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SynETechRefV4 (001 101)
SynETechRefV4 (001 101)
1
Technical Reference
Edition
This edition applies to SynerGEE Electric 4.0.1 and to subsequent releases and modifications until otherwise
indicated in new editions.
Trademarks
SynerGEE is a registered trademark and Stoner Software is a trademark of GL Noble Denton, Inc. All brands
and product names are trademarks of the respective owner.
Copyright notice
© 2011 GL Noble Denton, Inc.
600 Bent Creek Blvd., Suite 100
Mechanicsburg, PA 17050 USA
+1 717 724 1900
www.gl-nobledenton.com
Table of Contents 3
Table of Contents
4 Economics ............................................................................................... 99
4.1 Financial Worksheets ............................................................................................ 99
6 Table of Contents
7 Transformers......................................................................................... 194
7.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 194
7.2 The transformer model ....................................................................................... 195
7.2.1 Distributing transformer impedance between windings ....................... 195
7.3 1Ph / 3Ph transformer impedances .................................................................... 196
7.3.1 Wye-Gnd/Wye-Gnd case ........................................................................ 197
7.3.2 Delta/Wye-Gnd case ............................................................................... 198
7.4 Inrush and damage curves .................................................................................. 199
7.4.1 Damage Curves ....................................................................................... 200
7.5 Connection models ............................................................................................. 201
7.5.1 Valid Connection Combinations ............................................................. 204
7.6 Method for handling connections ...................................................................... 204
7.6.1 Wye-Gnd connections............................................................................. 205
7.6.2 Delta connections ................................................................................... 207
7.6.3 Wye connections..................................................................................... 211
7.6.4 Open-Delta CA connections .................................................................... 214
7.6.5 Open-Delta AB connections .................................................................... 216
7.6.6 Open-Delta BC connections .................................................................... 217
7.7 Example voltage drop calculations ..................................................................... 219
7.7.1 Simplified calculations ............................................................................ 220
14 Allocation.............................................................................................. 365
14.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 365
14.1.1 Allocation steps ....................................................................................... 365
14.2 Types of allocation .............................................................................................. 366
14.3 Demands format ................................................................................................. 366
14.3.1 Allocation by specified demands ............................................................ 366
14.4 Allocation scale factors ....................................................................................... 367
14.5 Initial load estimate ............................................................................................ 369
14.5.1 Suggested approaches to load allocation ............................................... 369
14.5.2 Example ................................................................................................... 370
14.5.3 Balanced allocation example .................................................................. 371
14.5.4 By-phase allocation using by-phase demands ........................................ 372
14.5.5 Numbers for by-phase allocation using total demand ........................... 372
14.6 Allocation factors ................................................................................................ 373
14.6.1 Allocate by connected kVA ..................................................................... 373
14.6.2 Allocate by total kWh.............................................................................. 373
14.6.3 Allocate by RUS method ......................................................................... 373
14.7 Example showing convergence process ............................................................. 374
14.8 Dealing with switched capacitors ....................................................................... 375
14.9 Regulator options................................................................................................ 377
14.10 Allocating and meter adjustment ....................................................................... 378
14.10.1 Example system .......................................................................... 378
15 Fault...................................................................................................... 391
15.1 Introduction ........................................................................................................ 391
15.1.1 Line impedances ..................................................................................... 391
15.1.2 Pre-fault voltages .................................................................................... 391
15.2 Types of analysis ................................................................................................. 391
15.2.1 Fault analysis ........................................................................................... 392
15.2.2 Fault flow analysis ................................................................................... 392
15.2.3 Fault voltage analysis .............................................................................. 392
15.3 Sequence domain fault calculations ................................................................... 393
15.3.1 Equation summary .................................................................................. 393
15.3.2 Sequence network for line-to-Gnd fault ................................................. 394
15.3.3 Phase-ground faults ................................................................................ 394
15.3.4 Phase-phase faults .................................................................................. 395
15.3.5 Phase-phase-ground faults ..................................................................... 395
15.3.6 Three-phase faults .................................................................................. 396
15.3.7 Asymmetrical three-phase and line-to-ground fault current ................. 396
15.4 Phase domain calculations.................................................................................. 400
15.4.1 Fault calculations from 3 by 3 cumulative impedance matrix................ 400
16 Table of Contents
15.4.2 Three-phase fault current from phase domain impedance matrix ........ 401
15.4.3 Phase domain faults on grounded sections............................................ 402
15.4.4 Phase domain faults on ungrounded sections ....................................... 406
15.5 Performing fault analysis on systems with loops ............................................... 410
15.5.1 Fault flows on looped systems................................................................ 412
15.5.2 Including generators ............................................................................... 413
15.6 Fault analysis with wandering laterals................................................................ 413
15.7 Example 1: Transformers in sequence fault analysis.......................................... 413
