in religion, truly the
right way has become clearly distinct from decoration, decoration being understood in
its different designs are in reality versions its widest sense as those parts of a building
error; therefore, whoever disbelieves in the
of the same motif. devil and believes in Allah, he indeed has laid which are not necessary to its physical
Are there any other similarly obvious and hold on the firmest handle, which shall not utilization or structural stability.
constant forms? There are the mil]rabs of break off, and All is Hearing, Knowing "
If my earlier suggestion of symbolic
sanctuaries, of course, but their symbolism (II,256)
systems as richer synchronically than
is, with a few exceptions (Cordoba, some But if they turn back, say: Allah is sufficient diachronically is acceptable, this propo-
Fatimid examples in Cairo), an obvious for me, there is no god but He, on Him do I
sition is strengthened by the fact that
one, and the object itself became automat- rely, and He is the Lord of might power"
(IX,129)
decoration could and did change in kind
ically functional rather than emotionally or (continuous additions) or in meaning (the
intellectually symbolic. There are traces of Photo S Blair/J. Bloom reinterpretation of the mosaics of
Damascus by later writers). Furthermore, entrances to mosques, madrasas, hospitals Samarqand. I have elsewhere discussed
while nearly all architectonic units or even and caravanserais. Is this decoration and, I hope, demonstrated this use of
combinations and developments of units in unrelated to the purpose of a monument writing as a vector of meaning in archi-
Islamic architecture are easily relatable to except in the very general way of beauti- tecture (The Alhambra, 1978).
the morphology and growth of other fying, at best attracting to, an unexpressed Next to writing is geometry. I am less
architectural traditions, this is much less so function? Within the synchronic scheme clear about the actual perception of
with decoration, whose motifs and proposed earlier, the answer may be geometry and hesitate to accept in full the
combinations are nearly always culturally positive, as one can easily argue that the Gestalt explanation proposed by Ardalan
unique. To dismiss this decoration as contemporary did not have to be told and others for Iran, but I am convinced
"mere" decoration is a Western imperialist by a fa<;ade whether a building was a that the geometry of Isfahan's north dome
reflex from a society which equates warehouse or a hospital. based on the pentagon or of Bukhara's
meaningful decoration with representation Yet it is unlikely that we will be satisfied minaret with several hypostases of the
and which for half a century has rejected with such an answer for three reasons. same basic design cannot be simply a
decoration within its own "progressive" One is that a series of studies on objects designer's whim. But I am not sure how to
architecture. and miniatures, for which similar approach the problem, just as methods
But how are we going to find meanings in explanations have been provided, tend to should be devised for dealing with vegetal
it? There is something troubling, for show that a close examination demon- motifs or with a theme like the muqarnas
instance, in looking at a series of strates in almost every case a complex which involves nearly all morphemes of
thirteenth century portals in Anatolia iconographic and symbolic meaning. A decoration.
which are formally very difficult to distin- second one is that it is hardly reasonable The second approach would be syntactic
guish from each other yet which serve as to expect enormous efforts on meaningless and would consist in studying and
forms. And third, the study of major explaining whole ensembles. To my
monuments of architecture almost always knowledge, no one has attempted to do so
demonstrates great depth ot' meaning. In in Islamic architecture. One example may
other words, we have not taken a proper serve as a conclusion to this essay. I have
look at these monuments and their long been puzzled by what seemed to me
decoration. Let me outline two possible to be the arbitrary location of tiled panels
approaches for dealing with this problem. in classical Iranian mosques of the
The first approach would be morpho- fifteenth to seventeenth centuries. Yet, in
logical, seeking to find such themes of the Masjid-i Shah's main dome, the
decoration as have meanings. The most progression to the burst of light at the
obvious one is writing, as monuments as apex of the dome seems to me to be an
diverse in quality and importance as the extraordinary attempt at symbolizing the
Taj Mahal, the Guyushi mosque in Cairo, Revelation not as the static and learned
and the Qaytbay complex also in Cairo are order of a Gothic portal or of a Byzantine
explained by the Koranic quotations on church but as the dynamic and sensuous
their decoration. One of the most striking illumination of a faithful praying. The
"un-Islamicities" of contemporary archi- symbolism of the decoration is not an
tecture is its failure to make aesthetically inherent property of the design but the
appealing use of calligraphy. I should add result of man's prescribed action in the
that writing exists at several levels in building.
intelligibility: direct quotation probably Could one extend the point to propose
only available to the very literate in the that the true uniqueness of the Muslim
past but to all in the future; rhythmic visual symbolic system lies not in the
punctuation with litanic repetitions known forms it took but in the relationship it
to most, as in the clear al-mulk lillah creates, indeed compels, for its users? A
Isfahan, Iran: the Barsian minaret bears Koranic (Power of God) which organizes the
verse XXII, 76: celebrated Tradition is that wherever a
lengthy and wordy inscriptions of Persian Muslim prays there is a mosque. Symbolic
He knows what is before them and what is mosques from the fifteenth century or signifying identity lies in setting and
behind them, and to Allah are all affairs onward; simple statements of God and His
turned back man, not in form. Is this a possible
Prophet, known to all, which adorn the challenge for contemporary architecture?
Photo: R Holod outside walls of madrasas in Khargird or
Afterword on the symbolic meaning of an artistic

creation. Hence architectural symbolism
What follows is a series of questions and can only be demonstrated from non-
concerns derived from the preceding pages architectural sources-written sources,
which may in themselves merit further opinion surveys or whatever else may be
consideration. developed. Theoretically it is possible to
derive symbolic meanings from formal
1) Synchronic versus diachronic. I am consistencies, i.e., the repetition over the
suggesting that it is easier to identify a centuries of certain forms (E. B. Smith,
synchronic symbolic and semiotic system Architectural Symbolism, Princeton, 1953),
than a diachronic one which either
but I am not sure whether consistency of
becomes obvious and undifferentiated or form means consistency of symbols or
requires the preliminary investigation of
convenience for functions.
synchronic sets. Too few instances of the
latter exist to justify many significant 4) Symbols and styles. Can one maintain a
definitions of Islamic symbols. I should distinction between aesthetic and taste
also add that the nature of a valid time impulses (style) and a range of associative
frame is a very difficult question which has reactions (symbols)?
hardly ever been raised by historians of 5) Visual and auditory perception. I may
forms. I am not even sure that linguists have overstressed the thought that Islamic
have discussed the aspect of time in their culture finds its means of self-identi-
consistent concern for semantic fields, but fication in hearing and acting rather
I may simply not be aware of some than in seeing. But I am more than ready
existing work. to be corrected on this point.
2) Specific forms and archetypes. This is a
very delicate issue. If we were dealing
with architecture in general, it would be
perfectly appropiate to discuss and refine Note
broad and universal human needs,
feelings, means of perception and the like 1
"Interpretation is still obviously the central and
as they are adapted to concrete ecological most difficult problem In principle, we can always
bring up the question of the validity of a hermeneutics
requirements. But I understand our Through cross-references, clear assertions (texts, rites,
concern for the architecture of Muslims to representative monuments) and half-veiled allusions,
we can demonstrate precisely what such and such
mean, when symbolism and signs are symbol 'means ' But we can also state the problem in
concerned, those aspects of architecture another manner: do those who utilize symbols realize
which are not universally meaningful but all their theoretical implications? For instance, when
studying the symbolism of the 'Cosmic Tree,' we say
discretely significant to a certain culture. that this tree is located in the 'Centre of the World '
We can come to the conclusions that this Are all individuals belonging to societies that know of
discrete significance was minimal or such Cosmic Trees equally conscious of the integral
symbolism of the 'Centre'? But the validity of the
merely cosmetic, that the contemporary symbol as a form of knowledge does not depend on
world has made cultural discreteness the degree of understanding of such and such an
individual Texts and representative monuments prove
obsolete and that universal modes of extensively that, at least to certain individuals of an
judgment are the only valid ones. But, if archaic society, the symbolism of the 'Centre' was
we do come to these conclusions, we must transparent in its totality; the rest of society was
satisfied with the act of 'participating' in symbolism.
be sure that we are aware of what they Moreover, it is hard to state precisely the limits of
mean. such participation; it varies according to an indeter-
minate number of factors All we can say is that the
3) Architectural symbols and functions. actualization of a symbol is not mechanical; it is
related to the tensions and alternations of social life
The greatest difficulty I had was in and ultimately with cosmic rhythms " M Eliade
identifying those aspects of architectural
creation for which it is justified to seek a
symbolic significance. My answer is that
the referant alone (user, viewer) decides
12
Symbolism in Its Regional and
Contemporary Context
Dogan Kuban
Symbolism is founded not in a mysterious

relation between the sign and the contents I
of the human mind, but between an object
and a gesture, and an action and its
f
influence upon the receptive organism.
L. Malinowski
I was fortunate to read Prof. Grabar's

paper before trying to put down my own
thoughts. Grabar raises most of the ques-
tions relevant to symbolism in Islam with
particular emphasis on Islamic architec-
ture. I have sought to answer or elaborate
and sometimes to contradict or criticize his
ideas in order to clarify the orientation of
the overall investigation.
Grabar begins by asking whether there is
an Islamic system of visually perceptible
symbols and signs, how universally Islamic
such a system is, and what its variants
might be. I phrase this question somewhat
differently. In the great variety and wealth
of forms in the Muslim world, are there
universally perceptible visual symbols? A
civilization as rich and continuous as the
Islamic civilization has no doubt created a
multitude of symbolic systems within its
domain. Can such systems be considered
universally valid?
A Case Example: The Minaret
We may examine the problem of the

universality of architectural symbolism by
choosing a prominent example: the
minaret. It is emblematic of the mosque
because it is a functional part of it. By
extension of this function it can be taken
as the symbol of prayer, the symbol of the
Islamic town and ultimately of Islam itself.
Yet there is no specific prescribed form for
the minaret. Therefore, not the form of
the minaret but the fact that it serves an
Islamic function is what makes it symbolic.
The particular shape of the minaret is
acknowledged and accepted by those who
share the. culture in which it was created.
For persons living outside certain cultural
parameters, a minaret is merely a tower. Delhi, India: detail of the Friday Mosque showing minaret and dome
Giralda in Seville has no religious sig-
nificance for Turkish peasants. Photo: D. Sareen!Aga Khan Awards
13 Symbolism in its Regional and Contemporary Context
It is clear that the symbolic importance of Plurality, Continuity and the continuity of forms if this is rejected by
the minaret was borrowed from pre- Function of Forms the very history of Islam itself. On the
Islamic cultures. The minaret is first a sign other hand, the neutrality of tradition
and only becomes a symbol on a higher The universal, all-encompassing charac- (vis-a-vis the physical forms of life)
level of appreciation. Its form is therefore teristics of Islam as a way of life have not should not lead us to reject historical
defined culturally, not religiously. I want been sufficient to create an all-embracing forms. Although they may lack deep
to emphasize here that if we cannot world of forms. The number and variety of religious meaning, traditional values
identify a specificity of form even for the forms, therefore, is not a product of an embodied in some forms and spatial rela-
minaret, we are not likely to locate such Islamic world view but the outcome of tionships continue to be cherished. It is to
specificity in other building elements. A varying regional and cultural interpreta- these cultural traditions, then, that we
practical corollary would be the obser- tions. Changing attitudes and a plurality of should look when seeking symbolism in
vation that the tower form, stripped of its traditions have found different expressions the architecture of Islamic countries.
cultural context, cannot properly be in various phases of Islamic history. There Let us consider a concrete example.
deemed of "universal" importance to an is no doubt that universal Islamic values Whether functional or symbolic or both, in
Islamic landscape. We recall that in early are incorporated into the life of every North Africa and Spain we find dark,
Islam there was no minaret, and even in Muslim society. These values, in the form shadowy mosque interiors contrasted with
later Islam there have been mosques which of social behaviour, emanate from the bright courtyards. Full, massive exterior
totally lack minarets or whose minarets Koran and Sunna. Nevertheless, as Grabar forms contrast with delicate surface tex-
are not towers. discusses, no body of writing attests to the tures; white or red monochrome exteriors
From this we can conclude that no symbolic content of any architectural contrast with exuberant interior surface
"universal" Islamic architectural forms form. In a sense this is proper, because a colours. Shadows cast by high walls onto
exist without a degree of ambiguity. Nor dependence on any implied value in forms winding paths suggest a certain relation-
can we expect to attain a modern and is inherently anti-Islamic. Forms are ship between sun and shade. Any modern
universally valid Islamic architecture transient. Only Allah, who is formless, is building which boasts a combination of
through the repetition of such forms. On eternal. Thus the perception of any these aspects expresses a certain continuity
the other hand, there are elements of continuity of form is not a religious but a of spirit with the past. Is this expression of
Islamic life and culture where continuity is cultural attitude. continuity enough to make the edifice
an important concern. The quest for To differentiate a religious attitude from a symbolic of Islam for modern men? I think
cultural continuity and cultural identity cultural attitude so thoroughly shaped by this evocation is possible, but not
requires identifying the necessary linking religion would seem difficult. But religion necessary.
elements. In architecture these links are does not condition all aspects of be- Grabar asks in what fashion and how
presumed to be the old forms. haviour; it only sets limitations. The successfully were signs and symbols-
If one wishes merely to imitate an old Tradition does not say the IJajj must be however restricted in time and space-
mosque, the problem of continuity can be made on donkey, on camel, on foot, by transformed into building forms. If we
solved in a straightforward way; no dis- car or by airplane. If the Koran and Sunna pose the question in this way, there will
cussion is required except to determine the had prescribed physical forms, nobody very likely be no answer. Symbols do not
methods of imitation. As far as purely could ever have added to Mecca and the evolve into forms, but forms, through
formal aspects are concerned, I can form of the pilgrimage would have re- certain cultural and psychological mecha-
imitate the Qayrawiyyin mosque in a new mained unaltered; neither could the route nisms, earn the status of symbols. We may
mosque at Rabat or a copy of the six- between ~afa and Marwa have been also ask whether there exist, in totally
teenth-century Siileymaniye at Ankara. covered nor tunnels built under the rocks disparate historical and geographical
Such imitative solutions are actually being to ensure that pilgrims to Mina are settings and different worlds of regional
employed. This demonstrates that al- protected. At Mecca, overwhelmingly forms, similar mechanisms for the for-
though there are no universally adopted practical considerations totally eclipsed mation of symbols. If so, what is the role
forms in Islamic architecture, regionally symbolic intent, if indeed any ever existed. of religion in this process? These are
identifiable ones do exist and are accepted It is certainly difficult to define the difficult questions, and I am unaware of
as symbolic. symbolic content of traditional Islamic the existence of a study or theory yielding
forms if so radical a change in environ- any clue to this universal mechanism.
ment can occur in the very heart of Islam Obviously, every possible influence,
and in close proximity to the symbol of whether of a material, personal, societal
symbols. or spiritual nature, may be expected to
Obviously there is no reason to insist on a play a part in the development of forms.
Religious regulations and prescriptions for Grabar observes that Islam lacks a rich much assistance in regard to this aspect of
everyday behaviour may have been ini- vocabulary of symbolic meanings com- Muslim life, but surely a lack of literary
tially influential, but it was their practical parable to that found in Christianity. mention does not denote total nonex-
aspect and not their spiritual content Recalling Ettinghausen's opinion about the istence. The paucity of reference may only
which was influential. Religious traditions low symbolic charge of Islamic monu- signify literary disinterest.
defined acts, not the forms and spaces in ments, Grabar opines that it was this low
Another point is important in this context.
which these acts were to be executed. The charge which made it possible for an
Muslim culture is not as object-oriented
spaces and forms are actually neutral and Indonesian pagoda or a Roman temple to
as Western culture. When the West ar-
can serve any purpose. Only their usage become a mosque. The easy transforma-
rived with all its material might, with its
invested them with meaning. Time first tion of any symbolically different building
idolatry of objects and with a great fanfare
conferred upon them the status of a sign into a mosque may result from the par-
of new symbols, the nonchalant, sym-
indicative of a function or an act and only ticular nature of the Muslim religion.
bolically low-charged Muslim architecture
secondly a symbolic implication. Allah is everywhere and in every act.
succumbed to this powerful force. If
A symbol's meaning is subject to religious Nothing is necessarily closer to Him than
Islamic architecture had been heavily
or secular adaptation. In the realm of anything else since everything emanates
invested with religious symbolism, this
mysticism and the esoteric, symbolism is from Him. A symbolic meaning may be
sudden submission to Western forms
attached to every object in space and to attached to a given form but it does not
would not have occurred. Perhaps our
space itself. A Bektashi convent is a case come from this source. The meaning is
very search for the nature of symbolic
in point. Here the form of space is not derived from human necessities that may
meaning is but another example of West-
shaped in accordance with any detailed be cultural, functional or economic.
ern influence.
symbolism; it is simply a cubic room. A shape should not have a religious
We should not conclude, as does Prof.
significance. It should not become an idol.
Grabar, that it is not forms which identify
I am even inclined to admit that any
Islamic culture and by extension the
formal symbolism in Islam is essentially
Toward a Vocabulary of Muslim's perception of his architecture,
anti-religious. But religion does not
Symbolic Meanings but sounds, history and mode of life. Only
interfere with the cultural significance of
the very early history of Islam is a
symbolic forms, nor does it dictate their
To Prof. Grabar's query about the validity common denominator for modern Mus-
existence or nonexistence. If we accept
of experience and the usefulness of past lims. In Muslim countries "mode of life"
that formal symbolism in Muslim culture
memories for the future, we may say that suggests all possible varieties of human
operates on a level below religious sig-
the symbol of the present is the sign of the experience. Except for a common creed,
nificance, our problem will be easier to
past, because it is the end product of an neither history nor lifestyle can identify a
solve.
evolved system of knowledge and beliefs. unified Islamic culture. In consideration of
According to historical consensus, the Grabar asks whether cultures operate in wide stylistic differences in the great
greatest works of art are those created in ambiguous visual systems. This is surely Muslim monuments, Grabar's argument is
the past and not the products of our the case. Ambiguity derives largely from untenable. Consequently, we must reduce
own age. the necessity for individual interpretations. the elements from the universal to the
The relationship between form and regional and from the specifically religious
Grabar remarks that in the writings of to the cultural. We must define temporal
symbolic content, especially in architec-
Nader Ardalan and others there is an and geographic boundaries, and look for
ture, is not likely to be interpreted in the
implicit assumption that certain kinds of symbolism in an existential and not a
same way by every individual.
formal transformations with their infinite religious context.
modifications "are innate within the Can a mosque be more than a place of
psyche and often affected by certain prayer for the common man? He lacks the In his third proposition Grabar states that
physical or cultural circumstances." Even vocabulary to attach much abstract sig- very few architectural forms have been
if we accept this statement, it yields no nificance to it. But it is difficult to accept consistently indicative of the presence of
clues to the understanding of symbolism that a symbolic meaning for a form can Islam. This seems to be an incorrect
unless we define the relationship between exist without a capacity for verbal ex- approach to our problem, since it is based
specific circumstances and the human planation. Signs and symbols must have upon a faulty assumption of the uni-
psyche. Here I would reiterate a pertinent verbal synonyms or their existence cannot versality of symbols. Symbolic value is
remark by Grabar: unless we take the be proven. I believe that the discovery of present whenever a meaning, subject to
contemporary situation into account, the a concrete terminology to explain symbolic alteration, is attached to any artifact in the
use of past symbolism as the sole basis for meanings is of paramount importance. The environment. We cannot assign symbolic
our explanation can only be incorrect. Muslim written traditions do not provide meaning to the mosque, the gate, the
cupola, or the minbar. Symbolic values in Islamic content of decoration. I suspect In Turkey we use the Latin alphabet.
the existing environment are not assigned that when Grabar says "symbol," he Should we decorate our fa<;ades with
spontaneously, but they evolve and exist in actually means something more on the Arabic script?
everyday life over a period of time. The order of a sign. There is indeed a char- Until now, no body of research has sought
common people perceive symbolic values, acteristic Islamic approach to decoration to elucidate the correspondence between
but they seldom have the desire or the but every culture within the Islamic world architectural form and its inner meaning.
ability to express them. follows its own style. An evaluation of the form of the most
The next issue is whether form itself is a Does an inscription on a Sheraton Hotel sacred of Muslim buildings, the mosque,
manifestation of the symbolic. Here the make it Islamic? In a sense it would, reveals little correspondence between
detailed study of esoteric symbolic mean- because the presence of calligraphy is an Muslim prayer ritual and the mosque
ings will prove unproductive. For practical immediate reference. By this reasoning, an form. No satisfactory answer has yet been
purposes the symbolic value of archi- Arab-owned bank in London would be offered to the question of what confers
tectural forms lies in their visual impact as Islamic. But when Grabar says that "one symbolic meaning upon a form. Is it
perceived by ordinary people. of the most striking 'un-Islamicities' of formal quality or function? I suggest that
contemporary architecture is its failure to we look in the realm of function as
make aesthetically appealing utilization of precisely defined by time and space.
calligraphy," he leans toward a dangerous
Decoration as Symbol generalization.
Admittedly, calligraphy does not play the
Grabar's fourth proposal is to seek Islamic From Past to Present Tense
same role in the modern as in the historic
symbolism in decoration. I think that apart Islamic building. But do we really want to
from calligraphy intimately connected with write the names of Allah alongside Coca- To what extent should we seek historical
architecture, it is difficult to ascertain the Cola signs on the balconies of stadiums? antecedents of modern, symbolically-
imbued form? My own inclination is that
there is no need for an historical per-
spective at all. For those who believe in
the validity of such a regeneration, I cite
the following cautionary example. The
Prophet's house in Medina served as a
mosque. There was no minaret, no
mi!Jriib, no min bar. Since the life of the
Prophet represents the ideal life for a
Muslim, all the auxiliary forms which are
now associated with a mosque may be
taken as superfluous. Of course, no
Muslim will accept this, because in Islamic
tradition the accretion of forms and
changes in their symbolic content are
accepted. Our problem lies in our capacity
to control the rate of change of this
symbolic content. If it is too fast, a
vacuum in symbolic meaning will result. A
lack of communication between past and
future accounts for the veritable cultural
chaos of today's Islamic world. But neither
should we retard changes in symbolism by
looking longingly to the great monumental
buildings of the past or by excessively
cherishing domes, arches and courtyards.
Today we face a dilemma. How can Islam
as a potential source of symbolism be
Isfahan, Iran: Masjid-i Shiih, dome exterior
reconciled with the modern international
Photo: V. Prentice architectural forms which introduce their
nism only through an analysis of the past.

Historical analysis also makes clear that
different cultures have differing attitudes
toward conferring symbolic value upon a
given form.
Human beings have an intuitive inclination
to symbolize. I believe this is an extension
of the act of recognition, glorifying the
capacity for memorization evinced by
humans and their society. The ability to
memorize and to remember past expe-
riences has been the basis for the devel-
opment and survival of human society.
Simple memorization requires symboliza-
tion, and the modern world offers many
examples of the use of symbolizing for
practical and functional purposes.
No matter what aspect of symbolism we
consider, we must take its actual usage
into account. There is no stronger clue to
the value of a symbolic form than its
perception and acceptance by the com-
munity at large. To underline this fact is a
Mecca Hotel and Conference Centre, Saudi Arabia interior view of contemporary design minaret matter of practical necessity. The Award
aims at actual contributions to the shaping
Photo: M Al-Hariri!Aga Khan Awards of the man-made environment in Islamic
countries. The old relationships between
form and sign or symbol concern us in the
degree to which they illuminate con-
own symbolism of technology? Contempo- symbolism in architecture, two distinct temporary perceptions; symbols cannot
rary symbolic forms are so readily aspects of the problem should be clearly exist without perceivers.
accepted that even alien techniques and separated. One is the symbolic value of The symbolism of surviving elements of
foreign authorship do not appear to have traditional architectural forms, and the the traditional environment exists on
slowed their adoption by Muslims. The second is their role in architecture and in several levels. The great monuments have
masses are happy to destroy their old the modern environment in general. The become symbols by dint of value judg-
houses in favour of new apartments. The latter aspect may also be subdivided, as it ments accumulated over many generations.
rulers are satisfied when international includes both entire old buildings situated The built environment in its totality is also
designers build their palaces, government in the modern environment and isolated symbolic of a certain way of life. But these
offices, airports and universities. As a old forms assimilated into modern symbols act in different ways. The great
social consensus, nobody seems to be buildings. mosque as a symbol has a certain in-
bothered by these forms borrowed from The derivation of symbolic value from any vulnerability because it does not belong to
foreign cultures. And so against a back- architectural form is a theoretical problem. individuals; it is part of the common
ground of acceptance, on what authority I strongly doubt that any definitive heritage. On the other hand, the urban
do we denounce the lack of Islamic agreement on the nature of the symbolic landscape is composed essentially of
symbolism in these buildings? process in the built environment can ever privately-owned homes. Home and family
be reached. But discussion is useful, are practically synonymous terms. Indi-
because even if the symbolic values of vidual houses are easily replaceable
Problems of Definition certain forms die out, the process itself elements in the urban fabric. Homes lack
survives; new forms of symbolism replace the symbolic value of great monuments;
I would like to conclude by discussing the old ones, possibly fulfilling the same unless they are connected with some
problems of definition of a more practical unaccountable needs of the human psyche. historical fact of importance, they are
nature. To simplify our discussion of We can hope to understand this mecha- vulnerable. The absolute control over a
private residence is vested in its owner. In

the case of individual houses, therefore,
the necessary prerogatives of daily life are
greater than any symbolic importance.
Any symbolic value inherent in a house
form comes from its long use, from its
becoming a paradigm of some experience
or quality of life. When this form, whose
value is so overtly experiential, does not
fulfill the exigencies of changed circum-
stances, it is difficult to interfere with the
demands of its owners that it be changed.
In the past, this change in demand as
reflected in form occurred smoothly
because the additions or replacements
were of a similar and familiar quality.
Today, however, the replacement is likely
to be totally foreign in nature. The
superiority of the Western image in
architecture is not, however, a product of
the experience of generations. It is derived
from the political and economic superi-
ority of an alien world which imposes itself
by sheer force. This is clearly a different
kind of symbolism.
When we speak of implicit symbolism in
the forms of the past, we refer to the
intrinsic quality of the native building
process which developed very slowly. Thi~
development may even have been im-
perceptible in a normal human life span.
With modern symbolism, the story is
entirely different. Therefore, any
argument about architectural symbolism
will be on sure ground only if all par- Aksaray, Turkey: Sultan Han, a Seljuk caravanserai.
Detail of main portal
ticipants in the debate share clear and
common definitions of the meaning of Photo: M Niksarll
symbolism. Symbolism is subject to
temporal and spatial delimitation and
should be considered only in proper
context.
18
The Visual Language of Symbolic Form:
A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture
Nader Ardalan
As a practicing architect in the Islamic methodology has been employed. First, by ing a bridge to the historical traditions of
world, my views reflect the concerns of analyzing the origins of mosques and Islamic architecture that unfortunately
one who has practically and philosophi- studying the transformation of ancient have fallen into a state of obscurity.
cally encountered the issues of traditional pre-Islamic building types into mosques, it Without concentrating on issues beyond
architecture and its potential integration is possible to discern a distinct set of the present scope of this study, we will
within the contemporary context. generic "Islamic" forms and typologies of address briefly the vast subject of the
My fifteen years of experience in this field spatial organization. Second, a compara- meanings and intentions of this language.
have taught that Islamic art and archi- tive survey of the major mosques of the Our work supports the position that art in
tecture traditionally place the highest Muslim world makes it possible to cata- Islam is rooted in the principle of Divine
value on the achievement of beauty. This logue the relative occurrence of these Remembrance and that the value of true
is a natural outgrowth of the Koran, the generic forms and typologies over the last creativity lies in the ability of that art to
fountainhead of the Islamic perspective, fourteen hundred years. The results of this resonate a profound accord between man,
which emphasizes goodness, truth and preliminary study, while still in the process nature and the Absolute.
knowledge while placing the primary of completion, indicate the existence of a
concern upon a}Jsan al-'amala (Beautiful definite visual language possessing both
Deeds). As another example of this a vocabulary and a grammar. The vo-
emphasis, the ninety-nine Holy Attributes cabulary basically deals with the aesthetic Transformations as Beginnings
of God are referred to as asma' al-}Jusna concepts and models of the parts of the
(Beautiful Names). Therefore, it is under- mosque. It concerns such issues as con-
The study of the transformations of pre-
standable that in Islam the fundamental stituent forms, surface pattern, colour Islamic monuments is an important first
mandate of architecture, apart from ful- selection and modes of material usage.
step in the definition of what constitutes a
filling necessary functional requirements, The grammar, on the other hand, relates visual vocabulary relevant to Islam. For
should be to manifest a purposeful sense to various systems of organizing these example, lessons can be gained by ob-
of beauty. Meaningful beauty in Islamic parts into a coherent whole within the serving those parts of pagan, Christian,
architecture requires both a quantitative framework of Islamic concepts of place-
Zoroastrian and Hindu buildings which
dimension of concern, achieved mainly making. were maintained intact and those which
through a process of pragmatic environ- Some qualifying remarks are, however, were modified or entirely removed to
mental adaptation, and a qualitative necessary. First, while there seems to be a make them Islamic spaces. A similar
dimension, expressed principally through distinct visual language that is uniquely lesson can be gained from the study of
Islamic aesthetics. Islamic, there exists a multiplicity of what has been added. Thus, through a
This paper concentrates upon a few major dialects related to various ecological and systematic study of inclusions and exclu-
themes of the aesthetics of Islamic cultural regions of the Muslim people. sions, we can trace the birth of Islamic
architecture and is intended as a com- Second, some parts of the vocabulary and architecture.
plement to the more quantitative con- grammar have achieved, through accretion In reviewing a number of notable trans-
siderations expressed by others in the and evolution, highly charged symbolic formations as representative samples of
seminar. In particular, it offers a meanings 'upon which there may still be the different ecological/cultural regions of
preliminary survey of the visual language general societal agreement, while other the Islamic world, primary emphasis will
of symbolic forms found in the archi- parts of the language are very regionally be placed upon the Masjid al-Haram at
tecture of the mosque. The mosque has bound. An example of this is the dome, Mecca and the Hagia Sophia. A more
been selected for study because it occurs which receives a high emphasis in the zone brief review of mosques at Damascus,
in varying shapes and sizes as a funda- of Persian culture but is rather unde- Cordoba, Delhi and Fars, Iran, will show
mental part of city planning in all Muslim veloped in the African, Saudi Arabian and both the multiplicity and the unity of the
cultures from Spain to China, and because Indonesian cultural zones. Third, the earliest beginnings of mosque architecture.
it possesses the most charged set of visual visual language to be presented is only a
symbols. An important reminder of the "kit of tools" related to a mode of
pivotal role of the mosque in Islamic architectural expression. Just as a diction-
thought is the saying of the Prophet ary and a handbook of style do not by
inscribed upon the gateway of the Qu!b themselves guarantee a masterpiece of Mecca
Minar: "He who builds a mosque for God, literature, the different levels of aesthetic
God will build for him a similar one in beauty depend upon the creative excel- In terms of sacred geography, Mecca is
Paradise." lence of the user. Nevertheless, docu- considered by the Koran to be the
menting the parts and structural systems of "mother of all cities" and, in a meta-
To achieve an understanding of the visual
this visual language is necessary for build- phorical sense, the "naval of the earth."
language of mosque design, a two-part
19 The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture
The bait al-'atiq, the ancient house installed (al-!Jajar al-aswad) to mark the The walls of the Ka'ba have been en-
located in Mecca, is our primary source of beginning of the circumambulation. From shrouded since pre-Islamic times, and this
knowledge of this most sacred Islamic its primary shape, the form came to be tradition has continued to the present. The
place. known as the Ka'ba: "the Cube." cloth has varied from a black and white
Mythology relates that Adam first built striped pattern to all white, all red, red
Some twenty-six hundred years later, by covered in black, and to the black brocade
the great cube of the Ka'ba, while the the time of the Prophet Mul).ammad, the
Koran records that Abraham was divinely that now adorns the Ka'ba.
form had evolved into a flat roofed cube
ordered to construct this archetypal house constructed of alternating courses of stone The metamorphosis of the Ka'ba attests to
of worship. It is instructive to remember and teak wood. The interior walls con- its essential constancy, for on the whole,
here the Koranic admonition addressed to tained pictures of Abraham, Mary and the very little has been added or taken away
Abraham: "Behold, we gave the site to Child amidst angels as well as trees and from this ancient house over the last four
Abraham, of the [Sacred] House, [saying]: vegetal motifs. In the ensuing centuries thousand years. Perhaps the only singular
'Associate not anything with me."' (Sura the cube-like edifice was reconstructed monumental act of exclusion was per-
XXII, 26) several times, assuming different sizes, formed by the Prophet in eliminating from
This affirmative act of providing "some- proportions, number of doors and varying the outer perimeter the pagan idols which
thing" (the Ka'ba), followed by a negating interior structures and decorations. The had surrounded the Ka'ba.
directive indicating "nothingness," is an present Ka'ba dates nearly four hundred Circumambulation of the Ka'ba has been
apparently paradoxical yet telling sign of years to the Ottoman period, but it rests an associated act of this sacred place since
the basic character of Islamic aesthetics. upon the foundation stones of Abraham's its inception. However, the growing
As a fundamental architectural criteria of first construction. number of annual pilgrims, together with
mosque design, it is similar to the Islamic
testament of the shahtida: lti iltiha ilia lltih
(There is no god, but Allah). The shahtida
states a profound basic concept of a
dynamic God, a simultaneously denying
yet affirming perception of "Ultimate
Reality." Through the process of simili-
tude, much used in Islamic logic, an
extension of the shahtida concept
regarding all manifestations of God may
be possible. Taken in this light, the
Koranic admonition to Abraham regarding
the Ka'ba assumes additional meaning and
helps to establish the basic principle of
transcendence observable in great Islamic
art and architecture.
In addition to the philosophic implications
of the Koranic references to the Ka'ba,
the historical transformations leading to
the present Masjid al-Haram are
instructive in our search for the basic
vocabulary of Islamic forms. In this study
it is valuable to distinguish the
morphology of the Ka'ba proper from
peripheral place changes. Fortunately,
both aspects have been meticulously
recorded in history.
Legend has it that the Ka'ba constructed Istanbul, Turkey Hagia Sophia, dome
by Abraham and Isma'il was a roofless
Photo: V. Prentice
square about the height of a man with its
comers set to the cardinal directions. In
the eastern comer the Black Stone was
The Visual Language of Symbolic Form: A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture 20
the growth in stature of the religion, has mosque. Of course, twentieth-century Damascus, Cordoba, Delhi
created the need periodically to expand Turkish culture has relegated the Hagia
and elaborate the surroundings of the Sophia to museum status, but our concern The mosque of Damascus offers an
Ka'ba. Originally, at the time of the is with the five hundred years of its instance of a double transformation. A
Prophet, the Ka'ba, the associated Muslim usage. pagan Roman temple of the third century
Zamzam Well and the station of Abraham In the interior of the Hagia Sophia the A.D., set within a temenos, was trans-
were located in a small, open courtyard, altar and all liturgical objects of worship formed first into a Christian and then a
forty metres in diameter, surrounded by were removed; all biblical figures, such as Muslim place of worship. The plan of the
houses of the city of Mecca. Gradually, the mosaics depicting the Virgin and Child church lay on an east-west axis with the
the space was enlarged to include other and St. John the Baptist were covered in altar located in the apse to the west. With
symbolic objects such as several minbars plaster; the faces of two seraphim and two the Islamic conquest, the shell of the
and the four pavilions of prayer repre- cherubim in the four pendentives of the church was retained while an arcade was
senting the four schools of Islamic dome were transfigured by gilded stars, added to the north. In time, three
thought. Finally, an arcade and mosque and most notably, the image of Christ in minarets were also constructed. By virtue
emerged to encircle the Ka'ba. This was the dome was replaced by a sunburst of its geographic location, the basilica
completely rebuilt by Sinan in the six- medallion enriched with the Sura of Light. space of the interior was dramatically
teenth century in a most modest manner. altered by the placement of the mil]riib
The Masjid al-Haram of the Ottoman Among acts of inclusion in the interior and minbar on the southern wall, changing
period remained basically unchanged for was the placement in the old apse of a by ninety degrees the spatial orientation of
nearly four hundred years until the recent mil]riib, minbar, sultan's throne and raised the building. Instead of looking down the
major extension and modifications com- places for the recitation of the Koran. large hierarchical nave, the emphasis was
pleted by the Government of Saudi These objects were situated with a slight placed on the breadth of a seemingly
Arabia. Today, the open space measures orientational adjustment to the south in endless space of equality.
nearly 150 by 300 metres and the new the direction of Mecca. Opposite the
Masjid al-Haram can accommodate more mil]riib space great fonts for ablution were Cordoba represents a reverse transforma-
than 100,000 people at one time. placed. Considerably later, in the nine- tion. An Islamic place was here turned
teenth century, the series of large cal- into a Christian place. The original
The evolving design of the Masjid Moorish mosque was unusual for several
ligraphic discs that now adorn the interior
al-Haram has been characterized by reasons, but it was most unique by virtue
were installed. In sum, however, the
several distinct architectural forms occur- of its "room mil]riib" which remains even
spherical geometry of the interior space
ring over the centuries: courtyard, arcade in the Christian period. Significantly, the
was left unaltered. Rather, the direction,
(portico), gateways, minaret and, in a small cathedral that now has been inserted
the "furniture" and the signs were
minor yet definite way, dome. The latter is into the vast arcaded space of the old
changed, and hence, the particular sym-
found in all of the Sinan arcades and in mosque is oriented almost ninety degrees
bolic meaning of space.
the contemporary ~afa-Marwa area of the from Mecca toward the rising sun. Aside
mosque. On the exterior, aside from the removal of from the minarets that have become bell
the cross atop the great dome, additive towers and the floral decorations that have
steps predominate. Soon after the con- remained virtually unchanged, it would be
version of the Hagia Sophia, a wooden hard to discern the changes that have
Hagia Sophia minaret was erected in the northeast, later occurred.
replaced by a masonry minaret. Then a
In Constantinople, nearly eight hundred second minaret of stone was erected to the The Qu!b ad-Din Aybak Mosque and the
years after the Hijra, on May 29, 1453, southeast. Finally, the twin minarets of adjacent Ou!b Minar in Delhi of the
one of the last Islamic transformations of Sinan were completed on the opposite twelfth century A.D. represent yet again
significance took place. On that day, comers in the sixteenth century. More another aspect of historical transforma-
Sultan Mul}.ammad marched triumphantly than any other transformative act, the four tion. Here, as in many examples elsewhere
into the great "Cathedral of the Heavenly minarets have changed the architectonic in the Muslim world, transformation
Wisdom," the sum manifestation of the impression of the building. However, it is involved borrowing the parts of existing
Byzantine Empire and the Eastern Holy what has remained untouched-the space pre-Islamic buildings. Although all the
Church, climbed upon the table of the and form of a central domical plan-that elements of the classic mosque can be
sacraments, turned to Mecca, and said his has had the most lasting influence. All seen-gateway, courtyard, porch, minaret
prayers. This act inaugurated a series of subsequent great mosques of Turkey have (in this case a towering giant of seventy-
changes whereby an architectural master- emulated the transformed and prototypical five metres), mil]riib, dome and plinth-
piece of the sixth century was made into a Hagia Sophia. some of the actual stone columns and
masonry used in the building construction also reflected in the gateway and portico, and, whenever possible, site visits to
belong to the Hindu temples upon whose important parts of a "positive space" determine the relative level of emphasis of
foundation stones the mosque was con- design attitude. the eight generic forms and the regularity
structed. The domical, mandalic form highlights a of adherence to a typology of spatial
third principle of centrality and symmetry. organization. In particular, information for
The dome, when in evidence, normally Far Eastern mosques was inadequate and
provides the special sacred space within the results for this geographic zone are
Chahiir Tiiq and Eyviin only tentative.
which the mi]Jrab is located. In Southeast
Asia and other forest ecologies, this sacred In reviewing the survey charts, some
Rather than review a particular historical space often takes the form of a pyramidal definite patterns are observable. For
building, our final example of a trans- roof with wooden rafters. Regardless of example, the Arab cultures of Arabia,
formation centres on two types of pre- the particular shape, the idea of centrality Iraq, Syria, Egypt, North Africa and
Islamic building forms belonging to the remains constant. Moorish Spain are heavily represented by
Sasanian period: the chahiir taq and the the hypostyle mosque with a flat roof or a
eyvan. These have influenced nearly all From the ritual of daily and congrega- flat roof with dome accents. In East and
later Persian mosques, culminating in such tional prayer, two other generic forms West Africa the flat hypostyle type seems
masterpieces as the Friday Mosque and have evolved: the minaret and the place of to predominate, although great dynamics
the Masjid-i Shah of Isfahan. ablution. The plinth has come into being of design, which could in time alter this
as a necessary consequence of single plane trend, are evident. The interpretations
Formed by a cubic base of four supporting
courtyard designs set upon land with a here may also be misleading, as the
elements connected by arches and covered
minimum degree of topographic slope. sampling for this large region was small
by a dome, the chahar taq or tetrapylon
The symbolic value of a raised place is and the buildings were investigated only
was the sacred place of the Zoroastrian
further in evidence in the placement of through plans and photographs.
eternal flame. With the Islamic conquest,
mosques on hilltops as in many Turkish
such sacred spaces were easily converted The Indian subcontinent (including
and Indo-Pakistani examples.
into mosques by the inclusion of a mi]Jrab. Pakistan and Bangladesh) represents a
Such a simple transformation can be seen To reiterate, the following recurring forms unique cultural identity, although ecologi-
in the small mosque at Yazd-i Kasht in of mosque architecture constitute the cal variations have influenced the design
Fars. major elements of inclusion that have of mosques there considerably. Mosques in
evolved over the centuries: mi]Jrab, Iran, Central Asia and Afghanistan show
From the great ceremonial halls of the
minaret, gateway, courtyard, portico, strong affinities of type. Predominantly of
Sasanians came the eyvan or great porch.
place of ablution, plinth and dome. Acts the four-eyvan variety, they rely heavily
An example of the form, which was
of exclusion are relatively few and are upon the chahar taq concept of place-
quickly integrated into the architecture of
primarily restricted to the removal of making. Turkey is also one of the more
Persian mosques, can be seen at Niriz in
specific imagery that would limit the homogeneous areas, having evolved the
Fars in a mosque dating from 970 A.D.
transcendent unity of the Divine. This central dome plan within its own regional
aspect is most telling of the eclectic and borders and being basically of one eco-
integrative nature of Islamic architecture. logical zone.
Visual Characteristics of In an effort to determine the prevalence of
Mosque Architecture the aforementioned generic forms and the Despite the preliminary nature of this
regional character of the spatial order of survey, it is important to note that all
their organization, I have surveyed one eight generic forms were found in each of
From the preceding sample study of
hundred and thirteen major mosques the six geographic zones and that they
transformation, it is possible to deduce a
throughout the Islamic world. In this appeared in no less than 83% of the
basic list of recurring generic forms as well
survey, the Muslim world is categorized mosques surveyed. The incidence of
as some principles of spatial organization.
according to regional, ecological and courtyards was 93%; minarets, 89%;
There is a definite concern for orientation
cultural variations as expressed by the domes (pyramidal also included), 83%;
in space expressed both in the cosmic
typology of their mosque design. Six gateways, 100%; porticos, 86%; plinths,
orientation of the Ka'ba (set with corners
groups have been identified at this 87%; places of ablution, 97% and, of
to cardinal directions) and in the ter-
preliminary stage, but the number of course, mi]Jrabs, 100%.
restrial alignment of mosques toward
Mecca. The architectural device for this categories could grow as more information In the mosque typologies, the results are
purpose is the mi]Jrab. A second principle is collected about the zones and the for the most part regionally bound, but
is introversion, characterized by courtyard typologies of mosques. Each mosque was there is also a spread of cultural types
and central dome planning. This concern is analyzed according to plans, photographs beyond the regional borders. Turkish
central dome plans in North Africa and Selected Bibliography

