MODULE 11B

PISTON AEROPLANE AERODYNAMICS, STRUCTURES AND SYSTEMS

11.1 Theory of Flight

11.1.1 Aeroplane Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

An aircraft is equipped with fixed and moveable surfaces, or aerofoil, which provide stability and control.
Each item is designed for a specific function during the operation of the aircraft.

FIXED AEROFOILS

The fixed aerofoils are the wings or mainplanes, the horizontal stabiliser or tailplane and vertical stabiliser
or fin. The function of the wings is to provide enough lift to support the complete aircraft. The tail section
of a conventional aircraft, including the stabilisers, elevators and rudder, is occasionally known as the
empennage.

Horizontal Stabilizer

The horizontal stabilizer is used to provide longitudinal pitch stability and is usually attached to the aft
portion of the fuselage. It may be mounted either on top of the vertical stabiliser, at some mid-point, or
below it.
Conventional horizontal stabilisers are placed aft of the wing and normally set at a slightly smaller or
negative angle of incidence with respect to the wing chord line. This configuration gives a small downward
force on the tail with a value dependent on the size of the stabiliser and its distance from the Centre of
Gravity (CG).

T-Tail Arrangement

The T-Tail Arrangement places the complete stabilizer/tail plane and elevator assembly on top of the
vertical stabilizer. This ensures that pitch control is not affected by turbulent air from the wing. It also
makes the vertical stabilizer and rudder control more effective, due to the so-called „end plate effect‟.
However a T-Tail (and rear engine) configuration, would be dangerous if the aircraft entered what is
termed a “deep stall”. At a very high angle of attack (i.e.: stalling angle), airflow could make pitch control
non-effective (and may cause the engines to flame out). To prevent this, T-Tailed aircraft will have a “stick
push” system, in order to automatically recover them safely from excessive angles of attack. The T-Tail has
another disadvantage in that the empennage structure will be heavier than normal, due to the
strengthening required to combat greater bending loads. However since the pitch moment arm is
increased, the stabilizer and elevators can be made smaller and therefore lighter than conventional
designs. Often, the complete stabilizer can be moved to provide longitudinal trim, negating the use of trim
tabs Horizontal roll control: ailerons and spoilers;

Vertical Stabilizer
The vertical stabilizer for an aircraft is the aerofoil forward of the rudder and is used to provide directional
stability. A problem encountered on single-engine propeller driven aircraft is that the
propeller causes the airflow to rotate as it travels rearward. This strikes one side of the vertical stabiliser
more than the other, resulting in a yawing moment.

MOVEABLE CONTROL SURFACES

Moveable control surfaces are normally divided into Primary and Secondary controls.

Primary Flight Controls

The primary controls are the ailerons, elevator, and the rudder, which provide the aerodynamic force to
make the aircraft follow a desired flight path. The flight control surfaces are hinged or movable airfoils
designed to change the attitude of the aircraft by changing the airflow over the aircraft’s surface during
flight. These surfaces are used for moving the aircraft about its three axes. Typically, the ailerons and
elevators are operated from the flight deck by means of a control stick, a wheel, and yoke assembly and
on some of the newer design aircraft, a joystick. The rudder is normally operated by foot pedals on most
aircraft. Lateral control is the banking movement or roll of an aircraft that is controlled by the ailerons.
Longitudinal control is the climb and dive movement or pitch of an aircraft that is controlled by the
elevator. Directional control is the left and right movement or yaw of an aircraft that is controlled by the
rudder.

The secondary control surfaces consist of trim controls (tabs), high lift devices (flaps and slats), speed
brakes and lift dumpers (additional spoilers). The primary control surfaces are used to make the aircraft
follow the correct flight path and to execute certain manoeuvres. The secondary controls are used to
change the lift and drag characteristics of the aircraft or to provide assistance to the primary controls.

Roll Control – Ailerons

These primary controls provide lateral (roll) control of the aircraft, that is, movement about the
longitudinal axis. They are normally attached to hinges at the trailing edge of the wing, near the wing tip.
They move in opposite directions, so that the up-going aileron reduces lift on that side, causing the wing
to go down, whilst the down-going surface increases the lift on the opposite side, raising the wing.

Large aircraft often use two sets of aileron surfaces on each wing, one in the conventional position near
the wing tip and the other set at mid-span or outboard of the flaps. The inboard set is referred to as „high
speed ailerons‟. The outboard surfaces, or sometimes both sets, work at low speeds to give maximum
control during takeoff and landing, for example when large movements may be required.

At high cruising speed the outer ailerons are isolated and only the inboard set operates. If the outer
ailerons were permitted to operate at high speed, the stress produced at the wing tips may twist the wing
and produce „aileron reversal‟. This is particularly likely with modern highly flexible thin wings, where the
possibility of structural damage may result if the outboard surfaces were too powerful.

The ailerons are operated by a control wheel, a control column or a side-stick. Movement of any of these
inputs away from neutral towards one side will result in the aircraft rolling to that side. Returning the
control to neutral at this stage will leave the aircraft in a banked condition and a similar but opposite
movement will be required to bring the aircraft level once more. At low speeds, the ailerons may be
augmented by the use of flaps and spoilers. At high speeds, only inboard aileron deflection is required to
roll the aircraft while the other control surfaces are locked out or remain stationary.

The ailerons are usually operated in conjunction with the rudder and/or elevator during a turn and are
rarely used on their own.

Roll Control - Spoilers

The use of spoilers as a primary control will be to operate asymmetrically in conjunction with aileron
movement and are normally referred to as Roll Spoilers. Roll spoilers are mounted on the top of the wing
just inboard of the outboard set of ailerons. Movement of the aileron control wheel on the flight deck will
deploy each spoiler progressively upwards with the up-going aileron, whilst on the side of the down going
aileron, the spoiler will remain flush with the upper wing camber. The up-going spoiler will effectively spoil
the lift on the down-going wing and augment the similar effect of the up-going aileron. Alternatively, on
some aircraft the spoilers will replace the ailerons completely to provide the sole means of roll control.

Pitch Control – Elevators

Elevator

The elevator is the primary flight control surface that moves the aircraft around the horizontal or lateral
axis. This causes the nose of the aircraft to pitch up or down. The elevator is hinged to the trailing edge of
the horizontal stabilizer and typically spans most or all of its width. It is controlled in the cockpit by
pushing or pulling the control yoke forward or aft. They are normally attached to the hinges on the rear
spar of the horizontal stabilizer. When the control column of the aircraft is pushed forward, the elevators
move down. The resultant force of the ‘airflow generated lift', acting upwards, raises the tail and lowers
the nose of the aircraft. The reverse action takes place when the control is pulled back.