15.7.1 Given: ...................................................................................................... 413
15.7.2 Desired: ................................................................................................... 414
15.7.3 Calculations: ............................................................................................ 414
15.8 Example 2: Off-nominal transformers in sequence fault ................................... 415
15.8.1 Given: ...................................................................................................... 415
15.8.2 Desired: ................................................................................................... 415
15.8.3 Calculations: ............................................................................................ 415
15.9 Example 3: Faulting single phase lines................................................................ 416
15.9.1 Sequence domain process ...................................................................... 416
15.9.2 L-G fault in phase domain ....................................................................... 416
15.9.3 Example in phase domain ....................................................................... 417
15.9.4 L-G fault in sequence domain ................................................................. 418
15.9.5 Example in sequence domain ................................................................. 419
15.10 Example 4: Faulting two-phase lines .................................................................. 419
15.10.1 Phase domain impedance matrix ............................................... 420
15.10.2 L-G Fault value ............................................................................ 420
15.10.3 The wrong sequence conversion ................................................ 420
15.10.4 The right sequence conversion ................................................... 421
15.11 Example 5: Parallel / dual feed substation transformers ................................... 422
15.11.1 Given: .......................................................................................... 422
15.11.2 Desired: ....................................................................................... 422
15.11.3 Calculations: ................................................................................ 423
15.12 Fault Location Application .................................................................................. 424
15.12.1 Application approach .................................................................. 427
15.12.2 Settings........................................................................................ 428
22.7.11 Tij - Thermal resistance between direct buried cables ............... 675
22.7.12 Tij - Thermal resistance between cables in same duct ............... 676
22.7.13 TA - Thermal resistance between cables and ambient ............... 677
22.7.14 TDij - Thermal resistance between ducts .................................... 678
22.7.15 TDA - Thermal resistance between duct and ambient ................ 679
22.7.16 Wd - Dielectric heat loss .............................................................. 680
22.7.17 - Concentric neutral loss factor................................................... 680
22.7.18 - Tape shield loss factor .............................................................. 681
22.8 Example 4: Using SynerGEE to calculate ampacity ............................................. 682
22.8.1 Case 1: One 1000MCM circuit in 1X1 bank with earth fill ...................... 684
22.8.2 Case 2: Three 1000MCM circuits in 4X4 concrete bank ......................... 686
22.8.3 Case 3: Six 1000MCM circuits in 3X2 concrete bank .............................. 687
22.9 Duct Bank Analysis .............................................................................................. 688
22.10 Categories & parameters .................................................................................... 688
22.10.1 Duct Bank Type ........................................................................... 688
22.10.2 Cable Types ................................................................................. 689
22.10.3 Conductor Material ..................................................................... 689
22.10.4 Sheath material coefficients at 20C: ........................................... 689
22.10.5 Insulation Thermal Resistances .................................................. 689
22.10.6 Jacket Thermal Resistances ........................................................ 690
22.10.7 Dielectric constants..................................................................... 690
22.10.8 AC factors: ................................................................................... 690
22.10.9 Duct thermal constants............................................................... 690
22.10.10 Duct Bank thermal constants...................................................... 691
22.10.11 Soil Resistivity ............................................................................. 691
22.10.12 Backfill Resistivity ........................................................................ 692
22.10.13 Duct installation constants ......................................................... 692
22.10.14 Study Parameters........................................................................ 692
22.10.15 Duct Parameters ......................................................................... 692
22.10.16 Cable Parameters ........................................................................ 693
22.10.17 Circuit Parameters ...................................................................... 694
22.10.18 Derived Values ............................................................................ 694
22.11 References .......................................................................................................... 694
Power distribution systems are large and complicated. SynerGEE Electric is a software product
for modeling, simulating, and analyzing these systems. Planning, designing, and operating
decisions can be made better and faster and more confidently through the use of this software.
SynerGEE® Electric provides a modeling environment and set of powerful tools to help the
distribution engineer comprehend his system from a variety of perspectives. The engineer can
take capacity, protection, reliability, and many other aspects of a problem into consideration
when making a decision.
Modeling
Quality Planning
Economics Operations
Safety Protection
Reliability
Database queries and views are used to generate database records. Information in these
records is mapped to the SynerGEE model with the Model Forge script.
Benefits of the Model Forge approach are:
• Model Forge and the use of data marts is completely open. All data based
systems are moving towards openness and data sharing. Model Forge equips
SynerGEE to operate well in the modern utility.
• The existing databases, data marts, and data warehouses at a utility can be used
for model building.
• Model Forge is expandable. It can be used to build models with GIS and asset
management systems. It can also be used to update and supplement models
with various utility enterprise business systems such as GIS, CIS, AMI/MDMS,
OMS, and SCADA.
• The value of engineering data is promoted at the utility so that it is managed and
maintained along with other corporate data stores.
• The model build process is extremely flexible and scalable.
• Building and maintaining models will be less work for GIS / IT staff.
• Larger models can be built faster. Data scrubbing and model building algorithms
will be more effective and consistent on larger models.
• Data issues can be identified and resolved through SQL instead of in a processing
black box.
• Model building will be more open and visible because the data moves through a
two-stage process of becoming data sets in a data mart and then becoming
SynerGEE models.
• The greater availability of data will promote enhancements in SynerGEE.
• Model build engine will grow in its capabilities. Model building algorithms,
components, and queries will benefit all clients.