Egypt are the product of Ottoman stylistic
imperialism. The presence of the Iranian ACE N Ardalan, Consultant. Masjid al-Haram
four-eyvan plan in Iraq and the Indian (Teheran, 1976).
subcontinent reflects similar historical
Ali, Abdullah Yusuf The Holy Quran (New York,
processes. 1946)
One overpowering question for further Ardalan, N and L. Bakhtiar Sense of Unity (Chicago,
inquiry arises as a result of this study. Is 1973)
the prevalance of these eight generic forms
Burckhardt, T Art of Islam (London, 1976)
a mere coincidence, the result of auto-
cratic impositions, or does their repetition Creswell, K A C Early Muslim Architecture
(Oxford, 1Q32).
represent a natural Islamic language of
visual forms for mosque design? Our Grabar, 0 Formation of Islamic Art (New Haven,
preliminary evidence points to the latter. 1973).
Moreover, what can be learned from the Grube, E T The World of Islam (New York, 1966)
study of mosque typologies of spatial Kahler, H Hagia Sophia (New York, 1967)
organization? Assuming that an ecological
imperative is at work with cultural Kuran, A The Mosque in Early Ottoman Architecture
(Chicago, 1968)
identity, do the adaptive forms thus
produced have applications beyond the Lynch, K Image of the City (Cambridge, Mass.,
mosque? A fruitful direction for future 1960)
action lies in the development of a Michell, G. Architecture of the Islamic World (London,
complete inventory of major Islamic build- 1978)
ings. If systematically undertaken ac- Pope, A A Survey of Persian Art (London, 1938)
cording to the various ecological and
cultural zones of the Muslim world, other Scerrato, U. Monuments of Civilization: Islam
(London, 1976)
building types such as the madrasa and
caravanserai can be analyzed for their
generic forms and ordering typologies. A
compendium of such studies would provide
a useful "road map" to the more relevant
forms appropriate today for each of the
ecological/cultural zones of Islam. With
greater refinement, the study could
address other architectural dimensions
which have been forgotten. This much
needed remembrance could help make
explicit the multiplicity of expressions
inherent in the world of Islam and,
through an understanding of the generic
nature of transcendent forms, surfaces and
patterns, create a new sense of visual
beauty worthy of Islamic culture.
ZONE I Egypt, Iraq, Jordan, North Africa, GENERIC FORMS MOSQUE TYPOLOGY
Palestine, Saudi Arabia, Spain, Syria 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6
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1
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ALGIERS
ALEPPO
Mosque of the Fishery
Great Mosque
•• 0
•• •• • • ~
~
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~ ~
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X 17
11-13a
3
4
BAGHDAD
BASRA
Mustansiriyya
Mosque of Umar
•• ••
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8
5
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CAIRO Al-Aqmar
Al-Azhar •• •• •• •• ••
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10
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Al-Hakim
Al-Mu'ayyad Sheikh
•• •• ~
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10
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An-Nasir Muhammad
Az-Zahir Baybars
•• ••
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11
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Amir Altunbugha
'Amr Ibn Al-As
••• ••
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9
•• • •• •• •••
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14
15
Muhammad 'Ali
Sultan Hasan
•• •• •• • •• •
~
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X 19
14
16
17
CORDOBA
DAMASCUS
Great Mosque
Great Mosque
•• •• 0
•• • •• •
~
~ ~
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8b
8c
18
19
FEZ Bii-'Inaniyya
Qayrawiyyin
•• •• •• • • •
0 ~
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9-17
•• • •• •
20 HAMA Great Mosque ~ ~ ~ ~ X 13-14c
21
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JERUSALEM Aqsa Mosque
Dome of the Rock
••
0
0
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• 0
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X
7
7
•eP • •••
23 KAIROUAN Great Mosque ~ ~ ~ ~ X 9-13
24
25
KUFA
MAHDIA
Mosque
Great Mosque •• ••
0?
~
0
~
~
~
0
~
~
~
X
X
7-15
10
26
27
MARRAKESH
MECCA
Kutubiyya
Haram Al-Shanf 0 • •• •• •• •
~
~
~ ~
0
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X 7d
12
28
29
MEDINA
RABAT
Mosque of Prophet
Hasan Mosque
•• •• •• • •
~
0 ~ ~?
~
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~
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X
X
7
12
30
31
SAMARRA:
SAN' A'
Great Mosque
Al-Bakiriyya
•• •• •• • •
0 ~
~ ~
0
~?
~
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X
X
9
16
32
33 SEVILLE
Great Mosque
Great Mosque
•• ••
~
0•• ~
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•• ~
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7-17
12b
34 SFAX Great Mosque
•• ~
•• ~
• ~ ~ X 9-18
•••
35 SHIBAM Mosque 0 ~ ~ 0 ~ X 9
36
37
TA'IZZ
TINMAL
Ashrafiyya
Friday Mosque
•• ~ ~
• • •~
~
~
•
~
~
~ X
X 13-14
12
38
39
TLEMCEN Al-Mansiir
Great Mosque
•• •• ~
•• • • •
~ ~
~
0
~
~
X
X
14
12-13
40
41
TOLEDO
TUNIS
Bab Mardiim
Hamiida Pasha
•• •• ~
~
•• • ••
e?
~ ~
~?
~
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X
X
lOb
17
42 Zaytiina Mosque
Inventory of generic forms and typology of selected mosques

• • KEY:
~ ~
e
Strong emphasis
• ~ X
a Converted from church

9-15
~ Medium emphasis b Converted to church

Compiled by N Ardalan
0 Nonexistent c Roman structure converted
? Insufficient information first to church, then mosque
P Pitched roof d Pre-Islamic Arabian
A
•• •••••••• •••• • •
A
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A F R c A
Kufa, Iraq: plan of Great Mosque as rebuilt by

Ziyadh ibn Abihi in 670 A.D. An early
hypostyle mosque
After K. A. C. Creswell
Location of principal mosques of Middle East, North Africa and Spain
-~-~-~-·--~---~:~_L
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Kairouan, Tunisia: plan of Great Mosque. A hypostyle mosque incorporating dome over mi~rab
Dome over miJ:lriib space of Great Mosque of Kairouan

Photo: S. Blair/J. Bloom
Minaret of Great Mosque of Kairouan as seen Interior of Great Mosque of Kairouan

from northwest
Photo. S Blair!!. Bloom
Photo: S. Blair/J. Bloom
ZONE II Turkey GENERIC FORMS MOSQUE TYPOLOGY

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6
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AMASYA
BEY~EHIR
Beyazit
E~refoglu
Pa~a
Mosque
•• 0
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~ X
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3
4
BURSA Hiidavandigar
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5
6
DIVRIGI
EDIRNE
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•• ~c
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16
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•• ~
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9 Nurosmaniye
•• •• •• •• ~
•• X 18
• ••• •••
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11
12
Sokullo Mehmet
Siileymaniye
•• •• ~
•• •• •• •• X
X
16
16
13
14 KONYA
Sultan Ahmet
'Ala' Ad-Din
•• ~
• ~ ~·
• ~
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• •• ~
• X
X 17
12
15 MANIS A Muradiye
• • • • • • • ~ X 16
Inventory of generic forms and typology of selected mosques KEY: e Strong emphasis A Pyramidal roof
~ Medium emphasis C Covered roof
Compiled by N. Ardalan 0 Nonexistent R River
? Insufficient information * Converted from church
B L S E A U.S.S.R.
.nivrigi
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eKonya
•Bey~ehir
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I MEDITERRANC?
Location of principal mosques of Turkey

Edirne, Turkey: interior of the Selimiye mosque

Photo: M. Niksarlt
Isometric view of the Selimiye. An Ottoman central dome mosque

Drawn by Kani Kuzucular
Reproduced courtesy of Dogan Kuban
ZONE III Afghanistan, Central Asia, Iran GENERIC FORMS MOSQUE TYPOLOGY
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6
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2
ANAU
ARDESTAN
Jamal Ad-Dm Mosque
Friday Mosque
•• •• •~
•• •• •• ~?
~
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X
X
15
11-12t
4
3 BALKH Abu Nasr Parsa
Now Gunbad
•• 0
0? •0 •• •
.,? •• ~
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~?
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X 15
9
5
6
BUKHARA
DAMGHAN
Kalayan Mosque
Tarik Khana
•• •• •~
~
~ ~
• •• ~
0
~
~ X
X 16
8
7
8
ISFAHAN Friday Mosque
Masjid-i Shah
•• •• •• •• •• •• ~
~
•• X
X
8-17t
17
9
10
Masjid-i 'All
Sheikh Lutfallah
•• 0 • •
0
~
• •• 0 • 0
~
•
0 X
X 17
12
11
12
KERMAN
MASHHAD
Friday Mosque
Gowhar Shad
•• •• ~
••
~
•• •• •• 0
0
~
~
X
X
14
15
13
14
NAYIN
SAMARQAND
Friday Mosque
Bibi Khanum
•• •• ~ ~
••., •• ~
~
OQ
~
X
X
10
14
15 SHIRAZ Vakil Mosque
•• •• ~ ~
• ~? ~ X* 18
••• •••
16 TABRIZ Blue Mosque 0? 0 ~ ~? XC 15
17
18
VARAMIN
YAZD
Friday Mosque
Friday Mosque
•• •• ••
~
•• 0
0
~
~
X
X*
14
14
19 ZAVAREH Friday Mosque
• • • • • ~ ~ X 12
Inventory of generic forms and typology of selected mosques e Strong emphasis Q Qantit
~ Medium emphasis * One-Eyvtin
Compiled by N. Ardalan
0 Nonexistent ** Two-Eyvtin
? Insufficient information t Converted from Sasanian structure
c
Anau •
{ u.s.s.R U.S.S.R.
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Yazd '-, ~~·
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i s Location of principal mosques of Afghanistan,
\.I •Kerman /
'=...-- ~--' Central Asia and Iran
' r
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Shiraz
"" "\
SAUDI ARABIA ..,PAKISTAN
,-J'
(
!
Isfahan· entrance to Masjid-i Shah

Photo V Prentice
Isfahan, Iran: plan of Masjid-i Shah. A Safavid four-eyvfm mosque

After V Vogt-Goknil
ZONE IV Bangladesh, India, Pakistan GENERIC FORMS MOSQUE TYPOLOGY

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6
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1
2
AHMEDABAD
DELHI
Friday Mosque
Begampiir •• •• ~
~?
~
~
•• •• •• ~
~
X
X
15
14
3
4
Friday Mosque
Khirki •• •• • •
~ ~
•• •• •• ~
~
X
X
17
14
5
6
Pearl Mosque
Qutb Minar •• •• • •
~
~
~
~
•• ~
• ~
~
X
X
17
12*
7 FATEHPUR
SIKRI Friday Mosque
• • ~?
• • • • ~ X 16
8
9
GAUR
GULBARGA
Tantipara
Friday Mosque
•• ~
• 0
~?
•
~ ~
••
~
~
~
~
~
~
X
X
15*
14
••• ••• ••
10 JAUNPUR A tala ~? ~ ~ ~ X 15
11
12
LAHORE Badshahi
Wazu Khan
•• •.A ~
•• ~
•
~
~
~
X
X
17
17
13
14
SRINAGAR
TATTA
Friday Mosque
Friday Mosque
•• •• ~
~ ~ ~
• ~
•
~
~
~
~
X
X
14
17
Inventory of generic forms and typology of selected mosques KEY: e Strong emphasis ? Insufficient information
~ Medium emphasis A Pyramidal roof
Compiled by N Ardalan 0 Nonexistent * Converted from Hindu structure
11::. .:
:: ;::
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I N D I
• Gulbarga
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I N D I A N C E A N
Location of principal mosques of Bangladesh, Lahore, Pakistan· plan of Wazfr Khan A hypostyle mosque with domical vaulting
India and Pakistan
After La Roche
Delhi, India· a view of the Friday Mosque

Photo. D. Sareen/Aga Khan Awards
Djenne, Mali. bazaar set up outside Great Mosque

Photo: M. Al-Hariri/Aga Khan Awards
ZONE V East and West Africa GENERIC FORMS MOSQUE TYPOLOGY

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6
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NO. LOCALE NAME
1 AGADEZ Great Mosque
• ~
• 0 ~ 0 0 ~ X 16-19
2 BOBO-
DIOULASSO Friday Mosque
• ~
• 0 ~ ~ ~ ~? X 19
3
4
CHINGUEITI
DJENNE
Great Mosque
Great Mosque
•• •• •••
0
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X
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14-20
5
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GAO
KANO
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Friday Mosque
•• •
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16
15-19
7
8
KILWA
LARABANGA
Great Mosque
Friday Mosque •• ~
~?
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•
~
0
~
~
0
~
~
~
~
~? X
X 12-13
17-19
9
10
MASKA
MOGADISHU
Friday Mosque
Fakhr Ad-Dm
•• ~
~
~
• ••
0 ~
~
0
~
~
~
~
~
X
X
19
13
11
12
NAMOU
TIMBUKTU
Friday Mosque
Great Mosque
•• 0?
~
0?
•• 0
~
~
0
~
0
~
~
~ X
X 18-19
14
13
14 ZARIA
Sankore Mosque
Friday Mosque
•• •
~
•
0
~
~
~
~
0
~
~
~
~
X
X
14-15
19
Inventory of generic forms and typology of selected mosques KEY e Strong emphasis 0 Nonexistent
~ Medium emphasis ? Insufficient information
..:..\..., ALGERIA \ ..,. .

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Location of principal mosques of East and West Africa

ZONE VI Far East GENERIC FORMS MOSQUE TYPOLOGY

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6
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NO. LOCALE NAME
1 CHUAN-CHOU Mosque
•• ~ 0? 0 ~ 0 ~ ~? X 14
•• • •• ••.A •• ••
2 HANG-CHOU Great Mosque ~ ~ 0 ~ ~ X 15?
3 JAKARTA Azziadah ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ X 17?
4 New Mosque ~ ~ X 20
5 MALACCA Mosque
• ~
.A • ~ ~? ~ ~? X 20?
6 SENDANG-
DUWAR Java Mosque
• ~
•
~ ~ ~ ~ X 16*
7 TAIPEI Mosque
• ~
•.A ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ X 20
8
TELOK
MAN OK Mosque
• ~
.A
•
~ ~? 0 ~ X 18
9
WEST
SUMATRA Mosque
• ~
• • 0 ~ ~ X 16?
Inventory of generic forms and typology of selected mosques

KEY: e Strong emphasis ? Insufficient Information
~ Medium emphasis A Pyramidal roof
Compiled by N Ardalan 0 Nonexistent * Converted from Hindu structure
~'~
1/
'
Jakarta, Indonesia. Azziadah Mosque

Photo: H-U Khan/Aga Khan Awards
The Visual Language of Symbolic Form. A Preliminary Study of Mosque Architecture 34
Hang-Chou •
Location of principal mosques of

the Far East
A village mosque between Kuala Lumpur

and Malacca, Malaysia
Photo H-U Khan!Aga Khan Awards
ORIGINS MOSQUE TYPOLOGY

Hypostyle Hypostyle
ZONE GEOGRAPHIC Four- Central TOTAL
Pre-Islamic Islamic Hypostyle with Dome w/Domical Other
NO LOCALE Eyvan Dome NUMBER
Accent Vaulting
EGYPT, IRAQ,
JORDAN,
I NORTH AFRICA, 4 38 4 28 3 2 3 2 42
PALESTINE,
SAUDI ARABIA,
SPAIN, SYRIA
II TURKEY 1 14 2 2 1 10 15
AFGHANISTAN,
III CENTRAL ASIA, 2 17 3 14 2 19
IRAN
BANGLADESH,
IV INDIA, 2 12 10 4 14
PAKISTAN
EAST& WEST
v AFRICA 14 10 2 1 1 14
VI FAR EAST 1 8 1 1 7 9
Totals 10 103 14 33 19 21 17 9 113
Percentage 9 91 12 29 17 18 16 8 100
Frequency of typology of 113 mosques according to geographic zone

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
MIHRAB COURT- MINARET DOME GATEWAY PORTICO PLINTH ABLUTION TOTAL
YARD PLACE NUMBER
ZONE GEOGRAPHIC
NO. LOCALE
EGYPT, IRAQ, JORDAN,
• ~ 0
• ~ 0
• ~ 0
• ~ 0
• ~ 0
• ~ 0
• ~ 0
• ~ 0
NORTH AFRICA,
I PALESTINE, 41 1* 39 3 30 9 3 9 26 7 18 24 28 12 2 7 29 6 6 36 42
SAUDI ARABIA
SPAIN, SYRIA
II TURKEY 15 8 6 1 9 4 2 12 3 7 8 10 4 1 11 4 7 7 1 15
AFGHANISTAN,
III CENTRAL ASIA, 19 16 3 10 6 3 13 6 16 3 17 2 13 6 3 14 2 19
IRAN
BANGLADESH,
IV INDIA, 14 13 1 4 9 1 7 7 10 4 10 4 7 7 2 12 14
PAKISTAN
v EAST & WEST AFRICA 14 4 9 1 11 2 1 2 2 10 14 5 9 11 3 14 14
VI FAR EAST 9 1 8 2 5 2 7 2 3 6 3 4 2 3 6 9 9
Totals 112 1 81 24 8 66 35 12 so 44 19 54 59 68 29 16 28 70 15 18 92 3 113
Percentage 100 93 7 89 11 83 17 100 86 14 87 13 97 3 100
KEY e Strong emphasis ~ Medium emphasis 0 Nonexistent * Haram al-Sharif, Mecca

Frequency of generic forms of 113 mosques according to geographic zone
Comments 36
GENERIC FORMS MOSQUE TYPOLOGY

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 1 2 3 4 5 6
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EGYPT, IRAQ, JORDAN, NORTH
" ~
I AFRICA, PALESTINE, SAUDI ARABIA,

SPAIN, SYRIA • • • ~ ~
• ~ ~
• 42
••• •• • •• •• •• • • •
II TURKEY ~ ~ ~ 15
III AFGHANISTAN, CENTRAL ASIA, IRAN ~ ~ ~ 19
IV
v
BANGLADESH, INDIA, PAKISTAN
EAST & WEST AFRICA
•• • .A ~
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14
VI FAR EAST ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 9
SUMMARY
• ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ 14 33 19 21 17 9 113
KEY e Strong emphasis ~ Medium emphasis 0 Nonexistent A Pyramidal roof

Summary of generic forms and typology of 113 mosques according to geographic zone
Compiled by N. Ardalan
Comments find in Muslim painting and architecture direct and nondiscursive manifestation of a
summits of perfection aesthetically and spiritual reality. Situated outside the
Burckhardt spiritually comparable to the holy image of liturgical realm, the symbolic is of the
the Blessed Virgin of Vladimir, the same order as the sacred but not coex-
stained-glass windows of Chartres or the tensive with it. For example, in the
Some of our contemporaries seek to
tympanum of the Moissac Abbey? I only architectural symbolism of mausoleums
rehabilitate Muslim art by making light of
speak of works that encompass a symbolic and the tombs of saints and princes, the
its canonical rejection of image and by
dimension and necessarily possess it by ubiquitous dome is the image of the sky.
insisting on the influence of ethnic par-
reason of their liturgical function. The hemispherical cupola above the cubic
ticularism. Some have gone so far as to
base represents the union between earth
declare that Islamic art does not exist in a In choosing works of Islamic art which can
be qualitatively compared to these sum- and sky. But that symbol contains nothing
global sense, that there exists only the art
mits of Christian art, one does not take vague or abstruse; it is not the product of
of individual Muslim peoples.
a "sentimental charge," but a language of
examples of figurative art. Instead, one
These critics forget that for every culture the spirit.
there is an internal economy of artistic selects elements of sacred architecture
such as the mi/Jriib of the Great Mosque The Muslim courtyard house is another
expression. Some forms have a central and
of Cordoba-a work comprised of example of symbolism outside the litur-
essential role. Others (particularly in the
geometry, arabesque and sacred writ- gical realm. The centrality (its being
case of semi-decorative, semi-narrative
ing--or even better, an entire architectural centered on itself) and the interiority of
representations of human and animal
environment because that is, above all, the the house combine with the paradisiac
forms) play the more or less peripheral
object of Islamic art. symbolism of gardens.
role of compensatory elements. Except in
very special cases we know that an- In our remarks above, we have implicitly While symbolism is not restricted to the
thropomorphic imagery has never been established a parallelism between the liturgical order, the latter is necessarily
tolerated within the Islamic liturgical terms "sacred," "central," "symbolic" and woven with symbolism. There exists a
realm. Were this not so, it would neces- "liturgical." But these four notions are not coincidence of universal religious symbols.
Sarily indicate some sort of deficiency on equivalent in every respect. The symbolic Liturgical objects such as the mi/Jriib and
the part of Muslim artists. Where can we is always of central nature because it is the minbar are simultaneously linked to
37 Comments
Islamic tradition and to universal sym- which, originating in the regular division problem. Each of these inscriptions is
bolism. The recess for prayer, the mi!Jriib, of the circle, spreads indefinitely with the Koranic, and insofar as it is from the
finds its prototype in almost all religions genesis of star-shaped polygons. This is Koran, it is related to the fashion and the
(the theophany recess). But it also serves more than simple ornament. Utilized in symbolism of the minaret.
as an essentially Islamic symbol owing to calculating the proportions of a building, it To this I will add something which
its Koranic context. is linked to the idea of the qualitative enhances the idea that in the Islamic world
We have defined symbolism as a direct unity. the sound manifestation is superior to the
and nondiscursive manifestation of a Our theme is the reintegration of the visual manifestation. Sound is more di-
spiritual reality. This definition is not at all multiple within the one. Among other rectly related to revelation than visual
inspired by modern "in-depth psychol- things it implies the union of time and forms. From my own experience here in
ogy." Rather, the expression "spiritual space-a union reflected in art forms such Fez I made a map of all the existing
reality" should be understood in a general as the muqarnas, which is properly mosques, more than two hundred, which
sense. Thus, Islamic symbolism always speaking a rhythmic articulation of space. have minarets. I was astonished to see the
refers to the fundamental idea of Islam, regularity of the disposition of these
Among the symbols of unity (always the
the idea of divine unity. minarets. I drew circles of audibility
reflection of the transcendental unity as
The unity of God is at the same time around each point indicating a minaret and
such), the most profound as well as the
exclusive and inclusive. Nothing can be calculated that the average voice of the
most obvious is that of light. The Muslim
compared to God and nothing exists muezzin could be heard in a circle of
artist knows how to capture, filter and
outside of God. Under the first relation, about sixty-two metres. I discovered that
crystallize it in myriad ways. Light sym-
symbolism cannot exist. This may afford the whole city plan is covered by these
bolically corresponds to existence (wujud)
justification for those who deny the because no form can be perceived without circles. So that really, before there is even
existence of symbols within the framework it. According to the Koran, "God is the the division into quarters, there is the
of Islam. Under the second relation, which minimal community around the minaret
light of the heavens and earth." Light is
refers to the inclusive unity of God, one. It only appears multiple and diverse which clearly shows the sound genesis of
symbolism is indispensable. because of the intervention of darkness the town.
which lacks intrinsic reality. Without light
For the mentality of common Muslims, the
there is pure nothingness. Yet according to
incomparability of divine transcendance
another point of view, darkness is the state Arkoun
(tanzil) predominates as a point of view
of in differentiation (at- 'iima). Cor-
somewhat on the order of symbolical
respondingly, light is the principle of
analogy (tashbfh). Thus symbolism If we problematize everything, we should
manifestation. There is a Hadith: "I was a
remains implicit. Accordingly, one would find that the problem of symbols is a new
hidden treasure, and as I wished to be
never say that the sun represents God, but one. It is not new historically, but our
known, I created the world."
that the sun is "neither God, nor any approach makes it new. Here I have two
other but God." Likewise, the entire Now I wish to offer an additional remark remarks. How would we talk about
world is the symbol of God to the extent as to the definition of the symbol. We symbols if we distinguished between
that it does not pretend to be anything have to distinguish clearly between the Arabic and Persian frames of reference?
other than itself. sign which is a simple indication and the This is a fundamental question. As a
symbol which involves great complexities working hypothesis, let us say that in
Islamic aniconism exists here in its most of meanings. Dr. Grabar said that these Islamic thought there are two directions
profound sense. The naturalist image meanings are attached to the symbol in an with regard to reading the Koranic text.
seems to add something to the divine arbitrary way. This leads to the destruction The Shi'ite direction has developed a
creation; it affirms to be what it is not. of the symbol because if the meanings can certain symbolism, such as the space of
Aniconism is the repercussion, at the level mean everything, then the symbol can the town and the Muslim house. This
of art, of the mainly objective charac!er of either be everything too or it can be symbolism is introverted because it has
the Muslim creed. It singularly restricts nothing. In fact, the multiple meanings of developed as a kind of interior life, an
the creative possibilities of art. But this the symbols can occasionally be manifested interior vision which can only be trans-
restriction is compensated by the discovery in the complexity of exteriorly attached mitted to the exterior through the initia-
of an abstract (or should we call it meanings. If we try to give too ration- tion of mystics and gnostics. This is a
"concrete"?) language of ornamental alistic a definition of the symbol, we special practice of symbolic thought.
motifs drawn from the folklore of various simply make the symbol disappear.
peoples. Its implicit sense (the platonic The second direction, that of Sunni
Nothing else. As to the example of the
idea) always refers to unity unfolding itself thought, occurred in law, theology and
minarets with different Koranic inscrip-
in multiplicity much like the geometry philosophy. It rejected reading the Koran
tions, I do not see that their variety is a
Comments 38
on any level but the literal. In fact, this worship in structures that have nothing to comparable functions in various religions.
tendency eliminates symbolic thought. It do with the grandiose mosques that have The Gothic cathedrals in Cyprus, when
has repressed the thought of Ibn been shown. In fact, they worship in endowed with minarets, became mosques,
al-'Arabi, for example. rather small oratories which are quite and a monument in Algiers was first a
As for Western thought, things have not simple. mosque, then a cathedral, and then a
been any better. There was, of course, the I think that the minaret is a functional mosque a second time. I think that we can
development of Roman architectural work of architecture which is integrated overcome the real theoretical difficulties
symbolism in medieval thought. But very into the general concept of religious ritual. which I have stated only if we adopt a
early, beginning with St. Thomas, to cite A religious edifice represents a collection functionalist approach within the frame-
only him, there was Aristotelianism. In of objects that permit the performance of work of studying the religion as well as its
the history of thought this represents a rites. For example, the mil]riib is much adherents.
struggle between the logos and the nomos. more important than the minaret in many Cultural factors can also explain the
Christian thought, in following St. respects. Here I am referring to the development of forms which vary accord-
Thomas, developed like Sunnism along experience of archeologists. During ing to time and place. This is not a
Aristotelian lines which opposed the excavations it is the presence of a small problem that exists only for Muslims.
development of mythical and therefore recess in the wall oriented in a particular Christians encounter the same difficulties
symbolic thought. With the advent of direction that helps us to determine when having to choose between classical
Cartesian rationalism and later with the whether we are dealing with a mosque. art and modern art. The problem is
eighteenth and nineteenth centuries, we This is exactly what has happened to me whether our era can create original
come to technology. In other words, twice. cultural types by turning to traditional
symbolic thought has again been re- types and regional techniques, or will it
I agree with Prof. Grabar when he said
pressed. Now we are dependent on attempt to create monuments that are
that the same monument can assume many
rationalist thought which prevents us from labeled "contemporary"?
properly raising the issue of the symbol. I think that the functionalist approach can
This is why I believe that it is premature also guide us in the study of the city and
to discuss the definition of symbols. not just monuments. Cities are complex
I would also like to propose that we take organisms which offer a setting for the
into account the problem of knowledge. fulfillment of vital functions such as hous-
When we discourse, and therefore confer ing and food as well as religious needs. If
knowledge, is it a representation of the we approach the double problem of archi-
world we express in our discourse, or does tecture and urbanism from this angle,
our speech express the reality of things? If style becomes a secondary issue.
we do not keep this problem in mind, we
are going to wander and be divided on
definitions.
Mahdi
I must first make a short remark about

Raymond what Dr. Arkoun has said, but my main
question really relates to something that
Concerning the problem which has been was said by Prof. Grabar. First, the
raised and which is directly linked to the typology of symbolic interpretation, on the
programme of the Aga Khan Award, I one hand, and a kind of rationalist and
believe that the key issue is not the literalist interpretation, on the other, is
existence or nonexistence of symbols. The certainly tenable, but dividing it between
discussion about the minaret, for example, Shi'ism and Sunnism is somewhat sim-
is very interesting, but I do not know plistic. Obviously the earliest kind of
whether we can really consider the minaret mystical writings that we have from the
as a symbol of Muslim architecture. It eighth and ninth centuries are almost
does not always indicate the presence of a wholly Sunnite. Mysticism was practically
mosque. The monuments which have been Varamin, Iran: Friday Mosque, exterior wall, the domain of Sunnism until sometime in
detail showing star-shaped polygons
presented are exceptional monuments; the fourteenth century. And within Shi'ism
perhaps ninety-five percent of all Muslims Photo R. Holod the conflict between these kinds of two
39 Comments
interpretations has been known throughout today might have for them. In other may be a false abstract question-that
history. One has to think of these two words, what kind of sympathy would they somehow there ought to be symbols. If
tendencies within the Islamic community have toward space for architecture, not in one is to delve into the culture itself and
as a whole. any conceptual way, but in an empirical its architecture, one has to discover the
way? terms of that culture for the questions we
Regarding what Prof. Grabar said, I am
are asking. The question of the internal
trying to understand the symbolic function Are Islamic impressions mainly verbal or
mainly visual? I have a third element to vocabulary which the Muslim world uses
of poetic as well as Koranic inscriptions.
introduce. In Mecca the strongest im- to understand its own environment is to
The implication is not that it is the form of
pression I had was the impression of me essential.
the inscription that is symbolic. It is the
content somehow. It is what one reads, if movement, of circular movement around The second thing is a fairly small but
he ever reads, or if he gets to see the the Ka'ba. And I had the same impression important technical issue. This is the
thing, given that it might be fifty metres in the running between ~afa and Marwa. question of the miljrab. We have over-
high on the minaret. But suppose one does My feeling is that the monument, archi- emphasized minarets simply because
read it. Now Koranic ayat literally mean tecture by itself, is not sufficient. You minarets are obvious and exciting things to
Koranic symbols or Koranic signs. My must visualize the human beings and their look at. But at the same time one should
question is, what do you mean when you movements as well. You must deal with mention that there is also the miljrab, a
imply that a Koranic or a poetic inscrip- the space as a space to be inhabited by far more complicated and interesting
tion gives the minaret or the court in the human beings. shape. A different kind of effort has been
Alhambra a symbolic charge? Do you I was very interested when Nader Ardalan put into the miljrab. It is, for instance, the
mean that the attempt to understand or said that originally the Haram was open only part of the basically religious en-
remember that particular line or verse and had no wall at all. When I was in vironment in which there exists a clear
generates a kind of symbolic activity, or an Mecca for the first time several years ago, iconography for all Muslim art and
intent to penetrate that particular the Haram was not a monument. It was an architecture. And there are esoteric
monument? open space. And when you went between meanings in this. But whether the mil]rab
~afii and Marwa you went through the
is a valid architectural form is something
markets. There were goats and bicycles that concerns me very much. In the reality
running into your feet. Now all this is of the use of the mosque I am still struck
Grabar by the fact that from ninety percent of the
covered by domes or plexiglass. All the
surroundings have been expanded so that space of the mosque you cannot see the
The inscription makes the monument into miljrab. And therefore the act of prayer
a symbol. The correct terminology would now it is a very impressive and majestic
building. What was once an environment within the mosque is really not that closely
be a vector, that is, it gives the direction directed to the miljrab. The miljrab is
by which one should understand the and a space has turned into a building,
and there are some architectural reflec- really a symbol, precisely because it is
monument. something which is not used. One does not
tions to be made from that.
Now if you cannot read it-as it happens go into a mosque and say, "Where is the
with minarets, very frequently the in- In the process of becoming a symbol, what miljrab? That's the direction I'm going to
scription is up high-then there is a kind confers symbolic meaning to a form? Is it pray." Any Muslim going into the mosque
of inner symbolism, what the maker said it formal qualities or function? Prof. Kuban knows very well in which direction he is
was going to be. How it was understood suggests that we look for our answer in supposed to pray and does not need the
afterwards is yet another story. The public the realm of function rather than in the miljrab for that. Therefore, the miljriib
changes its mind on the meaning of build- realm of form. My experience would fulfills a very symbolic function which
ings. One can say that a building was built suggest that the functional is at least as deserves further study.
for purpose X and then over the centuries important as the formal.
it acquired function Y. I also think that there are a certain
number of broader issues. The first issue is
the question of Mecca. Now it seems to
Grabar me that we have to be extremely careful;
Bammate the reality of Mecca is its uniqueness. It is
I think that clearly there is a question of a symbol, a direction and so forth, but
It so happens that I was in Mecca last vocabulary. I do not mean vocabulary in precisely for what it is, it is not repro-
Friday. Listening to the conversation here, English, but in Arabic, and subsequently ducible. On the whole it cannot be
I thought of those. pilgrims and tried to Turkish, Persian, Urdu, whatever. In other repeated. It is a symbolic model, not a
imagine what kind of meaning our meeting words, we are asking a question which valid architectural model for anything.
Comments 40
The other broad issue is the question of

the mosque. I tend to disagree with Mr.
Ardalan in that I do not think that the
mosque was a sacred space for most of the
history of Islam. It was the space of the
whole community in which all the com-
munity activities took place. Now a lessen-
ing of the functions of the mosque has
occurred. Perhaps this is exactly what
characterizes the second half of the twen-
tieth century, that one subdivides architec-
turally one's functions.
Porter
First, I wish to address one of Prof.