Light aircraft use a system of control cables and pulleys or push pull tubes to transfer cockpit inputs to the
movement of the elevator. High performance and large aircraft typically employ more complex systems.
Hydraulic power is commonly used to move the elevator on these aircraft. On aircraft equipped with fly-
by-wire controls, a combination of electrical and hydraulic power is used.

Pitch Control – Stabilators

A special type of pitch control surface that combines the functions of the elevator and the horizontal
stabilizer is the stabilator, often referred to as a slab or all flying tailplane . The stabilator is a complete all-
moving horizontal stabiliser which can change its angle of attack when the control column is moved and
thereby alter the total amount of lift generated by the tail.

Pitch Control – Variable Incidence Stabilizers

Incorporating a conventional elevator control system, the variable incidence horizontal stabilizer is often
used for pitch trim. Normally a powerful electric motor is used to vary its angle of attack when trim
switches on the flight deck are operated.

Canards
Some earliest powered aircraft, such as the Wright Flyer, had horizontal surfaces located ahead of the
wings. This configuration, with the forward surface usually referred to as a canard or foreplane, has been
used on occasions, up to the present day. Conventional aircraft have the tailplane located at the rear of
the fuselage which provides a small, stabilizing down force. This means that the wing has to produce
slightly more lift to balance this down force. As we have seen, in order for a wing to produce lift it must
also generate drag.

A fundamental feature of a canard design is that the angle of attack of the foreplane, (in front of the CG of
the aircraft) is set at a greater angle than the main wing. This feature will ensure that the foreplane
reaches the stalling angle first, resulting in a predictable dropping of the nose and a certain recovery.

Yaw Control – Rudder

Rudder
The rudder is the primary control surface that causes an aircraft to yaw or move about the vertical axis.
The rudder is a vertical control surface that is hinged at the rear of the fin and is controlled by rudder
pedals that are operated by the pilots’ feet. Pushing on one pedal, the right for example, causes the
rudder to move to the right also. When the left pedal is pushed forward the nose of the aircraft moves to
the left.

Because of the power of some rudder systems, particularly assisted systems, they may have their range
reduced at high speed by means of a speed-sensitive range limiting system. The rudder is normally a single
structural unit but on large transport aircraft it may comprise two or more operational segments, moved
by different operating systems to provide a level of redundancy.

A ruddervator combines the action of the rudder and elevator. This is possible on aircraft with V–tail
empennages where the traditional horizontal and vertical stabilizers do not exist. Instead, two stabilizers
angle upward and outward from the aft fuselage in a “V” configuration. Each contains a movable
ruddervator built into the trailing edge. Movement of the ruddervators can alter the movement of the
aircraft around the horizontal and/or vertical axis.

Combined-Function Controls – Elevons and Ruddervators

An example of combined-function controls is found on delta-wing aircraft, where control surfaces for pitch
and roll must be fitted on the trailing edge of the wing. Controls with a dual-function (elevators and
ailerons) called elevons, provide both pitch and roll, by moving symmetrically in pitch or asymmetrically in
roll via a mixer unit, when the control column or control wheel are operated on the flight deck.

Another example is ruddervators, normally used on aircraft fitted with a 'V' or Butterfly tail. These
surfaces serve the purposes of both rudder and elevator.

HIGH LIFT DEVICES

Aerodynamic lift is determined by the shape and size of the main lifting surfaces of the aircraft. In order to
produce the outstanding performance achieved by a large modern, swept wing, passenger jet such as the
Boeing 777, the wing is designed to give optimum lift to support the aircraft whilst in cruise (typically
Mach 0.87).More lift is obtained from so-called high lift devices. These are divided generally into leading
edge devices, namely slots, slats and Krueger flaps and trailing edge devices including plain, slotted and
fowler flaps. They will increase lift and as a result, reduce the stalling speed.

Flaps
Flaps are found on most aircraft. They are usually inboard on the wings’ trailing edges adjacent to the
fuselage. Leading edge flaps are also common. They extend forward and down from the inboard wing
leading edge. The flaps are lowered to increase the camber of the wings and provide greater lift and
control at slow speeds. They enable landing at slower speeds and shorten the amount of runway required
for takeoff and landing. The amount that the flaps extend and the angle they form with the wing can be
selected from the cockpit.

Flaps are usually constructed of materials and with techniques used on the other airfoils and control
surfaces of a particular aircraft. Aluminum skin and structure flaps are the norm on light aircraft. Heavy
and high-performance aircraft flaps may also be aluminum, but the use of composite structures is also
common. There are various kinds of flaps. Plain flaps form the trailing edge of the wing when the flap is in
the retracted position. The airflow over the wing continues over the upper and lower surfaces of the flap,
making the trailing edge of the flap essentially the trailing edge of the wing. The plain flap is hinged so that
the trailing edge can be lowered. This increases wing camber and provides greater lift.

A split flap is normally housed under the trailing edge of the wing. It is usually just a braced flat metal plate
hinged at several places along its leading edge. The upper surface of the wing extends to the trailing edge
of the flap. When deployed, the split flap trailing edge lowers away from the trailing edge of the wing.
Airflow over the top of the wing remains the same. Airflow under the wing now follows the camber
created by the lowered split flap, increasing lift.

Fowler flaps not only lower the trailing edge of the wing when deployed but also slide aft, effectively
increasing the area of the wing. This creates more lift via the increased surface area, as well as the wing
camber. When stowed, the fowler flap typically retracts up under the wing trailing edge similar to a split
flap. The sliding motion of a fowler flap can be accomplished with a worm drive and flap tracks. An
enhanced version of the fowler flap is a set of flaps that actually contains more than one aerodynamic
surface. In this configuration, the flap consists of a fore flap, a mid flap, and an aft flap.

When deployed, each flap section slides aft on tracks as it lowers. The flap sections also separate leaving
an open slot between the wing and the fore flap, as well as between each of the flap sections. Air from the
underside of the wing flows through these slots. The result is that the laminar flow on the upper surfaces
is enhanced. The greater camber and effective wing area increase overall lift.

The differing designs of leading edge flaps essentially provide the same effect. Activation of the trailing
edge flaps automatically deploys the leading edge flaps, which are driven out of the leading edge and
downward, extending the camber of the wing. Figure 1-66 shows a Krueger flap, recognizable by its flat
mid-section.
Slats
Another leading-edge device which extends wing camber is a slat. Slats can be operated independently of
the flaps with their own switch in the cockpit. Slats not only extend out of the leading edge of the wing
increasing camber and lift, but most often, when fully deployed leave a slot between their trailing edges
and the leading edge of the wing. This increases the angle of attack at which the wing will maintain its
laminar airflow, resulting in the ability to fly the aircraft slower and still maintain control.

Additionally, some aircraft incorporate ailerons, both of which are designed to move downwards together
whenever the trailing edge flaps are extended to the landing position. These will act as additional plain
flaps and provide extra drag (and lift), but will still provide roll control if required. Flaperons are ailerons
which can also act as flaps. These surfaces are also referred to as “Droop Ailerons”.