• Integration costs will come down as the model building algorithms grow.
• A large part of the complexity of model building will shift from the application
side (which is customized for each client) to the product side (which is
maintained through normal SynerGEE maintenance)
After selecting a script, the user may direct the Model Forge to use a different data mart or to
activate or deactivate various model build steps:
The selection of cleanup scripts or other processing applications can be made. Again, the
default selection of all of these build actions is made in the cleanup script. The user is making
run-time adjustments:
The Model Forge engine can build models at the rate of 100 feeders / minute. The result is a
model in SynerGEE:
1.3 Modeling
SynerGEE is a modeling and simulation environment where a single set of detailed by-phase
models and a variety of powerful applications support the needs of planning, protection,
reliability, and operations engineering. An extensive, detailed, by-phase, power distribution
system model makes up the core of SynerGEE Electric.
This framework is the basis for all simulation and analysis in SynerGEE. Applications for
planning, protection, reliability, operations, capacity management, quality, and economics are
all within the same environment and driven from the same distribution system model.
Individual phases of overhead and underground lines are considered along with a variety of
neutral and grounding configurations. Facility models for transformers, regulators, capacitors,
and generators are constructed in SynerGEE to mimic the real-world response of these devices
to unbalanced voltage and loading.
SynerGEE can model radial, looped, and meshed distribution systems. Secondary distribution
networks with distribution transformers and network protectors can be modeled. Feeders,
substations and switchgear, as well as the transmission and sub-transmission network can be
modeled as well.
SynerGEE Electric is designed to support the analytical needs of power engineers at the utility.
It is also designed to promote team working so that planners, protection engineers, reliability
engineers, operators, managers, and others can all work off of the same model and
environment. For example, an engineer making a planning decision for capacity planning based
on contingency analysis can see the effect that the proposal would have on reliability and
protection coordination.
The SynerGEE workplace is designed to be the best environment for managing utility data,
understanding the distribution system, and performing the most valuable engineering analysis.
1.4 Planning
The multi-year network modeling capabilities of SynerGEE are supported by load-flow, fault,
and other planning tools. These applications are designed to run quickly and give fast and easy
access to comprehensive results in reports, charts, or on the map. Because of SynerGEE’s
modeling basis, all applications can be used to evaluate planning options. Aspects of
contingency, reliability, protection, and economics are all readily available for the engineer
considering planning alternatives.
The multi-year model in SynerGEE is a fundamental part of SynerGEE and a key tool for
distribution engineering planning.
The SynerGEE model accounts for new facilities, load changes, demand changes, and
configuration changes over a ten year period. An engineer can instantly evaluate a new large
customer’s impact on the current and future years.
The evaluation year is selected with a simple drop down list. All SynerGEE analysis is performed
on that year.
SynerGEE has a variety of tools to analyze and summarize the performance of the system over
multiple years.
The charts above are generated from SynerGEE’s multi-year analysis tool. They show the
demand of a feeder in amps and the reliability for the feeder as SAIFI.
1.5 Capacity
SynerGEE supports a very powerful switching engine that helps engineers and operators
evaluate load transfers and find capacity problems. Contingency, switching optimization, and
load transfer tools are available. Many engineers using SynerGEE bring real-time loads and
demands into the product and then simply operate switches to review the impacts.
Switching alternatives and switching plans can be maintained in separate areas outside of the
normal SynerGEE model. Engineers can switch their model to create unfed areas, islands, loops,
meshes, and single-phase wandering lateral loops. Auto-transfer schemes and protective device
switching is supported.
Load capacity issues are highlighted on the map. The engineer can investigate ways to transfer
load or use the many tools in SynerGEE to find suggestions. SynerGEE can evaluate capacity
issues throughout the load fluctuations of a year. It can even run the system over the next ten
simulation years to pinpoint load capacity problems. Line limits, equipment ratings, and cable
thermal ampacity limits are all factors.
SynerGEE’s Contingency Planning and Analysis is a comprehensive tool that helps you develop
and validate contingency switching plans. Outage simulation enables you to evaluate your
model and identify a switching recovery plan according to your utility’s objectives. The tool’s
flexibility enables you to:
• Run single or multiple contingencies, including individual scenarios one at a time
in a batch mode.
• Select the service restoration pickup objective along with voltage and loading
constraints.
• Specify how SynerGEE treats different types of devices, including normal
switches, automatic switches and protective devices.
• Simulate a sustained fault condition by initially opening switches necessary to
isolate an outage.
Contingency reporting provides you with a clear view of the order in which devices should be
operated and enables you to examine the effect that device operations will have on system
voltages and loading, step by step.
The Contingency report is a dynamic interface that provides quick zooming and editing tools.
You can operate each device presented in a report without having to return to your map;
SynerGEE can zoom directly to the switch in question with a simple mouse click.
SynerGEE’s Optimal Switching Analysis allows you to find the best switching configuration for
your system, using the three-phase switches in your model. Select any combination of feeders
or substations and SynerGEE will search for switching actions to meet your objective. Optimal
Switching offers powerful options to customize your analysis, allowing you to:
• Select an optimization objective such as improving losses or lowest voltage
• Set voltage or loading constraints so switching operations do not violate system
standards
• Save the suggested switching plan as an external switch position file that you can
load into your model later for further analysis.