Grabar's early challenges to us. That
symbols never appear in form is a fas-
cinating proposition. The second topic has
to do with the expression of social and
religious patterns of rituals as symbolic in
form. We have not addressed the question Yazd, !raw Friday Mosque, dome
of social and religious habits so far, at
least explicitly. My third question concerns
the evolution of new symbols. How do we
recognize these and what are their pre- drawn writing they may be symbolic We all seem to agree implicitly upon these
conditions? Finally, is symbolism as an assertions of the past and beautiful decora- three preconditions for charging a symbol
idea Illegitimate in Islamic thought from tions in and of themselves which carry with meaning. The object or form has to
the point of view of its constituting an forth from past ages. Third, they are very have some potential for becoming sym-
analytical separation? Is it simply evidence clearly symbolic of the Koran. bolic. Thus, while a specialized visual
of a Western mode of thinking applied to symbolism in a culture may be synchronic,
Islam or, alternatively, is symbolism The second point I would like to make is
the fact that an object contains a sign. that is, it may exist at only one moment in
idolatrous within the framework of Islamic time, the potential of that form to be
thought? This tells you what that object is but does
not necessarily confer upon that object the imbued with symbolic content must derive
Let me start by making some remarks quality of being a symbol. I think an from other times and other places. A
about the relationship between people and example would be simply to imagine a potential exists within that form and thus
forms. Prof. Grabar asserted that dia- Koranic inscription being placed on the there is a diachronic symbolism at some
chronic meaning-meaning that exists wrong kinds of buildings in Islamic cities. level. Maybe it is at a second or a third
across time-was not possible because Alternatively, they may be the right kinds level, but it has some general importance
symbolism is only evident in form for a of buildings, but perhaps in a Western which it brings to the scene in order that it
particular place and time. He illustrated culture the inscriptions would be entirely have the potential to be charged with
this by showing how Koranic inscriptions incongruous, that is, in a place where the meaning.
might imply the precise meaning of a place presence of the sign on a particular object The second precondition for an object to
at a particular time. Now it seems to me simply does not achieve symbolic meaning become a symbol seems to be that the
that there are at least three ways that one for those who wish to perceive it. There- inscription itself exploits the potential of
can look at inscriptions. The first is that fore, there has to be something intrinsic that particular object. This occurs through
inscriptions are simply signs with respect about the situation in which this sign the appropriateness of the inscription-
to the fonn in which they define them- happens to occur and perhaps something whatever appropriateness means-and
selves. They literally tell you what they intrinsic about the sign itself that allows through the excellence of its execution.
are or perhaps for what they are intended. the form to be charged with meaning at a This is particularly troubling to historians
Second, they may be forms. As beautifully particular time. whose duty it is to find out whether those
41 Comments
who perceived the inscriptions understood community, to the common people, in Ardalan
the resulting combination as symbolic. order to make it useful for others.
Now it seems that we have a very good I would like to comment on the question
example in the article by Begley on the raised by Dr. Serageldin by saying it is
Taj Mahal. 1 The reinterpretation of that interesting how gateways are really
building by careful examination of the Grabar notable as places of inscriptions. Again, as
Koranic inscriptions and a subtle analysis an issue of scale, it is very important that
of the site seems to make a good deal of I disagree. I grant you the point about the we look at it not only in the context of the
sense. arrogance of assuming tha,t for three mosque. The gateway to the entire city of
hundred years everybody was wrong. But I Shiraz under which one passes, the
To sum up the relationship between
inscription and object seems to me to be would not be willing to bargain for Darvazeh Koran, contains a Koran. With
ignorance instead. On the question of other gateways, such as those of Cairo or
more complex than Prof. Grabar alleged
at the beginning. Looked at narrowly, the illiteracy, I simply do not think that that Aleppo, the inscriptions are normally
was true. I think that people knew the Koranic.
symbolic meaning may indeed not be
diachronic if restricted to the particular Koran by heart, although a large number However, I really wish to speak about the
culture at the time, but surely there is of them may not have been able to read it house. There, a sentence or an admonition
something that carries across the ages. In as if it were a philosophical treatise. I is beautifully expressed just on top of the
the search for form, which is, after all, think the parallel would be the Latin of door. Normally it is a tile, often a
what the architect is faced with, the exact the Mass in the older tradition. Most standard product. The gateway might take
curvature of the arch may make the dif- people did not know Latin but knew you to more than one house, and as you
ference between the building's capacity to enough of the Mass so that in terms of the pass, a blessing occurs. This indicates how
connote as compared to the building's Latin it would come back to them important a gateway has always been in
capacity simply to absorb more scathing automatically. Even priests often did not Islamic architecture. With the gesture of
criticism. The search for form is domi- know Latin very well, but certainly enough making a break from the outside to the
nated exactly by questions such as what to deal with the Mass. This is something inside, there is normally a Koranic
are the appropriate forms and which which I cannot totally demonstrate, but I admonishment.
combinations of inscriptions and forms think before the eighteenth century
make the most sense. literacy had a much greater part in the
Muslim world than we give it credit.
I think I an evincing here a style of Arkoun
thinking like that of the architect. By
that I mean to place it in some kind of
perspective and not to insulate it from You cannot limit the formation of a
Burckhardt
criticism. symbol to an inscription on a form, its
support. There is still a third element
In the case of the Koranic inscription, the which is man, the living user. If you take
fact that it is the Divine Word goes away man, there will be nothing. We can
beyond the actual reading. It is quite always put inscriptions on the pillar of a
Kuban
legitimate that the nonliterate members of mosque or on the door of a house, but
the community are aware that the Koran is without man there will be no symbol.
I would like to speak of this Taj Mahal inscribed there and that this has a sacred
article because it shows the uselessness of quality. A symbol is rich and essentially open,
this kind of symbolism. We have to whereas a sign, because we are dealing
abandon this intellectual arrogance. Until with literal meaning, represents a lessening
this article nobody among us ever knew of the virtual significations linked to a
what was the significance of this building. I. Serageldin symbol. A signal is something that releases
Certainly millions of people never under- an immediate movement without reflec-
stood this symbolism. So let's get down to Most of the discussion of signs and tion. A symbol, on the contrary, by its
the community level. Ninety-nine symbols seems to revolve around the function inspires meditation. As a con-
percent of the people never read anything mosques. I feel I have not quite caught on sequence, a symbol is linked to a time and
from the Koran or anything else. This kind how these signs and symbols may be a place.
of symbolism never existed for the whole transferred to the other types of structures I would go even further and say that, in a
community. That is why, especially today, that dominate the Islamic built environ- congregation, each worshiper receives at
it is much better not to discusss these ment in its totality. the same time the same inscription on
kinds of things. Go to the level of the
Comments 42
completely different levels. Some perceive sensitive to the great monuments which we
it as a signal, some as a literal linguistic have seen and perhaps help the Jury
sign, and others as a symbol. This is the that is going to bestow the Awards. But
reason why we cannot give a symbol an here I think something which Mr. Ardalan
"operative" definition. By definition a said earlier is quite crucial. We should be
symbol is rich and mobile, and it is man, absolutely humble enough to say that
its creator and user, who makes it so. ultimately one has to depend on the sense
of excellence and the taste of that Jury.
In short, even if we had a hundred such
seminars we are not going to change
Burckhardt that particular core that is there. All we
can do is somehow give some pointers,
I should like to illustrate Dr. Arkoun's things which one may have missed some-
remarks with an example. At a certain how or not thought about.
level of understanding the circle means This brings to mind an experience I had in
unity. But it could also mean totality, time the Alhambra. There are all those won-
and so on. The form does not change, but derful inscriptions from the Koran and
the meaning changes according to the poetry, but somewhere low in a corner
different levels in which it is used. there is one that is very small. I do not
know whether art historians have looked
at it or not. It is not really very decora-
tive. It is a prayer that asks in Arabic,
Mahdi "Let my work be filled with love."
Now I suggest that this is another thing for
I found a remark made by Prof. Kuban
the Jury to consider. Was something a
quite intriguing. He said that although he
work of love, or was it for glory? I do
had not asked for Begley's study on the
not need to enumerate the alternatives.
Taj Mahal, somehow it became clear for
Again, there are really no tests or rules
the first time what the symbolism there
that one can give, but I think that we
was all about. It seems to me that we are
can depend on the great sensitivity and
in a way trying to do the same thing for
taste of the Jury to be able to tell the
Islamic civilization in general. It was not
difference. I am sure that they must have
until nineteenth-century romanticism, not
heard somehow that one thing was a work
until Hegel's great book on aesthetics
of genuine love and that another was for
came out and the development that fol-
lowed, that somehow Islam and Islamic something else. I believe that one answer
architecture and symbolism became the to whether a symbol is legitimate or not
will probably be this: if it expresses man's
subject of today's concern. That concern is
love for God on whatever level, if it
what troubles me. Prof. Kuban asked what
is the point of talking about things of moves one a step nearer to God, it is
certainly legitimate. If it expresses love for
which one cannot talk. What is all this
anything else, then certainly it is idol-
attempt to talk about myth, for instance?
atrous.
Are we trying to demythologize Islam as
Christianity was demythologized? What is
the purpose of this rational concern with
nonrational things? Ultimately one could
skirt around them, but one cannot really
Reference Note
go to the core of them.
1
Wayne E Begley, "The Myth of the Taj Mahal
Now surely we are not trying to spread and a New Theory of Its Symbolic Meaning," The Art
this kind of teaching among the Muslim Bulletin 61 (1979), pp 7-37
community at large. We are also not trying
to create a new set of symbols. We are
trying, I suppose, to become somewhat
Function:
Concepts and Practice
Islamic Philosophy and the Fine Arts
M uhsin S. M ahdi
In going over the readings prepared for Theology" is rather instructive in this
this seminar, I was pleased to notice in respect). 1
them the absence of ethnically and racially Even if we accept the notion of "culture"
based views on Islamic art and architec- or "Islamic culture" as a useful point of
ture. These views should be guarded departure, the relationship between crafts
against, and not allowed to re-enter in general and what we call the "fine arts"
through the back door via ambiguous in particular and other "aspects" of such a
expressions like "culture" and "religion," culture remains highly problematic Yet in
terms that mean all things to all people, this seminar we are dealing with the
especially when lumped together. Take an possible relationship between the fine arts
expression like "Islamic culture": one in Islam and certain other things called
difficulty is that it tends to be seen in "written sources." Here I think it is
terms of so-called primitive cultures, as it prudent not to be too ambitious or too
sometimes is in anthropology, or of some hasty, and Oleg Grabar's suggestion that
particular, real or presumed "religious "the importance of written sources lies in
culture," such as Christianity The attempt the parallelism they provide for visual
to look at Islam through Christian eyes phenomena" is a sound starting point. The
and to search for symbols that parallel only indication in the readings that such a
those of Christianity is a dubious enter- parallelism existed between the fine arts
prise, regardless of protestations that one and philosophy is the passage from the
is looking for specifically Islamic symbols Alchemy of Happiness by al-Ghazali,
or symbols that distinguish Islamic culture which is cited by Richard Ettinghausen
from other cultures. Christianity absorbed and referred to by Oleg Grabar:
and transformed, and in this way
preserved, pagan or gnostic symbols; Islam The beauty of a thing lies in the
rebelled against these symbols and tried to appearance of that perfection which
remove them from the consciousness and is realizable and in accord with its
experience of the Muslim community. We nature ... [For example] beautiful
should also remember that symbols, and writing combines everything that is
the symbolic functions of art and architec- characteristic of writing, such as harmony
ture as we understand them today, are of letters, their correct relations to each
predominantly nineteenth-century other, right sequence, and beautiful
romantic European notions. Their arrangement. 2
relevance to the self-understanding of Let me, therefore, begin here and point
artistic creation and expression in other out what the patrons as well as the
times and places cannot be taken for practitioners of these arts could have
granted (the critical side of A. H. learned from philosophy, either directly or
el-Zein's "Beyond Ideology and indirectly, through popularized versions of
philosophy spread among educated circles

by mystics like al-Ghazali:.
The Task of Islamic Philosophy
If I were asked by a student of Islamic art

and architecture where one could look in
Islamic philosophy for further enlighten-
ment on these questions of a thing's
perfection, harmony, the correct relation-
ships among its parts and on their
implications for man and man-made
works of art, my answer would be quite
simple. This is what Islamic philosophy is
all about: it is the search for order and
harmony in the natural world, the
intelligible world, the human soul, and the
city. It is an account of such order and
harmony where it exists, and an account of
how to restore it in man and in the city. It
looks at works of art as being in the
service of this objective. If the student
were then to ask whether he could expect
to find in this literature an account of
Islamic architectural symbols and their
meanings, the answer would again be
simple: the overarching concern of Islamic
philosophy is to find out what is true
always and everywhere, and to discover
the principles that govern temporal and
local variations and change insofar as
these are rhythmic or cyclical or the
products of the interaction of permanent
factors. It is not a religious or cultural or
national philosophy in the sense that it is
the product of, or bound up or concerned
primarily with, the ideas and ideals of a
particular human community, not even one
as large and significant as its own religious
community. Yet it is equally true that
Islamic philosophy is very much concerned
with understanding the particular character
of the Islamic community, and architec-
tural forms and decorations are temporally
and locally bound with specific nations,
cities, and tribes, and with their particular
environments and traditions. In this sense,
Islamic philosophy, like Islam itself, is
concerned ~ith man's deeds and way of
Fez, Morocco: a corner in the madrasa al- 'A!far!n
life as determined by his views of the
world, of the human soul, and of the civic Photo: H-U Khan/Aga Khan Awards
45 Islamic Philosophy and the Fine Arts
order. What a builder does, on the other questions as the relationship between art supreme intellect, and in this he was
hand, is largely determined by the needs and knowledge (whether knowledge of the followed by the Ismaili thinkers in Yemen.
and purposes of the particular human Creator or of the created world); the role The question may seem to deal with a
community for which he builds, which may of the powers and passions of the soul in subject that is too remote to have any
be a family or a business, a civic the production and experience of art; and relevance to human things. In fact it is
establishment or a whole nation; and he the civic functions of art. not, for it determines the end of human
must know and take into account those The architect is a maker. If he is any thought and human action. Is the end of
needs and purposes. good, we say he is a creative man, a man (who is created in God's image) the
How then, one may ask, can the student creator. If he is a Muslim he knows perfection of his intellect that terminates
understand the relationship between already that the Supreme Creator is God, in the intellectual intuition of the whole,
Islamic philosophy (or the thought of the and one assumes that he would be or is it to contact that mysterious One
major Muslim philosophers) and Islamic interested in reflecting on His work and through deeds? The answer to this
architecture (or the work of the major even in imitating His creation. There is, of question may determine the way one looks
Muslim architects)? Is the relationship course, quite a bit about God's creation in at artistic creation in its most sublime
"proved" to a significant degree by the the Koran and the Hadith, but it is not form-whether it is considered an imagina-
fact that they were all Muslims. I should difficult to distinguish between the way tive representation of how things are and
not think so; one can be a good Muslim these sources speak about God's creation how man ought to act, both of which can
without being a philosopher or an and the way philosophy investigates and also be articulated by intellectual under-
architect. One must therefore look for presents it. Philosophy looks at it as a standing and intuition, or an imaginative
more concrete links. If they existed, it was whole, and looks at its parts and the order revelation that transcends all created
probably because some architects were of its parts as an object of human reality and anything that intellectual
educated and intelligent men who read or knowledge. There is an affinity between understanding and intuition can achieve on
heard about some of the writings of the the way the philosopher looks at the world their own.
philosophers. But the question still and the way the artisan conceives of his This issue has something to do with the
remains: what could they have learned work, inasmuch as they both consider a next one, which is the nature and structure
from these writings? whole, its parts, and the relationships of the created world, intelligible as well as
among those parts. Both are engaged in a sensible, the heavenly bodies as well as
human enterprise: one looks at the natural the bodies here below. Do stars have
whole with the aim of knowing it, the intellects and souls? Are they ranked in an
Aspects of Divine and Human Creation other conceives a whole with the aim of order ascending to that which is closest to
producing it. Both need to consider this God? Such questions are more philosophic
Before looking for answers, it is useful to whole-to-part relationship to the extent than religious, even though a philosophic
recall some of the characteristic ways in that human capacity permits. But more interpretation may be related to or have
which Islamic philosophy deals with the specific issues still have to be considered. its origin in a Koranic or Hadith text. We
arts. Although it does occasionally set How is the Supreme Creator conceived? all know of the numerous verses about
down the general rules that govern the Does one give priority to His knowledge light and darkness in the Koran, especially
production of works of art, it does not or to His will? In philosophy this question the famous "light verse" (XXIV, 35), that
generally engage in an analysis of these turns on whether He is conceived as the lend themselves to philosophic interpre-
rules as they apply to the production of supreme intellect or as the mysterious One tations: light as the physical manifestation
particular works, except by way of giving beyond the supreme intellect, beyond all of intellectual or supra-intellectual light,
examples; nor do we find a detailed knowledge and being. Muslim philoso- and the different parts of creation as an
analysis of aesthetic experience or of the phers were divided on this fundamental orderly mixture of light and darkness, an
problems arising from the contemplation issue, and their differences were not analogy of being and not being, that
of a work of art. The particular rules that necessarily related to the part of the terminates in God as pure or unmixed
govern the production of a particular work Muslim community to which they light. These philosophic interpretations
of art, as well as the analysis of the belonged. In Ismaili philosophy, for were current in Sufi circles and among the
experience of particular works, are instance, the early Iranian philosophers Sufi orders to which many of the great
normally dealt with by the art critic. The such as Abii Ya'qiib al-Sijistfmi thought architects belonged.
philosopher may also be a poet or a of God as beyond being and not being, Then there is the analogy that is drawn
musician, a literary critic or a critic of and as the originator of the supreme between the structure of the world, the
music. Bm: these activities remain distinct intellect through His command, while the structure of the soul, and the structure of
from what we may call his "philosophy of later Fatimid philosopher l;lamid al-Din the city. The structure of the soul and the
art," which is concerned with such al-Kirmiini thought of God as the first or activities of its various parts or powers and
their relationship and hierarchy are of merely practical; that is, they would serve character and enable them or make it easy
interest to any artist whose art consists of what is necessary in practical life or in for them to learn something or to do (or
creating a work that pleases or conveys a human excellence in practical life, be it not do) something. If they do this-and
message or arouses a certain feeling in the victory in war, wealth, pleasure, or virtue. the philosophic literature assumes that, for
human beings who look at it or work or good or ill, they do-then the next
worship in it. Sense perception, question is what do they make men think
imagination, intellect, passion, and or imagine; what do they persuade them
practical understanding are all parts of the The Treatment of Language Arts of; what do they arouse them to do; what
soul that the architect addresses to some in Islamic Philosophy do they discourage them from doing? The
extent through what he creates. The power arts can be all these things: they can be
of imagination, its functions in waking and The arts that Islamic philosophy treats at useful, playful, fun, pleasant, restful,
dreaming, the way it mediates between some length are the arts of language: morally instructive or thought-provoking
understanding and sense perception, its poetry and rhetoric. We have become (in both directions-good or bad, true or
role as a receptacle of intellectual sensitive to the fact that language and the false). All these aspects have to be
perception or revelation, and its creative arts of language are of capital importance considered. Such disciplines as the
role in representing this perception or for the study of all other human arts, and "sociology of literature" are modern
revelation in sensible forms are all we speak of the "vocabulary," efforts to recapture these dimensions
questions crucial to any discussion of "grammar," "rhetoric," and "poetics" of of art.
symbols in architecture and any under- this or that art, including the art of Again, the arts (to a greater degree than
standing of how a work of art works. architecture. Such things as signs and the sciences) are relative to certain
There is also a question of the passions symbols are thus discussed in Islamic peoples, times, and places. They are
and desires of the human soul: pleasure philosophy with reference to certain forms popular or public in character. They
and pain, comfort, security, the desire for of speech and sometimes music, i.e., express the human character, traditions,
wealth, domination, honor, and so forth. generally to things heard rather than conventions, laws, and religious and
How does a work of art provide for these, things seen. This is a paradoxical situation, cultural views that prevail in a certain
order them, exploit them, or control since things seen have a higher rank in region at a certain time. The best of them
them? Do they have a natural order which philosophy than things heard. The former express the highest views or ideals of their
the work of art is called upon to preserve are the objects of perceiving, speculating, audience, and lift that audience to the
or restore? Or is the work of art meant to or theorizing. Yet they are discussed with highest level of which it is capable whether
satisfy human feelings, desires, and reference to natural rather than to man- in terms of pleasure, moral character, or
passions regardless of whether they are made, to artful or artificial things. deeds. This is one aspect of the discussion
healthy or sick, good or evil, moderate or Philosophic literature considers poetry and of these arts in Islamic philosophy. But
immoderate? What is meant by the rhetoric as part of or in the perspective of there is also the supra-national, supra-
aesthetic education of man? And what is "logic"-that is, thought. In this respect, regional, supra-temporal perspective of
the relationship between the experience of it articulates something that is present in Islamic philosophy that provides for the
beauty and the experience of goodness? nonphilosophic literary criticism (e.g., the possibility of comparing images, conven-
Can a human being who lacks the "science of meanings," 'ilm al-mii 'anf), tions, moral attitudes, and deeds of
experience of beauty, order, and harmony but which is discussed there in a less various nations, and for understanding
through works of art be educated in coherent manner and within a narrower their horizons and limitations.
goodness, and perceive the beauty of good perspective.
actions and the beauty of God's creation? In philosophy the emphasis is on the
The arts provide both living space for the formal structure of speech and its thought
A "Pragmatic" Aesthetic
families and citizens of a city, and symbols content, its purpose, its impact, what it
Critical Theory
for a city or nation's power or purpose. generates in the listener, and how it does
These are the subjects of economics, this. So the question is whether poetry and
ethics, and politics, or of the practical rhetoric have a thought content, and if so, Thus Islamic philosophy provides an
sciences. It is in this context that what kind of content it might be; whether aesthetic critical theory that is best
philosophy centres its attention on the they aim at pleasure for its own sake; characterized as "pragmatic. " 3 It deals
"symbolic" character of these arts, and whether they are meant to generate with poetry and rhetoric (and occasionally
emphasizes their character as sensory certain notions or convictions or images; arts such as painting and sculpture) as they
apprehensions that aim at pleasure as an and whether these are ends in themselves exist outside the context of philosophy and
end in itself and as accidentally useful in or are meant to educate the audience as they are meant to be used by a new
practical things. Otherwise they would be morally-that is, to form their moral breed of teachers. It centres its attention
47 Islamic Philosophy and the Fine Arts
of what, how, by what faculty? Does it

represent the external world of nature,
and the individual emotions and practical
objectives of the poet and the rhetorician?
Does it extend to common opinions,
generally known or accepted notions, and
the "ideals" of a particular community?
Such things were, of course, known to be
what rhetoricians and poets did, and
Arabic literary criticism discussed the
success or failure of the rhetorician and
the poet on those bases. Or, does it
involve Platonic "ideas"? Following
Aristotle, these are consistently refuted in
the philosophic tradition (the case is
different in mysticism). They are replaced
by "intelligibles" in the mind, hence, by
things that become known or about which
one can attain certainty in the theoretical
sciences that deal with natural and
voluntary things. This led to the
philosophic distinction between the
imaging in poetry and the persuasion in
rhetoric that deal with theoretical things
Samarqand, V.S.S R.: detail of the Gur-i Mfr dome and those that deal with practical things.
Photo: R. Holod The former were criticized on the basis of
relative proximity to the theoretical
sciences (to the extent that these achieve
certainty at any particular time), and on
the basis of the skill of the poet and the
on the crucial role of sensory perception these arts and in their use. In contrast, rhetorician in convincing and moving the
and sense apprehension, and the pleasure nonphilosophic critical theory in Arabic is audience as closely as possible to the truth
felt by man in sensible knowledge for its largely devoted to such technical details. of things. The latter were criticized in
own sake, for its utility, and for the way it One of the models from which the two terms of what virtue and vice were thought
beckons beyond itself to higher kinds of traditions work is the prophet-lawgiver. to be, as well as on the basis of the skill of
knowledge. It distinguishes between the Thus the question of the use of the "art" the poet and the rhetorician in promoting
prephilosophic experience of the arts (the of poetry and rhetoric (not poetry and the practical education of the audience.
experience that, among other things, led rhetoric in the customary sense) by the
to the rise of philosophy) and the post- founder of a religion is common to both
philosophic use of the arts by philoso- traditions. The question is whether what is
phers, lawgivers, and philosophically- termed the "miraculous" character of the Function and Experience
minded rulers in their effort to educate Koran consists in its unique excellence in
the citizens, form their character, and the use of technical details (on which We have been trying in this seminar to
teach them appropriate opinions. The Arabic literary criticism tends to concen- isolate the various functions of public
philosophic contribution, then, consists of trate) or rather in its overall moral buildings and spaces in the Islamic world
both the theory itself and the description intention, educative purpose and achieve- with particular attention to public
of the new context within which these arts ment, and ability to determine the buildings and spaces that have a religious
are to be employed, how, and for what theoretical and practical opinions of the use: mosques, madrasas, and Sufi zawiyas.
purpose. Muslim community and its way of life (on We have paid special attention to their
By and large, the philosophic tradition is which the philosophic tradition religious symbolic function. Much of our
interested not in the technical details of concentrates). discussion has centered on whether certain
the art of composing poems and rhetorical This question leads back to the question of kinds of design (decorations, inscriptions,
speeches, but in the overall character of imaginative representation or revelation: and so on) are symbolic, and if so,
whether any of them are indispensable to aspects that characterize the artistic quite different from that of a convinced
a building with a religious function. By traditions (in the plural) of Muslim Catholic who has been raised in the church
posing the question in this way we are communities is not unique to Islamic and has participated in the mysteries of
bound to reach an impasse, if not a architecture, but is in fact present in one that faith from childhood, and who
negative answer; we are reminded that, or another of the artistic traditions of experiences the same monument as a
historically, any public building that solved some other religion? This question does living house of God. This would seem to
an immediate practical problem was not bother me at all; on the contrary, I indicate that there are certain limits to the
considered satisfactory by men and women wish that all these aspects would be effort some of us make to ascertain how
who were the very models of Islamic present in all the artistic traditions of religious public buildings function in the
piety-in fact, by the Prophet himself and other religions. The seminar has pointed Islamic world and the way Muslims
his companions. to the roots of spiritual beliefs and artistic experience these buildings. Furthermore,
My remarks are meant to suggest that we traditions in the Islamic countries. If the at least some great religious public
look at a work of art as something that majority of contemporary examples we buildings are themselves "works of faith,"
performs a multiplicity of functions. What have seen indicate anything, it is that which again indicates that there may be
function a particular public religious some architects are trying to attach dead limits to an effort at understanding their
building performs, and the means it branches to these roots with rubber bands. spirit if we do not participate in the faith
employs for doing so, can be found only Our task is to find out whether others of the builders. There may be differences
by considering that particular building. It have succeeded in grafting living branches of opinion among us on how severe those
seems to me that we have been trying to to these roots, and whether the result is a limits are, and on the extent to which they
speculate in a general sort of way about living tree that can grow and under which can be overcome. But surely serious
what functions, if any, a public religious contemporary Muslims can take shade. We architects and their consultants, however
building performs above and beyond its cannot perform this task if we continue to creative or learned, need to confront these
solutions to immediate practical problems. assume that architecture in the Islamic questions and constraints when called
By immediate practical problems, I assume world must reproduce certain forms or upon to design and build public buildings
we mean practical utility, or what is symbols that we students of Islamic history in the Islamic world that are meant to
necessary if certain practical functions are or culture have identified as "Islamic," in have religious functions.
to be served, as distinguished from what order to help us distinguish "Islamic
appears to be useless or arbitrary. What culture" from Western or other Oriental
looks useless or arbitrary in a work of art cultures. Whatever the use of this
may be just that, in which case it performs approach may be, it is not a substitute for Reference Notes
the function of merely confusing and a philosophy of art that considers the kind
disorienting the beholder or listener; but of issues I have raised, or for an art 1
Abdul Hamid el-Zein, "Beyond Ideology and
criticism that deals with the rules of Theology: The Search for the Anthropology of Islam,"
what appears useless or arbitrary may in Annual Review of Anthropology 6 (1977), pp 227-54
fact aim at a higher utility and necessity artistic production and with the individual
and, depending on the onlooker or and collective experience of a work of art. 2
Al-Ghazall, Das Elixier der Gliickseligkeit,
ubertragen von H Ritter (Jena, 1923), p 148 Cited in
listener's taste and judgment, it may As a last remark, I would like to point out Richard Ettinghausen, "Art and Architecture," The
succeed in performing a higher function. a certain difficulty for which I see no easy Legacy of Islam, ed Joseph Schacht with C E
For example, a public religious building Bosworth (Oxford, 1974), pp 284-285.
resolution. When I try to "experience" a
may try to convey a sense of God's peace, great monument of Christian architecture, 3
Meyer Howard Abrams, The Mirror and the
glory, majesty, transcendence, or unity-in such as the cathedral of Chartres, I am Lamp: Romantic Theory and the Critical Tradition
(New York, 1953), Chapter One.
short, any one or a combination of God's able to read about the history of its
beautiful names-and it may do this construction, the cultural history of the
through sheer simplicity, some shape or period, the techniques employed in its
void, colour, size, decoration, inscription, building, the meaning of the represen-
or a combination of these. Those aspects tations in its sculpture and stained-glass
of a public religious building that go windows, and the stylistic features of the
beyond solving an immediate practical works of art that survive in it from
problem in a narrow sense have to be different periods. I am also able to spend
looked at individually and together as time looking at the monument, studying
symbolic in the larger sense of this term. and enjoying its form and each of the
One has to ask what the building is trying works of art it contains, and attending the
to convey and whether it succeeds or fails. functions performed in it. However
Finally, what if one or more of these successful I may be, my experience is
49 Comments
Comments that Plato talked a lot about the city, but everything else Islamic has become
the Greek city and its architectural form history. A few people, mostly outside the
Arkoun represented prephilosophic ideals and Muslim world, seek to reverse this
parallel developments within the culture situation-to think about Islamic philos-
itself more than it did philosophy. We ophy philosophically rather than
Muhsin Mahdi said that philosophy, as it
should not forget that it was the Greeks historically, rather than as a so-called
has developed in Islam, contains certain
who put Socrates to death and who gave aspect of a culture or whichever term we
ideas of harmony, order and the aspiration
Plato a very hard time. That in itself is use to embalm and bury a thing in the
for the absolute. All these ideas have
symbolic of the tension between past. I think they are just beginning. What
aspects that interest the architect whom
philosophy and the city. This tension they will achieve, what they can do in the
we can consider the mediator between
continues during Islamic times and today, future, I wouldn't know. The problem
philosophical concepts and a physical
partly because philosophy tries to under- again is that philosophers have a peculiar
projection of these concepts in the
stand things independently of the city, and knack of thinking, "I will be perfectly
construction of the city.
to transcend temporal and local kinds of happy if someone should listen to what I
I think it might be fruitful to compare conventions. Because it engages in a form am saying in two hundred years." This is
what occurred in Greek cities, for these of criticism, either explicit or implicit, of the kind of range they normally have in
ideas are more relevant to Greek its own culture, the tension between the mind which is not very practical, of
architecture than to Islamic architecture. two is inescapable. In fact, if there is any course. On the other hand, I think there
In other words, we have again the use of philosophy for the city, one may are shortcuts. We know who the Muslim
problem of selection. Is what we find even say it is largely because of this philosophers were, we know what they
Islamic or is it something else? tension. So I think it is a very complex wrote, and the texts are being edited in
To clarify this point, I would like to question. One cannot just take it for Arabic or Persian. They are being trans-
indicate that it is an issue of historical granted that Islam was against philosophy lated, so they are not inaccessible. People
research. I know that we have here some- while the Greeks were for philosophy. should just pick them up and read. They
thing that is an ideal, but it is a historical The modern situation is somewhat may have difficulties, but what is not
problem to see the real relation which different. On the one hand, we had an age difficult?
could or could not have developed of liberalism, which unfortunately came to
between the work of the architect and an end. In its place there arose what one
philosophy. A vacuum prevents us from might call an age of ideology. Govern-
stating the impact of philosophy in this ments seem to be not only concerned with I. Serageldin
field, and it would be very interesting to running the practical affairs of the state
know the real function of Islamic but claim to know the ultimate things, to I frankly seem somewhat more comfort-
philosophy, its concrete function in have a philosophy, to know what the able in discussing self-identity, the second
shaping this way of life. nature of society is and so on. That heading on the programme, than symbols,
What has happened today? Not only have necessarily beings us back to the same since I understand some of the difficulties
these cities of harmony disappeared, but situation that existed with the Greeks and which most of our colleagues have had. I
this philosophy is no longer historical for in Islam. Basically, free thinking and would like to follow up what Prof. Arkoun
us. Classical philosophical reflection has philosophy is in trouble with this kind of has said about the difference between
disappeared. The architect who wishes to situation, and philosophers have to make what existed in the past and the present
know about the past on the level of adjustments or remain silent or migrate. situation.
philosophy and apply it in his work finds Suppose there are architects and others Philosophy, if conceived in the broad
himself deprived. This is a problem that who have the freedom to think, to read sense of fiqh, contemporary thought, is
architects have to face today. and to do something in their art; after all, what gives society a sense of identity. The
it may be hard for a party or a ruler to tell society knows itself from the way it
an architect that this is against the perceives itself, and that is reflected in its
ideology of the state, because it is very political system, its social goals and its
Mahdi hard to tell what the ideology of a building semiotic system. This in turn governs the
is. But maybe it isn't. Maybe our way in which its physical built environ-
I should perhaps begin by saying that the architects will tell us they have the same ment is developed. With that I am saying
question of the relation between problems. Suppose this is the case. We that architecture is really the image or the
philosophy and what is called the culture still face the situation which Dr. Arkoun reflection of the social, economic and
of a city is a very complex one. It is true described. Islamic philosophy like almost cultural organization of society. I would
Comments 50
like to pose the question whether indeed I suspect that the heart of the problem of
philosophy in the broader sense of fiqh finding a harmoniously balanced urban
mentioned partly by Dr. Mahdi would not environment comes from defining basic
be essential at this stage? concepts which govern society and from
In contemporary Muslim societies almost which we can develop the criteria and
everywhere there are what are called feelings for articulating an architecture. I
"modernizing" influences. I put them in would like to ask Prof. Mahdi to comment
quotation marks to avoid getting into a little on how he believes a rethinking of
disputes whether they are modernizing or contemporary Islamic goals can be,best
Westernizing or whatever. They are achieved.
influences that impose a different way of
life on people at the level of social praxis
in terms of their economic interactions and
Mahdi
the secular system of laws between people
and nations. Accommodation is required
of the individuals in contemporary Muslim I think all of this has to be done,
societies. Invariably this leads to a sense obviously, but what its impact will be only
of shaken identity and ambiguity, a lack of God knows. The idea of having some sort
knowing who you really are. It is of a think tank where people can acquire
reflected in our architecture today and in a new understanding of Islamic law or
our sense of the environment. I think that Islamic theology or Islamic art is a good
perhaps one of the fundamental tasks thing. And if one does learn something-
required of intellectuals in all of the we do that at a place like Harvard only
Muslim world is to reverse the standard, accidentally and not in an organized
to absorb these modernizing influences up fashion-then one might be able in a
to the level of practical ethics, and to serious and organized fashion to begin to
discuss openly the questions which Prof. get out of this terrible environment.
Arkoun has mentioned. In order to People need the time and the opportunity
determine criteria that can help define to sit down and discuss what can be done
what kind of contemporary architecture under the circumstances. That certainly
would be most meaningful in Islamic would be an important contribution in a
terms, we will have to rethink our political small way.
systems, our economic laws and our
societal laws. We must consider, for
example, the balance between private and
public spaces, the orientation of forms,
rights of privacy, the proper role and
function of communal living, the type of
family life prevalent in society and its
impact on the plan of houses, the proper
mixing of land uses and the separation of
these uses between sacred and profane.
We heard that recently the increased
specialization of buildings has resulted in
robbing the mosque of its great communal
purpose and has turned it into a much
more narrowly defined edifice. The
presence of aesthetic sense, grace,
decoration and so on is an overlay on all
that.
51 Islam, Urbanism and Human Existence Today
Mohammed Arkoun
My title is intended as a framework for