DRAG INDUCING DEVICES

There are several situations where the aircraft must slow down fairly quickly. With slower, high drag, light
aircraft, simply closing the throttle allows the high drag of the airframe and the idling propeller to slow the
aircraft down, to gliding speed prior to landing approach, for example.

As previously stated, a modern airliner is an extremely smooth, low drag design which, if only the throttles
are retarded, will continue in level flight for many miles before slowing down. Furthermore, if the nose
were lowered more than a degree or so, the aircraft will begin to accelerate again. In order to overcome
the problems of low drag on large aircraft with high momentum, the designers have introduced a variety
of drag inducing devices. These include spoilers, lift dumpers, speed brakes and in unusual circumstances,
lowering the landing gear and operating in-flight thrust reversers.

Spoilers and Lift Dumpers.

Spoilers and Lift Dumpers are usually hinged panels located about mid-chord position on the upper
surface of the wing. Hydraulically operated, they produce a large amount of turbulence and drag then
deployed, resulting in a reduction of lift. Spoilers, have a variety of uses, all of which involve spoiling the
lift of the wing.

Some of the following facilities can be combined, so that one set of panels can have more than one job.
Firstly, they can be the primary roll control of the aircraft as described previously. Secondly, the spoilers
can be used in a symmetrical, part-deployed position, allowing the aircraft to slow down quickly in the
cruise, or descend at a much steeper rate without accelerating. On some aircraft, the deployment angle of
the spoiler panels can be varied by changing the position of the control lever in the flight compartment.

Lift dumpers are, as their name describes, are spoiler panels incorporated solely to dump lift. They are
normally deployed after landing, destroying the lift of the wing and producing high drag, to assist in
stopping the aircraft efficiently and thereby allowing the wheel brakes to be operated more effectively.

Speed Brakes
Whilst it is true that the in-flight use of spoilers may be referred to as selecting the 'speed brakes', the
term more accurately describes devices which are solely for the production of drag without any change of
trim. When the wing mounted spoilers are deployed, vibration or rumble is often felt in the passenger
cabin, which some people may find disturbing. The aft mounted speed brakes not only produce high drag
at any airspeed, but their selection is virtually vibration free. Also, lift will be completely unaffected, thus
permitting their deployment on approach and making a go-around much safer.
AIRFLOW CONTROL DEVICES – Wing Fences or stall fences
A chordwise barrier on the upper surface of the wing called wing fence or stall fence which is used to halt
the spanwise flow of air along the wing. During low speed, this can maintain proper chordwise airflow
reducing the tendency for the wing to stall. Usually made of aluminium the fence is fixed most commonly
on swept back wings as they have a natural spanwise airflow.

These devices are usually fitted to aircraft with swept wings. Total airflow over a swept wing splits into
two components, one moving across the wing chord parallel to the airflow and the other flowing spanwise
towards the wing tip. The fences are fitted about mid-span, on the leading edge of the wing and extending
rearwards. They are designed to control the spanwise flow of the boundary layer air over the top of the
wing. Also they will straighten the airflow over the ailerons, improving their effectiveness and straighten
the air nearer the wing tip, resulting in less 'spillage' of air from beneath the wing to the top, thereby
producing less drag.

Airflow Control Devices – Saw Tooth Leading Edges

This form of airflow control is more common on military aircraft than modern commercial airliners. The
saw tooth or notch is simply a small increase in wing chord on the outer portion of the wing. The step,
where the change occurs, tends to form an invisible 'wall' of high velocity air, which flows over the wing
and straightens the spanwise flow. It functions in much the same way as the wing fence but removes the
extra drag and weight penalty.

Airflow Control – Winglets

These can be seen on a variety of the later generation airliners and business jets. The outboard part of the
wing is upswept to an extreme dihedral angle. These winglets work best at higher speeds and, by clever
aerodynamic design, will give better airflow control and reduce the drag produced by the wing. It does this
by using the up-flow from below the wing to produce a forward thrust from the winglet, rather like a yacht
sail. The winglets add weight to the aircraft as well as increasing parasitic drag, but the large reduction in
induced drag at the wingtip, results in a significant fuel saving.

BOUNDARY LAYER CONTROL

The boundary layer is that layer of air adjacent to the aerofoil surface (the boundary between metal and
air). If measured, the air velocity in the layer will vary from zero directly on the surface, to the relevant
velocity of the free stream at the outer extremity of the boundary layer. Normally, at the leading edge of
the wing the boundary layer will be laminar, (in smooth thin sheets close to the surface), but as the air
moves over the wing towards the trailing edge, the boundary layer becomes thicker and turbulent. The
region where the flow changes from laminar to turbulent is called the transition point. As airspeed
increases, the transition point tends to move forward, so the designer tries to prevent this thus
maintaining laminar flow, over the top of the wing for as far back as possible. As the angle of attack
increases the transition point tends to move forward. Methods of boundary layer control are as follows:

Boundary Layer Control - Vortex Generators

One way of stimulating the boundary layer and stopping the airflow becoming sluggish towards the
trailing edge is the use of vortex generators. Vortex generators are small plates or wedges projecting up
from the surface of an aerofoil about 25mm into the free stream air and they are usually made of
aluminium. Their purpose is to promote positive laminar airflow over the wing and control surfaces. This
action pushes the transition point backwards towards the trailing edge. The vortices created by these
devices swirl downward assisting the boundary layer flowing over the wing. They also weaken the shock
wave at high speed and reduce shock drag also. They can also be found on the fuselage and empennage.
Boundary Layer Control - Stall Wedges or stall strips
We have seen previously that washout on a wing permits the root of the wing to stall first, allowing the
pilot to retain roll control during the stall. Even with a degree of washout, the aircraft will drop a wing on
occasions due to adverse boundary layer air causing the outer part of the wing to stall first. This can be
overcome with the use of stall wedges, or stall strips, as they are sometimes known.

Stall Wedges are small, wedge-shaped strips mounted on the leading edge of the wings at about one third
span. These are designed to disrupt the boundary layer airflow, at large angles of attack approaching the
stall, thus ensuring the airflow breaks away, (stalls), at the root end of the wing first.
Additionally they produce a similar effect to a wing fence at smaller angles of attack resulting in a
smoother airflow over the ailerons, thus retaining optimum roll control.

Boundary Layer Control - Leading edge Devices

Other devices to prevent laminar separation at the low speed end of the range and thus control boundary
layer air are leading edge droop flaps and Kreuger flaps. They can be a droop snoot or permanent droop
type, or can be adjusted during flight.