By using a local optimization technique rather than a global approach, Optimal Switching
provides realistic switching plans. Global methods, which open every switch and attempt to
close them in an optimal topology, produce infeasible plans that require dozens of switching
operations. SynerGEE assumes the system is already close to an optimal state and works to
fine-tune based on available switching pairs.
Depending on your requirements, objectives such as ‘minimize substation transformer loading’
and ‘equate loading’ may be useful when balancing loads among feeders and transformers.
The Optimal Switching report presents a comprehensive view of the proposed switching plan
and clearly presents any progress toward your objective with each switching operation. You can
also monitor other system parameters with each step.
SynerGEE Electric offers the industry the most advanced modeling environment for over-
current protective devices. It allows engineers to quickly evaluate and manage the extensive
and complex protection schemes for hundreds or thousands of radial distribution feeders.
Coordination can be checked for a series of devices, a feeder, or an entire model. It can be
checked for particular loading levels, at a particular time of day, or over a period of months or
years. Load growth, customer behavior, switching configurations, and changing facilities are all
a part of the environment in SynerGEE and important to protection studies.
Figure 1-12. Protection blends into the many other engineering disciplines supported by
SynerGEE
Check Coordination automatically divides a feeder into protective device pairs. These
combinations of devices to form pairs are based on the switched state of the model. Switching
could be based on normal or emergency switch plans, real-time updates from a SCADA system,
the result of an engineering analysis like Optimal Switching, or from manual switching. Fault
ranges are determined and the necessary rules are used to check coordination.
Loads can vary over 24 hours for three day types over twelve months. As a result, time of day
modeling can deal with nearly 900 different load points throughout the year.
Every section in SynerGEE can hold a 10-year load profile for residential, spot, and distributed
loads.
SynerGEE Reliability performs all calculations on the unique SynerGEE distribution system
model that is used for load-flow, fault, protection, and all other analysis.
This sharing of the model, constraints, and analytical tools allows reliability to be a fundamental
part of the engineering product.
decisions related to long-range and business planning. Reliability results are and calculations
are weaved throughout SynerGEE to aid in those decisions.
of normal and hypothetical reconfigurations on customer SAIFI, SAIDI, and MAIFI can be
predicted from the model.
Cables should be loaded so that their operating temperature is well below levels that would
damage their insulation. The SynerGEE model supports the analysis of direct buried cables in
and out of ducts and cables within encased duct banks. Analysis is based on a detailed by-phase
thermal network. Cable loading can be specified or set to the values determined from load-flow
analysis. SynerGEE calculates the available capacity remaining in each circuit to avoid a thermal
overloading of any cable in the duct bank.
1.9.1 Reports
Electro-thermal results are displayed in easy to understand reports. Calculated values for the
duct bank or thermal network parameters are available in the many sub-chapters.
also generate heat. All of these details and many others result in a very complex system of heat
sources and thermal barriers. SynerGEE handles these complexities and presents values like
available current capacity, cable temperature, and amp limits in simple reports and diagrams.
Information about duct bank material, duct material, etc can all be entered through the duct
bank properties dialog. Cables for the bank are added with a drag-and-drop from the
warehouse. The cables used duct banks come from the warehouse of cables used in all analysis.
Cables in the duct bank can also be matched with actual cables in the model so that model
loading can drive the heat generation of the cable in the bank.
Engineers at the utility must ensure that the distribution infrastructure can support future load.
For them, the loading along critical paths during the upcoming years is important. Forecasting
individual load growth within an engineering model is important to doing this. The above two
reasons for forecasting do not typically involved detailed feeder analysis. Engineering analysis is
needed for evaluating the ability of the distribution system to deal with future loads.
SynerGEE forecasting is a tool to apply expected growth trends to the distribution model. The
goal is to go from growth rates categorized in various ways to actual kW and kvar values in the
model. Forecasting is specifically applied to the five load models in SynerGEE:
• Distributed
• Spot
• Large customer
• Project
• Speculative
Growth expectations can be applied to these load types or combinations of these load types in
a spatial or logical fashion.
SynerGEE utilizes growth percentages that have been determined from land use, regression, or
other types of analysis. These analyses are generated from trends in historic and expected
metrics and demographics.
The resulting ‘harmonic profiles’ are then associated with various large loads in the model. At
that point, the harmonic load-flow is run in SynerGEE and the map can be colored by Total
Harmonic Distortion and other metrics. The map below is colored by the THD percentage. Most
of the harmonic disturbance is emanating from a large customer fed by an auto-transfer switch
near the center of the map.
This plot of % distortion reflects the fact that all analysis in SynerGEE is by-phase and
distribution system oriented.
Shown below is a tool that can help engineers visualize and understand the propagation and
filtering of harmonic current through a transformer bank:
A harmonic impedance scan near the customer. It shows resonance points near the
seventeenth harmonic.