research, 1 a framework inspired by reading
the Proceedings of the first seminar. 2 In
presenting "Architecture in the Spirit of
Islam" the ideological or theological
presuppositions may well imply that the
Islamic spirit is an immediate, simple,
even atheistic notion. For me, within the
framework of our research, it is
problematic.
The title I have chosen avoids the impli-
cation of such presuppositions. It simply
juxtaposes three main directions of
thought in a particular order. Why have I
placed "urbanism" between "Islam" and
"human existence"? To the extent that
urbanism is a physical environment
designed by men, one in which their
existence takes place, it serves to mediate
between a projection of human existence,
a general design, and real, concrete
existence.
As a projection of human existence, Islam
moves in two directions. The first is Algeria: a recently constructed rural village
metaphysical, religious, spiritual, and Photo: M. Al-Hariri!Aga Khan Awards
therefore dynamic. The second is one
which I personally hesitate to qualify with
the adjective, "Islamic". Here I react
against what is presented as "Muslim"
philosophy, "Muslim" politics and the urban way of life conceived by and for the deteriorates. There is clearly room for
like. The second direction, the second French and differing entirely from that psychological and sociological research
level of signification, is the sociohistorical required by a Muslim population was now here. I am persuaded that much can be
space in which human existence unfolds. vacant. learned from this experience.
This space should be restored to a real, In terms of the Islamic definition of A second point to remember is that after
positive signification. It should in no way housing a significant problem arose. The independence, Algeria wished to break
be arbitrarily concealed by the term, colonial departure provoked an upheaval with its colonial past and pursue its own
"Islamic." of the Algerian population. Apart from a development. In terms of housing and
I wish to relate a personal experience in few exceptions, the essentially rural urbanization two phenomena had great
order to make this theoretical and population was unprepared to live in this impact: industrialization and the agrarian
analytical presentation less abstract. The physical environment. Consequently, the revolution. In turning to heavy industry,
example is that of Algeria, a unique entire traditional semiotic universe was Algeria installed complexes that rival
laboratory for those who wish to reflect disrupted. Another framework for life was those in Europe in terms of their impact
seriously on these problems. What I have installed in its place, and this translated on social structures such as housing and
to say about Algeria can be applied with into all kinds of behaviour. For instance, work. Consequently, we must now deal
proper correctives to any Muslim country, people used their balconies to raise with problems identical to those faced by
but owing to its recent history a number of chickens (this striking example was European industrial societies in the nine-
problems appear there in extreme form. provided by Andre Raymond). But there teenth and early twentieth centuries.
At the time of its independence in 1962, a is more. All kinds of behaviour which are
The problem is where to house the new
unique upheaval occurred. An extremely part of the Islamic way of life were
workers. Should the most common type of
active European community, a very mixed uprooted and displaced. As it does not
urbanism be chosen, the low-rent housing
community, left the country. Entire towns correspond to the functions demanded by
development? In other words, there was
were emptied of their inhabitants. An the new population, the urban fabric
no tradition of urbanism. Nor was there
Islam, Urbanism and Human Existence Today 52
Algeria, socialist villages have been built.

This is indeed an interesting phenomenon.
A socialist village is one of those new
villages built in the countryside to lodge
the new agricultural workers. They adhere
to what we call "modern" architectural
models. Apartments are ordered in blocks;
streets follow straight lines. The only sign
of Islam's presence is, of course, the
mosque, and this raises an important
issue.
The mosque fulfills the function of
mediation not as a building that has
Islamic architectural attributes such as the
mil]rtib or the minbar, but as a building
with a functional semiotic system, a
building in the midst of those smells,
noises and movements which characterize
what we perceive as an Islamic milieu. The
mosque mediates only when it is inte-
grated into a lively system. But in a
socialist village this system has practically
disappeared. Here we are dealing with
Kasr al-Boukhari, Algeria public housing under construction something different, with another
language, a language of revolution which
Photo: M Al-Hariri/Aga Khan Awards has nothing to do with the traditional
Islamic language. The modes of relation
and exchange are different, and an entire
system of signs has disappeared. Conse-
quently, we must revise the Islamic
any preparation at the architectural factitious historical continuity represented language to adapt it to new realities. That
research level to accompany this great by architectural monuments or great is why I have chosen as my theme, "Islam,
historical movement. philosophical works. In so doing the real Urbanism and Human Existence Today."
The leap into modern industry was a bold social fabric is totally omitted. Classical The word "today" has considerable weight
policy. At the same time it was deep- Arabic historiography is the intellectual for we must make our way through towns
rooted in an ideology that calls for the priest serving in the defense of dynasties. shattered by demographic pressures and a
It celebrates works of civilization which we disrupted semiotic universe.
remodeling of the Algerian identity. That
is to say, national construction had as its continue to protect at the expense of local
invention and creativity. If we do not now seriously search for an
first principle not only the recovery of an Islamic language adapted to this new
identity, but the remodeling of an identity, As an illustration, we turn to the architec- situation, we will find ourselves in the
first, by regenerating its historical and tural methods of the Mzab. A religious usual predicament of Muslim societies.
cultural constituents, and second, by minority within a social group extending When confronted by economic, demo-
integrating new wealth and modern far back, the Mzab offers a particularly graphic and social pressures, they practice
methods. instructive lesson. Taking refuge in a kind of evasion. Always they resort to a
In the case of Algeria, for example, if we Southern Algeria for political and religious Western technology which only further
wish to identify the typical urban tradition, reasons, they built right in the middle of aggravates the problems of their interior
we should not look at those great monu- the Sahara. This is, in fact, Hassan Fathy's universe.
ments or mosques which engage the formula, "to build with the people." Their
solutions met very precise ecological What goes with this evasion? An Islamic
attention of the specialist and even amaze discourse of an ideological nature which
us. I emphasize that our approach must constraints before meeting the standard
Islamic models which were certainly over- tries to legitimate these actions by
be pragmatic. When considering the referring to the authority of the Koran,
history of Islam, Muslims as well as looked by the Berbers of that time.
the authority of Islam, which is supposed
Islamicists usually take into account a Concerning the agrarian revolution in to function on a transcendental level. I
53 Comments
make an appeal for a political philosophy What I emphasize is that thought is first of Comments
adapted to the current historical situation all an act of historical solidarity.
of Muslim societies, a philosophy that Philosophers, ethnographers, architects, Raymond
would take up again the issues raised by economists and sociologists should
the philosophers of the past-the relation consider things within the context of I would like to make a remark concerning
between the authority of the Koran reality, the reality in which Muslim the attitude of historians. Dr. Arkoun has
(divine, transcendental, religious) and that societies presently live. Then, if we find a raised an important point regarding the
of the human powers and ideologies which path through all the confusion, horizons existence of urban planners who realize
seek legitimacy by referring to that will open in which we can inscribe our this integration of divine will in the urban
authority. thought and our action. space. In fact, this is a big problem upon
I call your attention to the problem of which historians are working. But the
signs and symbols. Here I cross paths with problem is difficult because we have very
Prof. Grabar. He began with an analysis little historical information relative to the
Reference Notes role of a central concept of cities.
of art history while I started with an
analysis of the Koranic text. Both of us 1 Finally, I think that it is the individual, the
have independently employed the term This text is an English resume of a presentation
made in French by Prof Arkoun qiiqf, who plays the role of mediation. I
"sign-symbol." refer to the period which I know, i.e., the
2
Toward an Architecture in the Spirit of Islam,
I prepared an essay, "Peut-on parler de sponsored by the Aga Khan Award for Archit.,cture modern times. From the fifteenth to the
merveilleux dans le Coran?" for a and held at Aiglemont, Gouvieux, France, in April nineteenth century the qiiqf performed this
colloquium. 3 When people queried me on 1978 mediation by the very act of daily inter-
the notion of the supernatural in the 3
L' Etrange et le merveilleux dans Ia civilisation pretation of the urban problems of Muslim
Koran, I began to reflect on the semiotic islamique medievale Colloquium held at the College cities. Thus we should identify the implicit
de France (Paris, 1978) body of doctrine which the qiiqf obeyed
status of the Koranic verses and wondered
whether we should consider them as when making his decisions. This would
symbols or as signs. I linked these two involve perusing thousands of registers
words in order to indicate two possible scattered in most big Muslim cities. It
directions which are continually mani- represents not only the work of a historian
fested in Islamic life and in the relation of during his lifetime, but generations of
the Muslim to the Koran. historians. When this task is completed, I
think we will have a clear idea of the
The first direction considers the verse as a
problems confronting us, and maybe we
linguistic sign, a linguistic expression
will find some solutions.
referring directly to definable significa-
tions. This permits the definition of
Muslim law and in fact indicates the
direction of thought in the Shari'a. The
Shari' a is inconceivable if we do not Arkonn
consider the Koranic discourse on this
literal linguistic level where, according to
The mediation of the qiiqf is entirely
lexicographic method, each word refers
different from the mediation of the
precisely to some referent. At this level
mosque. The mediation of the mosque
the Shari'a continues to influence Islamic
is a mediation for the sacred, the
discourse, for instance, the decisions
transcendent. Muslims pray in mosques
Muslims make in urbanism or economics.
and when a Muslim prays, he is in relation
In the second direction the verse functions with God. The mediation of the qiiqf is a
as an opened space of projection, that is, mediation of censure, and eventually one
a system of significations that materializes of repression, of political integration for
in the individual and collective experience the benefit of the secular branch. There is
of the community. Of course, you will tell a difference between these two kinds of
me that these things are too complicated mediation. The first one is the Islamic
for an architect and he cannot follow all projection of human existence which is
these directions. translated on the level of the prayer in the
Comments 54
mosque. The second is the mediation of Mahdi

the qar!f, of law, which evolves from the
struggle of men within the city. Prof. Arkoun insists that we should look
at things somewhat problematically. But
between the problematic character of these
things and the way he invites us to look at
Wahid them, there seems to be some tension. For
instance, I wonder whether his distinction
I do not think that we should make too between social reality and transcendence
much of a distinction between the two as two opposite things that have to be
kinds of mediation. In some cases an mediated is in itself not problematic. The
institution used for one kind of mediation separation between the literal and legal
can also be used for another purpose. For aspects of the Koran and the symbolic sign
example, the mosque is used for the aspect, both of which have existed
mediation of God but also for that of law throughout Islamic history, is another
and politics. example. Can one throw one of them
I would like to point out a unique overboard and preserve the other? You
Indonesian institution which exerts see my difficulty. Either we go all the way
influence in the rural areas. The pesantren in our effort to make things problematic,
is a learning community where students or we stand, as Prof. Arkoun seems to
are sent by their parents to live and study stand, on these premises, and then our
with the 'ulamti' in the same compound. It project is not problematic.
represents a cultural mediation through its
integration of pre-Islamic concepts and
Islamic signs and symbols.
Arkoun
In Indonesia there is no specific symbol
for good and bad, but there is a distinction Yes, of course, analysis separates, but
between aspirants and those who have separation does not imply the existence of
achieved a perfect understanding and an opposition. Analysis is undertaken in
knowledge of God. To express this idea in order to afford better understanding. What
Sufi terms, pre-Islamic concepts of the goes on in the life of a man when he is
wayang puppet show were adapted. talking about God, about transcendency,
Specifically, in the middle of the screen and when he is doing his business, when
used in the puppet show there is a he is engaging in politics, for example? We
mountain. On one side you have the would like to know how these things are
pandavas. These are not the heroes in the expressed and how they fit in the existence
Western sense as you see them in the of man. It is obvious that for a believer in
movies, but rather those who have general-a Muslim, a Christian or an
obtained perfect knowledge of God. On ideologist-this separation by analysis does
the other side there are the kauvaras who not exist. Analysis is a search undertaken
still aspire to perfect knowledge. for better understanding. It is therefore
In the pesantren the symbol of the not a rupture-causing element.
mountain is employed by placing the
mosque in the middle of the compound.
The 'ulamti' live on one side while the
students live on the other. Also, by being
in the middle, the mosque functions as a
centre in which the community can come
and go. Therefore I think we should avoid
making a distinction between the two
kinds of mediation. An institution can be
used for many purposes.
55 The Rab ': A Type of Collective Housing
in Cairo During the Ottoman Period
Andre Raymond
Our knowledge of housing in Cairo during

the Ottoman period from the sixteenth to
the eighteenth century is uneven Various
sources (waqf documents in particular)
furnish detailed descriptions of important
residences such as mansions and palaces.
It is possible to examine numerous extant
buildings of this type. 1 Unfortunately, we
have little information on "average"
dwellings. Although great variety exists
within this building category, the general
concept remains fairly constant. The
private house of the Ottoman period
opened onto a secondary street or
cul-de-sac. A corridor gave access to an
interior courtyard. Windows opened either
on this or, in the case of important
dwellings, the arcades of a maq'ad
(loggia). The house was often two or three
stories tall and included a closed reception
room, the qii'a. These houses were located
in areas near the central commercial
districts inside the Fatimid region of the
town (Qahira).
At the other end of the social spectrum
(and geographically on the outskirts of the
town) was poor housing. This is not well
understood due to the lack of contem-
porary description or remains which might
encourage archeological investigation.
Although the IJiira (residential quarters) of
Cairo offered many houses conceived on a
reduced scale after the model just
described, there were also many groups of
houses called !Jaw~. 2 These consisted of
poor dwellings built around a common
courtyard. Jomard described this kind of
semi-rural dwelling as "large courtyards
or enclosures full of four foot tall huts
where throngs of poor people lived
crowded together with their animals." 3
Between these two extremes lie the
collective residences, the importance of
which has only recently been acknowl-
edged. They are of two main types. The
first, the wakiila or khan (caravanserai),
was used as lodging for a transient popula-
tion (travellers, foreign traders, military
people, etc.). As a place of wholesale
trade it also performed an economic role.
The riib' (plural, ribii') is a very original Cairo, Egypt. street scene outside the rab' of Riqwiin Bey
but lesser known type of tenement Photo: A Raymond
The Rab': A Type of Collective Housing in Cairo During the Ottoman Period 56
building. Recent studies by Laila 'Ali

Ibrahim have shed some light on the rab'
of the Mamluk period. 4 Here we are
dealing with a traditional structure; the
oldest specimens go back to the middle of c
the fifteenth century, but texts mention
the existence of the rab' in Fustat and D
Cairo at a much earlier date. It continued
to play an important role in the daily life
E
of Cairo's citizens until the middle of the
nineteenth century.
The word rab' is frequently met with in \ F
the Arabic sources and in archival G

documents. M. Clerget has given the rab'
a precise definition: H
The tall tenement building or rab' is ...
really a specialty of Cairo ... The rab'
is a kind of furnished hotel where up to
ten or fifteen apartments can be rented, K
each lodging up to ten people. It
corresponds to the Roman insulae and is
located along the main streets or their
immediate vicinity between the main
M
bazaars. Rarely does it have a courtyard
... The shops or warehouses for mer-
N
chandise frequently occupy [the ground
level]. Ordinarily there is no communi-
cation between the ground level and the
other levels . . . It is hard to know
exactly the maximum height of the rab'
during times of overpopulation . . .
During the Turkish period ... Q
[travellers] mention ... two, three, and
sometimes four stories. 5
The Location of the Rab'
By searching the archives of the mal]kama u

or Religious Courts of Cairo we located
forty-six rab's: thirty-six situated inside
v
Qahira, seven in the southern sector, and
three in the western sector of the city. 6
X
More than three-fourths of the rab's were
located inside Qahira, along main com-
'l y
mercial streets in the vicinity of the main
suqs of the town (Bai:n al-Qa~rai:n,
ifi
~
Ghiiriyya, Khan al-Khalm, Jamaliyya). 200 4oo &oo 8oo toojom z
15 114 113 112 111 10 9 8 5// " ... 3 2
This distribution corresponded to that of
the wakiila (caravanserai). Significantly,
there were no rab's in the l]iira region, the Map showing location ofrab's in Cairo
poor housing areas of Qahira. In the Source: A. Raymond
57 The Rab': A Type of Collective Housing in Cairo During the Ottoman Period
southern sector, the rab's were for the certainly higher. In Qahira, where most We should note that there were relatively
main part concentrated either along or in rab's were located, twenty-three out of few non-Egyptians among the rab' inhabi-
the vicinity of the main street leading from 173 individuals, or a proportion of 13.3 tants. Among the twenty-nine individuals
Bab Zuwalla to the southern limit of percent, were rab' inhabitants. If we mentioned for the period between 1798
Cairo. In the western sector, which was extrapolate, we may conclude that as and 1801, there were three Turks, one
mostly residential, there were only three many as 15,000 people were rab' inhabi- Maghribi, and one Syrian. In contrast to
rab's: two were located in the neighbour- tants out of an overall 1798 population of the wakiila or khan, the rab' was not a
hood of Bab al-Sha'riyya, one of the main 250,000. temporary residence for transient people,
commercial centres in Cairo. Concerning the socioeconomic status of but a type of fixed lodgings for Egyptians.
Thus the rab's were limited to areas of the rab' inhabitants, our calculations show Even though we have only little
high economic activity (commercial and that the median inheritance of the twenty- information on this point, we assume that
artisanal). The distribution resembles that nine cases during the years 1776 to 1798 most rab' residents were tenants. 11
of private residences belonging to shop- came to 22,646 paras. 9 The median inheri- Although many rab's belonged to the
keepers and artisans. As will be seen tance of the 334 individuals studied for the waqfs, others were owned by individuals.
below, the inhabitants of the rab' were same period was 109,101 paras. We there- In general, the rab's represented a
indeed average artisans and shopkeepers fore conclude that rab' inhabitants were common type of economic investment in
who had their shops and workshops in comprised of members of the lower middle Cairo, and their owners expected to
these areas. The rab's, however, were class population of artisans and small receive substantial revenue in the form of
built along main streets whereas private shopkeepers, situated at equal distance rent. For lack of information we cannot
houses were usually located at a distance from the "proletariat" of Cairo (itinerant estimate the average amounts of revenue,
from the suqs along small streets or in workers, craftsmen) and the upper middle but we do have a relatively precise idea
adjacent culs-de-sac. The rab's were in class (mainly fabric merchants or cafe about the value of the individual apart-
fact often linked to the wakiilas. There owners). ments (fabaqa or makiin): 3,945 paras
were fewer rab's in the western region, as The range of social status among rab' (constant) in 1690; 3,360 in 1696; 4,093 in
this was a residential district with both inhabitants was, however, wide. A thread 1752; 3,600 in 1785; 7,200 in 1785; 15,318
poor and elegant quarters and fewer (ghaz{) merchant from Ramla (inheritance in 1792; 3,240 in 1797. The average price
specialized commercial centres at 692 paras) and a saddler from Asyut was about 4,000 paras. Although modest
(inheritance at 1,335 paras) were among when compared to the price of private
the poorest. A textile merchant (tiijir) houses, this represented a rather sub-
from Aleppo (inheritance at 214,941 stantial portion of their owners'
The Inhabitants of the Rab' inheritance: for a tobacco merchant, 3,600
paras), a bathkeeper (inheritance at
131,578 paras) and a coffee merchant from a total of 8,783 paras; for a confec-
We cannot determine with any certainty (inheritance at 69,323 paras) were among tioner, 7,200 from 8,791 paras; and for a
the number of rab's in Cairo. The forty- the richest. But these were exceptions. spice merchant, 3,240 from 13,897. Thus
six which we have found in the archives Most of the rab' inhabitants (seventeen the possession of a makiin in a rab' could
represent only a partial sampling. Al- out of twenty-nine) had an inheritance mean an investment comparable to a shop.
Jabarti mentions the probably fairly between 5,000 and 50,000 paras, well
numerous rab's which were located in the within the limits of the Cairo middle class.
region of al-Azhar, in Ghiiriyya, and in
Bunduqaniyyin. A number of still extant Similarly, despite great variety in the The Structure of the Rab'
rab's must be added to those mentioned professions practiced by rab' inhabitants,
in the ma!Jkama. 7 Since a number of most were small shopkeepers and average
Although research has been carried out
wakiilas included rab's in their upper artisans: four tobacco merchants, three
concerning the architectural design of
stories, 8 we can infer that the actual shoemakers and saddlers, three lace-
individual residences and wakiila, regret-
number of rab's exceeded a hundred, each makers, five weavers and textile
tably few studies have been undertaken
of which could lodge between one hundred merchants, two tailors, two spice
with regard to the structure of collective
and one hundred and fifty people. merchants, etc. These were individuals
dwellings. Both documentary and arche-
whose social status was as modest as their
The inheritance register for Cairo for the ological sources, however, provide ample
material situation. Al-Jabarti mentions
years 1776 to 1798 lists as rab' inhabitants scope for investigation. Many waqfiyya
"the people who live in apartments"
twenty-nine out of the 334 individuals describe rab's in detail. In Cairo there still
(sukkiin al-tibiiq) when he refers to
whose residences are mentioned in the exists an appreciable number of
professions of fairly low status ( wakiila
documents. This represents a proportion independent rab's or rab'-wakiilas
doormen and itinerant snuff dealers). 10
of 8. 7 percent, but the real proportion was presently inhabited by a poor population.
They are rapidly deteriorating and require

urgent study. Consequently, the afore-
mentioned studies by Laila 'Ali Ibrahim
on the Mamluk rab' and Mona Zakariya
on the Ottoman rab' are of great
importance.
Laila 'Ali Ibrahim's research shows that
the structure of the rab' has undergone
little change from the earliest preserved
specimens (Inal complex in the northern
cemetery, 1451-6; rab'-wakala of Ghuri,
1504-5, waqfiyya no. 64; rab' of Kha"ir
Bey, 1523, waqfiyya no. 292) through the
Ottoman rab' of the seventeenth and
mid-eighteenth centuries (rab' of Ri<,iwan
Bey, 1638, waqfiyya no. 996; rab' of
Ibrahim Agha, 1645, waqfiyya no. 952;
three rab's of 'Abdarral)man Cawi:sh, 1746,
waqfiyya no. 941) This remarkable
permanence indicates that by the end of
the fifteenth century the structure had
reached an equilibrium. It proves that the
rab' was a perfect adaptation to precise
needs. It further points to the stability of
the socioeconomic conditions in Cairo
from the fifteenth to the eighteenth
century. However, only a detailed study of
extant rab's and waqf documents will show
to what extent there was continuity and
evolution in the development of this
monument.
The rab's of the Ottoman period are of
two different types. In the case of the
rab'-wakala, a wakala occupied the
ground floor and the lower levels of the
building while a special entrance gave
access to the rab' on the remaining floors.
Numerous specimens of this type can be
found in Cairo, and they are often
mentioned in the waqfiyya. The other type
was the independent rab', of which a
superb specimen exists in the Tabbana
quarter. In spite of differences in
conception, the fundamental elements of
these two structures are identical.
The number of apartments varied with the
individual rab'. The waqfs offer
descriptions of rab's containing from seven
to thirteen and nineteen maskan or sakan.
In the rab'-wakala, the apartments were
Cairo, Egypt: rab'-wakala al-Ghiirf
generally built along a corridor and laid
out in pairs. The individual apartments, Photo: A. Raymond
First floor
Cairo, Egypt: rab' of Tabbiina

Mezzanine Photo: A Raymond
occupying two or three levels, had interior reception room generally situated on the
stairways and terraces. The windows first level and occupying a double vertical
opened onto the interior courtyard of the space.
wakiila or, as was often the case, the Two examples will illustrate these general
exterior fa<;ade. In the independent rab' considerations: the rab' of 'Abdarrahman
the ground level was ordinarily occupied Cawish in KhaH al-Waziriyya, 12 and. the
by shops and warehouses. Stairways gave rab' of Khalr Bey. 13
access to the apartments on the first floor.
These occupied two or three levels The rab' of 'Abdarral}.man Cawish was
connected by interior stairways. situated above the wakiila of KhaH-
Waziriyya, which was comprised of four
Second floor Several principles of construction seem to shops and seventeen storehouses (1Jf4il).
be constant in both cases: the grouping of The entrance to this rab' was adjacent to
two apartments to form the basic unit, the that of the wakiila. There were nineteen
vertical disposition of duplex or triplex lodgings (sakan) along the corridor
Plan of an apartment in the rab' of Tabbiina apartments served by interior stairways, (majiiz): five opened on the eastern
the juxtaposition of different volumes, and fa<;ade (sharql) of the wakiila, seven on
After M. Zakariya the inclusion of a riwiiq, the principal the courtyard of the wakala, six on the
northern fa<;ade ( bal]rf), and the nine- organization of Cairo during the Ottoman
teenth had no openings (!Jabfs). The door period. It was a type of housing well
of each lodging opened onto a vestibule adapted to high density living as was the
(fasal]a). Each sakan was comprised of a case in the centre of the town where it was
riwiiq, an alcove (khiziina nawmiyya), a not possible to spread residences
kitchen (matbakh), and the latrines (kursf horizontally. As a perfect answer to
riil]a). A staircase led to a terrace (satiJ). socioeconomic needs, the rab's of Cairo
Although we lack the exact dimensions, housed a population economically active in
we know that the apartments were small the suqs, stores and workshops of the
and consisted of only two levels. 14 In the vicinity.
rab'-wakiila of Ghiiri, studied by Laila The existence of the rab' raises two issues.
'Ali Ibrahim, we find that the apartments, The first is on a theoretical level. In his
organized on three levels, were of two study of Cairo cited above, Clerget
types with areas of 30 + 36 + 36 = 96 m2 remarks that the rab' "is a derogation of
and 25 + 30 + 30 = 85 m2 . Assuming the customs of Islam and is ill-suited to
comparable dimensions, the apartments of the physical environment. " 15 His second
First floor the rab' of 'Abdarrahman Cawish would remark is completely incorrect.
have had an area of ~bout 60 m2 . Concerning the first, it goes without a
The extant rab' of Khalr Bey, built during doubt that the rab' of Cairo does not
the first years of the sixteenth century (the correspond to what is considered the
waqfiyya is dated 1523), consists on the "traditional" dwelling in Islamic regions.
ground level of fourteen qii'a, probably for This is supposed to display certain well-
commercial purposes, and a passage known characteristics: the segregation of
leading from the eastern fa<;ade (opening the family secured by the isolation of the
on Tabbana) to the western fa<;ade where house at the end of a blind alley, and an
the doors of the apartments are located. introverted orientation of the residence
The rab' includes fifteen riwiiq. Fourteen marked by an interior courtyard and the
are served by seven staircases each leading absence of openings on the exterior. Here
to a landing (basta). On each landing one may pass from social and climatic
there are two doors which give access to considerations to propositions of a
two apartments. A corridor (dihlfz) links metaphysical nature: for example, the
various rooms (bai"t azyiirlroom containing interior courtyard (samiiwf) is the central
water jars; kursf khalii' /latrines), and a element through which communication
Second floor riwiiq (5 m x 3.5 m) which occupies two with the universe can be realized (the
levels (height 4.5 m) and has six windows "celestial" courtyard). 16
overlooking the main street. The riwiiq has
an eyviin, a darqii'a, and an alcove As a collective housing unit comprised of
(khiziina nawmiyya). A staircase leads common areas, located on streets with
from the dihlfz to the second level where heavy traffic, opening to the outside, and
a tabaqa is located. A staircase also gives lacking individual courtyards, the rab' may
access to a terrace (satiJ). The interior be considered a total rupture with
area of the apartments of the rab' "traditional" plans. Should we, for this
measures 52.5 m2 per level or approxi- reason, ignore its existence? I think not,
mately 160 m2 for the total surface. for although a specialty of Cairo, the rab'
is not exceptional in the Arabo-Islamic
world. We know of collective housing in
earlier times in Fustat, for instance, as
Conclusions well as vertical housing in other regions
such as Yemen.
Third floor As rab's housed between five and ten Consequently, the study of the rab' should
percent of Cairo's population at the end of lead us to revise our understanding of
Plan of an apartment in the rab'-waklila al-Gharf the eighteenth century, they obviously Islamic housing and to admit that the
After L. Ibrahim played an important role in the urban traditional schemata are not valid in all
cases and represent only part of the rest, or even chicken raising-a tendency 9
I use one para of constant value (base 100: its
reality. Moreover, many of the character- which modern urban planners as well as value between 1681 and 1689).
istics which form our notion of "Islamic" the authorities find reprehensible. 17 10
'Abdul-Rahman al-Jabarti, 'Aja'ib til-tithar fi
housing are, in fact, Mediterranean Contemporary architects and urban al-tartijim wa-al-akhbtir (ed Bulaq, 1880), II, p. 263
features which correspond to earlier modes planners can find a lesson here. The 11
It is understandable that the documents do not
from Roman and Greek antiquity. Collec- Egyptian rab' of the Mamluk or Ottoman mention this aspect; in the settlement of inheritances,
tive vertical housing corresponds to the rents are not generally mentioned, being neither active
period is a typically traditional category of nor passive
insulae of the Roman era (and collective housing more suitably adapted
undoubtedly the Byzantine period, too). to the needs of its population than modern
12
Waqfiyya, Index no 941 Ministry of Awqaf,
Cairo, pp 74-79 (dated 1159/1745)
The second issue concerns the technical collective housing which incorporates the
13
aspects of these structures. In terms of its worst elements of Western architecture. Waqfiyya, lnd'ex no. 292, pp 94-96, kindly
Undoubtedly, the original occupants of the communicated by Mona Zakariya
architecture and its adaptation to a
particular way of life, the rab' merits rab's of Cairo, ordinary artisans and shop- 14
Another rab'-waktila of 'Abdarrahman Cawlsh
consideration on several accounts. First, keepers, were better lodged in terms of (waqfiyya no 941, pp. 70-71) consisted of thirteen
sakan (two levels) A third (pp. 53-57) consisted of
great variety in the surfaces and volumes available space and the adaptation of seven mastikan entering onto a corridor (majtiz) Each
of its rooms contrasts with the disastrous housing to their needs than their sakan had three levels with a riwtiq on the first level, a
descendants who live in the low-rent tabaqa on the second, and a terrace (fasaha) and a
uniformity of "modern" residential apart- riwtiq on the third .
ments in the West. One should note in housing developments which deface the
15
particular the importance of the riwiiq, the old city and its environs. Clerget, Le Caire, p 317
reception room, which generally extends 16
A Abdel Nour, "Types architecturaux et
to two levels inside the apartment and vocabulaire de !'habitat en Syrie," in L'Espace social
which offers a larger setting for family life de Ia ville arabe, ed D Chevallier (Paris, 1979), pp
82-83
than the contemporary "living room." Reference Notes
17
Second, technical problems such as For a recent example concerning Algiers, see
Daniel Jurga in Le Monde (October 5, 1979), p 4
interior circulation and ventilation are 1
A French team under the direction of M R
ingeniously solved by the use of a series of Mantran (E R A 648 of the C.N R.S ) has studied the
palaces and mansions of Cairo Four volumes have
interior stairways and ventilation columns. already been published by A. Lezine, J Revault, B
Lastly, the general use of a vertical struc- Maury and M Zakariya
ture, which offers a striking contrast to the 2
See A Raymond, "La Geographie des htira du
horizontal aspect of contemporary Caire," B./FA 0 (Cairo, 1980). ·
collective housing, solves most of the 3
E F Jomard, "Ville du Caire," Description de
problems related to collective housing in a /'Egypte (Paris, 1822), II, pp. 662, 696
more satisfactory manner. First, the use of
4
two- or three-level apartments overcomes In particular, see Laila 'Ali Ibrahim, "Middle
Class Living Units in Mamluk Cairo: Architecture and
the traditional aversion to stacking Terminology," AARP (December 1978), pp 24-31
horizontally arranged modules. Second, Mona Zakariya, collaborator with the E.R A 648, is
publishing the rab' of Khair Bey in the Annates
the vertical disposition of the rab' allows a Islamiques, XVI, (1980).
stricter separation of activities by isolating
5
the reception area (riwiiq) from areas Marcel Clerget, Le Caire (Cairo, 1934), I, pp
316-317 See also Edward William Lane, An Account
reserved for family life. Interior stairways of the Manners and Customs of the Modern Egyptians
assure easy circulation and privacy which (ed Everyman's Library, 1954), p. 21
"traditional" contemporary apartments 6
By Qahira I mean the Fatimid foundation which
with their central "patio" do not. And is surrounded by the city wall (Bab al-Futiih, Bab
finally, each family has access to a private al-Nasr) in the north as well as in the east and south
(Bab Zuwaila), and by the Khallj (canal of Cairo) in
terrace completely isolated from those of the west. The southern sector comprises the area
other families. Climatic as well as which extends south of Bab Zuwaila and is bordered
sociological reasons justify the necessity of in the west by the Khalij The western quarters extend
west of the Khalij
such a collective open air space. In
contrast, contemporary buildings only 7
For example, the rtib' of the waktila of 'Abbas
afford their residents more or less tiny Agha (Index no 396 and located in G5), the rab' of
Ridwan Bey (Index nos 406, 407, 408, 409/N6-7), the
balconies which are badly isolated from rab' of Khair Bey in Tabbana (in P5).
the exterior. These can scarcely be
8
We have identified 360 Cairo wakatas of the
transformed into a space for recreation, Ottoman period
Comments 62
Comments people for investment. As for the second you have an apartment on a single level
point, I do not think that the people in with a flat concrete slab on top, it may be
M. Serageldin these rab's were homogeneous. I doubt larger, but you never have the same sense
that there was really a community life in of space or ventilation. What Islamic
these buildings. There could have been, architecture has to contribute is the idea
I just want to add to Andre Raymond's
but we need figures for the Ottoman of respect for the whole man. Thus it gives
remarks that Cairo is now one of the most
period. Once people study the archives, I him the luxury of a palace by providing a
dynamic housing markets. Developments
think we may find many correlations large interior space.
are growing and sprouting all around the
city which in a way duplicate this system.
The builders build on very small lots, two
to three floors high and with almost the
same total surface area that you have Fathy
quoted. I have surveyed several of these
houses and they run in between eighty and I want to add something to the idea of the
one hundred square metres for the family wakiila. In a sense the qii'a is a trans-
unit. They are structured very comparably position of the courtyard house in which
to what you have shown us. we have the courtyard, the two eyviins and
the loggia. This provided the occupant
with the different kinds of climate which
he required. He could be in the shade or
Grabar out in the open or right inside. With
urbanization this has been altered. The
Who paid for the construction of these centre part of the courtyard was covered
large buildings? What initial investment and the loggias, which were not
was involved? And who received the demolished, were put somewhere on the
income from the shops that were in the courtyard to catch the north breeze.
wakiila apartment group? What you are When we come to the wakiila, the same
suggesting here is the existence of idea, that of interiority, holds. People
apartment units with up to fifteen lived mostly indoors. That is where they
apartments in any one group. We are had their community space. The idea of
talking about one hundred and twenty the duplex came from the khans. Although
Cairenes of a certain social base having the unit is very tiny, it articulates the inner
families and living together. Is there any space in such a way that the occupants feel
evidence that people who lived in these they have more space. Were the apartment
apartments worked or prayed together or covered with a concrete slab roof only
tended to go to the same mosques? Did three metres high the largest room would
they have collective activities that measure three by three by four metres and
separated them as a group from other provide little space. With the qii'a we have
people within the city? one hundred and twenty cubic metres
which provides for cross-ventilation and
everything else. Above all, the occupants,
who are very poor, enjoy the luxury of the
Raymond
qii'a. These are people who otherwise
would not have a courtyard with a
On the first point, who paid for it, I think fountain and so on.
many of these rab's were built in the
framework of the waqfs in Cairo for the In the triplex, the ground floor is used for
benefit of the mosque or the two reception, the middle floor for the
sanctuaries of Mecca and Medina or for kitchen, and the top floor for sleeping.
social work. But I also think that quite a Again we have the concept of interiority,
lot of these buildings were built by private but in addition, the apartment is cooler. If
63 The View from Within
Hildred Geertz
As a cultural anthropologist, challenged by and particularly what sorts of connotative Third, most of our ordinary experiences
the audacious and imaginative purpose of images they themselves call up in the do not occur in a systematized way.
the Aga Khan Award-which is no less course of their involvement with the Rather, we acquire fragmentary bits of
than to change the "cultural and environ- buildings. knowledge which are embodied in very
mental sensibility" of the Muslim What we need are a series of studies concrete and specific images and actions:
world 1-I would like to set forth some concerning the perspectives used by the this street corner, this fountain, this act of
practical suggestions. My immediate people who live inside the buildings and buying something, this act of prayer.
concern is not so much how to bring about inside the culture that specifies and
such a change, but how to locate the kinds A fourth difficulty is that of the multipli-
organizes those perspectives. In what city of meanings which are or can be
of "cultural sensibilities" at work in follows below I describe some of the ways
specific situations. Oleg Grabar has condensed into a single image, form or
that anthropologists might go about doing object. Moreover, when that object is as
narrowed the problem a little by asking if this. At the outset I shall present an
there is an Islamic system of visually complexly composed of multiple forms as
analysis of five methodological obstacles a building or town, the complexities of
perceptible symbols and signs. Grabar's that need to be faced in any empirical
question suggests that at least one aspect association can be astronomical. The
study of the way ordinary people impose multiplicity of meaningful associations
of the Muslim "cultural sensibility" can be or derive "meaningful statements" from
investigated as it appears in distinct pertinent to a single structure may be one
aspects of their built environment. criterion for saying that a certain object
systems of visually perceptible symbols
and signs. But Grabar's question is very has cultural importance or even that
general, and it presupposes the solution of something is excellent.
a number of highly specific questions Five Methodological Obstacles That an object, a painting, a poem, a
which may, however, be practicably building or an environmental form such as
researched. Before we can attempt to The first obstacle derives from the fact a grand avenue has multiple meanings im-
answer whether or not there is an Islamic that most of what the researcher wants to plies that many different interpretations
system of visually perceptible symbols and know is normally unstated or unstatable. can be made from it and that different
signs we need to find out, in particular As a member of a cultural system, one's people will interpret it differently. Some of
situations and particular places, what sorts knowledge of it, as with the grammar of these versions may be so contradictory as
of systems of visually perceptible symbols one's native tongue, is implicit. The actual to be labeled misinterpretations. However,
and signs are actually being employed. application of much of this knowledge is it may be that some idiosyncratic misin-
neither verbalized nor even verbalizable. terpretations are actually creative inven-
The art historian's methodology focuses on tions or inspired associations which further
visually perceptible forms (e.g., buildings Speaking Arabic is a highly complex cul-
tural act, but it by no means requires an deepen the cultural burden of the symbolic
and their elements) and attempts to forms or actions. In fact, I venture that
deduce the semiotic system from which awareness of the grammatical rules by
which intelligible sentences are produced "vitality" and "aliveness" of meaning-as
these forms may have been derived, the opposed to "deadness" or "dilution"-
langue, so to speak, of which the buildings and their meanings interpreted. Sometimes
much of the cultural system is verbalizable have something to do with the presence of
are the parole. But an anthropologist multiple interpretations and the potential-
usually approaches the matter from an but no one would think of laboriously
paraphrasing that which is obvious. Only ity and presence of new meanings.
entirely different direction. Rather than
attempting to discover the systems of when what one says sounds like nonsense As an outsider, to presume to intuit or de-
meanings from the objects themselves will anyone attempt to specify the rule duce those meanings which local inhabi-
(e.g., comparative studies of the minaret which was broken. tants ascribe to parts of their environments
forms or of explicit statements in Islamic The methodological difficulties are even is to invite disastrous falsification. An ex-
philosophical writings referring to living greater when one attempts to study in- ample is the romantic interpretation by
and ceremonial spaces), an anthropologist terpretive acts involving nonverbal symbo- nineteenth-century European visitors of
would try to design a study of the acts of lic structures. There yet another form of the significance and intentions of the Taj
interpretation that ordinary people make implicitness is at work. Statements in non- Mahal. Wayne Begley's painstaking icono-
when they move through those spaces: verbal structures cannot be transposed into graphical analysis has revealed that the
their homes, streets and markets. In other verbal statements without distortion, dilu- meanings of the monument and its garden
words, an anthropologist would look not tion or loss of connotative meaning. Ar- to the original patron were very different
at the buildings primarily, but would study tists always protest that if they could put from those imposed by Westerners. 2 Ex-
empirically the responses of the people the "message" of their painting or dance cept that it was based on documents, his
who use those buildings-what they do in into words, they would not have to paint approach was similar to the close contex-
them, what they understand about them, or dance it. tual examination of an anthropologist. The
written texts and drawings hinted at the