TRIM TABS
During a flight an aircraft will develop a tendency to deviate from a straight and level “hands-off‟ attitude.
This may be due to changes in fuel state, speed, load position or flap/landing gear selection and could be
countered by applying a continuous correcting force to the primary controls. This would be fatiguing for
the crew and difficult to maintain for long periods, so trim tabs are used for this purpose instead. Trim
tabs move the primary control surface aerodynamically in the opposite direction to the movement of the
tab. To correct an aircraft ‘nose down’ out of trim condition, the elevator tab is moved down, resulting in
the elevator moving up, the tail of the aircraft moving down, so that the nose comes up, correcting the
fault.

Fixed Trim Tabs

A fixed trim tab may be a simple section of sheet metal attached to the trailing edge of a control surface. It
is adjusted on the ground by simply bending it up or down, to a position resulting in zero control forces
during cruise. Alternatively, the tab is connected to the primary control by a ground-adjustable connecting
rod. Finding the correct position for both types is by trial and error.

Adjustable (controllable) Trim Tabs

A controllable trim tab is adjusted from the flight deck, with its position being transmitted back to a flight
deck indicator showing trim units, left and right of neutral. Flight deck controls are trim-wheel, lever,
switch, etc., with the actuation of the tab by mechanical, electrical or hydraulic means. Trim facilities are
normally provided on all three axes.

Servo Tabs
Sometimes referred to as the flight tabs, servo tabs are positioned on the trailing edge of the primary
control surface and connected directly to the flight deck control inputs. They act as a form of “power
booster‟, since pilot effort is only required to deflect the relatively small area of the servo tab into the air
stream. Movement of the flight deck control input moves the tab up or down and the aerodynamic force
created on the tab, moves the primary control, until the aerodynamic load on the control surface balances
that on the tab. Moving the tab down will cause the primary control to move up and vice-versa.
Balance Tabs
Balance tabs assist the pilot in moving the primary control surface. The flight deck controls are connected
to the primary control surface whereas the balance tab, hinged to the trailing edge of the primary surface,
is connected to the fixed aerofoil. For example, the elevator balance tab, will be connected by an
adjustable rod to the horizontal stabilizer and is so arranged, that it tends to maintain the tab at the same
relative angle to the stabilizer when the pilot moves the elevator. Aerodynamically, therefore, the tab is
moving in the opposite direction to the control surface and assists its movement. Adjusting the length of
the connecting rod will alter the displacement of the effective range of the tab about the mid-point
datum.

Some types of balance tab have more than one point of attachment and it is possible with these so called
‘geared balance tabs’, to alter the range of tab deflection. The function of a balance tab can also be
combined with that of a trim tab, by adjusting the length of the balance tab connecting rod from the flight
deck. This is usually achieved by installing a form of linear actuator in the rod and is termed a trim/balance
tab.

Anti-Balance Tabs
Anti-balance tabs operate in a similar way aerodynamically as balance tabs but with a reverse effect. The
difference is in the way it is connected to the fixed aerofoil. It is routed so that the tab moves, relative to
and in the same directions, the primary control surface. The effect is to add a loading to the pilot effort
making it slightly heavier and thus providing ‘feel’, to prevent the possibility of
over-stressing the airframe structure.

Spring Tabs
At high speed, control surfaces operated directly from the flight deck, become increasingly difficult to
deflect from neutral, due to the force of the aerodynamic loads caused by the airstream around them. The
spring tab is progressive in its operation and provides increasing aerodynamic assistance in moving the
control surface, with an increase in aircraft forward speed. The flight deck controls are connected to the
spring tab in a similar manner to the servo tab previously described, except the linkage is routed via a
torque rod assembly (or spring box) attached to the primary control surface.

When the aircraft is stationary or flying at low airspeed the air loads are nonexistent or very small. If the
flight deck controls are deflected from neutral, the rigidity of the torque tube (or spring force) causes the
primary control to be deflected together with the spring tab. The tab will remain in the same relative
position with the primary control and consequently provides no additional aerodynamic assistance.

As the aircraft flies faster, the increased force produced by the airflow, opposes the movement of the
primary control surface from its neutral position. Deflection of the flight deck controls in this case causes
the torque tube to twist (or the spring to compress), resulting in a deflection of the spring tab.
The tab deflection provides an added aerodynamic load which assists the flight deck effort. The faster the
aircraft flies, the greater the airflow force and therefore the greater the spring tab deflection, resulting in
a progressively increasing assistance in moving the primary control.

MASS BALANCE
All aircraft structures are distorted when loads are applied. If the structure is elastic, as all good structures
are, it will tend to spring back when the load is removed, or its point of application is changed. Since a
control surface is hinged near its leading edge, the centre of gravity (C of G) will be behind the hinge and
as a consequence, there will be more weight aft of the hinge line than in front of it. In the case of an
aileron for example, should the air load distort the wing upwards, it is likely that the aileron will “lag‟
behind and distort downwards. This effectively produces an extra upward aerodynamic force which
pushes the wing up even further. Due to its elasticity, the wing will spring back and the aileron will lag
again but this time upwards, aerodynamically forcing the wing down further than it would normally go due
to elastic recoil alone. Now the cycle is repeated and a high speed oscillation will result. This unwanted
phenomenon is referred to as flutter.

Flutter can be prevented if the C of G of the control surface is moved in line with, or slightly in front of, the
hinge line. The normal way of achieving this is to add a number of high density weights, either within the
leading edge of the surface itself or externally, ahead of the hinge line.

CONTROL SURFACE BIAS

When a control surface is set so it is not in the true neutral position it is referred to as having a bias. There
are many reasons for not having the controls in a true central position, including compensating for design
features. As an example, a single propeller aircraft may have a tendency to roll in the opposite direction to
the engines torque, to counteract this moment the ailerons could be offset with one slightly up and the
other down. Once the aircraft is flying level with the bias set the trim gauge in the cabin would then be set
to read zero.
AERODYNAMIC BALANCE – HORN BALANCE
In order to overcome the high stick forces on larger aircraft at higher speeds, the surfaces themselves are
used to lighten the forces. This is referred to as Aerodynamic Balancing and the three principal ways of
achieving it are: horn balance, inset hinge and pressure balancing. Air loads on the control side, aft of the
hinge, try to push the surface back towards neutral. (This is the force that would normally make the
controls heavy). If the proportion of balance area forward of the hinge and control area aft of the hinge is
correct, the pilot will feel that his control loads are more manageable, making the aircraft easier to fly.

AERODYNAMIC BALANCE – INSET HINGE

This method is similar to and has the same effect as the horn balance. Instead of having a forward
projection at one or both ends of the control surface, the hinges are set back so that the area forward of
the hinge line, which projects into the air flow when the control surface is moved from neutral, is spread
evenly along its whole length.