1.12 CMM
The Customer Management Module (CMM) assigns customers to distribution transformers and
sections in the model, calculates transformer utilization, capacity factor, and load values, and
creates customer zones and classes. This information is stored in a CMM database so that
engineers can use it to update SynerGEE models.
Using this data in a SynerGEE model allows a variety of analyses, such as:
• Calculating the demand on specific distribution transformers to prevent overload
damage or inefficient operation
• Determining the customer makeup of a poorly performing area
• Testing the feasibility of system changes, based on the number/type of
customers affected
• Validating the accuracy of your current load models and load allocation methods
• Generate customer and transformer reports and find customers within SynerGEE
network analysis environment to enhance model effectiveness and system
knowledge.
CMM is a mechanism to use customer level load information to set up and maintain loads in
the SynerGEE model. Customer information systems typically have detailed information about
customer kWh consumption, kW demand, and customer class. This information can be brought
into the SynerGEE environment and used to establish load values. Customer level data can be
used to build model loading from the bottom-up or it can be used along with metered values
and SynerGEE’s Load Allocation to calculate load values that are consistent with customer
billing data and with SCADA metered demands.
The customer information system (CIS) is the source for customer data used by SynerGEE.
Billing and other customer data can be moved from that system into the CMM database used
by SynerGEE. The application used to move this data can be developed by the utility using tools
within the CIS, Visual Basic, or database tools.
CMM can process four categories of customer information:
• Customers
• Distribution Transformers
• Billing Records (kWh consumption and kW demand)
• Customer class profiles (Diversity curves, load factors, power factors)
distance, and incident energy should be prominently displayed on every piece of electrical
equipment where an Arc Flashover hazard exists.
Arc Flashover calculations form the basis to develop strategies to minimize burn injuries. These
strategies can include specifying the rating of personal protective equipment (PPE), working de-
energized, using arc-resistant switchgear, or applying other engineering techniques and work
practices.
The calculations for Arc Flashover in SynerGEE are based on IEEE standard 1584-2002 and NFPA
70E-2004. They are completely integrated into SynerGEE Electric and are available as an
analysis tool. All sections and devices in the selection set perform Arc fault calculations.
SynerGEE can generate labels can generate for the devices.
1.14 Solver
The data management, modeling engine, and engineering applications of SynerGEE can be
directly incorporated into utility systems with the Solver. The Solver is the non-graphical
portions of SynerGEE made available through COM to programming languages like Visual Basic,
C#, and C++. Many utilities licensed to use SynerGEE take the Solver and build custom
applications that directly fit into their business processes.
The Solver is a comprehensive software component built for the detailed modeling of power
distribution systems and the management of associated data. The Solver supports over 1000
data attributes, settings, analyses, and functions in a clear object-oriented interface.
Solver is an in-process server. A client application is required to build a functional solution.
There are four general approaches to deploying the Solver in this fashion.
Fault Location
Finder
Stoner TCC Viewer
Solver
Stoner
Solver
Work plan
in Excel
Stoner Custom Report
Solver Generator
Stoner
Solver
These applications can be stand alone tools or they can be built to supplement features
provided in the SynerGEE product.
A GIS rarely has sufficient data for the analytical modeling of a distribution system. Therefore,
Solver is rich in features for defaulting missing data and validating data that are passed into it.
GIS GIS
Stoner
DB Alerts Solver Analysis
Results Reports
This powerful capability allows information about overloading, low voltages, contingency, and
other problems to be calculated and displayed right in the GIS. There are applications in design,
contingency, optimal switching, and other areas where the GIS would provide a suitable
decision making environment. The Solver can also provide valuable information that could lead
to GIS data and topology corrections. The GIS can directly utilize Solver results for thematic
mapping on numerical display. The Solver can also generate formal reports that can be
displayed with a browser like Internet Explorer.
SCADA Stoner
DB
Billing Stoner
DB Customer
Solver
DB
Central
DB
When COM products are upgraded, they always support their previous interface. Thus, if you
upgrade your GIS, all of your COM components will still work. If you install an upgrade to the
Solver, it will still work properly in the GIS.
that this consistency along with the capabilities of the products will be a great benefit to your
company.
Data
Quality Planning
Model &
Economics Operations
Simulation
Safety Protection
Reliability
2.3 Sources
The fixed voltage “sources” in a model can either be feeders or substation transformers. If the
model loaded into SynerGEE has substations, then a feeder will only be energized if it is fed by a
substation. A model loaded into SynerGEE will either have:
• Only feeders – feeders act like sources
• Only subs – subs act like sources
• Feeders and subs – feeders must be fed by a sub to be energized
Note that these rules are for feeders and subs loaded into SynerGEE. A model database may
contain subs and feeders. If only feeders are loaded into SynerGEE then the substation is not
needed to energize them.
Here is an example: If only these feeders were loaded into SynerGEE then each feeder would be
energized:
Furthermore, if one or more substation models are loaded, the feeders will only be energized
when fed by a substation:
If we disconnect a feeder by breaking a tie-line or operating a switch then the feeder will be de-
energized. In the image below, the Western feeder is de-energized when we open the switch in
the substation:
If a model has substations then a new feeder that is added to that model will be de-energized
until it is tied to a substation. That concept makes sense in the substation model like the one
above. Obviously a new feeder (oftentimes called ‘circuit’) in the sub above will need to tie into
one of the substation transformers. However, this idea may be confusing when locating
planned, new, feeders out away from the current substation model.