N
+I
processes of interpretation that were made
by the builder, the patron and possibly the
audience themselves. I propose that the
same sort of close study should be made of
the statements made by the users of con-
temporary buildings.
Some Cautionary Advice
Anthropological methods are encapsuled

in three admonitions:
1) Approach research subjects in interviews
indirectly, thus allowing the person himself
to determine as much as possible what will
be spoken about and in what terms.
Ideally, one should simply participate in
everyday life and allow interpretations to
emerge spontaneously in the course of
normal conversation. The extreme antithe-
sis of this procedure is the set question-
naire in which the questions define the
answers. (Example: "Would you rather
have two children or four?" The question
does not offer the respondent other alter-
natives or permit specification of circum-
stances.)
2) Find ways to allow the person to express
0 himself nonverbally as well as verbally.
0 500metres
3) Reduce complex characteristics of the
~Old City (Medina, Mellah and Qlaca) problem to simpler elements. This makes
llllllffi New Medina (Derb 1-M iter) the problem researchable in practical
f:::23 New Medina (other areas)
terms. At the same time the very com-
t:;;sJ Cemetery ( M-Muslim J-Jewish
plexity of the problem should not be
EJllrrigated gardens • Parks
D Ville Nouvelle (residential area) overlooked.
• Ville Nouvelle (business and administrative
KEY:
Sefrou: A Case Study
1. Super-Qaid's office 11. Post office 21 Livestock market
2. Qaid's office 12. Nadir's office 22. Vegetable market
3. Pasha's office 13. Hospital 23. Dry-goods and rug market To indicate how an anthropologist may
4. Police station 14. Bank 24. College discover the way in which the inhabitants
5 Civil court 15. Movie house 25 Lycee of a certain town experience and interpret
6 Qadi's court 16. Soccer field 26 Former Jewish school its spatial forms, I offer a concrete
7. Gendarmerie 17. Swimming pool 27. Jewish school example. Some years ago in the town of
8. Rural tax office 18. Bus and taxi station 28 Public prayer ground (m.rellii) Sefrou in Morocco I conducted a set of
9. Forestry and irrigation office 19. Tennis club 29. Military barracks
structured interviews. Following the sug-
10. Fire house 20. Power station 30. Prison.
gestion of Kevin Lynch, I asked four
Sefrou people to draw maps for me of
The town of Sefrou, Morocco: Major areas their town. 3 Two of these people were
Source: C Geertz, H. Geertz and L. Rosen, Meaning and Order in Moroccan Society (Cambridge townsmen, and two were countrymen; two
University Press, 1979) were school-educated young people, and
two were older and illiterate. The latter town, Nas Adlun, Shebbak, Sidi Messaud, squares, and then he devoted a great deal
two had never faced the task of drawing and then I'll put in the mosques, Djemaa of attention to locating all the major
maps before and had no preconceptions Kebir, Djemaa Semarin, Djemaa Sidi government buildings. To my own sur-
about what a map should look like. The Messaud. But first, could I have a ruler to prise, the most salient aspect of the town,
four of them also differed in degrees of make the lines straight?" the conglomeration of the old city with its
familiarity with the town itself. Although he was illiterate, he had had a wall and narrow crooked streets, was
The first man, whom we will identify as great deal to do with surveyors in the completely omitted by him. In its place he
course of a legal dispute involving his own merely indicated the "walk through the
Respondent A, was a middle-aged Berber
who lived in a village located some twenty tribal land. Thus he presumed that a map madina." Most of the wall is still standing,
kilometers from Sefrou in the mountains. always involves ruled lines. As his work and elaborately built gateways cut through
As a political representative of his village proceeded he asked me to write in the in several places. Rather than indicating
he often came to town. One day when he names of the various landmarks. I hap- the gates, however, he specified the open
was visiting us in our house I produced a pened to note the sequence by which he squares located at the entrances where a
very large piece of paper and a pencil and went from item to item on the assumption good deal of small marketing takes place
asked him to draw me a map of the town. that those that he mentioned earlier were and where countrypeople like himself
of higher importance in his landscape. In bring small amounts of produce or
He was delighted with the idea and said
eagerly, "Yes, yes, I'll draw all of it for order he drew the road from Fez, the chickens for sale to the citypeople.
you. First I'll put down the quarters of the other roads, a bridge over the river, the The sequence of Respondent A's four
Respondent A's first map of Sefrou. Numbers indicate sequence in which Respondent A's second map of Sefrou
places were named
Drawing: H Geertz
Drawing: H Geertz
maps shows fairly well the kinds of spaces When presented with the task, he first as significant. He spent some time pro-
and activities that are important to him. drew a very large circle. Still ethnocentric viding etymological explanations of the
He put considerable stress on the burial in my presumption that the old city/outer names of each of these neighbourhoods or
place of the town's patron saint, on a bluff city distinction as marked by the wall and sectors. This second mapmaker had no
overlooking the town, and especially on gates was "obviously" the primary starting sense of spatial proportions, and several of
government offices with which he had point for anyone, I assumed that this circle his quarters were clearly misplaced. It was
much business, and the markets where he was the wall of the old city. As a matter of evident that this man sees his town not in
bought and sold. His is an outsider's view, fact, it stood for the rather densely built- terms of routes, walls or spatial relation-
a rural man's conception of the town. The up areas as a whole of which the old city ships, but rather as a collection of rela-
old city, the residential heart, is left is only a part. He then set forth a set of tively autonomous neighbourhoods. As he
completely unmentioned. secondary circles, one indicating a very drew, he spoke of groupings of people and
large "suburban" area while the others activities, not of roads or the river or the
The second man, Respondent B, was a
marked very small landmarks. Having gardens or built structures. He too put
young school teacher who had grown up
done that he then segmented the first some stress on the tomb of the patron
inside the old city. He came from a family
circle into various quarters. As with the saint of the town.
that had been important within the town
for the last three hundred years. Highly first mapmaker, he indicated the areas By his strategy Respondent C revealed an
educated, he taught French in the college around both sides of the madina gates, entirely different semantic and pragmatic
of the town. His map was quite different. rather than the gates or roads themselves environment within which his Sefrou lay.
~@)
HA6lTATION
(Oll!IRW()
Respondent A's third map of Sefrou Respondent A's fourth map of Sefrou
Drawing: H. Geertz Drawing. H. Geertz
He was in his late seventies, an illiterate While the others confined their maps to a hesitant manner. At this point he paused
merchant who had grown up in the old single sheet, and in some way or another again and I urged him to continue. He
city and never moved out. He instructed indicated the bounds of the town first and proceeded to indicate a number of land-
me to draw a very large circle and then to then filled it in, this young man's walk marks around the outside of the madina
write in the names of various items. In this through the town spread onto nine sheets wall (cafe, swimming pool, the "new city"
instance, finally, the large circle repre- of paper. In the end they did not really fit of French villas, the house where Ameri-
sented the wall of the old city. He next together, even though his first pathway can Christian missionaries lived, the gas
indicated the gates and then proceeded to was a roughly circular road, planned by station, the hotel, and all the schools).
lay out a sequence of named spots that the French and recently installed by the Further prodded to enter the madina, he
moved in a line from one gate through the Moroccan government, which went around reluctantly indicated the minarets, the
centre of the town and out another gate. the entire periphery of the built-up part river, the central bridge and eight
As there were six gates, the result was a of the town. His starting and end points quarters. Did his difficulty with the
spider-like pattern with the markets and on this route did not meet, nor when he madina stem from an inability to construct
the mosques in the centre as he himself started to fill in the middle was he able to a mental image of the tangle of paths?
pointed out. The key named spots for him make any spatially adequate subdivisions
were not neighbourhoods or groups of of space. We can attribute this to his The items he mentioned are mostly
residents, but mosques and religious kinesthetic scheme of walking along the modern Westernized ones: gas station,
lodges (zawiyas). streets and noticing the corners of other Frenchman's house, schools, hospital,
branching streets and various landmarks as pasha's house, Western Christian church,
Respondent D, whose map is not illus- water reservoir, park, hotel, cafe, swim-
trated, was a student in his teens. Rural he pa~sed.
ming pool, bus and taxi stand.
by birth, he lived in town in order to Upon completion, Respondent D had
attend school. He commenced his map by produced a rough map of the town with These maps are tantalizing, if insufficient,
drawing a long line from the right-hand the old city entirely omitted. In its place glimpses into the experiences of their
edge of the paper. This represented a road was a blank portion of paper, uncrossed makers. As such they raise more questions
and, as if he were himself moving along it, by roads. I prodded him to draw the than they answer. The differences among
he indicated landmarks along the route. madina and he resisted. Finally he re- the mapmakers are obvious; they might
He soon came to the edge of the paper. lented and drew the wall and gates in a have been describing different towns. The
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Respondent B's map of Sefrou. Numbers indicate sequence in which Respondent C's map of Sefrou. Numbers indicate sequence in which
places were named places were named
Drawing: H Geertz Drawing: H. Geertz
similarities, however, are interesting. All characteristic Moroccan mode of engage- Techniques which do not involve personal
mentioned the mosques, and all but one ment. In their vigorous approach to life contact include the analysis of songs,
the saint's tomb. The maps present us with Moroccans express a concern for particu- stories, films, novels and other imaginative
a firm sense that in normal everyday life laristic personal interests and for specific productions which invoke or depict the
the kinds of meanings read into landmarks social ties. types of structures under study. The poem
and pathways are what the semanticists by Sheikh Mimih of El Menzel has been
call indexical signs, rather than symbols or cited as an example. Written documents
complexes of symbols. Specifically, the such as newspaper articles, memoirs and
mapmakers viewed the landmarks as Some Applications guidebooks could also be examined. Com-
symptoms of some underlying cause. Thus parisons of the new building with older
they picked out only that one meaning of A number of practical anthropological ones in the same locality can be very
the object without mentioning any com- techniques could be used by the staff of suggestive; a building, like a poem, may
plex connotations. They did not see the the Aga Khan Award in preparing mate- contain allusions to other buildings known
objects, or at least did not mention them, rials for the evaluation of particular archi- to the makers. In some buildings this may
as representing ideas or images of some tectural projects. These techniques involve occur through a complex incorporation of
other experience. personal contact with people who use the imitated elements, in others through more
buildings or other structures as well as subtle allusion. Such comparisons can
My last example is not a map but a song
other sources. Among the techniques in- inform us of the system of meanings and
about the town of Sefrou. This song,
volving personal contact is the one association which the makers of the build-
however, resembles a map as it describes a
described above, requesting people to ing, both architect and patron, may have
walk through the town. It was composed
draw maps as a form of structured inter- employed in its conception.
by Sheikh Mimih of El Menzel, a man
from a village some distance from Sefrou, view. Similarly, one might ask people to Each of these techniques, taken alone,
to be sung at wedding festivals for a draw pictures in answer to the question, gives only one dimension of meaning and
totally male audience. A humorously "What does such and such a building look is necessarily an oversimplification of the
erotic song, it advises where to find the like?" The elements that they choose to experience of the built environment and a
easy girls in Sefrou and what to do with emphasize may be those of greatest signifi- violation of its wholeness and complexity.
them when you find them. It sings of cance. Which aspects of a particular The connotatively rich, sensuously imme-
walking from quarter to quarter in Sefrou mosque are picked out: the minaret, the diate experience of entering a great
and of the kinds of girls you find in each inscriptions on the doorway, the fountain? mosque such as the Moulay Idriss of Fez
place. In the last verse he describes the Or, for those who will not draw, one or moving through an intricately pathed
climb up to the tomb of the patron saint. might ask for a verbal description of the market place can never be fully probed
Curiously, here the song shifts in tone, building. through such anthropological techniques.
and he sings of the saint. The saint is Another technique is to ask the person to Nevertheless, they represent an attempt to
testing him, and he prays for the saint's make up a story using the particular view a particular architectonic world
protection. He addresses the saint as one building as the setting. One might also through the eyes of the people themselves
human being to another. Throughout the conduct an open-ended interview which who inhabit it.
song, the image of the town is one of a starts with highly general, "open" ques-
group of people relating to one another in tions and gradually moves to more specific
various personal ways, either sexual or ones. One could start with questions of Reference Notes
protective. For him the town consists of the sort: "What does this building remind
enclosures: rooms, houses and quarters. you of?" "What can you do in this 1
"Projects will thus be chosen as much for their
These one enters and exits as one goes in building?" "What other buildings is it catalytic value in the evolution of a new cultural and
environmental sensibility, as for their individual design
and out of personal relationships, some of like?" "What parts of this building do you merits The aim is to nurture within the architectural
which are dangerous, some delightful, like best?" profession and related disciplines a heightened aware-
some free of responsibility and some com- ness of the roots and essence of Muslim culture, and a
Another very productive technique is to deeper commitment to finding meaningful expressions
pletely entangling. study those words which the local language of the spirit of Islam within the context of modern life
and modern technology " Information Brochure, The
For the singer, as for each of the map- applies to aspects of the built environment Aga Khan Award for Architecture (Philadelphia,
makers, the town is a place of intimately and, in particular, special vocabularies 1980), p 2
relating human beings. For all of them the used by craftsmen and builders. All of 2
Wayne E Begley, "The Myth of the Taj Mahal
town is also a place of movement where these techniques require personal partici- and a New Theory of its Symbolic Meaning", The Art
people are always moving in or out. These pant observation of those activities which Bulletin 61 (1979), p 7-37
efforts at mapmaking (including that of the occur within the context of the structure 3
Kevin Lynch, The Image of the City (Cambridge,
poet) all, in their diverse ways, reflect a being studied. Mass., 1960).
Sefrou Ah . . . my eyes wander around and take delight in Sefrou

Where, if we wish for girls, there they are.
There I find pleasure any day.
A q~ida by Sheikh Mimih
Ah . . . my eyes wander around and take delight in the cities
of El Menzel, Where there are stylish girls with mascara-ed eyes.
translated by Hildred Geertz We visited you, yes, Habbuna, and our minds were in torment.
Ah ... we found no ease with you, oh girl with the fine tattoos.
We visited you, yes, Habbuna and returned by way of Slawi.

When I was young and had an empty head
The following are quarters of the town of I found my desire, some virgins in nice clothes
Sefrou: Habbuna, Slawi, Sitti Messauda, Not improper for them nor for me the singer.
Kasba, Mejlish, Derb el-Miter, Bab
Mkam, Qla'a. The tomb of the local We went to Sitti Messauda of the new houses.
Muslim saint, Sidi Ali Bouseghine, is on a
There the girls dress so fine you'd think it was always a holiday,
high bluff overlooking the town of Sefrou. And when I look at them I'm afraid I'll do something sinful.
Perhaps I won't have money and go to jail.
I finished there and went back to the Kasba

Where there are young girls, but I didn't have a chance
And the love magic was of no use.
She took my mind away and I "worked" on her a long time.
I finished there and went on across the river.

I stayed in Mejlish and I was happy with the people there.
So many days we stayed there and every day we did as we desired.
God bless the parents of those girls-I need not say more.
I visited Derb el-Miter and I felt calmer.

There we found flowering roses that we loved.
There we found a harvest that we bought.
They pluck only those fruits of the tops of the branches.
Comments 70
The money Allah has given us we used as we desired. Comments

And why should we stay in torment, troubled every day?
Buy a dove and put her in your house, and take the straight path, Wahid
One who wears stylish modern clothes, who is educated and neat.
I have a question for Prof. Geertz that has
I finished there and went along to see what was going on to do with interpreting what she terms a
At Bab Mkam, where we found some little girls. "thin" description of how people view
We spoke together; we said come home with us to the house. their towns. For a universal sense of signs,
Not until we got to the room did we say another word. symbols and so on, we need to know
what you call the "thick" description.
I sent them along and then I went to the house, too. How do we make the transition from thin
There we found a garden blooming with flowers and green plants. to thick?
There I found pleasure day and night,
Beautiful clothes, lovely scarves, perfect and plenty. For example, in an old Javanese town plan
there is always a plaza in the centre with a
I finished there and climbed up to the Qla'a mosque on the western side and the resi-
In hunger, with fear and desire deep inside me. dence of the highest official on the eastern
The fire of the girl burns and he goes crazy who follows it. side. On the southern side we find a rail-
I pray to Allah the Highest to protect our faith. way station and on the northern side
schools or government buildings. What do
I finished there and climbed right up to the tomb of the saint, people think about that? Here we have the
Sidi Ali Bouseghine, my beloved. government or a committee assigning
I am under his shelter, happy and contented, meaning.
And I pray to him and he prays to the Ruling One.
We are under the protection of Allah and of our saintly ancestors, oh people,
Geertz
Both you who are here and those of my village,
And I pray to them to fulfill my wishes.
We will be at peace and I'll say nothing wrong. I know Java well because I have done field
work there. The first answer is to use a
multiplicity of methods. You come at it in
different directions and then try to bring it
together in some way. In Java they have a
very geometrical way of designing every
town. It is always very clearly established
on which side of the main square each
thing should be. There is a cultural
commitment to a notion that the things of
this world are microcosmic replicas of the
larger world. This is not necessarily true of
Morocco at all. But the notion of
microcosm and macrocosm makes things
much easier for a person who is trying to
interpret the meaning of a particular built
environment in Java or anywhere in the
East as opposed to the West.
Mahdi
I think when Prof. Geertz speaks about

the marabouts, she reminds us of some-
thing that is not really peculiar to Morocco
71 Comments
Grabar
I think that part of the problem here is

related to what Prof. Arkoun was talking
about earlier, this question of depersonali-
zation in the creation of new towns, new
space and so forth. You cannot invent a
saint in a new town being built near an
industrial centre. One has to start creating
new industrial centres near old existing
locations of saints of one kind or another,
which would be a fascinating exercise, or
perhaps one simply has to wait for a
sheikh to appear. One of the difficulties is
that in planning theoretical towns for
settlement one plans according to a false
idea of what a traditional Muslim city is.
They have to have a mosque, a bazaar,
housing, whereas the reality of the polity
is different. That grows out of an existing
place rather than being created.
Cairo, Egypt: Sultan Hasan mosque

Photo: S Blair/J Bloom Fathy
I would like to say something about

symbolism. If we take the minaret and the
or to non-urban centres. When one connotation. This is very important, campanile of the church, the spire, we see
thinks of Cairo, for instance, it is the because the Koran insists that you remem- them as the means of expressing aspira-
shrine mosque of Sultan Hasan which is ber all the prophets. The historical sense is tions toward the Divine. Kazantzakis
what is continued through Islamic times. described the effect of a Gothic cathedral
the important thing rather than the
mosque of al-Azhar. Surely it is the This memory is an integral part of being a on him when he said that everything in
shrine that is essential in Iraq, Iran and Muslim. But stylistically in terms of design this architecture shoots up to divine
Pakistan. I am wondering why, given the there are certain specific problems. You heights. In Europe the sky is not a kindly
situation, nothing was said about them may have a tomb in the middle of the thing as it is in the desert countries.
because they seem to be socially and mosque or the side of the mosque. Or With the minaret, it shoots up in a dif-
religiously important. Man's relation to there might be certain kinds of designs for ferent way, not just in meaning but also by
God is not direct; there is some sort of a the structure and the surrounding area its acceleration. With the shooting toward
mediation by the saint. Obviously this used for prayer and so on. Is this a special the sky you have the notion of bringing
gives the whole texture of religious problem separate from that of the mosque down. What do we bring down? The
feelings a different sense than· a mosque in general, or do we normally consider the mercy of Allah. In the hot desert countries
where only you and God are somehow in shrine when we think of the mosque? the sky is the only friendly element in the
context. environment.
What is not clear to me is the relationship When architects want to modernize they
between design and this kind of situation. change the symbol from something collec-
Surely the place, whether it is a tomb or Geertz tive to something individual. People living
not, reminds you of a historical or reli- in temperate zones have the church and
gious figure. It may be a pre-Islamic The only thing I would say is that the the cathedral. For people living in the hot,
prophet or an important person connected shrine is for ordinary people. It may arid countries there is only the idea of the
with the Prophet or an Islamic saint or not be designed by a designer, but it is a minaret and the courtyard.
imam. Or it may be a leader of some sort, crucial part of the whole topography in
a ruler who somehow acquired a religious their minds.
Comments 72
Listening to Prof. Geertz I am reminded cording to the dictionary, the definition of

of a very beautiful saying by Antoine de technology is the use of science for
Saint Exupery in his book Citadel. There commercial purposes. It is directed toward
he says that in the house of my father the economy of the importing or the
every step has a meaning. Here we have exporting countries.
to consider that even in the town of my When we come to this cultural change that
father every step has a meaning. But has taken place in our cities, what can
unfortunately, that has changed. Now it is religion offer? The Koran and the Hadith
no longer the house of my father. In most cannot give us technical advice. But they
Arab countries it is the house of my Uncle do enter into town planning. They guide
Sam. Every step has a dollar on it. And in us on how to join houses together, how to
the city there are no more steps. We go by make the interior of the house, the height
car. Our modern cities are designed by of walls and so on. I mention this because
engineers without reference to human we are misusing the idea of the symbol.
scale.
Some critics have classified the arts into
the abstract and the imitative. Architec-
ture and music are said to be abstract; Correa
painting and sculpture, imitative. But we
cannot classify things so bluntly. If paint- To follow up on what Mr. Fathy has said,
ing were just an imitation of nature, it if, as an architect today, one looks at an
would be photography. Sculpture would be Islamic city or an Islamic environment,
simply cast moulding. And if architecture one sees that the determinants are really
doesn't have a human reference, it is just the classic determinants of good architec-
engineering. ture: the response to climate, appropriate
technology, materials, good design. Yet
Architecture is in a way abstract. But how there is more to the Islamic city than that.
can we introduce the human reference? The Islamic view of life, with the combina-
This is where we have to come together, tion of a rational response to climate,
to convene so that a symbol means the technology and materials, has provided a
same thing and gives the same certain set of symbols. So I think that
psychological association of ideas as we symbols are the interaction of two ele-
indicated with the campanile. ments, first, the classic view of dealing
Today, to my mind, we suffer from with climate, and, second, the Islamic
alienation. We have to reach a decision on the view of the sky. Given another set of
meaning of so many words which we materials and another set of climatic con-
Fez, Morocco minaret of a local mosque repeat with no understanding at all-words ditions one might have come up with
Photo: H-U Khan!Aga Khan Awards like modernity and progress. All this is another set of symbols.
brainwashing the masses. In spreading East and West all the way
We know that culture changes. Change is from the Alhambra to Delhi, Islam was
implicit, but it is neutral. We cannot extraordinary in its ability to assimilate
borrow. There are interchangeables be- local ways of building and superimpose
One architect tried to make his campanile tween cultures as well as non-inter- something which transcends that and gives
in the shape of a man praying. The idea changeables. Unfortunately, we are taking it unity. Hence you have great pluralism in
might have been all right, but the effect the non-interchangeables and leaving the the towns of Yemen. Fatehpur Sikri in
was a coming down instead of a raising up. interchangeables. After all, what is the India actually uses Hindu elements, but its
This is what happens when an individual meaning of the word "technology"? I was synthesis is Islamic. I think our problem is
wants to enter the field of religious archi- once attending a U.N. conference in Addis that we are tom timid. When people did all
tecture. -There are certain implicit things Ababa where I said that we must subject this they probably did not even use the
which we have to respect. We have to technology to the economy of the people. word "symbol"; they did it naturally. It is
judge by wisdom, not haphazardly or just One of my colleagues objected. "Tech- a natural synthesis of what was the local
because we are trying to be innovative as nology has no country," he said. I dis- problem and the overriding concepts in
architects. agreed. It has a country, because ac- their minds.
73 Comments
It seems to me that if Islam had stopped Prof. Geertz made a very important point Geertz
at Delhi, then our only problem over when she admonished us to remember the
the next twenty-five years as connotative aspects of the environment as I would like to make two points. First,
modernization takes place would be how seen by its inhabitants and not by spe- continuity is unavoidable. For an anthro-
to express continuity. But unfortunately, cialists. Prof. Arkoun gave us the negative pologist looking at human activities there
that is not the only problem that we face. example of a socialist village designed by is no such thing as a break with the past.
In actual fact, the majority of Muslims live specialists and outsiders. The definitions In architecture there is the example of the
beyond Delhi. I see a completely different therefore are not clear in my mind as to so-called international style, architects
set of climatic conditions and materials. To what extent one can just create the who self-consciously attempted to make
put across images of what is basically determinants of an environment. To what something entirely new. But simultane-
desert oasis architecture or urban extent is formal intervention required in ously there are countless structures not
architecture is really an act of colonialism. order to give some shape and direction to only in the United States but in England
When you show me a slide of Isfahan it is an urban built environment? which constantly repeat the past. If you
equivalent to someone saying this is the see any bank in the United States, it looks
only way to build a church or an auto or Finally, we have discussed whether an ele-
like the Parthenon, even the ones that are
whatever you want. This image of a ment of continuity is necessary. Recent
being built today. If you look at any
Western experience shows the difficulty in
courtyard house actually works against the housing development in the United States
planner. What most Muslims face is a hot maintaining continuity between contem-
they are new colonial houses. There is a '
wet climate, not a hot, dry climate. They ' porary modern architecture and the pre-
constant allusion to the past which the
live in a rural environment, and if they vious type of architecture. In fact, archi-
people who live in those houses prefer.
have any paradise, it may not be the tects rebelled against the prevalent
They want to feel that they live in an
tropical paradise in which they already construction of the time because they felt
American house which is colonial. A
live, but a big city, that is, the opposite of that it was no longer relevant to what was
grand bank must convey a notion of
what they have. What I would like to happening in their societies. They were
stability and wealth and so on. Continuity
know is what flexibility do we see today. able to make a conscious break with the
is not something that has to be built in· it
past and find a more responsive type of
What are the symbols that emerge and the happens. '
interactions that produce such symbols? construction and environment. They did
this only because of advances that had Second, I understand that the Award is for
already preceded them in the sciences in buildings which have already been con-
philosophy, in sociology and even in ' structed and which have solved at least
I. Serageldin engineering. We must not forget that in some problems of the relationship of tech-
the last part of the nineteenth century the nology and spirit. The purpose of these
breakthroughs of earlier engineers were discussions is not to set up rules for how
To mention one thing very briefly on the
then taken up by architects. This appears buildings should be built but criteria for
question of urban versus rural, I would
to me to be one of the areas in which evaluating buildings that already exist.
like to point out that throughout the last
three centuries there has been an intel- Muslim architects are lacking. There may
lectual fascination with idealizing the rural well be great merit in asking questions
way of life as being pure. And yet no- about what led to the creation of these
where in the world do we find evidence symbols in the past. But that alone may
keep us locked in the past. Architecture
that the drift towards the cities is revers-
must be complemented by a search for
ible-even with massive government inter-
vention in such places as Cambodia, for what is meaningful today. Perhaps through
example. The modernization of the the kind of techniques which Prof. Geertz
economy has inevitably been linked with a has indicated, we can find what people
growth of the urban population and the need in today's society and discover how
migration to urban centres. It is not so to make the environment a little more
much a matter of ignoring the reality that adaptive to them.
many Muslims presently live in rural
environments, but perhaps recognizing the
fact that so many of them are changing
their environment. They are going towards
the cities. There is very little we can do
except to try to see what sorts of cities
work.
The Award is indebted to Najib Laraichi, Delegate for Urbanism, the Moroccan Ministry
of Housing and Urban Planning; and to Abdellatif El Hajjami, Rachid Faraj, Aziz Filali
and Ahmad Laraqi, architects and planners affiliated with the Fez Master Plan, for
contributing their expertise to this portion of the seminar. Special thanks are extended to
Jean-Paul Ichter, planner and co-author of the Fez Master Plan, 1975-78.
[In Fez] the structuring principles of the

Muslim city are rigorously maintained-the
separation between public and private
domain, the interaction of public space and
the volumetric articulation of space . . .
Despite [a] pronounced functional differ-
entiation, the city forms an extremely
coherent volumetric unity owing to the
morphological affinities of its architectural
elements . . . The unity that emerges from
particular variations on certain collective
forms is obvious-one has only to look at
an aerial photograph to see it. The fabric
appears as a crystallization of the internal \
I ,
laws that regulate society, transposed into
architectural patterns. This evocative,
signifying, even symbolic force is one of
.. \
) :'
~
the greatest qualities of the urban fabric of
Fez. Because of it, Fez can be regarded as
a 'model Islamic city.'
Stefano Bianca
\
Whereas the Istanbul seminar presented '\
Fez as an opportunity and a challenge for -~
preservation (see Stefano Bianca, "Fez:
Toward the Rehabilitation of a Great
City," in the Proceedings of Seminar Two,
Conservation as Cultural Survival), the
seminar held in Fez itself, in keeping with
its overall theme, focused on the form of
the madina as a symbolic prototype and as
A Madina/ Left Bank Eb Imouzzer and Sefrou routes
an expression of the Islamic urban ideal.
B Madina/Right Bank F Tanger-Fez
The programme included a presentation of C Fez Djedid G Dokkarat
the 1978 Master Plan coupled with a tour Da Dar Debibagh/ Colonial Centre H A in Chkef route
which encompassed both the madina's Db Dar Debibaghl Hippodrome I Ain Kadus
essential building types and spaces and the Ea Atlas J Dhar Khemis
city's many later additions and satellites.
Fez: major districts and quarters
As the largest cell in a cellular city that
includes an old palace quarter, newer Source: Master Plan of the City of Fez, 1978
European quarters and unplanned housing
resulting from rural migration, the
madina's message is poignant. Surrounded
by competing alternatives, it must struggle Historic Form: The Madina routes, but more importantly as the fertile
to survive either through preservation or receptor of natural watercourses. These
transformation. In this regard the city of were soon developed into a sophisticated
Fez, as projected by its new Master Plan, The physical evidence of Fez, as seen in man-made complex of waterworks, foun-
addresses the need for an architectural the seminar's tour and as mapped by the tains and waste water systems. From the
discourse that speaks to the modern 1978 Master Plan, is an especially clear beginning, the Bukhrareb wadi formed the
Islamic world. To the seminar participants, record of highly articulated historical and boundary between two cellular centres, the
the attempted reintegration of contempo- cultural development. Andalusian right bank and the Qayrawfm
rary Fez, no less than the historic lessons Fez was founded at the turn of the ninth left bank. The left bank, which includes
of the madina, appeared as a matter of century A.D. in a shallow valley chosen the Qayrawiyyin mosque and its associated
primary symbolic significance. not only as a crossroads of existing trade university and market, eventually de-
75 Fez: The Ideal and the Reality of the Islamic City
veloped as a centre for the city as a whole.