Aerodynamic Balance – Balance Panels

A device fitted to a few aircraft is the aerodynamic balance panel. Often used in the aileron system, the
panel is fitted between the leading edge of the aileron, ahead of the hinge and the rear face of the wing.
When the aileron is deflected upwards (downwards) from neutral, the high velocity, low pressure air
passing over the lower (upper) gap decreases the air pressure under (above) the balance panel and pulls it
down (up). The force on the balance panel is proportional to airspeed and control surface deflection and
assists the pilot in moving the controls accordingly.
11.2 AIRFRAME STRUCTURES — GENERAL CONCEPTS

AIRWORTHINESS REQUIREMENTS FOR STRUCTURAL STRENGTH

Airworthiness requirements are necessary with respect to aircraft structures, because established
standards of strength, control, maintainability, etc. will ensure that all aircraft will be constructed to the
safest possible standard. Requirements for aircraft above 5700kg MTWA (maximum total weight
authorized) are listed in Joint Airworthiness Requirement 25 (EASA-25) and for aircraft below 5700kg
MTWA, in EASA-23. These publications cover not only the basic requirements, like maximum and
minimum 'g' loading, but a vast range of other requirements with respect to the structure such as:

 Control Loads
 Door Operation
 Effect of Tabs
 Factor of Safety
 Fatigue
 High Lift Devices
 Stability & Stalling
 Ventilation
 Weights

The list is all-embracing and provides a useful means of searching for specific structural details.

STRUCTURAL CLASSIFICATION

For the purpose of assessing damage and the type of repairs to be carried out, the structure of all aircraft
is divided into three significant categories:-

 Primary structure
  Secondary structure
 Tertiary structure

Diagrams are prepared by each manufacturer to denote how the various structural members fall into
these three categories.

PRIMARY STRUCTURE

This structure includes all portions of aircraft, the failure of which in flight or on the ground, would be
likely to cause:

 Catastrophic structural collapse

 Inability to operate a service
 Injury to occupants
 Loss of control
 Unintentional operation of a service
 Power unit failure

Examples of some types of primary structure are as follows:

 Engine Mountings
 Fuselage Frames
 Main Floor members
 Main Spars

SECONDARY STRUCTURE

This structure includes all portions of the aircraft which would normally be regarded as primary
structure, but which unavoidably have such a reserve of strength over design requirements that
appreciable weakening may be permitted, without risk of failure. It also includes structure which, if
damaged, would not impair the safety of the aircraft as described earlier. Examples of secondary
structure include:

 Ribs and parts of skin in the wings.

 Skin and stringers in the fuselage

TERTIARY STRUCTURE

This type of structure includes all portions of the structure in which the stresses are low, but which, for
various reasons, cannot be omitted from the aircraft. Typical examples include fairings, fillets and
brackets which support items in the fuselage and adjacent areas.

FAIL SAFE, SAFE LIFE AND DAMAGE TOLERANT CONCEPTS

FAIL SAFE
A fail safe structure is one which retains, after initiation of a fracture or crack, sufficient strength for the
operation of the aircraft with an acceptable standard of safety, until such failure is detected on a normal
scheduled inspection.

This is achieved by part and full scale airframe testing and fatigue analysis by usually by the aircraft
manufacturer and by subsequent in-service experience.

SAFE LIFE

Safe life structure and components are granted a period of time during which it is considered, that
failure is extremely unlikely. When deciding its duration, the effects of wear, fatigue and corrosion must
be considered. For example, if tests show that fatigue will cause a failure in 12,000 flying hours, then
one sixth of this might be quoted as the safe life (2000 hours then scrapped). If wear or corrosion prove
to be the likely cause of failure before 12,000 hours, then one of these will be the deciding factor. The
safe life time period may be expressed in flying hours, elapsed time, number of flights or number of
applications of load, ie; pressurization cycles.

DAMAGE TOLERANCE

The fail safe method has proven to be somewhat unreliable following some accidents that proved that
the concept was not 100% guaranteed. It was also a severe limitation that the addition of extra
structural members to protect the integrity of the structure considerably increased the weight of the
aircraft.

The damage tolerant concept has eliminated much of the extra weight, by distributing the loads on a
particular structure over a larger area. This requires an evaluation of the structure, to provide multiple
load paths to carry the loading. The main advantage is that even with a crack present, the structure will
retain its integrity and that during scheduled maintenance programs, the crack will be found before it
can become critical. For example, a wing attachment to the fuselage, which in the past would have been
designed with one or two large pintle bolts, will now have a larger number of smaller bolts in the fitting.
The single or dual bolt attachment had to be heavily reinforced to take the wing loading, adding more
weight, whereas the multiple load path can be constructed in a lighter manner, whilst still maintaining
its strength.

STATION IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM

Most manufacturers use a system of station marking where, for example, the aircraft nose is designated
Station 0 and other station designations are located at measured distances aft of this point. Component
and other locations within the wings, tailplane, fin and nacelles are established from separate dedicated
station’s zero.

Fuselage Locations
A particular fuselage station (or frame) would be identified, for example, as Station 5050. This means
that if the metric system of measurement is employed, the frame is located at 5.05 metres (5050mm)
aft of station zero.

Lateral Locations

To locate structures to the right or left of the aircraft, many manufacturers consider the fuselage centre
line as a station zero. With such a system, the wing or tailplane ribs could be identified as being a
particular number of millimetres (or inches) to the right or the left of the centre line.

Vertical Locations

These are usually measured above or below a ‘water line’, which is a predetermined reference line
passing along the side of the fuselage, usually, somewhere between the floor level and the window line.

ZONAL AND STATION IDENTIFICATION SYSTEM

ZONAL SYSTEM

During many different maintenance operations including component changes, structural repairs and
trouble shooting, it is necessary to indicate to the engineer where, within the structure, the correct
location is to be found for the work to be carried out.

When attempting to establish a specific location or identifying components, some manufacturers make
use of two systems, a zonal system and a frame/station method. The zonal system divides the airframe
into a number of zones, (usually less than 10), to give engineers and others a rough idea of where they
need to look. The zonal system may also be used in component labelling and work card area
identification. In the illustration below, an engineer might have for example a work card numbered
500376, indicating it was Job 376 located on the left wing (Zone 500).
Major Zones in Aircraft as per ATA100
ATA100:
Zone 100 Fuselage Lower
Zone 200 Fuselage Top
Zone 300 Stabilizers / Empennage
Zone 400 Nacelles-Pylons
Zone 500 Left Wing
Zone 600 Right Wing
Zone 700 Landing Gear Compartment
Zone 800 Doors
Zone 900 Lavatories & Galleys
 Large aircraft are divided into zones and subzones for identifying the location
of various components

LOADS FOUND WITHIN THE STRUCTURE – STRESS AND STRAIN

Aircraft structural members are designed to carry a load or to resist stress and a single member may be
subjected to a combination of stresses during flight. When an external force acts on a body, it is
opposed by a force within the body. This force is called Stress. If the body is distorted by the stress, it is
said to be subject to Strain.