If a model has substations and a node is converted to a feeder, there would be no visible effect.
The image below shows the feeder that we added to the model above. Since the feeder has no
substation feeding it, it remains unfed:
Now, if we build a sub to feed the feeder then the southwestern part of the model becomes
energized:
Figure 2-7 Section broken into areas where switchable devices may be placed
This diagram represents some important concepts related to sections and switches.
• A section always lies between two nodes. Switches have no effect on the
relationship between a section and its nodes.
• A switch either allows or prevents current flow into or out of a section.
• With respect to other devices, switches are always located closest to nodes.
analysis may use the switches to reduce a sustained interruption to a momentary one for load
served by the auto-transfer switch pair.
2.6.1 Phasing
Switches only connect those phases that are present on both sides of the switch. This is the
case for balanced and by-phase looped analyses.
voltage on both sides of the switch is the same. When this flow has been determined, the
solution of the radial analysis matches the solution of the network.
2.7.1 Example 1
The open switch on the end of Section 1 leaves Section 2 and Section 3 as unfed islands. The
sections may be fed if another feed path can be established to those sections or to the node at
the outward end of Section 1. All of the devices and load on Section 1 are fed.
Section 2
Section 1
F
Section 3
2.7.2 Example 2
Here, the switch is on the inward end of Section 1. Since the switch is open, no loads or devices
on Section 1, Section 2, or Section 3 will be included in the analysis. All sections are completely
unfed.
Section 2
Section 1
F
Section 3
Section 1, Section 2, and Section 3 would all be fed if the outward end of Section 3 or Section 2
were connected to a fed section. In this case, all sections are fed. However, device feed
directions and the load-flow reference directions on Section 1 and Section 2 are reversed. Other
than voltage level changes, devices on Section 2 would see no change in the modified feed
direction. For example:
Section 2
Section 1
F
F
Section 3
Section 4
2.7.3 Example 3
In this case, the switch on Section 3 isolates the section while allowing Section 1 to feed Section
2. No devices on Section 3 receive power.
Section 2
Section 1
F
Section 3
2.7.4 Example 4
The switch at the end of Section 2 has no effect on the model. The switch opens the section at
its outward end, and there are no loads or devices past that point. All loads and devices on all
sections receive power.
Section 2
Section 1
F
Section 3
Open when feeder breaker When primary of transformer is no longer fed from the
opens feeder breaker. If the protector is fed from its secondary then
the protector will open. This operation can occur from model
manipulation or from analysis being performed that would
operate a feeder breaker.
Open on reverse S If the protector sees reverse power flow during a load-flow
run, it will open.
Close on voltage If the voltage and angle difference across the open protector
is within limits, then it will close.
Sect B Sect D
Sect A Sect E
Feeder 1 Feeder 2
Sect C
You are going to look at methods for placing a switch between sections B and D of the two
feeders shown above. There are four possible configurations for a single switch to connect
these sections. All four configurations are shown in the following figure:
Sect B Sect D
2
3
Sect A 4 Sect E
Feeder 1 Feeder 2
Sect C
Figure 2-15 Feeders showing possible switch configurations for sections B and D
The table below describes the four configuration possibilities for placing a switch on section B
and connecting it to section D:
Configuration From To
1 Load End of "B" Load End of "D"
2 Load End of "B" Load End of "E"
Load End of "B" Source End of "D"
3 Load End of "A" Load End of "D"
Source End of "B" Load End of "D"
4 Load End of "A" Source End of "D"
Load End of "A" Load end of "E"
Source End of "B" Source End of "D"
Source End of "B" Load end of "E"
Although this example is based on switches placed between two feeders, switching can be
performed on a single feeder or between substation transformers in a substation model.
This section describes how switching works and how this affects the way that you should set up
switches within DPA/G. The software operation is a bit different from a real-world switch
operation because not all the ties and jumpers are displayed with the switches. When a switch
is toggled in DPA/G, the end of the section with the switch to be opened is disconnected from
all the sections connected to it.
Consider the following switch scenario.
SW 1 SW 2 SW 3
State Open Open Open
Closes to Sect 3 - Load Sect 1 Load Sect 2 Load
As you can see, Sect 2 and Sect 3 are now connected even though SW 2 is an open symbol.
Since SW 2 closes to Sect 1, SW 2 is indeed open (open to Sect 1). Since SW 3 closes to Sect 2
and it is closed, it is connected to Sect 2.
Given the previous scenario based on open and closed operations, the loop problem can be
corrected. The following figure shows a solution based on the insertion of three small sections.
SW 1 SW 2 SW 3
Closes to Sect 1a Load Sect 2a Source Sect 3a Load
In this scenario, when SW 3 is closed, a loop is not created. The three connected sections will
appear if all the switches are open. This also works with four-way switches (a plus sign
represents four switches). The extra sections represent the jumpers, ties, or bus bar present in
the field.