The planning and building that defined the
madina (primarily from the eleventh
through the fourteenth centuries A.D.)
occurred in a much more evenly dis-
tributed fashion with a unifying vocabulary
of recurring elements.
In the madina, gates reinforce the sense of
unity of the compact walled city and also
serve as market centres. District centres
include all the elements of the unified
religious-social-commercial public realm:
the mosque, the madrasa and the market.
Commercial districts comprised of
markets, workshops and funduqs (ware-
houses) revolve around particular products
or crafts.
Houses, though differing in scale, are
consistently built around multi-use court-
yards with entrances secluded from main
streets and squares. Streets, limited to
pedestrian and animal traffic, never
Fez madina viewed from the north with informal settlement in foreground
become formal or monumental.
Photo H-U Khan/Aga Khan Awards
Fez Djedid
•• The first of many semi-autonomous

additions, Fez Djedid was originally a
"royal city," a palace quarter surrounded
by casbahs, gardens, simple housing and a
mella (ghetto). Here the famed Fez
waterworks and gardens reached their
peak of complexity.
Dar Debibagh
The French colonial city of the early

twentieth century was designed as a true
satellite, in part to preserve the integrity
of the madina. At the same time,
however, its modern, developed facilities
(hospitals and schools) began to sap the
vitality of the old city.
A segment of the Fez madina wall and entrance

and local organizations completed its study

in 1978. Above all, the Master Plan is a
physical plan with limited attention paid to
legal, sociological and economic issues.
The Fez Regional Delegation of the
Ministry of Housing and Urban Planning
is now developing these areas in more
detail and refining specific architectural
and planning proposals.
As described to the seminar by planner

Najib Laraichi, the Master Plan represents
an extensive physical and human survey:
We set up three phases. The first, a
phase of preliminary analysis, took
inventory of all available data on the
city of Fez and established an approach
to the urban problems in the agglom-
eration. The second was an extensive
diagnostic phase based on surveys: an
artisanal survey, a housing survey, a
multiple question survey of 5,000 house-
holds and an industrial survey. In the
Qayrawiyyin mosque courtyard third phase we elaborated alternative
Photo: H-U Khan/Aga Khan Awards plans for development of the city.
Afterwards, the documentation was
compiled.
For each phase, reports and notes-
Aln Kadus including discussion of progress and
preliminary conclusions-were presented
to the municipal council. In the second
Designed by the French planner Michel
phase, a document of consultation was
Ecochard in 1950, Ain Kadus was an
discussed and sent to all the adminis-
attempt to combine orthodox modern
trative and technical departments in Fez.
ideas of density and circulation with neo-
We then had work sessions with these
traditional forms; the result is a kind of
various departments. All of our work
bedroom suburb rather than a true ex-
was based on surveys-that is, we had
tension of the madina. Ai'n Kadus and
direct contact with the population.
nearby Fez Djedid have been particularly
vulnerable to the pressures of speculative Beyond mapping and surveys, which give a
housing and informal settlements. clear picture of Fez's continued growth
and fragmentation, the Plan necessarily
focuses on the somewhat contradictory
needs of the madina:
The Master Plan
-How to make it less a centre for
An early UNESCO study (1972) by Titus population growth and exploitative de-
Burckhardt led to the realization that, to velopment.
preserve Fez's unique character and -How to make it more a cultural,
vitality, a comprehensive plan was needed economic and communications centre,
which would allow both preservation and thereby ensuring its vitality while giving
Side entrance to the Qayrawiyyin mosque development. A multidisciplinary team the disparate parts of the metropolis focus
Photo· H-U Khan/Aga Khan Awards with representatives from international and unity.
77 Comments
The major physical intervention proposed Comments

is a new quarter east of the madina,
counterbalancing the city's historic drift Ichter
toward the south and west and reestab-
lishing the madina's geographic centrality.
We must avoid idealizing the conditions of
Other proposals seek a more even dis-
life in the madina and projecting our
tribution of population in existing centres
dreams on a reality which is not always
(this in tum depends on improved
felicitous. Without denying the qualities of
transportation), and a strengthening of the
the traditional city, we must admit that in
traditional institutions of the madina, in
their totality they represent neither the
part to attract wealthier, preservation-
ideal nor the lifestyle of future genera-
minded residents to the old city. Where
tions. Fundamental social transformations
institutions have become too large or
render exceedingly hypothetical any
disruptive to fit within the old fabric (e.g.,
systematic revitalization of traditional
semi-mechanized industry), the Plan
housing in Fez. Housing here is linked to
envisions relocating them immediately
a type of society fast in the process of
outside the madina's eastern gates.
disappearing. Recent developments in-
Ironically, the unity of disparate cellular
clude a reduction in the size of the family
parts--what emerges in the Fez madina as
unit, an increased need for individual pri-
the essence of Islamic urbanism-now
vacy, the addition of women to the work
reappears as a highly problematic goal for
force and the general need for trans-
Fez on the metropolitan scale.
Cloth bazaar in Fez madina portation to workplaces. In actual fact, the
population has never been asked to pre-
Photo: H-U Khan!Aga Khan Awards sent its vision of the city of tomorrow.
Making generalizations about the precise
experience of a city with 250,000 in-
habitants and some 20,000 houses is a
burdensome and time-consuming task for
specialists. Instead, we should aim at the
preservation of representative signs and
symbols. These will otherwise disappear
with the fabric that contains them if the
latter is not rendered healthy-that is,
restored to normal functions in harmony
with the aspirations and resources of its
inhabitants. Under present exigencies
there has been talk of eliminating this
housing legacy whereas it should be
developed either through transformation
or replacement.
The madina of Fez will either be a living
city or it will cease to exist. In giving
priority to "life," we must encourage
transformations that preserve the essential
structure of the city. This requires that the
population be closely associated with the
act of rehabilitation both through an
awareness of its own values which are to
be preserved and through daily material
and political acts. This commitment is
Courtyard garden of house in Fez madina more important and more decisive than
Photo: H-U Khan/Aga Khan Awards governmental or UNESCO subsidies.
Comments 78
To describe the city's future is a daring

undertaking. In the face of imponderable
factors, our means of intervention are
slender. The rehabilitation of the madina
is first and foremost a state of mind
requiring faith in the possibility that the
values of the traditional city can survive.
This conception does not exclude action; it
is, rather, an incentive. A concrete
response to the problems of quantitative
development-the "numbers" problem on
which everything else depends-is re-
quired. Above all, the Master Plan must
be a framework and a tool for action both
within the context of the madina and on
the scale of the entire agglomeration and
region.
Kuban
Like all of you, I was very much im- Najjarfn fountain in Fez madina
pressed with the types of space in which
we moved about and with the strong Photo: H-U Khan!Aga Khan Awards
contrast between the outdoor spaces-
asymmetrical, crooked, noisy, with animals
and human beings moving about-and the
Grabar When is it the duty of the professional as
courtyards. Medieval cities in Europe and
an expert to interfere? I wonder how
elsewhere obviously share this pattern of
A linear structure already exists; in a way many of the experts in this seminar would
contrasts. But what made it particularly
it is a matter really of strengthening it. agree with me in calling what we have
Islamic to me, although it does not apply
The city of Fez has a certain number of seen a humiliating experience for archi-
to the entire Islamic world, was the
physical constraints; slopes and the tects. The madina, compared to profes-
geometry, the contrast of the asymmetrical
location of water make some areas rather sional solutions, is so much more success-
exterior as opposed to very symmetrical
difficult to develop. The Master Plan ful that I feel ashamed at what I was
interiors. You cannot plan this kind of
attempts to shift those centres which are up to.
city. You plan individual spaces within it.
The essential characteristic here lies in the common to the population of all parts of
courtyard spaces; the streets are what is the city, old and new, toward a line that is
left over. somewhat closer to the urban centre of Soedjatmoko
gravity.
I feel a sense of humility of a different
kind. It is a humility that is mixed with
Fathy perplexity. In this country people have
Casson tried to deny their past, but they cannot
The extensions on either side will certainly prevent it from creeping back into their
affect the old city terribly. A more linear I think we have seen evidence of the lives. As they modernize, their past will
centre extending through but not limited sensitivity of those who are in charge. Do increasingly help shape the future. On the
to the old city would allow civic movement they realize that Fez is a masterpiece? It other hand, despite a devotion to the
through the whole city, avoiding over- seems to me that they feel deeply about it. preservation of the past in Fez, it is
congestion and land-use changes at the What I am not clear about is what degree escaping through their fingers. I really do
centre and allowing for well-balanced of say the inhabitants of the madina have not think there is any permanent viability
growth. in the affairs which are being discussed. for the madina.
79 Fez: The Ideal and the Reality of the Islamic City
Speaking now about Islam, can we bear

the responsibility of assigning to the very
people whose artisanship and whose lives
are most closely bound to religion the kind
of life that offers them the least·oppor-
tunity for prosperity? The sense of
humility I sense is in the limits of what we
can do. Maybe the only solution can be to
use the madina as a transitional point
where the urbanizing rural population can
develop some of the skills which will
enable them to move on.
Correa
The city of Fez is much more than the

madina. It is a polycentric system that is
exceedingly mobile. We are not here really
to solve the problems of Fez in particular,
but to extract from it some sense of what
is Islamic about it, what we would like to
preserve from the past as it slips through A square in the Fez madina
our fingers. I would hope we could go on H-U Khan/Aga Khan Awards
to generalize the essence of the madina as
it concerns other Islamic countries with
other climates and perhaps other prob-
lems. The issue here really is, what is the there are other types. Much more so it
Islamic city? appears to me that the reality of what we
have seen is in a social interaction, a life-
style that has certain values which in turn
are invested in the built environment.
Kuban These values include such things as neigh-
bourliness, the balance between public and
What we see here is a perfect example of private spaces, the privacy of the home,
a large city, well preserved, not yet the intermingling of only certain types of
violated by cars. And yet we learn that the land uses and the articulation of space,
economic life of the madina is being especially the public space of the street.
transformed. Instead of 100,000 there are
now about 300,000 living there. Why
concentrate on planning details and maps.
What is the image of the future madina in Fathy
the minds of its inhabitants?
From the climatic point of view it is
interesting to look at the narrow streets
and the courtyard house. In the more
I. Serageldin modern city we have large, open streets
which absorb more heat, and you have the
What we should look for here is not a pollution of the automobile. On such a
physical solution-a narrow street or a street in Tunisia one project tried to
Commercial activity in a funduq in Fez
specific type of courtyard house. Even in respect the courtyard house, primarily as a
the cities where courtyard houses prevail, style, to be consistent. However, if you Photo: H-V Khan/Aga Khan Awards
measure for pollution, it turns out that

even in this situation the courtyard house
is better. But to my mind there is not a
single instance of architects and planners
trying to apply or adapt the old, tradi-
tional Islamic town plan.
Grabar
I think the key points that were mentioned

include the definite notion of a quarter-a
quarter limited to four to five thousand
people of a specific character and incor-
porating a certain number of institutions
along with the mosque to form a unit. The
second feature is the existence of a main
centre to which these various quarters are
related in some fashion. The third feature
is the separation of residential and
commercial districts.
El Haijami
Can we build better by understanding the

madina? Can we learn from what is
happening to the madina? In the madina
there is an urban life that is truly a "way
of life." It is a social relationship. Its
essence is not in special kinds of houses
built in a special way. Beyond economics
the problem is one of a relation between
people, and this is the aspect of urban life
worth saving, a relation that we do not
want to destroy by introducing another,
very different urbanism. Yet we do not
want to continue the problems of the
madina. Industry that makes energy
demands and creates pollution, for ex-
ample, should be near but not at the
centre. An urban identity is not only that
of houses on a street-it is a changing
social identity which our planning must
express.
The madina was not made in a merely
spontaneous way, but slowly, like a tree.
Its buildt:rs considered everything. If we
try, we can work out their reasoning. Our
studies will suggest many directions for A narrow residential street in the Fez madina
our work. Photo: H-U Khan/Aga Khan Awards
Fragmentation:
The Search for Identity
Comments
Kuban
the reactions of the members of a given
society to their traditional environment. I
I just wish to reiterate in a different form do not doubt that the symbolic value
the main arguments of the discussion exists, but it is the product of an evolved
which was opened in our earlier seminars. system of knowledge and beliefs. The
First, there is no universal Islamic archi- symbol of the present is also the sign of
tectural form without some degree of the past. Therefore, symbolism in Muslim
ambiguity. Second, there are symbolically culture operates on a level below that of
significant forms which possess certain religious significance. The concepts of
suggestive potential and symbolic values in symbolism are not clear-cut.
our quest for a culturally identifiable en-
vironment. Third, the religious content of We should perform our search for the
human acts is not by its very nature apt to concrete definition of symbolic value on
be clearly defined, but it does take shape two levels: in the actual significance of the
in culturally defined circumstances within traditional forms for common people and
temporal and spatial limits. I always think in its reflection in the cultural continuity
of Islam as a religion that insists upon of our environment. For the first part I
actions and leaves the form to take shape think that the symbolic value of the whole
according to those circumstances. I speak lies in its visual impact on common
of Islam as religion and not as a culture. people. It is understandable only in a time
A culture means for me a more differ- dimension, not eternally.
entiated complex development of society Finally, the symbolic content of forms
which has created the necessary societal change; here I add the precaution that the
material of life and its symbolism. rate of this change should be controlled. A
The fourth point is that in our everyday cultural decision concerning the intent of
experience we are still sensitive to the continuity is implicit in my remarks. If we
traditional patterns of forms and space and make this decision then we must face the
that those familiar combinations are of dilemma of reconciling the Islamic con-
basic importance in our search for sym- tent, culturally defined as a symbolic
bolic values. However, their relevance is source, with the symbolism of modern
limited to cultural areas. Fifth, since there technological forms. Perhaps there can be
is no universal system of symbolic forms, a synthesis in the long run. I caution that
the scope of our problem has to be one should not emphasize the monumental
reduced from universal to regional dimen- because the monumental quality changes
sions. Instead of seeking a universal mech- its attributes. Also, introducing forms
anism from object to sign, from sign to without historic precedence has proven to
symbol, I find it more practical to study be a rather futile exercise for the archi-
Comments 82
tecture of Muslim countries. We have of the world, between 10° and 3SO latitude,
techniques but lack a convenient idiom. where the climate is uniform, men's build-
ing solutions have been similar.
I conclude by repeating that continuity
with the past occurs in culturally homoge- Take the design concepts in Islamic archi-
neous areas. International architecture tecture or in the architecture that devel-
seminars can be viewed as an artificial oped in that part of the world where
language like Esperanto. They lack tradi- nature is hostile to man at ground level.
tion and deep emotive content. Just as we All architecture in the Mediterranean is
stick to our languages, we have to stick to introverted. With the advent of the car
certain values in our traditional environ- and a change in attitude toward extrover-
ment. This heritage is an asset. It can sion, we have removed an essential quality
potentially challenge the creators of new of Islamic architecture: its interiority.
forms and it is where we must look for
Before we had universities, magazines and
solutions.
all this intrusion of foreign culture and
Our first step is to spread the knowledge alienation, the Islamic man, the man living
of forms. Then comes the second phase, in this part of the world, interacted
proving that traditional forms are relevant directly with his environment. There was
in our lives. This is not as easy as it is no problem with our Islamic architecture.
thought here. It is a fight against techno- It took care of itself. Now we are in
logical symbols because no symbol, when trouble because of alienation. We go
stripped of its functional content, is strong against the Islamic spirit, not in a Koranic
enough. In order to create a new standard sense, but because we go against veracity,
for our environment, we must create tools truth. If the form is not true to its
to counter the symbolic power of techno- environment, it will be false. And Islam
logical forms. I do not say technology does not accept falsehood. I believe that
itself, but we do need to fight the with the cultural change which has taken
antagonism of technology in every facet of place in this part of the world, we no
our lives. Symbols are destroyed or re- Jiddah, Saudi Arabia: the spiral minaret of a longer have the continuous interaction
contemporary mosque
placed by other symbols. Forms derived between man and his environment. This
from technology are replacing the old Photo: D Kuban!Aga Khan Awards was symbolized in the deep knowledge of
forms not necessarily by their efficiency or the Sufi and the intelligence of the hands
by economic necessity, but because of and the fingers of the craftsman both
their symbolic value. This symbolic value working together. We have changed this
is charged with Western images. Our Islam has been against any formal repre- system to the architect-contractor system
inferiority complex makes us believe that sentation of nature but has not opposed in which spirituality has been removed
we have to renounce the past. Hence we speculative consideration of the principles completely.
look to the West with bewilderment and of creation. It is irrational to do anything that does not
fascination. Herein lies the real dilemma suit. In fact, we can measure falsehood
The architect, for example, does not put
and also the drama of Islamic countries. with a thermometer. In Cairo we had
his building in interstellar space where he
is free to do whatever he likes, free to a group of young students come from
apply symbols or not. He is reacting. London University to evaluate Islamic
Fathy Architecture has to fit into two environ- architecture scientifically. The thermometer
ments: the God-made environment and showed the difference, but unfortunately
the man-made environment. If man does they had only two months to stay in Cairo
I wish to discuss the pragmatic aspect of and they came in April. This research
not respect the first, he has sinned. And if
Islam for architecture. A symbol to my needs to be conducted throughout the
he does not respect the second, it would
mind is a form that expresses for man whole year and then compared with
be a lack of civility-those who preceded
natural phenomena. This was part of the measurements from so-called modern
him would have respected the environment
way of revealing or observing nature and buildings. We have false ideas about
of God.
giving it names and so on to define being. modernity and progress.
In so doing some people would have When we consider the evolution of Islamic
deified the symbol, giving it a value which architecture from the Fatimid period up to In the past the sacred architecture vali-
is not at all applicable to it. That is why the last century, we find that in this part dated the secular. We have it both in
83 Comments
Europe and in the East. The same crafts-

men who built the cathedrals built the
castles of the nobles and the houses of the
people. Now it is the secular architecture
which is removing the sanctity from the
religious architecture. The mosques are no
longer religious; they are not, I mean to
say, holy. The same applies to churches.
Modern architects deal with sacred archi-
tecture as if they were dealing with
theatres or garages. This is the problem,
and this is why the Aga Khan Award
exists, to restore spirituality to our
architecture.
We have seen that some symbols do not
need to be crystalized. At the Ka'ba the
pilgrims go around counterclockwise. This
has a meaning because there are two
movements which generate energy. You
must take the cogwheel in terms of both
sides; if they turn in the same direction, Omdurman, Sudan: the domed Niliem mosque Designed by Jamal Abdullah
the mechanism will stop, the teeth of the Photo: H-U Khan/Aga Khan Awards
wheels will break. The earth turns from
left to right, and when we turn from right
to left at the Ka'ba we have a similar kind
of energy-generating movement. This is
the idea behind it. It symbolizes something exotic. And in my country, I too am con- I would like to ask, "Why?" There are
which is not a practical thing Why is sidered exotic. The entire movement has many Islamic communities all over the
that? We do not know. Nowadays we been going against Islam. world. Almost all Muslim societies have
know about cosmic rays and radiation. Yet undergone extreme change. At one stage
we have forgotten so many other things they were conquerors and then they were
which were recognized in the sacred art of conquered. Now they are free again, but it
the past. We know that the cathedrals of Islam is only in recent times that we have started
France represent the constellation of the to feel free because of changes in the
Virgin on earth. In our architecture we Actually, I have no comments to offer as a world situation.
have to worship God in every building, solution to anything, but after listening to Now it is obvious that among these
not only in the mosque and not only in the the speakers I have more questions in my communities even the forms of mosques
church, but in the house and everything. mind than before. We are trying to find vary. There are, of course, basic require-
Every stone that we put one on top of the common symbols in all countries inhabited ments such as facing the Ka'ba and
other has to be in harmony. by Muslims. Our discussion has largely ablution places, but I have the feeling that
A mountain in which erosion has taken involved the mosque which is probably the we are emphasizing only one aspect of the
place is beautiful. Only man produces ugli- most important building in all Muslim whole thing. We are not looking at our
ness in his environment. Now if we just communities everywhere. But the question societies in a comprehensive manner. I
remains: other than the five or six items think we are proud of present develop-
try to vibrate in unison with the universe,
which we mentioned, what can be trans- ments in other societies but there is no
we can solve all our problems. By this I
mean to say-with aesthetics, with human ferred to a contemporary building in order reason why we should give up or not look
to make it a mosque? And what can be at what is happening in our own. As a
scale, with architecture, town planning and
so forth. All municipalities now prohibit transferred to secular structures? Are matter of fact, some of us, and I include
there symbols to make a hospital, a myself, know very little of our own things,
Islamic architecture. In our time we have
Muslim hospital, or a college, a Muslim not to mention Muslim things in other
no Islamic architecture whatsoever, and it
college? We are trying to identify forms, countries. This is simply because we were
is the fault of the universities. In school
we devoted only three pages to Islamic decorations and other things that stand for educated in a Western culture that was
Islam. completely imposed upon us. I had no
architecture because it was considered
Comments 84
opportunity to learn what was my own or is no reason why there should not be We are in the midst of an Islamic
what was beautiful or rich in our other infinite variations within that thing. The revolution, the nature and direction of
Muslim societies. That is only one part. common thing may not be a simple which is still uncertain. It remains to be
The other is that since we are functioning symbol. It may be a basic principle. Basic seen, for instance, whether the revival of
in the present age, looking backwards is principles are what created places like Islam will be realistic or whether it will be
not enough. Looking forward is much Fatehpur Sikri. regressive and a cause for regret. Will the
more important. If there are symbols Islamic revival lead in the end to a
which can make our buildings beautiful different conception of man and conse-
and even Islamic, that is fine. That is the quently a different attempt at spatial and
Soedjatmoko
best we can hope for. But understanding symbolic expression? Against this back-
our culture is completely different from ground the question of replicas is minor.
The one remark I want to make concerns
actually copying symbols or transferring What we are seeing here in many ways
development planning When we talk
certain things from one age to the present. represents the loss of a sense of style and,
about replicas, we are talking about con-
curiously, the openness, the willingness, to
Before I finish I have one particular com- tinuity. Does continuity still exist within
let others who are not rooted in the
ment to make about Dr. Fathy's remark the Islamic world? A similar question
particular civilization or religion dabble in
that introverted buildings are Islamic. He poses itself to the world of Christianity
the forms and the. symbols of that civiliza-
implied that this feature comes from the where the Caucasian is no longer dom-
tion. There has been a loss of criteria, a
Mediterranean where Islam began and inant in terms of numbers. The shift of
loss of style, a loss of aesthetic integrity.
consequently they are Islamic. But in a Christianity away from Europe to Africa
But there are also elements that make
different environment such as Indonesia, and Asia brings with it a shift in sym-
sense only if we see them as the beginning
Malaysia or even South China, things are bolism. A similar process is now taking
of something very big which may take
completely different. Will those houses be place within the world of Islam because
another hundred years to develop. Herein
non-Islamic? Are there gradations in the the basic self-perception of Islam is in the
lies the importance of the Award because
quality of Islam in things? I do not believe process of changing in a very fundamental
our inability to formulate criteria will
so. If something is held commonly, there fashion.
stimulate research.
Bammate
I have a few remarks. First of all, we start

with the statement by Mr. Soedjatmoko.
At the moment the centres of Islam are
shifting from the Arabic countries toward
Asia and Africa. We must also consider in
our architecture that most Muslims are
under twenty-five years of age. So the
emphasis should be put on Asia and, in
terms of strength of faith, toward Africa,
both North and black. With some excep-
tions from Malaysia and elsewhere, I
notice that most of the vocabulary of
Islamic building forms derives from the
Middle East. What makes a building
Muslim, I think, is the presence of a
minaret, a cupola, or a form like a cupola,
and arches. These are the three elements
which in the majority of cases seem to
make a mosque. But I do not want to
make any judgment on these places. I just
notice that the vocabulary is coming from
Seramban, Malaysia: interior of mosque designed by Team 31 Malay Design Group
the Middle East.
85 Comments
My second remark concerns the absence of 'umma recognizes itself in the mosque and think this is practically impossible and
calligraphy. Perhaps we have not seen as whether they pray there and inhabit it. even contrary to Islam. I would let the
many interior as exterior views, but in poor follow their own ways of develop-
classical architecture, whether it is the ment. Then the problem is solely that of
original open air mosque or the mosque architectural criteria and the pursuit of
with a dome, we see calligraphy every- Kuban quality. Now there is one danger, how-
where as a mark of Islam. The world of ever, which is very important because the
God reverberates in architecture. Now I The question is whether we accept people old tradition has been broken. Although
do not know whether it is the influence of following their own interpretations or we imitate, we certainly use modern
the international style or what, but I think whether we try to impose on them some techniques. Now the old tradition is
that there is now a unity of shapes and criteria of modern Islamic architecture. I broken and the new one is not yet
structural forms which breaks with tradi- assimilated by our own people. There is
tion, especially in the absence of always a danger that non-Muslims can
calligraphy. create better designs than Muslims. I do
My third remark concerns the function of not say anything against this. It is possible
the mosque. It is a question I ask myself that they will, for it will take time for
all the time. Are people praying there? Islamic society to assimilate the modern
Obviously. But are they circulating within elements of technology and interpret
this space? Do they come there to con- them, even if this requires imitation.
gregate? Originally the mosque was not
just a place for prayer but had a variety of
communal uses. It was where the 'umma
Kuran
was happy to meet-the convenience
centre. In the old mosques you had all of
these functions at the same time. It seems to me that with the mosque there
is also the issue of its setting. These issues
In addition to the grandiose mosques built should not be separated. What I mean is
by the authorities, there is also an archi- that there seem to be simultaneous and'
tecture of the people. Many mosques are contradictory currents in the Islamic
built by rural communities, built practi- world. In Turkey people have accepted
cally without money, spontaneously, and modern architecture. Since the 1920s we
people congregate there whether they are have had nothing but modern architecture.
praying or not because they feel comfort- Yet when it comes to mosque architecture
able there. In my own country of Afghan- we are far behind other Islamic countries.
istan I know of two or three beautiful Mosques there have remained the same
buildings which are rejected by the people since Sinan in the sixteenth century. If
not because they are in good or bad taste people aspire to a classical mosque, can
or are good or bad examples of they relate to a modern one? This seems
architecture-! cannot answer those ques- to me to be the big contradiction to which
tions-but because the people do not we must address ourselves.
recognize the authority which built that
mosque. And so they pray outside the
mosque. Literally.
Now my last remark is that in practically Geertz
all instances, even though the mosque
towers over the landscape, it remains an There is an anecdote about Mexico which
integral part of the city itself. Now, I think is relevant here. In a very small,
however, we are moving from a spatial very poor village about half of the men
notion within the environment to that of a Jakarta environs: the minaret of the Masjid regularly go to the United States as
separate, distinct building. Again I cannot Badan Kebehjataraan. Mosque built in 1977 by migrant workers and bring back American
say whether this is good or bad or whether PERUMNAS, the Indonesian Urban Housing dollars to spend on cars and so forth.
it is simply a historical development. It is Development Corporation
When they decide to build a new church in
not a question of taste, but whether the Photo: H-U Khan/Aga Khan Awards their village, they choose an American
Comments 86
design-a modern suburban church with a

lot of glass. Even though it is not much
larger than their old church, no one goes
to it. It feels too big. Still the people are
all terribly proud of it because it shows
how wealthy they are compared to the
surrounding villages.
Now in some ways the new structure
inhibits the villagers' religious practices,
but is it a bad church?
Raymond
For various reasons the easiest position to

take is to say that each mosque, even
when it is awful, corresponds to the taste
of a community. Then we do not have to
pass judgment.
New village mosque in the environs of Manila, the Philippines

Arkoun Photo: H-U Khan/Aga Khan Awards
In a number of mosques which have been

built in Algeria since independence, the
decisions have been made by very re-
stricted groups and exclude the taste and
initiative of the community. This is <t very
important point.
Burckhardt
There is a pretension, an illness really,

from which many contemporary mosques
suffer. They pretend to be something
unique, new or richer, but they lack the
means to be that. This pretension is in lllliiJI.
strong contrast to the fact that in the past
the Muslim architect traditionally dis-
appeared behind his work. In the con-
temporary mosque the architect steps for-
ward from the work.
New mosque in a village between Kuala Lumpur and Malacca, Malaysia

87 In Search of an Islam-Initiated
Architectural Identity in Indonesia
Ahmad Sadali
One may easily recognize the difference in mentators discuss history or the activities
character between a mosque in Turkey and conducted within the mosque rather than
one in India or Spain, as each belongs to the actual art of building. Foreign writers
an architectural style brought into being on the Islamic heritage of Indonesia have
by a people who had already achieved concentrated primarily on historical and
their own identity. 1 With the Islamic archi- archeological aspects.
tecture of Indonesia this is not the case. The second problem lies in the nature of
Since Indonesia is an archipelago consist- the artifacts themselves. Structures that
ing of thousands of islands with seas and could be instrumental to the study of
straits functioning as barriers to communi- Indonesian architecture are not only rare,
cation, it is no wonder that the inhabitants but their fragmented form makes it diffi-
have differed in lifestyle, belief, tradition cult to identify their origin. Moreover,
and language for many centuries. many buildings are closed to investigation
Nevertheless, a strong undercurrent of due to the existing superstition that the
similarity has existed from the outset. We researcher's hand might diminish their
can probably attribute this to a common magical power.
native land, which many theories indicate A further cause for disappointment is that
to be the Yunan area of Southeast Asia. structures from the first Islamic period in
This explains, among other things, the Indonesia have suffered many alterations.
smooth adoption of Bahasa Indonesian as Regrettably, many old mosques have been
a national language and the consciousness "restored" without taking historical value
of belonging to one nation. It further into account An old temple may be better
explains the rapid and peaceful diffusion preserved than a mosque of a later date.
of Islam as a religion embraced by ninety- The problem is not simply the use of
five percent of the people. Progress nondurable materials, but a lack of appre-
in communication and transportation ciating and understanding historical worth.
certainly accounts for much of Indonesia's Keep in mind that in Indonesia no mosque
unity amid diversity, but the prime factor is ever too old for use and that almost all
remains the advent of Islam in the seventh are insufficient in terms of space. The Cirebon, If!donesia: the Masjid Pangumuman,
century A.D., long before modern naviga- aged Masjid Kasepuhan in Cirebon, which an example of stacked roof design
tional techniques were available. dates from the time of the waifs (saints) of Photo H-U Khan/Aga Khan Awards
Diversity is the outstanding feature of the fifteenth and sixteenth centuries A.D
Indonesian architecture. As for identity, is a splendid example both in terms of its
we must search for it in such varied "rehabilitation" and the density of its use.
regional styles as the Batak, the West The Masjid Lima Kaum of Batusangkar,
examine the Islamic art and architecture of
Sumatran or Minangkabau, the Cirebon- West Sumatra, is another example. Al-
Indonesia.
ese, the Sundanese Middle, the East though several hundred years old, its
Javanese and the Balinese. In each region original form is recognizable only from
of Indonesia mosques were built in a style photographs taken by the Dutch during
conditioned by local input and the en- the colonial period. Causal Factors of Diversity
vironment. The same can be said for the
To evaluate Islamic fine art objectively we
architectural styles throughout the whole We must also recognize that Islam was not
must accept the fact that throughout the
of the Islamic world. Unlike Buddhism or always received throughout Indonesia with
Islamic world there is unity in diversity.
Hinduism with the silpasastra, Islam does one and the same understanding. Putting
Despite its manifold forms of externaliza-
not prescribe a distinct canonical rule for aside factors such as facility, skill, material
tion, the underlying belief of Islam is
building edifices for worship or habitation. and those of an environmental nature-
taul}ld, that everything is from the One
In studying the Islamic architecture of and will be returned to the One. With this factors generally used as the yardstick of
Indonesia two problems handicap the re- reality in mind and the knowledge of the artistic and cultural development-! would
searcher. The first stems from the in- way in which Islam is externalized (in like to introduce three primary causal
adequacy of the existing literature. Few particular through mu 'amala, i.e. , the factors for this diversified character.
works on Islamic culture in Indonesia realization of the Teachings in mondial The first is that of the conveyor. History
touch upon architecture, and most com- cultural deeds or objects), we may properly relates that Islam was brought to Indo-
In Search of an Islam-Initiated Architectural Indentity in Indonesia 88
nesia not only by the Arabs direct from their houses of worship according to their A second style reflects sources outside of
Mecca, but also by others, possibly own architectural ideals. With the use of Indonesia in such features as the dome
Indians or Persians, whose faith was most inferior materials and, most notably, the (e.g., Masjid Raya Aceh) and arched
probably already syncretized in one way or lack of free expression, little was achieved windows and doorways (e.g., Masjid
another. That the religion suffered from in the field of Islamic architecture. Hun- Sultan Medan). Lastly, there is the
the influence of other beliefs before it dreds of years lapsed with almost no contemporary style. The "Salman"
even set foot in Indonesia is conspicuously creative expression. Only after indepen- mosque complex on the campus of the
discernible and felt right up to the dence did the situation change. Neverthe- Institute of Technology, Bandung, is a
present day. less, a long time span is required to prominent example.
consolidate a unified mosque style, and We note that this categorization is not
Another historical factor is that the re-
indeed, it may be preferable that the necessarily strict. Overlaps occur, for
cipients of Islam at its advent in Indonesia
Indonesian Muslim remain faithful to the example, in mosques which combine the
were converts from indigenous faiths such
tradition of diversity. stacked roof with the dome. Moreover,
as Hinduism, Buddhism, animism and
dynamism. Most were navigators, traders there are mosques which are completely
and peasants who inhabited the coastal devoid of architectural ambition or design.
areas of the islands. Only later did Islam In this classification we have excluded the
Stylistic Sources
enter the palaces of the inland rulers. As mausoleum which is the most prominent
in other parts of the globe where Islam aspect of the Islamic architectural heritage
An examination of mosques, tombs and in Sumatra, Java, Madura, Kalimantan
made inroads, cultural levels were re-
kraton (palaces) points to three stylistic and Sulawesi.
flected in the objects produced. It de-
sources of Indonesian mosque architec-
serves our attention that Islam faithfully As we can observe from Dutch photo-
ture. The first, based on pre-Islamic
preserved the cultural levels which existed graphic documentation and from several
styles, is exemplified by a stacked roof
before its arrival. Excessively tolerant for old mosques (e.g., Banten, Kudos), the
design (e.g., the Banten Mosque) and by
fear of disturbing the existing order, the stacked roof characterizes mosques from
design derived from the traditional dwell-
religion permitted an overdose of syncre- the transition period. Various types are
ing (e.g., Rao-rao Mosque).
tism, the result of which can still be seen
in the coastal town of Cirebon and else-
where. The avoidance of abrupt change
became an unwritten rule. Decorations of
Hindu or Buddhist origin were extended
to mosques and tombs, and to soften the
change in belief, calligraphic inscriptions
from the Koran were devised to conjure
up wayang or puppet theatre figures.
The third factor is that of patronage.
Without proper support the Alhambra, the
Taj Mahal and the insurpassably beautiful
mosques and mausoleums of the Middle
East would never have been built. In
many parts of the Muslim world the
Maecenas was a ruler or a political leader
in a position to administer the state
treasury. In contrast, Islam's early sup-
porters in Indonesia were found at the
grass-roots level among the common
people, whereas the rulers were initially
hostile to the new religion. Later, Indo-
nesian princes did begin to favour
Muslims, but by then the Dutch colonials
arrived with the sword in the right hand
and the Bible in the left. Since that time
A domed mosque on the outskirts of Jakarta
the Muslims of Indonesia have never had
the opportunity or the strength to build Photo: H-U Khan!Aga Khan Awards
89 In Search of an Islam-Initiated Architectural Indentity in Indonesia
found not only in Java but throughout the the ~af, the straight, uninterrupted parallel
archipelago including Sumatra, Sulawesi, rows of worshipers as they perform the
Kalimantan and Temate. Both Dutch and congregational ~a/at), the uplifted floor
Indonesian historians have sought to ex- and a ditch or pond located near the
plain its origin. entrance or on one or both sides of the
F. W. Stutterheim was of the opinion that
mosque are also characteristic features.
Islam in its transition period turned to Both the dome and the minaret were
autochthonous forms such as the wantilan unknown to mosque architecture in the
or cockfight arena still commonly seen in early period following Islam's arrival in the
Bali. H. J. de Graaf rejected this view on archipelago. Originally the aztin was called
three accounts. First, the cockfight arena from the attic of the highest stack of the
as it exists in Bali is a place for gambling; roof. The introduction of the dome repre-
it would be unlikely for Muslims to choose sents the desire of Indonesian rulers and
as a prototype a structure associated with the 'ulamti' to emulate what they had seen
practices contrary to their teachings. in their travels to other Islamic countries.
Second, existing cockfight arenas lack a Unfortunately, once mandated by the
stacked roof, and third, the cockfight ruling authorities, the misconception that
arena is found mainly in Bali and only the dome was an inherent element of the
sporadically in Java. For his part de Graaf mosque became increasingly rooted, and
sought the prototype of the stacked roof in today a mosque lacking a dome is often
buildings outside of Indonesia. The Mala- considered unsatisfactory. In villages a
bar area of India, for example, displays bamboo mosque with a tile roof may have
this type of construction. a crooked dome constructed from tin
plate. A more tragic sight is the mosque
The Indonesian scholar Soetjipto
with an earthenware jar placed upside
Wirjosoeparto holds that Javanese mosque
down on a tile roof. Even in the capital
architecture is adopted from the building
cities of Jakarta and Medan there are
traditions of pre-Islamic times. The
mosques, designed by a Christian and a
"square" mosque plan recalls the
Dutch architect respectively, that possess
pendopo, a building erected within the
domes. Foreign hands actively contributed
ruler's compound for meetings and cultural
to the structure of the Masjid Raya Aceh
performances. The tomb complexes of
and other mosques. There are, however,
Sunan Bonang and Sunan Dradjat feature
mosques built by the Dutch which follow
examples of this type. Moreover, he main-
regional examples such as the Masjid
tains that the mosque roof is a perfection
Rao-rao. The Chinese also exerted con-
of the joglo roof as it appears in the
siderable influence as seen in the Masjid
pendopo. In the joglo roof con-
Gresik, Sunan Giri and the tomb of
struction the lower part is a sharply
Sumenep.
sloping truncated pyramid surmounted by Bandung, Indonesia: the small domes of two
another pyramid which may or may not neighbourhood mosques Contemporary architectural forms have
be truncated. left their mark on recent mosque design.
Photo: A. Sadali
Achmad Noe'man, the architect of the
G. F. Pijper and K. A. H. Bidding both
campus mosque of the Institute of Tech-
maintain that Indonesian Hinduism is the
nology, Bandung, has remarked that:
primary source of Indonesian mosque
architecture. But if one scrutinizes the To design a mosque is not just a blind
reliefs in the Majapahit temple from the include Masjid Angke, Marunda, Jakarta following of architectural conceptual
fourteenth century in which building forms (eighteenth century, two stacks), Masjid principles. It is more than that. One
with stacked roof (called meru) are de- Demak and Masjid Banten (both sixteenth must listen and open his heart to the
picted, one might also conclude that the century, three stacks), and Masjid Lima Call of Allah the Almighty and scrutin-
origin is Buddhist. Kaum in Batusangkar, West Sumatra (five ize the footsteps of His Messenger
stacks). Muhammed.
In mosques of this type there may be two,
three or five stacks. Some prominent Apart from the square plan of the Indo- Here we can observe how modem
examples of the stacked roof mosque nesian mosque (a logical consequence of thoughts and sentiments are being amalga-
In Search of an Islam-Initiated Architectural Indentity in Indonesia 90
whether this be a metropolis or a far-

stretching dune. Most of all, they must be
certain to keep the machine under their
power. They ought to use technology and
not be used by it. The growth of Islamic
education has given birth to new interpre-
tations of the universe. Architects and
designers must keep pace with the future
being prepared by today's Islam.
Notes
1
Ahmad Sadali presented this paper at Seminar
Three in the series, "Architectural Transformations in
the Islamic World" The seminar was held in Jakarta,
Indonesia, March 26-29, 1979 The Proceedings were
published in June 1980, under the title Housing
Process and Physical Form
The author would like to express his gratitude to