Stress and strain can be defined as follows:

Stress is load or force per unit area acting on a body.

Stress = Load or Force ÷ Cross Sectional Area

Strain is the distortion per unit length of a body.

Strain = Distortion ÷ Original Length

There are five major stresses and all will be found somewhere within an aircraft structure. In the design
stage, the stresses will have been assessed by the designer and the structure made strong enough to carry
them adequately. Furthermore, a reserve of strength will also have been included for safety.

The five types of stress are:

1. Compression

2. Tension

3. Bending (a combination of compression and tension)

4. Twisting/Torsion

5. Shear

Tension is the stress that resists a force that tends to pull something apart. The engine pulls the aircraft
forward, but air resistance tries to hold it back. The result is tension, which stretches the aircraft. The
tensile strength of a material is measured in pounds per square inch (psi) and is calculated by dividing the
load (in pounds) required to pull the material apart by its cross-sectional area (in square inches).

Compression is the stress that resists a crushing force. The compressive strength of a material is also
measured in psi. Compression is the stress that tends to shorten or squeeze aircraft parts.

Torsion is the stress that produces twisting. While moving the aircraft forward, the engine also tends to
twist it to one side, but other aircraft components hold it on course. Thus, torsion is created. The torsion
strength of a material is its resistance to twisting or torque.

Shear is the stress that resists the force tending to cause one layer of a material to slide over an adjacent
layer. Two riveted plates in tension subject the rivets to a shearing force. Usually, the shearing strength of
a material is either equal to or less than its tensile or compressive strength. Aircraft parts, especially
screws, bolts, and rivets, are often subject to a shearing force.

Bending stress is a combination of compression and tension.

HOOP STRESS

An aircraft which has its fuselage pressurised inside to allow the carriage of passengers at altitude, will
have other stresses acting on the fuselage skin. The circumferential load about the fuselage is known as
hoop stress and resisted by the fuselage frames and tension in the so called stressed skin. The longitudinal
(axial) load along the fuselage is also resisted by tension in the skin and by the longerons and stringers.

METAL FATIGUE

The phenomenon of metal fatigue has long been known, but has become of greater concern in recent
years with aircraft which remain in service long after their original expected fatigue life has expired. It is
relatively easy to design a structure to withstand a steady load, but aircraft are subjected to widely varying
loads in flight and many components experience load reversals, an example being the wings, where the
aerodynamic forces during flight manoeuvres cause tension and compression loads to alternate
continually. Unfortunately, any metal part subjected to a wide variation or reversal of even a relatively
small load is gradually and progressively weakened.

DRAINAGE AND VENTILATION PROVISIONS

Drainage The aircraft structure requires many different types of drain holes and paths to prevent water
and other fluids such as fuel, hydraulic oil etc., from collecting within the structure. These could become
both a corrosion and fire hazard. The forms of drainage can be divided into two areas. 1. External drains 2.
Internal drains

EXTERNAL DRAINS

These ports are located on exterior surfaces of the fuselage, wing and empennage to ensure fluids are
dumped overboard. In small unpressurised aircraft and unpressurised areas of larger airliners, these drains
may be permanently open. However, in pressurised aircraft, the cabin air would leak uncontrollably
through the drains and so it is necessary to use drain valves to prevent loss of cabin pressure. There are a
number basic types of drain valve used for this purpose. Two similar types rely upon pressurised air in the
cabin to keep the valve closed. One valve has a rubber flapper seal and the other a spring loaded valve
seal. Normally located on the keel of the fuselage, both are open when the aircraft is unpressurised on the
ground, allowing the fluids to drain overboard. During flight, the increased air pressure in the cabin closes
the valves, thus preventing any pressurisation losses. These valves are shown below, where it can also be
seen that a levelling compound has been used in areas which might become fluid traps. This compound is
usually a rubberised sealant which fills the cavity, bringing the level up to the lip of the drain hole.

VENTILATION

It is essential that the internal cavities within the structure are properly vented to prevent the build up of
flammable vapour from the drain lines and to allow any other moisture residue to properly evaporate.
Consequently sumps, tanks and cavities will all be provided with vent pipes and in some cases, such as
engine cowlings, ram air inlets and outlets are utilised to ensure all zones where fluids are contained are
adequately ventilated.

System Installation Provisions The installation of various systems within the airframe, require adaptations
from the perfect ‘drawing-board’ design. When systems like the air conditioning and pressurisation,
hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, avionics and others are designed, there must be facilities incorporated in
the plans, to provide a location for all the system components, their associated lines and cables. It must
also be borne in mind that many components have to be either serviced ‘in-situ’, or will be a line
replaceable unit (LRU), both of which requires easy access for the maintenance engineers. To this end, on
modern aircraft, there are normally compartments allocated to each of the major systems where the
majority of components will be installed.

LIGHTNING STRIKE PROVISION

When aircraft are flying in cloud or in close proximity to storms, there is always the risk of the aircraft
being struck by lightning. Whilst this is a rare occurrence, there are many protection devices installed in
the aircraft to ensure that a strike does as little damage as possible when it does happen. A lightning strike
on an aircraft can have a peak current of up to 100,000 amperes, so precautions must be taken to ensure
that the least damage is done to the aircraft, its systems and components as the charge passes through.
Most important is the electrical bonding of all the major components of the airframe.

Bonding is achieved by electrically connecting all the components of an aircraft structure together. These
precautions will ensure all components are at the same electrical potential by providing a return path
through the airframe, since modern aircraft utilise an earth return system. This means that current from
the lightning strike cannot build up on one part of the structure and create a voltage high enough to allow
it to jump to another part that might be electrically separated, such as flying control surfaces.

Bonding cables are referred to as secondary conductors. As well as electrical bonding, dedicated lightning
protection systems are employed to cater for the high current and these are usually known as primary
conductors. Occupants of the aircraft are also protected from electrical shock in this way by the
surrounding aircraft structure with what is referred to as a ‘Faraday Cage’.

11.3 AIRFRAME STRUCTURES –AEROPLANES

11.3.1 FUSELAGE

CONSTRUCTION METHODS

The fuselage of a light aircraft is the body of the aircraft, to which the wings, tail, landing gear and engines
may be attached. Larger aircraft can have their main landing gear attached to the wings and, on multiple
engined aircraft, a number of the power-plants can be wing mounted also. The loads produced either on
the ground or in flight, will at some time, have to pass through the fuselage. In order to absorb these
tremendous loads imposed upon the structure, the fuselage must have maximum strength, but this must
be combined with the other constraint, that of minimum weight. There are two types of construction
found in the majority of modern aircraft fuselage design, the truss and the stressed skin type.

TRUSS FUSELAGE CONSTRUCTION

By definition, a truss is a form of construction in which a number of members (or struts), are joined to
form a rigid structure normally covered with non-load carrying material such as cloth, fabric or thin sheets
of wood. Very early aircraft used a method of construction referred to as a Pratt Truss, where struts were
held in compression, and wires, which ran diagonally between the struts, were in tension.