AB A
F
This diagram shows the manner in which single-phase (cables usually) will feed loads. This is a
very simple example. In real cases, the configurations are more complex and have open and
closed points setup with switches. Modeling this case with single-phase sections is very direct.
However, the data may be brought in with the phase A and B cables at the bottom of the model
combined into a single section:
AB A
F
B
AB
When a single-section holds the two single-phase cables then a forced-unfed situation results.
The southern section is forced-unfed because there is no way to simultaneously feed both
terminals of either end of the section. A section must be energized from one end or the other
(or both at the same time if there are loops). A section cannot have one phase fed from one
end and another phase fed from the other end.
Use the 4038 cleanup command to expand sections that are forced unfed and have multiple
conductors. Here is a client model with a forced unfed area and is actually a single-phase URD
with switches in the field:
The 4038 only has the reporting option. A script would look like this:
4038, 1
Running the script will result in a report listing the sections that were expanded.
SynerGEE creates new sections for every phase on a line. Data is copied to the new sections as
well as loads and devices. The old sections and related information are discarded.
3 Power Distribution
Power distribution companies are interesting and complex businesses. Growth and mergers
have established a landscape of utilities ranging from very small to huge. Government
regulations encourage consistency, quash competitive practices, and promote slow and steady
innovation. Deregulation kindles ambitious growth, customer focus, and healthy competition
for service quality.
The distribution industry delivers a product that is manufactured and transported from far
away. The product is oftentimes misunderstood by the consumer because of its intangibility.
When a customer buys food, he consumes the food. When he buys water or gas, he consumes
the water or gas. A customer may think that he buys electricity. He does not. He buys energy.
Electricity is a mechanism to transport energy; like a conveyer belt or a stream serving a water
wheel. Electricity is not consumed by the consumer. The customer is consuming energy. The
consumer is also consuming coal or natural gas unless this power is extracted from wind, water
flow, the earth’s heat or sunshine.
Distribution companies deliver a product that is intangible and not well understood. The
product is also a commodity because it is essential to the customer but not valued. Electric
power is a fundamental part of our lives. We use it continuously and hardly think about our
consumption until the lights unexpectedly go out or the power bill arrives in our mailbox.
The quality of electric power is critical. Frequency must be tightly managed for system stability
and the safe operation of appliances and equipment. Voltage and current waveforms must be
nearly free from distortion. Service must be reliable with better than 99% availability.
Nearly 4 terawatt hours are distributed annually in the United States. This huge industry began
over 125 years ago in New York City. It was begun by Thomas Edison and called the Pearl Street
Station. In 1882, this start-up supplied lights for 59 customers over a territory of one square
mile. The company grew to serve over 400 customers by the end of the year but still operated
at a loss of about $6,000. After the second year, the company had grown substantially and had
a profit of nearly $30,000.
Edison issued licenses to private entrepreneurs to establish and operate lighting companies
similar to his. Five years later, in 1887, there were over sixty of these private companies in
operation.
Today, most power companies in the United States continue to be privately owned. Over 80
percent of the country’s power comes is delivered by these companies. There are still many
cooperatives, public power districts, public utility districts, cooperatives, and municipals. These
businesses are chartered and structured differently but they all have the mission of delivering
reliable electrical energy to their customers.
• Capacity – The utility must be able to deliver power as consumer demand grows.
• Storage – Supply chain management is essential in the electric power industry.
There is no practical storage of electricity and so power must be generated,
transported, and delivered simultaneously with demand.
• Responsibility – Electricity is dangerous. The utility is responsible for the safe
delivery of electricity through the customer’s community and to his premises.
The utility is responsible for the public’s safety with respect to the thousands of
miles of bare conductor stretching over and under farms, towns and cities.
• Easements – The utility must negotiate and purchase easements to build the
facilities for receiving power from the transmission company and then for
routing delivery to the customer. Purchasing or arranging for use of property for
substations and distribution lines is expensive and oftentimes politically
unpopular.
• Slow turnover – Power delivery is very capital intensive. However, investment at
a utility will take many years to generate returns.
• Regulation – Distribution utilities are heavily regulated by the industry, federal,
state, and local governments. This puts heavy demands on the utility to carefully
make and justify engineering decisions.