Dr Subarna, postgraduate student in the field of
Islamic Art in Indonesia, Ecole des Beaux Arts, Paris;
Dr Wijoso Judosaputra, lecturer on Asian Art, Art
Department, Institute of Technology, Bandung; and
Bandung, Indonesia: The "Salman" mosque on the Institute of Technology campus. Designed by Juswadi, M Arch , instructor in the Architecture
Department, Institute of Technology, Bandung, for
Achmad Noe'man their enlightening discussion and notes
Photo: H-U Khan!Aga Khan Awards
mated with Islamic concepts. However, derive support from the continuous inter-
even among "educated" architects diver- action of the design and its environment.
gent views exist. One side stresses solely a Accustomed features are more quickly
contemporary design outlook, while acknowledged than an alien image. How-
another seeks to preserve the traditional ever, traditional architecture has been
building philosophy. conditioned by rules valid for a specific
time and place. Given these constraints it
is impossible for the same rules to be
applicable for all regions. Each region has
Approaches for the Future its own environment and tradition.
Those choosing the second approach may
In an effort to determine an appropriate be assisted by preexisting symbols such as
attitude for the Indonesian mosque the dome. This is already accepted
builder, particularly in light of the search throughout the world, and in Indonesia it
for identity, we have examined existing finds admirers whether made of shining
regional forms. From this survey, three stainless steel or merely an upside down
alternative approaches emerge. First, we earthenware jar. But architects should be
can start with local traditional architec- aware that materials and techniques have
ture. Second, we can orient ourselves to undergone considerable change.
Islamic building traditions outside Indo-
nesia. And third, we can look for new Adherents of the third alternative may
ideas. have to wait patiently before their work is
accepted and appreciated. They must
Those designing a contemporary mosque attune themselves to their surroundings
based on local traditional architecture
91 The Internal Dialogue of
Islam in Southeast Asia
Abdurrahman Wahid
With adherents concentrated in Indonesia, resistance by strengthening their commu- Islamic fundamentalism (more aptly called
Malaysia, southern Thailand, the southern nal pattern of land ownership. scripturalism) is the direct result of this
Philippines and parts of Cambodia and development. The call for the purification
The coming of nationalism in the region,
Burma, Islam is one of the major religions of Islamic creeds from the corrupting
which coincided with the spread of Pan-
of Southeast Asia. According to early influences of modernity and the
Islamism from the Middle East, gave a
historians, the religion first reached the secularization process reverberates in
new outlet for Islamic resistance against
region approximately one thousand years many mosques and prayer houses of the
colonial rule. Underestimated for decades,
ago. Its real spread, however, did not region. In Indonesia, Malaysia and parts
the aspirations of Pan-Islamism gained
occur earlier than the thirteenth century. of the Philippines, the "turning back of
strength gradually. After independence
The Islamic era in Southeast Asia's the clock" is an evident development
theocratic ideologies and religious intran-
southern rim began with the establishment among Islamic movements.
sigence arose in Indonesia and Malaysia,
of Islamic kingdoms (of the type termed and again later in the Philippines and parts In the face of the "threat of
"agrarian paternalistic and bureaucratic" of Thailand. To explain this increased Christianization" vociferous groups have
by Max Weber) in Terengganu, Malaysia, militancy on the part of important sectors intimidated other sectors of Muslim
and in the northern part of Sumatra. of Southeast Asian Muslims, concrete sociopolitical life. Should this chain
Frequent warring undermined the long- causes and grievances must be taken into reaction in the relations between Islamic
term success of these petty kingdoms, but account. These include the land policy of and other groups continue, a basic
history has amply shown that the lively the governing circles and the systematic misunderstanding with devastating effects
traditions and cultures nurtured by Islam efforts to destroy Islam in various on the stability of the region will certainly
in the region were not confined to political countries of the region in the name of materialize.
boundaries or palace walls. For every "politicization" and "development."
manifestation of Islamic palace culture The need presently exists for a better
"Increasing religious intensity," as understanding of the real situation within
there grew a popular counterculture. This Soedjatmoko from Indonesia has labeled
popular movement was the real vehicle of the polity of the region's Islamic
this militant tendency, presently emerges movements. The traditional sector within
Islam's spread during the dark age in many forms. These range from the
of political subjugation by subsequent these movements possesses an adaptive
armed struggle of the "Mindanao rebels" capacity and can reach an accommodation
European colonial administrations. and the reemergence of religious politics with other sectors of society without losing
In the colonial periods the indigenous in Indonesia and Malaysia to the obscure its own identity. It must be encouraged to
palace courts succumbed to political armed resistance of Thai Muslims against take a more assertive role in formulating
manipulation by European governors and their government. This increased militancy and implementing positive programmes
governor-generals. At the same time a shows similar features for the entire with genuine participation. This requires
tradition of resistance developed among region, although aspects are manifested developing indigenous cultural resources
the Islamic peoples of the region. Led by more clearly in some parts than in others. and not simply superficial adherence to
religious leaders and joined by dissatisfied Most importantly, wide circles of vocal governmental "development plans." Such
sectors of the nobility, resistance took the and organized Muslims feel that serious an approach will enable the traditional
form of short-lived messianic and mille- political setbacks have endangered their sector in the Islamic movements to
narian rebellions as well as the more sub- very political and cultural identities. More- develop its own strength vis-a-vis other
lime form of passive resistance to succes- over, they believe that they no longer groups in the society as a whole and place
sive colonial "plans of enlightenment." At en joy an unsurpassed cultural ascendancy it in the mainstream of the region's
the end of the nineteenth century and the in the region. cultural and socioeconomic life. In the
beginning of the twentieth, a new variety This situation poses trouble for the long run the sense of belonging that arises
of passive resistance developed, i.e., an region's national governments by from this kind of participation will obviate
economic struggle to liberate local trades hardening the existing relations between the need for intransigent postures on the
from the domination of foreign capitalism. the Islamic movement and other groups. part of the Islamic movement at large.
Without an understanding of the real Dangerous misunderstandings already exist
cause of the domination against which it between Muslims and Christians in
fought, the struggle enjoyed only dismal Indonesia and Malaysia. The threat of
prospects. But before its final failure it what Muslims call "Christianization" is felt
succeeded in developing an indigenous acutely and serves as a pretext for an
class of Muslim merchants and traders in aggressive "defense" that militantly
Indonesia in the first half of this century. demands a curb on the religious activities
In the Philippines Muslims continued their of Christians in both countries. The rise of
Formulation:
A Discussion of Criteria
Comments
Kuran
I would like to begin with the main theme Roman temple whether it is in Syria or in
of the seminar: symbolism. First, after Turkey. But Islam inspired a search for
touring Fez I feel that symbolism or its order and harmony without prescribing set
reflection in visual terms is not as relevant rules. Thus the architectural works pro-
today as it may have been in the past. It duced by an Islamic people cannot be
has been mentioned that colonialism or
Western industrial and technological in-
fluences or self-willed forces may have
resulted in our losing a sense of our cul-
ture's relevance. Nevertheless, symbols
were very precious even in the past.
Calligraphy, as was pointed out earlier,
had meaning for builders and architects,
but we observe that most inscriptions are
decorated with arabesques and all sorts of
visual floral motifs. This shows that the
symbol soon became part of the decorative
pattern of the building.
Now I want to move to the continuity of
forms and space. What impresses me
about Fez is the very strong contrast be-
tween the noisy narrow streets, which have
no geometry or symmetry, and the inner
world of the houses and buildings. I feel
very strongly that the geometry of these
courtyards is different from that of a
Roman courtyard. Although a medieval
town in Europe may not differ in basic
architectural structure from what we see in
Fez, there exists a particular kind of
geometry that is as relevant to Fez as it is
to Iran and Turkey. Moreover, there is a
sense of unity felt in Fez.
Fez, Morocco: a view in the madina
In Roman architecture there are certain
set rules so that a Roman temple is a Photo: H-U Khan!Aga Khan Awards
93 Comments
viewed as part of a greater structure, but discussing empty, if characteristic, forms. Third, I stress the independence of hous-
as total statements relevant to a particular Prof. Kuran has identified an opposition ing from the public domain. I think these
region and culture and produced under an between interior symmetry and the ab- guidelines are quite sufficient for domestic
umbrella of Islamic thought. Now, this sence of exterior symmetry. He has de- Islamic architecture in general.
creative spirit is what produced the city of fined geometry, but this form, this
Fez in Islamic terms-that is, with its geometry, only has reality if it is inhabited
Islamic geometry and its continuity from by men. I have also reacted against a
one house to another. It is a continuous definition of the symbol which limits it to Geertz
experience. Yet when we went up to Ain the form that contains it. The symbol
Kadus, what I saw there was only the form exists only for its user. Consequently, I I have two points to make. I mentioned
of a mosque which had been transplanted. would like to ask the architects to consider the first one earlier and can restate it
This form was meaningless to me, because the exercise of thought as an act which is quickly. One category of criteria for the
it was only a part of the total unity of Fez total, integrated and integrating, and I Award has to deal with the consequences
transplanted somewhere else. It had no would like to ask them to take into of architecture on the everyday life of
creative, dynamic force behind it. Some account historicity, that is, the variable ordinary people. Above all, Islam is con-
people may like it because its form will character of all acts of thought. cerned with the moral fabric of life.
give them a sense of the past, but people In classical Islamic culture thinking was Criteria mentioned in previous discussions
living in that sort of environment will subordinate to the authority of revealed introduced notions of truth, love and
eventually become different people from texts. Only within an extremely rigid and vitality. These cover some varied and com-
those who are actually living in the dogmatic framework did Islamic thought plex ideas of beauty. Everybody knows
madina. acquire coherence. But today this is no that the architect's concern is with form,
Through architecture we are creating longer valid. There is historicity in Islamic but it is also with life. Honesty to mate-
something that is obviously relevant to thought. Today thinking takes place out- rials, fidelity to the natural environment
society. But in the process something is side the futile order of religiosity. As a and care for human proportions were
lost. Therefore, the main problem that result, the problem of the Fez madina and mentioned as aspects of truth. Further
faces us today is how to take Fez, for all extant madinas in the Islamic world stressed under the notion of truth is the
instance, and adapt it to our modern cannot be apprehended in a valid way avoidance of pretentiousness and false
society without losing its inherent quali- unless we take into account this historical symbolism.
ties. I am not suggesting imitation, but rupture which deeply affects Muslim think- We mentioned craftsmanship and concern
there is a system of adaptation which is ing. If architects do not adopt this his- for detail. There should also be an imagi-
perhaps something that the Award should torical perspective, I would say that the native sympathy for people. After we
seek. A ward will not meet the needs of our visited the madina, everybody discussed
present city. As I perceive it, a divorce vitality. What I think was really meant but
occurred long ago between the architect not actually observed was the vitality of
and the practicing Muslim who attempts to personal relationships among people who
Arkoun integrate Islamic thought on the level of know one another well, the face-to-face
human existence. relationships. Of course, this relates to
In view of the scope of the A ward and of what I was attempting to say in my own
the criteria to be determined, I would say presentation. Towns are arrangements of
this: it is imperative that the confrontation people who enjoy personal relationships
with the historian, the general historian, Burckhardt with one another. Either they know one
but even more importantly the historian of another very well or they are strangers.
Islamic thought, be continued. The his- I will try to formulate what from our This is important because the madina, or
torian of Islamic thought is a new notion. earlier discussions appear to be criteria of any town, is a place to which strangers
I try to defend it against a Western tradi- Islamic architecture. I am convinced that come. Various kinds of architectural forms
tion that favours the exercise of thought in domestic architecture is as important as either allow strangers in or exclude them.
specialized fields. In classical Islamic the sacred architecture of the mosque. The second point I want to make also
thought the act of thinking is reflected in What distinguishes Islamic architecture is deals with a social issue. This is a future-
urban space. There is continuity both in first its interiority, and second its cen- oriented project, an attempt to change
the theoretical thought and the various trality. When you are in your house you society in a new way or perhaps to resist
activities that man develops in order to are at the centre of the earth. The geo- change. Now the problem that occurs to
organize the levels of his existence. metrical symmetry which has been ob- me as an expert in the communication and
In the search for criteria we have to avoid served is an expression of that centrality. dissemination of cultural knowledge is,
Comments 94
how exemplary is this process? What will about this kind of social differentiation. uses signs and symbols from the past, they
happen next? Will a building by one archi- My point is simply that the elite must should rest with him as beautiful things.
tect imitate that of another? How is this break through the barriers to find out Nevertheless, after three days of discus-
process going to be perceived? Just as I what ordinary people think. sions I am not sure what Islamic signs and
mentioned that a town is perceived dif- symbols cover all the lands from Morocco
ferently by different people, the five to China.
buildings or structures or plans premiated
by the A ward are going to be perceived Islam
differently by different imitators.
I would like to start with a few words Raymond
It will be extremely interesting to see what
is picked up as exemplary after the about the Fez madina. All the architects, I
Award is made. It has to be continually suppose all of us, have had a very in- I would like to make only two remarks. I
kept in mind that the people who make spiring experience. Certain aspects of the was struck by two things during this col-
the buildings are members of an elite. city seem important to me, and I shall try loquium. The first was the diversity of the
They are the planners and the patrons. In to enumerate them. First, it is an old city. participants. On this point, the contribu-
addition, the people giving the Award are We were instantly transported into an old tion of our colleagues from Southeast Asia
members of an elite cut off from the world, a beautiful world. But the city is a is impressive because it is a rejection of
masses. We all experienced this in visiting living city within a certain number of the kind of Arabocentrism in which we all
Fez. Finally, the people who are going to topographic and other difficulties. The threaten to sink. We should not forget that
be making the copies will also be members evolution of the social fabric is still a the centre of gravity of the Muslim world
of an elite. They may be builders in small viable one but needs more and more is found outside the limits of the Arab
towns, but they will still be specialists. strength. All these are facts. world.
Now there is nothing moral or immoral Why did the madina excite us? We are Second, I think that it is necessary to
seeking certain principles or factors that study and confront concrete situations on
may help us solve our problems in the the historical, social, anthropological and
present-day Muslim world. It seems to me religious levels. It is from these studies
that the people in Fez are trying to solve that it will be possible to generalize and to
their problems in their own way. There eliminate a certain number of stereotypes
exist problems of climate, social structure, which still obstruct many fields. I think
the economic demands of society and vari- that certain of Prof. Grabar's ideas on the
ous technological problems as far as the Islamic house and those on the mosque
construction of the buildings and the city are entirely justified.
itself. All these are resolved within a cer- In conclusion, it is difficult to define an
tain cultural context. By that I mean that Islamic architecture or an Islamic urban-
the people are operating within a cultural ism; there is a great diversity of historical
framework that includes various facets of and geographical situations. I think that it
life-religion, ritual, craftsmanship, maybe is vital to study what I would call the con-
even a new standard of visual perception. crete Islamic world, the concrete Islamic
The madina itself breaks down into man in his belief, his economic and social
units-houses, mosques, shops. None of activities, his history and his works. Pro-
this can be transferred to some other portionally, this implies that greater inter-
place. This seems to be the most impor- ests be given to private architecture, and
tant thing to me. eventually to average or poor architecture,
The individual building problems of Mus- than to monumental architecture. I think
lim societies require loving care and tre- that from such work a conception of archi-
mendous amounts of creative ability. tecture and urbanism intended for Muslims
Without this creative ability nothing is can be developed.
going to happen; we will produce bad
things. At this time we need a certain
amount of understanding of our own cul-
ture, our own background and a deeper
Fez, Morocco: a view in the madina
understanding of the contemporary world.
Photo: H-U Khan!Aga Khan Awards Given this context, if someone creatively
95 Comments
I. Serageldin by the community but by a national entity. Changes in some of the traditionally
This has been a homogenizing force accepted norms of Islamic thought on the
I would like to elaborate upon some of the throughout society. We saw TV antennas level of practical ethics will lead us to a
themes that have already been mentioned. everywhere in Fez. Communications have more contemporary interpretation of both
We have confronted again and again the opened up the community to the outside architectural and urban form. For ex-
question of what is contemporary Islamic world. Nor must we forget that political ample, changes in the social roles affecting
society and what is relevant within this ideology, which Prof. Arkoun mentioned, the status of women will most likely affect
perspective. We cannot look exclusively at is passed on to people on a day-to-day the structure of the house. Changes in
the past and ignore the vast and sweeping basis. This has resulted in a broader property laws and the redefinition of the
currents that are taking place in Islamic vocabulary. The people see more examples rights of the community and the individual
societies today. These currents impose of architecture and urbanism in other are bound to lead to questions concerning
upon us a more contemporary interpreta- countries. They have a heightened aware- the balance of public and private spaces.
tion of Islam, and our contemporary ness of alternative lifestyles. Borrowed Changes in the scale of economic activity
identity will find its reflection in architec- dress styles and music are gradually incor- will by necessity force us to take cogni-
tural and urban forms. porated into their social preferences. This zance of a scale of enterprise far different
leads to the breakdown of local com- from that of the suq. We are dealing with
The demographic explosion taking place in munity allegiances. After all, national giant enterprises throughout the world.
Muslim countries means greater concern educational policy is a conscious effort to This I think is a challenge. We must keep
for youth, more rapid urbanization and a break down local allegiances and create an in mind that these forces are the cutting
change of pace. Who are the people that allegiance to a higher entity. This creates a edge of change in contemporary Islamic
we are dealing with today in contemporary split between the social praxis and the society. Perhaps we may not have specific
Muslim societies? They are people who perception of Islam, which has insularized criteria to interpret a good solution, but
are subjected to industrialization of a new itself against these changes. let us at least keep this in mind and look
type on a massive scale. New towns, allied for people who have, perhaps intuitively,
to huge industrial complexes, require a addressed these problems as best as they
completely different urban expression from can be addressed.
what we have seen in Fez. In terms of a
movement from rural areas to the cities,
urbanization is practically a universal trend
and must be recognized as a starting point. M. Serageldin
We must deal with cities that are growing
at a much faster pace than ever before. In I will confine my remarks to urban forms
general, there has been an internationali- and try to express something about the
zation of life activities as well as changes way.,people have tried to solve their prob-
in individual perception. lems. Fez is a spirited and inspired
I will discuss very briefly some of the example of medieval Muslim urban form.
implications in terms of Award criteria. We have been told about the problems
Today the scale of economic activities has facing it and the plans to preserve it. It is
changed tremendously. It has destroyed difficult to be optimistic about this valiant
traditional small manufacturing and hence endeavour.
a way of life. We cannot yearn for the past The introduction of modern technology is
by creating little shops for little people eroding or bound to erode the physical
and expect to compete with large-scale structure by water integration, machine
machine production. The scale of com- vibration, pollution and all the rest. Yet to
munication has to be addressed and given deny an upgraded infrastructure in the
a contemporary solution. We cannot look hope of preserving the integrity of its
exclusively for small and narrow streets medieval character is untenable. Further-
and ignore the reality of machines that more, unrelenting demographic pressure
have already entered our societies on a and increasing social homogenization are
large sca~e. further accelerating the deterioration of
More important than these changes is what this environment. Mounting pressure on
is happening to the minds of contemporary Fez, Morocco: an artisan at his workbench urban land gives little hope for finding
Muslims. Education is no longer imposed Photo: H-U Khan/Aga Khan Awards relief.
Comments 96
rate. Planners should look to these areas

for inspiration on the adaptation of Mus-
lim urban forms to new and emerging
lifestyles.
Wahid
Prof. Arkoun has appealed to us to con-

sider the quality of life, the grand theme
of how we address lifestyle. Prof. Geertz
called on us to dismantle the barrier
between commoners and elite groups of
planners. Hence I would like to give flesh
to a workable framework. We should
address ourselves to how Islamic com-
munities try to solve the crises they face
on a communal basis. We heard Ismail
Serageldin talk about perception and the
need to reformulate our answers. This can
be made not only on a communal basis but
on an individual basis. But what I want to
stress is the communal basis. Whatever we
decide as individuals will have no response
Fez, Morocco: an informal settlement from the masses.
Photo: H-U Khan!Aga Khan Awards There is a crisis of misunderstanding

among the Islamic communities them-
selves. Although I am invited here by His
Highness the Aga Khan, I am ashamed
Does this mean that the traditional Islamic concern with privacy. There is consider- that I do not know anything about
able colour and decoration. Commercial Ismailis. I only know the historical ac-
urban form does not belong to the con-
temporary age, and that we have to look activities are often scant and public build- counts. I think it is the same for every-
to Western models for new urban develop- ings nonexistent. However, there is always body here. We look at our communities
ment? The structure of informal settle- a religious building, a small mosque. and prescribe what is perceived by that
ments seems to invalidate such a position. T)le magnitude of the phenomenon pre- community as the general solution to the
Despite the often confusing visual aspect cludes that it easily be brushed aside. Islamic 'umma as a whole. In that sense
of an aggregational structure at various Municipalities cannot disregard these areas the encouragement of visual understanding
stages of completion and using an array of because they are in some way or another between Islamic communities is the under-
different materials, the informal settle- in violation with existing codes and regula- lying factor of having universal symbols or
ments have retained and adapted the ele- tions. Nor can planners and architects signs among Muslims everywhere. Other-
ments of the traditional urban form. It is a afford to overlook them simply because wise it will mean an idealized symbol and
dynamic environment; irregular shapes they lack quality. This is not to advocate an idealized sign.
characterize growth by accretion. Yet it the proliferation of informal settlements, Now we face the problem of interpreting
struggles to incorporate access for the but merely to suggest that neither a fasci- the teachings of our religion. Each com-
automobile. One invariably finds one or nation with high technology nor an emo- munity attends to that problem in its own
two access points or, where the auto- tional attachment to functionally obsolete way. For example, the people of Tunisia
mobile is more widely used, one or two forms will produce urban environments try to solve overpopulation by allowing in
straight, wide streets. There is a balance that meet the needs of people in Islamic their laws the possibility of a woman
between density and human scale. There is countries today. The informal settlements having an abortion with the consent of her
the identification of close-knit social units. provide a clear signal of the perceptions husband. It differs from the Western idea
One can sense the importance of small and needs of a segment of the urban popu- of abortion, but an effort is made to pre-
streets, informal spaces and an overriding lation that is growing at an accelerating serve the unity of the family in that way.
97 Comments
The countless efforts by different com- those buildings and settlements by their In this way the Jury will also be freed
munities to find a way to integrate their capacity to enable men and women to from the transitory loss of style and the
religion have to be given priority. I do not realize the purposes for which God has disorientation that we have seen in some
know how to concretize these notions into created them and to realize the eminence buildings. The Jury will thus open itself to
criteria for giving an Award. But if the of the sacred in human life. With this new forms which express Muslims' reli-
Award is devoid of attention to those perspective the Jury will be free from the gious responses to new situations, new
kinds of activities, I think it will be temporal and cultural bounds of so much tasks and new challenges. Above all,
worthless. of what goes under the name of Islamic Muslims must respond to the challenge of
structure, Islamic ritual and Islamic sym- science and technology which have become
bols. These are really transitory. They are almost autonomous engines of social
products of the vagaries of history and are change beyond the control of man.
Soedjatmoko bound to change under the impact of Muslims will have to learn to domesticate
modern technology and electronic com- science and technology, not in their own
The discussions which we have had in the munications. Change will affect what Prof. terms, but in terms of the moral and social
past three days were very rich, and I, and Grabar identified as an extremely impor- purposes that are connected with God's
I am sure others too, have wracked our tant element in the Islamic life, its creation of man. Then the Award will
brains in order to define what we should interiority. We will have to redefine in become a modest but important means to
charge the Award Jury to do. But maybe new terms the essence of that interiority as stimulate creative use of space and form in
as Muslims we should have consulted not it is regained through the impact of this eternal quest inherent in the spirit of
only our brains but also our souls. Then modern communications. Islam.
we would have been reminded that a
building, either singly or together with
others, not only makes a statement about
its purposes and uses, but is also an
"enabling structure" that makes it possible
for the human being to be and to do what
he is supposed to do naturally. A building
or a set of buildings is in the spirit of
Islam not by virtue of its form or the
expressiveness of its symbols, but to the
extent to which it enables men and women
to live in the community of the 'umma by
the values and the standards of Islam, and
to realize the purposes for which God has
created him or her.
Why did God create man? It says in the
Koran that He created man so that man
could worship Him with knowledge.
Therefore man gathers the knowledge of
nature and of other cultures that will make
him a worthy viceroy to God. Man seeks
to gather the means, the wherewithal, the
health and the instrumentalities of the
mind to live the righteous life in dignity,
and to help him in the quest for a just
society.
Certainly the seminars should charge the
Jury to judge the buildings and settlements
brought to its attention by the beauty they
express, the beauty that is God's, and by
Isfahan, Iran: detail of inscription in the Sheikh Lutja/liih mosque
the harmony of their geometric designs
and the variety of criteria that have been Photo: R. Holod
mentioned here. But it should also judge
Comments 98
Grabar Ardalan town and brings it into the world of form,

one is really dealing with the fact that the
I think that we have talked about a very I will begin with the first set of mandates need for shadow exists. It is an ecological
large number of things. One broad theme that were clearly put before us. Prof. tool that we can use in our design any-
which seems to have emerged is, first of Arkoun has stated that a dialogue within where. It does not have to relate only to
all, that visual forms, signs and symbols the individual must exist, and that this is Fez.
are part of a much more complicated set of the fundamental way to deal with Islamic I wish to add some thoughts to what Prof.
values, symbols and signs. The auditory architecture and Islamic society. He also Burckhardt has said about integration.
and the connective movements within the observed, however, that we are frag- How is the dependence of the part to the
city were mentioned, but I think there are mented. A dilemma exists in that this whole, or its independence, manifested in
also many others. There are clothing, food fragmentation produces its own natural style? Courtyard houses display indepen-
and even smells. We are talking about a result in further fragmentation. dence, but then the idea of int~gration is
large range of visual perceptions con- Prof. Grabar has presented ideas about also shown by the fact that the courtyard
nected with associations which form the the past. This is the role of the historian. house backs up next to other units. The
fabric of an Islamic place. But we have The only way I can justify the arrogance idea of integration is an inherent element.
concentrated on the visual because of the of my making any comment today is that I What we seek to know is which ideas and
objectives of the Award. happen to be an architect. My mandate is forms are most resilient? Which ones
The second theme which is definitely part to deal with the future. I have to build, representative of an Islamic place and cul-
of our concern is the endless variation that and when you build you have to be very ture can continue to survive? If it is
exists. There is a danger, perhaps, in specific. It's going to be that tile, that possible for us to analyze carefully our
seeing everything as being only of itself particular colour, and if you put any other self-perception, we may be able to get
and having no value for anything else. But colour next to it the effect will be jarring. over the great hindering notion that we
the importance of variation lies to my The aesthetic appreciation of that wall will are only living in the past.
mind in something else. Variations of be reduced to something less than aes-
region, time and space are fairly obvious. thetic; it will range from good to bad. So
But I think we should also take into con- you are dealing from good to bad when
Arkoun
sideration the internal variations within you deal with the future.
the community itself. There is a Sunni
In this building process there is the addi- There is a dimension that has not been
world and a Shi'ite. In fact, there are tional condition that Mr. Soedjatmoko
several Sunni worlds. Sometimes they are sufficiently treated in our discussions, but
gave us, the divine perspective which says which I believe is very important-the
in different places; sometimes they are in that man is the viceroy of God on this
the same place. One thing which is very political dimension. We talk "as if"-and
earth. Therefore we are dealing with a this "as if'' is very unwieldy-"as if" men
clear is that there is a symbolic synthesis
very concrete notion of man as a preserver in society can freely determine their tastes.
of the house, the quarter and the city. of the ecological balance of the world. At
Perhaps it is more difficult to identify the I am not talking about their economic or
the same time there is the complement that social relations but about aesthetics. The
physical form of that symbol. It may not
he is the servant, so he is submissive. But aesthetic we deal with depends strictly
even be in some physical shape that one
I will only address at this time the dimen- upon the leading models of a controlling
recognizes, but in another aspect. sion of vice-regency because man has to group.
Lastly, we developed some general ideas make active decisions about ecological
which are associated with the symbolic If we analyze the Master Plan, we can get
conditions. We can take the concept of
systems at whatever level of complexity ecology and put it into three categories a clear idea of this political reality. I am
one chooses. There is the notion of not talking about the political regime; I
which Prof. Grabar has enunciated. These
interiority with its association of privacy. am talking about concrete political mech-
are idea, form and style. Ecological adap-
There is centrality. There is a rather more anisms which determine the real behaviour
tion to the environment is the simplest,
complicated phenomenon of geometry of men. We were told that land specula-
perhaps lowest beginning of the world of
and, specifically, the geometry of the ideas. At the opposite end this means tion is a decisive factor with regard to the
house in its relationship to the street. destiny of the madina of Fez. We talk "as
style, which may help us to integrate our
These are the symmetrical/asymmetrical if" this aspect did not exist, when it is, in
response to Fez or any of the communities
relationships mentioned by Prof. Kuran. fact, a decisive factor not only for Fez, but
that we come from. We walked through
Finally, there is a relationship to the for all Muslim societies today.
the little pathways of the suq here and it
environment and a perception of space was shaded. Now is this only a particular In Muslim history ideological pressure has
and the way in which one uses space as it condition of Fez, or is there a general not always been obvious, but it has of
exists. lesson? If one takes this small, winding course existed and continues to exist with
99 Comments
the same totality in Muslim societies neers practice their profession or trade changes upon them in their modes of
today. I have previously mentioned the with a great deal of insensitivity. They operation and development. In the end
Mzab community in Algeria and the usually sit somewhere in the capital, and these changes will break up the structural
Berbers here in Morocco. Their power of they draw a prototype which is then coalition which has become associated with
creation has been more or less preserved applied everywhere. There is not neces- the process of development.
because the ruling class has never been sarily a conscious decision to alienate a My concern is not with the continued
able to impose, in spite of its wish, its specific village from its identity. I think it duration of oppression. My concern is with
models on the entire country. A month is simply an expedient decision. There is the lack of preparedness of the creative
ago I was in Tamanrasset in the Hoggar in therefore the need for architects and the minds of the world. It is here, I think, that
the heart of the Sahara. The Tuaregs there international collectivity of individuals of this Award is so important. It should
are extremely fascinating. They have their this type to call to the attention of the stimulate the experiments that are now
own architecture and sense of aesthetics. practitioners other ways of solving the going on in the world at the grass-roots
A socialist village was created in the problems that they face. Perhaps they can level. I am talking about communities and
Hoggar which looks like others elsewhere make them more aware of what is happen- urban renewal in the United States just as
in Algeria, and that causes great ing elsewhere. much as I am talking about efforts at rural
problems. Its construction is tied to a I was struck by the fact that when Mr. development through the revitalization of
construction policy for the entire country. Islam and I had a discussion yester- religious awareness in various parts of
Of course, what I have said for Algeria is day evening, the common symbols to Asia. The problem is that the thinkers, the
applicable to the totality of societies. It which we could most easily relate in terms intellectuals living in the urban settle-
comes into play as an absolutely decisive of architecture were all examples of con- ments, are not in touch with what may be
dimension because it creates constraints temporary Western architecture. All we the most profoundly effective sources of
which are stronger than ecological con- had to do was to mention the Seagram social change. The urgency of poverty will
straints. Ecological constraints inspire Building and we knew exactly what we force upon us new modes of industriali-
creativity, while political constraints elimi- were talking about. I doubt that we could zation which are not Western or Soviet or
nate creativity. have a similar conversation talking about Japanese. How we will modernize, we do
contemporary architecture in the Muslim not know. But the search is on because
As regards the collective memory men- countries simply because we don't know there is no other way. Different solutions
tioned by Prof. Grabar, this memory enough about it. He probably knows a cer- will use technology to resolve the local
indeed has an architectural support as well tain configuration of it, I know another, problems of poverty and to help break up
as a support in urban space. However, an but there is no shared knowledge. the social structure that keeps people in
educational system determined by the exploitation and dependency. These will
central authority undermines it. Users of The dominance of Western motifs and
call not for the increased centralization of
the madina, whether in Fez or Tehran, models is also reflected in architects' work
power, but for a decentralization and
become marginalized, cut off from their in the various bureaus that design for
greater participation. These are the pro-
historical self and their historical identity. governments on a large scale. I am not
denying the importance of what Prof. cesses around the corner. My great fear is
You can put them in a magnificent palace, that we, the intellectuals, are too late and
but this palace will deteriorate because Arkoun says. I would just like to mention
that even in accepting the reality of large- too slow in preparing ourselves for the
the people will not adhere to certain answers by which history will judge us.
constraints. scale intervention to bring about change,
there is room to introduce alternative
models by which this change could be
brought about. Mahdi
I. Serageldin
I shall probably be expressing not only my
First of all I would like to consider what own feelings but those of most of us in
Prof. Arkoun has said, because he touches Soedjatmoko saying that this seminar has been very
upon economic concerns that I expressed hard on our hearts. We have been alter-
earlier-that currents of national develop- We have reached the point where the nately depressed by the prognosis of
ment are undertaken by the willful inter- power of the technocrats, the power of the decline and destruction and elated by the
vention oj decision makers on a large ideologists, has become bankrupt. The hopes of the future and by the memory of
scale. There is, however, a lot of room for incapacity of the modern bureaucracies, the past. I really do not know what we can
the intervention by what can be called powerful as they are, to resolve the prob- do about either, or what to recommend
pacemakers in society. When governments lem of poverty, to reach the poorer com- that the whole group could take into
decide to build, the architects and engi- munities they want to reach, forces account. For instance, can' one tell the
Comments 100
people who will make the Award that you