TRUSS FUSELAGE - WARREN TRUSS

When fuselages were subsequently made from welded tubes, the Warren Truss became popular. In this
arrangement, shown overleaf, the longerons are separated by diagonal members which carry both
compressive and tensile loads.
STRESSED SKIN STRUCTURE

The necessity of having to build a non-load-carrying covering over a structural truss led to designers to
develop the stressed skin form of construction. In this method, a proportion of the load is carried by the
outside skin, which can be also be formed into a much smoother and more efficient shape. The
commonest form of a stressed skin structure is a chicken egg (pure monocoque). The seemingly fragile
shell can resist high loads, as long as they are applied in a proper direction.

Pure-Monocoque Structure

This form of stressed skin construction is rarely seen in its purest form, because it is normal to add some
form of light internal structure to help support the skin. However, there are some aircraft (normally gliders
and sailplanes) made from glass reinforced plastic (GRP), which are constructed as a pure monocoque
structure. In this design, the GRP skin is quite thick, often with a core of some other lightweight material
such as balsa wood or composite honeycomb, so there is no need for any internal, supporting structure.

Semi-Monocoque Structure

This form of construction has a skin carrying a large amount of the loads, but with an internal structure of
frames and stringers to keep the skin to its correct shape, where it can best carry the loads. Some have
longerons which are more substantial than stringers and carry most of the longitudinal structural loads,
with the frames carrying the radial loads.

PRESSURISED STRUCTURE

High altitude flight places the occupants in a hostile environment in which life cannot be sustained
without oxygen. To avoid the need to wear oxygen masks, the pressure in the cabin is raised higher than it
is outside, which provides sufficient oxygen in the air for the passengers to breathe normally. In the
1950’s, piston-engined aircraft, had a pressure differential across the cabin wall about two pounds per
square inch (psi) maximum. Modern aircraft cabins can sustain a pressure differential between 8 and 10
psi, so there must not be any part of the structure containing 'stress raisers' which would concentrate
stress to an unacceptable level. Much of the structure of modern aircraft has been built to the 'fail safe'
philosophy, in which the structure is built with multiple load paths for the major stresses to pass through,
to cater for the unlikely failure of a single structural item.

Pressurisation Sealing

All joints in the structure, as well as openings such as doors, panels, emergency exits, etc. must be
completely airtight during flight, to prevent the cabin pressure leaking below its required level. Joints are
constructed with an interface of sealing compound, whereas windows and doors employ pre-formed
rubber seals around their edges. The points where control tubes and cables pass in and out of the
pressure hull utilize some form of flexible bellows which are leak proof but move with the controls.

ATTACHMENTS

The fuselage can, as mentioned earlier, carry most of the major loads, both on the ground and in flight. To
this end, most of the other airframe components such as the wing, stabilisers, pylon and undercarriage,
can be fitted to the fuselage. The wings can be mounted above or below the passenger compartment. As
already mentioned, wings are usually attached to the fuselage with multiple
attachments, although light aircraft may still have wings attached with as few as two bolts.

The horizontal and vertical stabilisers can be fitted to the fuselage in numerous different ways. When the
horizontal stabiliser is fitted part-way up or on the top of the vertical stabiliser, there will be only one
strong attachment point. Otherwise, there will be separate attachments for the fin and for the left and
right tailplane sections.

Where a moving horizontal stabiliser is employed, the attachment will consist of left and right rear pivot
fittings and a single forward attachment to a trim actuator. On rare occasions, the rear fuselage is
manufactured, together with the stabilisers, as one integral unit. Because the loads generated by the
empennage, it is usual to find that the rear fuselage structure has stronger frames around the stabiliser
attachment points. These frames transmit the loads along the fuselage and away from the tail. The same
technique is used when the engines are attached to wing or to rear fuselage mounted pylons The Fokker
70/100, for example, has oblique frames to connect the vertical stabiliser to the top mounted tailplane
and to the fuselage, plus two heavy frames to transmit all the engine thrust loads into the fuselage.

The landing gear, as for the other attachments, is mounted on to strong fuselage frames which in this
case, are also used to mount the wings, attached above the fuselage. The loads that these frames carry,
both in flight and on the ground, are transmitted into the fuselage by means of longitudinal stringers and
longerons.

PASSENGERS AND CARGO

Aircraft that carry passengers as well as crew, all have to have seats that comply with crashworthiness
regulations. These regulations dictate that the seats with a person correctly strapped in place, must be
able to survive a sudden stop of over 20 times the force of gravity, (20g), without the floor mountings (to
which the seat is attached) failing, or the seat itself collapsing. Although aircraft seats appear to resemble
normal domestic seats, the tubular framework and floor attachment 'feet' are very strong, yet are light in
weight and can be disconnected from the floor if necessary, by releasing a few quick-release
fasteners.

Passenger compartment floors of modern aircraft are often panels of the composite material ‘Fibrelam’,
which are strong enough to carry most of the general loads created by passengers and galley equipment.
The panels are themselves supported by lateral and longitudinal beams, which are primary structure, into
which the panels fit. Lateral beams are attached to the lower portion of the (usually) circular fuselage
frames and longitudinal beams supported by the lateral beams, are those upon which the seats are fitted.

DOORS
This topic covers most methods of entry and exit from the fuselage, including those for passengers, crew,
refreshments and meals, baggage and major maintenance access. In addition, some doors are dedicated
to emergencies only and will therefore remain unused during normal operations. If the aircraft has a cabin
pressurisation system, the doors have to be more substantial than for a non-pressurised type and be fitted
with safety devices to prevent accidental opening. One method to prevent this happening is allow the
door to open inwards so that the door 'plugs' the aperture when closed and is held in place by the cabin
pressure in addition to the door frame locating bolts. Any door on pressurised aircraft that does open
outward must have additional devices and protection mechanisms fitted to prevent accidental opening
and a flight deck warning system to inform the crew if it is not properly closed and secured.

Most fuselage doors are operated manually, but much larger freight/cargo doors are either electrically or
hydraulically operated. Another requirement on all cabin doors, (normal exit/entry and emergency type) is
the need for efficient emergency egress in the event of a mishap on the ground. They must be operable by
a single handle whose operation shall be ‘rapid and obvious’. Most doors have decals and large red
arrows, to clearly indicate the way in which the handles are to be rotated or moved to open the door.
Dedicated emergency exits are almost always 'plug' type and, therefore, cannot be opened in flight due to
the cabin pressure acting on door opening mechanism (usually an over-centre type a cam arrangement)
thus preventing handle rotation.