1 World Bank
This system is efficient and manageable (of course it is the role of SynerGEE Electric to help
make it more efficient and more manageable). Power transformers are the key technology to
the operation of this system. They provide the voltage platform for power injection and
demand. Here is a table generalizing various voltage platforms:
Platform kV Amps Typical Power Use
Generation 2 – 15 Thousands 300 MW Generation to grid
High Voltage 500 – 795 Hundreds GW Interstate or international
Transmission 230 - 500 Hundreds 500 MW Regional or inter-utility
Sub- 69 – 115 Hundreds 50 MW Intra-utility
transmission
Substation 34 – 69 Hundreds 10 MW Feeding distribution
Distribution 4 – 34 Hundreds 2 MW Distributing to customers
Primary Cust 0.5 – 4 Tens 1 MW Industrial consumption
Secondary 0.5 – 4 Tens 500 kW Commercial consumption
Secondary 0.12 – 0.24 Hundreds 1 – 5kW Residential consumption
(3-1)
kvar = kW * tan(θ PF )
(3-3)
Given: MVABase
kVLLBase
(3-4)
kVLL2Base
Z Base =
MVABase
(3-5)
1000 MVABase
I Base =
3kVLLBase
An impedance value can be changed from one base to another with the following:
2 (3-6)
kVLLOld MVANew
Zpu New = ZpuOld
kVLLNew MVAOld
Admittance can similarly be shifted across bases using the following equation:
2 (3-7)
kVLLNew MVAOld
Ypu New = YpuOld
kVLLOld MVANew
(3-9)
kVLL2Base
Z Base =
MVABase
(3-10)
1000 MVABase
I Base =
kVLLBase
(3-15)
VS = A −1VP VP = AVS
I S = A −1 I P I P = AI S
(3-16)
Z P = AZ S A −1 Z S = A −1 Z P A
(3-17)
YP = AYS A −1 YS = A −1YP A
If you have a line described with zero sequence and positive sequence values:
(3-18)
1 1 1 Z 0 0 0 1 1 1 ZS ZM ZM
1
ZP = 1 a 2 a Z1 0 1 a a 2 Z S Z M
3
1 a a 2 Z1 1 a 2 a Z S
Z=
S ( Z 0 + 2Z1 ) / 3
Z=
M ( Z 0 − Z1 ) / 3
If you have a completely balanced impedance line with equal self and mutual impedance
values:
(3-19)
1 1 1 Z S Z M Z M 1 1 1 Z0 0 0
1
ZS = 1 a a 2 Z S Z M 1 a 2 a Z1 0
3
1 a 2 a Z S 1 a a 2 Z1
Z= 0 Z S + 2Z M
= ZS − ZM
Z1,2
After running load-flow, we note that there are voltage exceptions for the capacitor results:
If the low voltage threshold is 105V then why is 109.1 resulting in an exception on the
capacitor? Let’s work backward. If our exception threshold is 105V then the capacitor will have
an exception at:
(3-21)
105
Cap Except kV = 13.8 ⋅ = 12.075kV
120
What is 12.075kV in volts for our model? Since we are using a base of 13.2 it is:
(3-22)
12.075
Cap Except Volts = ⋅120V = 109.7V
13.2
So a capacitor voltage below 109.7 will result in an exception flag. A voltage on the capacitor’s
section needs to be below 105 to cause an exception since the section has a 13.2kV nominal
voltage.
A
ZAB B
ZA ZB
ZCA ZBC
ZC
Values for the wye can be determined from the delta values with these equations:
(3-23)
Z AC Z AB
ZA =
Z AB + Z BC + Z AC
Z AB Z BC
ZB =
Z AB + Z BC + Z AC
Z AC Z BC
ZC =
Z AB + Z BC + Z AC
The values for the delta can be determined from wye impedances:
(3-24)
Z Z + Z B ZC + ZC Z A
Z AB = A B
ZC
Z A Z B + Z B ZC + ZC Z A
Z BC =
ZA
Z A Z B + Z B ZC + ZC Z A
Z AC =
ZB
We can deliver a given level of power by raising the voltage and lowering the current by the
same factor.
Use the source end voltage to calculate the power into the line:
(3-30)
S Into = VS I Into
*
Next, we can account for the voltage drop to determine the power out of the line:
Electrical power cannot be directly stored. Therefore, the power entering a system must match
the total of the power leaving the system, the power emitted as losses, and the power
consumed. This is quite important because voltage levels and current levels will change but
power must always be conserved.
3.9.3 Relationships
If arcs of a digraph are treated as edges, the non-directed graph is called the underlying graph.
The arcs distinguishing the digraph from that graph are called the orientation of the digraph.
4 Economics
m (4-1)
rnom
APR =
1 + −1
m
(4-4)
(1 + i ) −1
N
PW / UA =
rp (1 + rp )
N
If an application generates a financial worksheet, you can manually add new cost items or
modify existing cost items.
5.1 Introduction
SynerGEE is designed to provide an outstanding line model without complicated data
requirements. It captures the effects of electric and magnetic field coupling by using the full set
of Carson's equations. Its methods incorporate the work of Carson, Wagner and Evans, and
Kersting.
SynerGEE's by-phase impedance and admittance calculations and reduction techniques can
handle coupling between conductors, and between conductors and the earth. SynerGEE
considers one-, two-, and three-phase lines with and without a neutral return, and can handle
bare overhead lines as well as cables.
Like most device models in SynerGEE, the spatial characteristics of a line model are defined in a
section instance contained in the model database (InstSection table). Each section record
should also reference a conductor type in the equipment database, which defines its electrical
characteristics (DevConductors table). In addition, if a section is configured to use detailed
spacing, it also references a configuration type in the equipment database (DevConfig table). A
visual diagram of data flow to build a section is as follows.
InstSection table
Model database
(spatial data)
Line Model
for a
Section
Figure 5-1 Tables used to specify the line model for a section