should think very seriously about the fact
that, let us say, the five percent success of
individual X in one country is greater than
the ninety-five percent success of Yin
another?
X may have had to deal with difficult
political problems. I do not know if, in
fact, that could be taken into account. The
man who succeeded only five percent in a
very difficult situation has the right to
come back and say, "Listen, you don't
know what I have to go through to pro-
duce this five percent." That is really a
problem. I think that we are somehow
hoping against hope. The possibilities
present themselves that there is a new
world being formed, but we are not really
going to bring it into being.
Correa
I was going to remark that I thought

the comments of Prof. Arkoun and Mr.
Soedjatmoko, far from putting our discus-
sions out of focus, gave a very necessary
dimension to our understanding of the
madina. It seems clear to me that the
phenomenon of the city which we saw
yesterday and its symbols and signs are
not just the outcome of a religious system,
but rather a sociopolitical system. It is im-
possible to talk about preserving old things
or building in a prescribed manner. Ulti-
mately, it is not an architect's decision
but the whole social pattern that produces
a certain kind of solution. We can offer
some input into the situation. This is what I
think they are saying, but it is also evident
that the aspirations of Muslims throughout
the world have changed. I suspect that the
symbols upon which we all agree may be
the accidental interaction of many factors.
And I would not be so pessimistic. New
symbols are already in the stage of Peshawar, Pakistan: a street scene
formation.
101 Concluding Remarks
His Highness the Aga Khan
I would like to begin by thanking all the environment, not for understanding the
guests of the seminar for their being here past, but for aiding the generations which
in Fez and contributing to the develop- will live in these buildings of the future.
ment of the Award procedures. When I Without any doubt whatsoever, they are
walked through the madina yesterday, I different from previous generations. All
sensed the presence of the aged and the one needs to consider is the interiority to
very young. I saw neither the students nor which Prof. Burckhardt referred. The
the people a little older than students nature of the family unit is in the process
which I am accustomed to seeing in other of changing. I am not convinced that that
densely populated Islamic cities. That is is desired by the youth in the Islamic
what I observed, and it may well be an world today. Legislation in many countries
incorrect observation. But I asked myself will simply not permit us to build wall to
whether, in fact, the madina of Fez is wall. There is a very specific restriction
squeezing this generation out of the city. against it.
As Prof. Grabar and others have pointed I think we have all benefited from your
out, this generation is an absolutely critical views on symbols and signs. I certainly
force in the destiny of the Islamic world. understand them infinitely better now than
The situation in Iran, I think, shows the at the first seminar at Aiglemont. On the
power of this generation in shaping the other hand, I think that a great deal still
destinies of Islamic countries. needs to be done to permit new symbols
This seminar has been extremely helpful in and signs in the architecture of the future.
providing the Steering Committee and Let me conclude by saying how much I
therefore me with an understanding of the think your participation has helped us to
symbols of the city. I am not sure any one find proper criteria for the Award.
of us has a full understanding of what will
be the symbols and the signs of the future
generations that will lead the Islamic
world. Mr. Soedjatmoko spoke of an
enabling environment; I think this is quite
correct. We are living through a time of
passive disabling and must now seek to
reverse that trend. My suspicion is that
that will be done by the generation to
which I have just referred, which today
comprises more than fifty percent of the
world's Muslims.
I hope that the Jury, having obtained from
this seminar information about past
symbols and signs, will have the wisdom
not to restrict the future environment to
those symbols and signs. We have to
accept that they will, and should, change.
But our objective is to enable society to
live within the context which we have been
discussing.
I have studied history, but I am also
involved in building for the future. There-
fore, one part of me is on the historian's
side, and the other on that of the
architect. And somewhere between the
two there should lie a solution which will
enable us to develop an appropriate
102
Resume
Oleg Grabar set the tenor of the seminar acceptance of visually perceived symbols. invested with religious symbolism, the
by asking at the outset whether an Islamic Grabar ventured that traditional Islamic rapid submission to Western architectural
system of visually perceptible symbols and culture may, in fact, identify itself forms would not have occurred.
signs exists. Presuming that it does, how through means other than visual forms Kuban further challenged Grabar's propo-
universally Islamic is it, and what are its such as the sounds of the city. Although sition that Islamic symbolism is found in
variants and sources? How are signs and written sources are essentially synchronic, decoration. He stressed that in Turkey the
symbols transmitted into building forms? a diachronic analysis could be of great Latin script is employed, and elsewhere in
Lastly, he inquired into the validity of importance in identifying consistent cul- the Islamic world Arabic script is used for
experience and the memory of the. past for tural trends. secular purposes. Alluding to the popular
the future. Lastly, Grabar suggested an examination acceptance of Western forms and the
Grabar labeled the existing literature on of the monuments themselves and offered accompanying symbolism of technology,
the subject of Islamic architectural sym- four propositions. First, the symbolic Kuban observed that rapid changes in the
bolism inadequate. The few studies which meaning intended for any of the great Islamic world will furnish new symbols. In
deal formally with symbols and signs in Islamic monuments at their creation may light of changes in perception he labeled
Islamic culture neglect to treat architec- have been modified with time. Second, as obsolete a historical perspective that
ture. Various authors have written upon these meanings may be restricted by looks longingly to the great monuments of
the symbolism of Islamic and especially specific cultural and historical conditions. the past or excessively cherishes domes,
Iranian mysticism, but these works, in Third, there are few architectural forms arches and courtyards. He urged seminar
Grabar's opinion, lack scientific precision. which consistently indicate the presence participants to discuss symbolism in the
of Islam. Fourth, decoration in its context of appropriate spatial and tem-
Grabar summed up three of R. Etting-
widest sense provides the means by which poral limits.
hausen's working hypotheses on the sub-
ject in the following manner. First, certain signs and symbols are to be properly In a preface to his slide presentation
"basic" religious or secular symbols which understood. Nader Ardalan stressed that the mandate
predate Islam have been retained in In an afterword Grabar appended five of Islamic architecture, apart from ful-
Islamic art. Second, calligraphy indicates pairs of juxtaposed concepts for considera- filling necessary functional requirements,
how monuments with an otherwise low tion. These include the notion of syn- is to exhibit a sense of beauty. He
symbolic charge are to be interpreted. chronic versus diachronic semiotic systems, proceeded to describe Islamic architecture
Third, the low symbolic charge of Islamic form and archetype, symbol and function, in terms of a visual language possessing
monuments has made it possible for the symbol and style, and the respective both vocabulary and grammar. The vocab-
temples of other faiths to be converted roles of visual and auditory modes of ulary exists in certain persisting or generic
into mosques. According to Grabar, Islam perception. forms while the grammar relates to various
inherited many symbolically rich cultural Addressing the issues raised by Grabar, systems of organizing these parts in a
tradtions but could preserve only those Dogan Kuban in his paper questioned the coherent whole.
symbols which were not religiously existence of universally valid symbolic Before introducing an inventory of over
charged. In order to avoid the temptations systems. Upon examining the function of one hundred prominent mosques through-
of idolatry, it stifled the growth of its own the minaret, he concluded that "universal" out the Islamic world, Ardalan briefly
visual system. Islamic architectural forms cannot exist surveyed the transformations which took
Grabar suggested three methodological without some degree of ambiquity. In so place when pre-Islamic edifices were
approaches to the problem of Islamic doing he attempted to differentiate be- converted to mosques. His examples
symbolism. A theoretical approach, in tween religious and cultural attitudes. included the Haram al-Sharlf in Mecca,
applying recent advances in semiology, Although religious traditions define acts, the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul, the Qu!b
provides semantic distinctions between they do not define the forms and spaces in Minar in Delhi, the congregational mosque
symbol, sign and image. which these acts take place. The forms and in Damascus and the Sasanian chahiir tiiq
A second approach is to survey Islamic spaces are themselves neutral. plan prevalent in Fars province, Iran. As
written sources (e.g., classical historio- In contrast to Grabar's concern for the an example of a reverse transformation
graphic and geographic texts) and to validity of experience and the usefulness from a Muslim to a non-Muslim building,
analyze the symbolic passages contained in of past memories for the future, Kuban he cited the Cordoba mosque.
the Koran and the Hadith. He cautioned, emphasized the role of contemporary The eight generic forms included in Ar-
however, that the written sources rarely usage. He suggested that formal sym- dalan's inventory are the minaret, the
give explicit mention to visual forms. bolism in Muslim culture operates on a plinth, the gateway, the courtyard,
Except for the Arabic alphabet, there is level below that of religious significance. the place of ablution, the portico,
no consistent and reasonably pan-Islamic Had Islamic architecture been heavily the mil]riib and the dome or sacred place
103 Resume
within which the mi]Jriib is located. The especially those which are not clearly Koranic inscriptions, even if never read by
plan or typology of each of the mosques visible or easily read. In reply, Grabar the general populace, still retain a sacred
was also identified and the findings were likened the role of the inscription to quality.
summarized according to geographic zone. that of a vector which indicates the In answer to a query by Ismail Serageldin
In his conclusion Ardalan recommended direction by which the monument should concerning the symbolic function of struc-
that all major Islamic monuments be be understood. tures other than the mosque, Nader
systematically surveyed in order to acquire Najm'oud-Dine Bammate related his Ardalan discussed the role played by
a more complete understanding of Islamic pesonal reaction to recent changes in the inscriptions over gateways. Arkoun em-
architectural forms. Haram al-Sharif in Mecca. He voiced phasized the role of the individual in
In opposition to critics who stress the agreement with Dogan Kuban that func- bestowing symbolism on a sign. Burck-
regional character of Islamic art, Titus tion rather than form confers symbolic hardt illustrated this concept with the
Burckhardt reiterated the existence of meaning to an object or place. example of a circle whose form can imply
certain essential, unifying principles. Chief According to Grabar, the essential ques- unity, totality and time.
among these is the rejection of anthropo- tion in the discussion of symbolism is one Mahdi suggested that the concern for
morphic imagery in the liturgical realm. of identifying the internal vocabulary symbolism in Islamic art and architecture
He discussed briefly the differences be- which the Muslim world uses to under- is a product of nineteenth-century
tween Christian and Islamic liturgical art. stand its own environment. He described European romanticism. He questioned the
The latter is nonfigurative and, in general, his difficulty in understanding the role of efficacy of a rational discussion of non-
is comprised of an entire architectural the mi]Jriib. Although the mi]Jriib indicates rational things and proposed that the
environment. He stressed that Islamic direction, it is not closely identified with legitimacy of an Islamic architectural sym-
symbolism always refers to the funda- the act of prayer. bol depends ultimately on whether or not
mental ideal of divine unity and that the builder sought to express man's love
Grabar also stressed Mecca's uniqueness
aniconism is one repercussion of the for God.
as an unreproducible symbol and therefore
objective character of Islam. Among the
not a valid architectural model for other In a paper delivered later in the seminar
symbols of unity, Burckhardt identified
mosques. He noted a lessening of com- on the relationship between Islamic phi-
light as the most profound.
munal functions formerly associated with losophy and the fine arts, Mahdi asserted
Burckhardt also stressed the interior com- the mosque. the need to guard against ethnically and
plexity of a symbol in contrast to ex- William Porter reiterated several questions racially biased views. He labeled any
teriorily attached meanings. He cautioned which had been raised concerning the attempt to look at Islamic culture through
against an overly rationalistic definition of nature and function of symbolic forms. He Christian eyes-even for the purpose of
the symbol. Concerning the auditory expressed concern that an analysis of finding specific Islamic symbols by which
aspect of Islamic symbolism, he suggested symbolism may in itself be alien to Islamic to distinguish Islamic culture from other
that the circle inscribed by the voice of the thought. Concerning Koranic inscriptions cultures--a dubious enterprise. Also
muezzin calling from the minaret consti- he suggested that they operate alternately problematic in nature is the attempt to
tutes the minimal Islamic community in an as signs, forms and symbols, and that distinguish between "fine arts" and
urban context. visual symbols exist on a diachronic as "crafts" in an Islamic context. Although
Andre Raymond suggested that the well as synchronic level. He concluded by Islamic philosophy does not deal exten-
mi]Jriib is a more universally encountered introducing the notion of appropriateness. sively with visual phenomena, its main
Islamic form than the minaret. He main- The architect's concern for form is dom- concern is to account for harmony and or-
tained that a functionalist approach was inated by questions concerning the manner der as they exist and to offer guidance for
the only means of overcoming theoretical in which the various elements effectively their restoration in man and the city. The
difficulties. combine with one another. approach of the Islamic philosopher in
contemplating the whole-to-part relation-
Mohammed Arkoun suggested that Islamic Kuban criticized a recent reinterpretation ship of God's creation thus shows an
attitudes toward symbolism divide along of the Taj Mahal to which Porter had affinity to that of the artisan in conceiving
Sunni and Shi'ite lines. Muhsin Mahdi alluded. Emphasizing the relevance of a his work.
disagreed, pointing out that Sufism was popular understanding of architectural
originally the domain of Sunnism and that symbolism, he averred that the symbolic After discussing the manner in which the
the dichotomy between rationalist and significance of Koranic inscriptions had philosophic conception of God as creator
symbolic interpretations has existed within been exaggerated. Grabar disagreed on influences human creation, Mahdi raised
the Islamic community as a whole. Mahdi the grounds that literacy had been high in questions concerning the impact of the
also questioned Grabar's definition of the the Muslim world prior to the eighteenth work of art on the human soul. The arts
symbolic function of Koranic inscriptions, century. Burckhardt suggested that which Islamic philosophy treats at some
Resume 104
length are the arts of language: poetry and gerian was disrupted when he tried to rab' during the Ottoman period. He also
rhetoric. These in turn tend to be judged occupy the physical space vacated by the examined the socioeconomic conditions of
according to their moral instructiveness. European. its inhabitants. The rab' of the Ottoman
Accordingly, the aesthetic critical theory period was a multistory structure with
Arkoun emphasized a pragmatic approach
provided by Islamic philosophy can best be vertically arranged apartments located in
to urbanization and housing. Such an
characterized as "pragmatic." areas of high commercial activity. A
approach would reflect current social
prominent feature of each apartment was
In his conclusion Mahdi averred that the needs and developments rather than seek
the riwiiq, a two-story reception room.
search for specific symbolic functions of to preserve a possibly false historical
Contemporary sources such as waqf
architectural forms is bound to reach an continuity. He appealed for a political
records identify rab' inhabitants as middle
impasse. He suggested that a work of art philosophy that would take up the philo-
class merchants and artisans and their
be considered as something that performs sophic issues of the past-in particular, the
families. As rab's housed between five and
a multiplicity of functions. Its success relationship between the divine, trans-
ten percent of Cairo's population at the
beyond the utilitarian level depends in cendant authority of the Koran and the
end of the eighteenth century, they played
part on the judgment and taste of the human powers which seek legitimacy by
an important role in the urban organiza-
onlooker. Finally, limits to the under- referring to that authority.
tion of that city. The existence of the rab'
standing of the spirit of a great religious In conclusion, Arkoun related the distinc- challenges a prevalent notion that the
public building may arise if one does not tion between sign and symbol as indicative "traditional" Islamic house is exclusively
participate in the faith of the builders. of two directions continually manifested in an introverted courtyard house situated at
Following Mahdi's remarks, Arkoun sug- Islamic life and in the relation of the the end of a cul-de-sac. In terms of
gested that the architect acts as a mediator Muslim to the Koran. The first direction various technical features, the rab' offers
between philosophic ideas and their physi- considers the Koranic verse as a literal solutions to several problems which plague
cal projection in the construction of the linguistic expression. In the second, the contemporary low-income multistory
city. He suggested a parallel between the verse functions as a system of significa- housing. Among these problems Raymond
role of philosophy in Greek architecture tions that materializes in the individual cited the "diastrous uniformity" of interior
and its role in Islamic architecture. and collective experience of the Muslim spaces and volumes.
community.
In reply, Mahdi labeled the Greek city a In the discussion which followed, Mona
product of prephilosophic ideas which Raymond commented on the mediation of Serageldin observed that contemporary
existed in Greek culture and not neces- religious ideas in the organization of urban housing units in Cairo often duplicate the
sarily the product of Greek philosophy. space. He suggested that the central role rab' structure in terms of space. Grabar
He alluded to a historic tension between of mediator was performed by the qiiqf and Raymond discussed the issue of the
philosophers and the societies in which who made judicial decisions concerning wakiila as an investment and whether the
they live. daily life in Muslim cities. Arkoun re- inhabitants of a rab' functioned as a co-
sponded by distinguishing between the hesive social unit. Hassan Fathy elaborated
Ismail Serageldin observed that philo-
transcendent role of the mosque and the upon the qii'a or riwiiq as a transposition
sophy, defined broadly as contemporary
political mediation of the law. of the introverted courtyard house.
thought, is what gives a society its sense of
identity. Modernizing influences have led Wahid expressed the opinion that several In her paper Hildred Geertz offered an
to a shaken sense of identity in Muslim kinds of mediation can occur within one anthropological approach as a means of
countries. As a preliminary to the estab- building. He cited as an example the determining the way in which ordinary
lishment of criteria for contemporary pesantren, an Indonesian Muslim institu- people impose or derive "meaningful
architecture, the concepts that govern tion which adapted certain symbols from statements" from their built environment.
society must be defined. Mahdi reiterated the indigenous pre-Islamic culture. She alluded to a number of methodo-
the need for open discussion and increased logical obstacles. One is that the informa-
dissemination of Islamic thought. Mahdi expressed qualms concerning tion sought by the researcher is often
Arkoun's distinction between social and non,-verbalizable and fragmented. Also,
In his presentation Arkoun defined urban- transcendent realities. He suggested that
ism and the physical built environment as any object is open to a multiplicity of
Arkoun's description of the issues as interpretations. In conducting interviews
the mediation between ideal and concrete problematic was in itself a presupposition.
manifestations of human existence. The with research subjects Geertz recom-
Arkoun replied that an analytic separa- mended an indirect approach that allows
Islamic faith operates in two realms: the tion does not imply the existence of an
metaphysical and the sociohistorical. As a the possibility of non-verbal expression.
opposition. She elaborated with examples from her
concrete example Arkoun cited circum-
stances following Algerian independence. In his paper Raymond discussed the loca- own field research in Sefrou, Morocco, in
There the semiotic universe of the AI- tion and physical structure of the Cairo which she asked various people to draw
105 Resume
maps of the town. She also offered an in- desert oasis architecture is an "act of the madina which will counterbalance the
terpretation of a song which specifically colonialism". He reminded the seminar city's historic drift toward the south and
deals with the geography of Sefrou. Geertz participants that most of the world's west and reestablish the madina's geo-
concluded by suggesting techniques appli- Muslims live in rural areas with a hot, graphic centrality. Problems in imple-
cable to the premiation process of the Aga moist climate. mentation of this proposal arise from
Khan Award. Ismail Serageldin raised a variety of issues speculative housing and informal settle-
Following Geertz's presentation, Wahid related to the widespread population ments which have placed pressure on the
queried the anthropologist concerning the movement from rural to urban areas. He areas of Ai:n Kadus and Fez Djedid.
application of her approach to Javanese asked to what extent formal intervention is In the discussion which followed the tour,
towns. Geertz explained the rectilinear required to give shape and direction to an Jean-Paul Ichter, a co-author of the Fez
Javanese town plan in terms of a micro- urban built environment. He noted that Master Plan, described the restoration of
cosmic representation of the world at Western experience has shown the diffi- the madina as primarily a question of
large. culty of maintaining continuity and that mental attitude and the will to succeed.
Mahdi discussed the mediation between Western architects consciously broke with According to Kuban, the Islamic quality
God and the Muslim as performed by the the past in an attempt to create an of the old city lies in its asymmetrical
saint. In alluding to the importance of the environment more responsive to contem- exterior and contrasting symmetrical in-
shrine or saint's tomb in the Muslim porary needs. He concluded by expressing teriors. Rather than extensions on either
world, he labeled historical memory "an his support for the anthropological side as a solution to overcongestion and
integral part of being a Muslim." Geertz method described by Geertz as one problems of land use, Fathy proposed a
reiterated the crucial role which the shrine means of discovering how to make the more linear centre extending through the
plays in the mental topography of ordinary built environment more adaptive to the entire city of Fez. Grabar felt that a linear
people. needs of its inhabitants. Geertz responded centre already exists as dictated by the
by saying that from an anthropologist's physical contraints of the geographic loca-
Grabar related the question of saints' pespective continuity is unavoidable.
tombs to a point expressed earlier by tion. Labeling Fez a "masterpiece," Hugh
Arkoun concerning the depersonalization On the third day of the seminar, a tour of Casson considered the organization of Fez
of new towns. In reality, a successful Fez was conducted, and architects and more satisfactory than the professional
urban polity grows out of an existing place planners affiliated with the Fez Master solutions designed by architects and
and is something not easily created. Plan made a presentation. Fez has fre- planners.
quently been regarded as a "model Islamic Soedjatmoko expressed pessimism con-
Fathy spoke of the symbolic function of
city." Founded in the ninth century, its cerning the permanent viability of the
the church campanile and the mosque
madina or walled city includes all the madina, while Correa, Kuban and Ismail
minaret as signifying an interstice between
elements of a unified religious-social- Serageldin considered the lessons which
earth and sky. Recent social and political
commercial public realm: the mosque, the Fez has to offer concerning human inter-
changes in the Muslim world may make it
madrasa and the market. In the private actions. Fathy pointed to the courtyard
difficult to ascribe to forms the same
domain houses are consistently built house as an ecologically suitable design.
symbolic significance which they might
around multi-use courtyards with Grabar discussed the character of the
have had previously. He remarked that
entrances secluded from main streets. quarters and the separation of residential
certain aspects of every culture are inter-
changeable and stressed that technology Other areas of Fez include Fez Djedid, and commercial districts. Lastly, El
must be pertinent to the particular econ- originally built as the palace quarter and Hajjami characterized the Fez madina as
omy in which it is employed. He noted the first of many semi-autonomous addi- constituting a way of life. He expressed
that although the Koran and the Hadith tions. Dar Debibagh is the French colonial the need for planning to consider a
do not give technical advice, they do city of the early twentieth century. Ain changing social identity.
offer guidance as far, as providing a Kadus, designed by French planner Michel In the course of the seminar various
~
human reference for· t~n planning and Ecochard m 1950, represents a'fi attempt to participants remarked upon the regional
architecture. combine orthodox modern ideas of density character of Islamic symbolism. Kuban
and circulation with neo-traditional forms. voiced this opinion by giving religious
Charles Correa elaborated upon Fathy's
remark that symbols are an architectural The Master Plan, completed in 1978, was symbolism a narrow definition. In his
response to the environment. He discussed described by Najib Laraichi of the Moroc- view, universal Islamic forms, if they exist
architectural pluralism as exemplified in can Ministry of Housing and Urban Plan- at all, are necessarily ambiguous in mean-
such syntheses as Fatehpur Sikri and towns ning as consisting of separate survey and ing. To maintain the continuity of
in Yemen. In his opinion the categorizing planning phases. The major physical inter- traditional forms, the symbolic force
of Islamic architecture on the basis of vention proposed is a new quarter east of of Western technological forms will
Resume 106
have to be countered, although Kuban opinion the only criteria to be considered cussed the implication of these sources
distinguished this from a rejection of is that of architectural quality. for contemporary mosque architects in
technology. Indonesia.
Aptullah Kuran pointed to an apparent
Fathy observed that pragmatic considera- contradiction in Turkish architectural pref- In a brief essay Wahid discussed the rise
tions of climate have played a key role in erences. Since the 1920s architecture there of Pan-Islamism and Islamic militancy in
the development of Islamic architectural has been larg~ly modern. Only mosque various countries of Southeast Asia. He
symbolism. He used as an example the design has remained constant since the foresaw in this trend a dangerous harden-
inward orientation of the traditional sixteenth century. ing of relations between Muslim and other
Mediterranean house. Until the recent groups, in particular, Christian. He con-
Regarding popular preferences Geertz re-
intrusion of foreign cultural elements, the cluded by calling on the traditional seg-
lated an anecdote concerning an American
Muslim interacted directly with his en- ment of the Islamic community to take a
style church built by Mexican villagers.
vironment. Lastly, Fathy maintained that more assertive role in encouraging Muslim
Although the church inhibited religious
any architectural form which is not true to participation in the mainstream of the
practices, it was nevertheless a source of
its environment runs counter to Islam. He region's cultural and socioeconomic life.
pride to its builders.
noted that in the past sacred architecture In the final session of the seminar partici-
validated the secular and he called for Raymond and Arkoun briefly discussed
the question of popular taste versus the pants were asked to make brief summary
a return to an architecture based on remarks and suggest criteria for the Aga
the harmonious accommodation of the imposed taste of an elite. Burckhardt
Khan Award. Kuran opened the discussion
environment. noted the pretentiousness of many exam-
ples of contemporary mosque architecture. with the opinion that symbolism or its
Islam reiterated the difficulty of identify- reflection in visual terms may not be as
This contrasts with the absence of the
ing universal forms that make a building relevant today as it once was in the past.
individual architect's presence in Muslim
"Islamic." He suggested that the various buildings of the past. He observed that Muslim cities possess a
Islamic communities of the world be characteristic sense of geometry and sym-
looked at in a comprehensive manner and In a paper included in this Proceedings metry. In contrast to Roman architecture,
in their contemporary context. He rejected and delivered at the third Aga Khan Islam inspired a search for order and
the notion that introversion is an inherent Award seminar, Ahmad Sadali cited stylis- harmony without prescribing set rules. The
quality of Islamic architecture. tic diversity as the key feature of Indo- main task facing architects today is to
nesian Islamic architecture. He labeled as adapt old forms to modern society without
Soedjatmoko observed that the centre of obstacles to research the inadequacy of the sacrificing inherent qualities.
gravity in the Muslim world is shifting existing literature and the fragmented state
toward Africa and the Far East. Within of preservation of the monuments them- Arkoun deemed it imperative that the
the context of changing self-perceptions, selves. Aside from factors of an environ- confrontation with the historian of Islamic
the question of replicating existing archi- mental nature, Sadali listed three causes of thought be continued. He described
tectural forms is a relatively minor one. architectural diversity in the Islamic build- Islamic thought as an integrated multi-
He cited the stylistic range of contem- ings of Indonesia. First, Islam as trans- disciplinary field and encouraged architects
porary mosque architecture as evidence of mitted to the Indonesian archipelago had to adopt an historical perspective.
the present state of fragmentation in the already suffered the influence of other Burckhardt reiterated the main features of
Muslim world. beliefs. Second, the cultural products of Islamic architecture as being its interiority
Bammate noted that the majority of Indonesian converts to Islam continued to and centrality. He emphasized domestic
Muslims are presently under the age of reflect the influence of indigenous cultures architecture and said that this should be
twenty-five. He also observed that the and faiths. Third, Islam was propagated at independent of the public domain.
lack of calligraphy in many recently built a grass-roots level and enjoyed relatively As criteria for Islamic architecture Geertz
mosques constitutes a break with tradition. little official patronage. Indonesian archi- underscored several points including an
Moreover, the mosque has lost many of its tecture further suffered from a lack of imaginative sympathy.. for the lives of
earlier communal functions. He stressed creative expression owing to colonialism. everyday people and fidelity to the natural
that the mosque is an integral part of the Sadali pointed to three stylistic sources of environment. She expressed concern that
urban environment. Recently, there has Indonesian mosque architecture. Pre- the Aga Khan Award might engender
been a shift toward envisioning the Islamic sources appear in such features as imitation. She stressed that communication
mosque as a discrete structure. the stacked roof. Foreign Islamic sources should exist between the architectural elite
Kuban averred that to impose criteria for make their mark in the now ubiquitous and ordinary people.
modern Islamic architecture was contrary dome. The most recent influence is that of Islam alluded to a general feeling of
to Islam and ultimately impossible. In his contemporary Western styles. Sadali dis- excitement which seminar participants ex-
107 Resume
perienced in touring the Fez madina. He to solve their problems on a communal that national development is undertaken
discussed the way in which the old city basis. He observed a tendency among by the willful intervention of decision
resolved various organizational problems Muslims to prescribe for the entire Islamic makers on a large scale. He noted that
within its specific cultural context. He 'umma solutions employed by their indi- architects and engineers could practice
expressed doubts, however, that Fez offers vidual communities. their professions more responsibly and
specific lessons that are applicable in other Soedjatmoko defined an Islamic building display greater sensitivity than they
cultural contexts. or built environment as one which enables presently do. He cited a lack of discussion
Raymond reiterated a point stated earlier a person to live within the Islamic com- in the Muslim world concerning recent
by Soedjatmoko, Wahid, Correa and munity and to realize his or her fullest architectural developments.
others that the centre of gravity of the possibilities as a human being. He charged Soedjatmoko discussed social changes
Muslim world has shifted outside the Arab the Award Jury to maintain an open atti- likely to occur as a consequence of wide-
regions. He suggested that proportionally tude. He cautioned that what is tradition- spread poverty. He pointed to a bank-
more attention be given to architecture for ally understood as Islamic will change ruptcy of power among the technocrats
average and poor citizens than to monu- under the impact of technology and and the ideologists. He averred that the
mental buildings. He stated that further communications. solutions to poverty will require an in-
study on the historical, social, anthro- Grabar reviewed several themes which creased decentralization of authority and
pological and religious levels is required arose in the course of the seminar. He recommended that the Award stimulate
to eliminate a variety of obstructive work at the community level.
noted that visual symbols are part of a
stereotypes. broader semiotic system which forms the Mahdi characterized the seminar discus-
Ismail Serageldin outlined some of the re- fabric of an Islamic place, and that endless sions as wavering between optimism and
cent demographic and sociological changes variations occur on cultural, regional and pessimism. He recommended that the
which have taken place in contemporary temporal levels. He listed various general political obstacles which stand in the way
Islamic society. He cited an increased notions associated with an Islamic setting: of a particular architect be taken into
internationalization of life activities. More- interiority, privacy and the perception and consideration. Correa praised Arkoun and
over, the traditional modes of manufactur- use of space as characterized by a specific Soedjatmoko for adding a political
ing are being replaced by giant enter- geometry in the relationship of the house dimension to the seminar. Citing the Fez
prises, thus undermining the economic to the street. madina, he observed that signs and
foundation of the suq and the madina. Ardalan described several "mandates" for symbols are as much the products of a
Without suggesting specific criteria, he the future. The first was that each individ- sociopolitical system as of a religious
recommended that the Award recognize ual carry on his own internal dialogue in system.
persons who have attempted to address an attempt to overcome the fragmentation His Highness the Aga Khan reminded
the problems which he defined. experienced by the contemporary Muslim. seminar participants that the younger
Mona Serageldin expressed pessimism con- Unlike the historian concerned with the generation is an absolutely critical force in
cerning attempts aimed at the preservation past, Ardalan described the architect as the destiny of the Islamic world. He
of the Fez madina. She maintained that it deeply involved with the future. Lastly, reviewed changes in the Islamic world
is untenable to deny madina inhabitants an he expanded Burckhardt's remarks con- which are likely to result in the creation of
upgraded infrastructure in an attempt to cerning the balance between independent new signs and symbols and thanked the
preserve the city's medieval character. and integrated elements in the Islamic participants for contributing criteria for
She pointed to the informal settlements built environment. the Award.
which have arisen in various cities and Remarking that political questions were
described them as dynamic environments insufficiently covered in the course of the
giving priority to small streets and spaces. seminar, Arkoun observed that aesthetics
She concluded by saying that neither a fas- depends upon models proposed by an elite
cination with high technology nor an emo- group. In Fez and elsewhere land specula-
tional attachment to functionally obsolete tion plays an enormous role in the destiny
forms will succeed in producing an urban of the traditional madina. He cited the
environment that meets the needs of Tuaregs of Algeria and the socialist settle-
people in Islamic countries today. ments imposed by the national government.
After acknowledging earlier remarks by Moreover, the educational policies of cen-
Arkoun and Geertz, Wahid added that at- tral governments serve to undermine the
tention should be paid to the manner in collective memory of communities.
which various Islamic communities attempt Ismail Serageldin concurred with Arkoun

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The Aga Khan A ward for Architecture

Proceedings of Seminar Four

1 Form: A Vocabulary and Grammar of Symbols

Symbols and Signs in Islamic Architecture 1

2 Function: Concepts and Practice

Islamic Philosophy and the Fine Arts 43

4 Formulation: A Discussion of Criteria

Concluding Remarks 101

© The Aga Khan Awards 1980

Professor of Arabic and Arabic Literature at

Mr. Garr Campbell Landscape

Secretariat of H. H. the Aga Khan

Member, Award Steering Committee

Sir Hugh Casson Architect

Member, Award Steering Committee.

The World Bank

James Richard Jewett Professor of Arabic and

Mr. Soedjatmoko Diplomat/Cultural Mr. Abdurrahman Educator/ Proceedings Contributor

Symbols and Signs in Islamic Architecture

But-and this is a key point-the charge

New York, 1964), and Ibn Khaldiin's

Approach Three: The Monuments

I shall be briefer in discussing monuments,

of Ottoman cultural and political prestige a symbolism of gates in cities or even

Afterword on the symbolic meaning of an artistic

Symbolism is founded not in a mysterious

I was fortunate to read Prof. Grabar's

A Case Example: The Minaret

We may examine the problem of the

nism only through an analysis of the past.

private residence is vested in its owner. In

central dome plans in North Africa and Selected Bibliography

Inventory of generic forms and typology of selected mosques

a Converted from church

~ Medium emphasis b Converted to church

Kufa, Iraq: plan of Great Mosque as rebuilt by

Location of principal mosques of Middle East, North Africa and Spain

---·------~-- tl~ ~-------

~ ~= --I_ _=____~ Ll ~~ _=·- _

Dome over miJ:lriib space of Great Mosque of Kairouan

Minaret of Great Mosque of Kairouan as seen Interior of Great Mosque of Kairouan

ZONE II Turkey GENERIC FORMS MOSQUE TYPOLOGY

.., 8Q) 8.§

Location of principal mosques of Turkey

Edirne, Turkey: interior of the Selimiye mosque

Isometric view of the Selimiye. An Ottoman central dome mosque

Isfahan· entrance to Masjid-i Shah

Isfahan, Iran: plan of Masjid-i Shah. A Safavid four-eyvfm mosque

ZONE IV Bangladesh, India, Pakistan GENERIC FORMS MOSQUE TYPOLOGY

Delhi, India· a view of the Friday Mosque

Djenne, Mali. bazaar set up outside Great Mosque

ZONE V East and West Africa GENERIC FORMS MOSQUE TYPOLOGY

..:..\..., ALGERIA \ ..,. .

Location of principal mosques of East and West Africa

ZONE VI Far East GENERIC FORMS MOSQUE TYPOLOGY

Inventory of generic forms and typology of selected mosques

Jakarta, Indonesia. Azziadah Mosque

Location of principal mosques of

A village mosque between Kuala Lumpur

ORIGINS MOSQUE TYPOLOGY

Frequency of typology of 113 mosques according to geographic zone

KEY e Strong emphasis ~ Medium emphasis 0 Nonexistent * Haram al-Sharif, Mecca

GENERIC FORMS MOSQUE TYPOLOGY