To prevent leakage of the cabin pressure, all doors have to have a substantial seal around their edges to
keep the aperture between door and surrounding fuselage frame airtight. Some seals just compress and
fill the space when the door is closed, others use cabin air to inflate and therefore expand the seal to
achieve the same result.

WINDOWS AND WINDSCREENS

All the transparencies on non-pressurised aircraft are normally made from acrylic or some other clear
plastic material. On pressurised aircraft, flight deck windscreens have to comply with very strict bird-strike
regulations and are made from a toughened sandwich of glass/plastic/glass.

Passenger cabin windows are almost always made from acrylic plastic. This saves quite a lot of weight as
well as cost. For added safety, the acrylic cabin windows are actually two layers with a space in between,
so that if one fails the other will carry the pressurization loads, a typical case of fail safe. In addition, some
cabin window assemblies have a third, pane of acrylic fitted to help reduce the engine noise in the cabin
from the power-plants outside. Most aircraft require one or more flight deck windows that can be opened
for signaling to the ground-crew, for fresh air ventilation if the air conditioning is 'off' on the ground and to
be able to see out in emergency situations, for example, the windscreen becoming obliterated. To achieve
this, aircraft are usually fitted with a pair of opening front corner or side windows, sometimes called Direct
Vision windows. If the cabin is pressurized, they will be unable to be opened due to the provision of a
similar ‘pressure on’ safety lock system as the cabin doors.

FRAMES AND FORMERS

Frames and formers provide the basic fuselage shape, with the frames, being of more robust construction,
providing strong points for attachment of other fittings such as the wings and tailplane.

BULKHEADS
Where extra support is required within a fuselage for mountin
mountingg of components such as wings and landing
gear, bulkheads are to transfer the loads to the fuselage structure without producing stress raising points.
Bulkheads can be either a complete or a partial circular frame, which usually
reinforces a fuselage frame.. Other examples are solid pressurization bulkheads which are normally found
at the front of the fuselage ahead of the flight deck and at the rear of the pressure cabin, or an engine
firewall on the nacelles.

LONGERONS AND STRINGERS

Longerons are used in fuselage construction, where either an aperture such as a door or window requires
greater support, or where a number of structural high load points such as floors, landing gear
attachments, etc. need to be interconnected. They are usually of much heavier construction than stringers
and can be solid extrusions or fabricated multiple part construction. Stringers provide longitudinal shape
and support to the fuselage skin. They are also the spanwise members of the mainplanes, vertical and
horizontal stabilizers
rs and flying control surfaces. Often stringers are attached to frames with fillets or
gussets.

Longerons and stingers

DOUBLERS AND REINFORCEMENT

Where the skin requires extra strengthening, at the junction of plates or around small apertures, a second
seco
layer of skin is attached over the original to reinforce it. This extra plate is known as a doubler or a doubler
plate. Where loads are concentrated within the structure, it can be strengthened at these places by either
making the material thicker, or byy the addition of a number of layers of similar material. The actual
amount of reinforcement being dictated by the amount of stress carried in each area.

STRUTS AND TIES

Any structural item that is designed solely to take a compressive load is called a sstrut.
trut. Whereas an item
that only takes a tensile load is called a tie. They can be found throughout a modern aircraft structure,
although an ideal example would be a high performance biplane. In this type of aircraft often used for
aerobatics, the struts which
ich separate the pairs of wings, in compression and the interconnecting flying
wires, in tension, take all the loads produced by the wing.
BEAMS AND FLOOR STRUCTURES

Beams are often used laterally and longitudinally along the fuselage to support the flight deck and
passenger cabin floors. Additionally they provide strong point attachments for the crew and passenger
seats and as such, constitute primary structure. Modern cabin flooring is usually made up from a number
of removable composite honeycomb core panels, examples of which are shown below, whereas the flight
deck is often made from metal panels supported on beams.

ANTI-CORROSIVE PROTECTION

Materials used in aircraft construction are selected primarily for their strength and tenacity.
Unfortunately, many may readily suffer serious damage from corrosion unless effectively protected and
the rate of corrosion attack can be extremely rapid in certain environments. One of the main
considerations in the design of aircraft structure therefore is to control and prevent corrosion.The
weakening effect of corrosive attack may be aggravated by stresses in the metal and result in premature
failure of the component.

11.3.2 CONSTRUCTION METHODS – WING

The basic requirement for wing construction, particularly with cantilever types is for a spanwise member
of great strength, usually in the form of a spar. Conventionally, there are three general designs, monospar,
two-spar or multispar.

Most modern commercial airliners have a wing comprising top and bottom skins complete with spanwise
stringers, front and rear spars and a set of wing ribs running chordwise across the wing between the spars.
This forms a box-like shape which is very robust and the addition of nose ribs and trailing edge fittings
produce the characteristic aerofoil shape.

Wing structures carry some of the heaviest loads found in aircraft structure. Fittings and joints must be
carefully proportioned so they can pick up loads in a gradual and progressive manner and redistribute
them to other parts of the structure in a similar manner. Special attention must be paid to minimizing
stress concentrations, by avoiding too rapid a change in cross section and to provide ample material to
handle any concentration in stress or shock loading that cannot be avoided, such as landing loads.

CONSTRUCTION METHODS – EMPENNAGE

The vertical and horizontal stabilisers, elevators and rudder are constructed in a manner similar to the
wings but on a smaller scale. The main structural members are the spars, with the stringers, ribs and
stressed skin completing the basic design.

CONSTRUCTION METHODS – ENGINE ATTACHMENTS

Engine mountings consist of the structure that transmits the thrust provided by either the propeller or
turbojet, to the airframe. The mounts can be constructed from welded alloy steel tubing, formed sheet
metal, forged alloy fittings or a combination of all three. All engine mounts are required to absorb not only
the forward thrust during normal flight, but the reduced force of reverse thrust and the vibrations
produced by the particular engine/propeller combination.

STRUCTURAL ASSEMBLY TECHNIQUES

The integrity of an aircraft joint depends on the way the parts are attached together. The most common
method of attachment is by the use of rivets or more sophisticated types of rivets, known as fasteners.
However, where high strength is required, nuts and bolts are used whilst other structural assembly is
achieved by the use of adhesive bonding techniques.

Although aluminium alloy is the most common material for aircraft construction, more and more
structural components and in some cases, complete aircraft, are being manufactured from composite
materials like glass or carbon fibre. Riveting is generally divided into two types: (1) solid shank rivets and
(2) special fasteners. The special fastener category being sub-divided further into special and blind
fasteners.

SOLID SHANK RIVETS

The vast majority of aircraft structure is held together with solid rivets. As will be explained later, many of
the more modern designs use special fasteners and some bonded construction, but the majority are still
solid rivets.

Head Shapes
In the past there have been a large number of rivet head shapes used in aircraft, but in recent years these
have been reduced and standardized to four main types: The Universal Head, sometimes known as AN70
or MS20470, is most popular and may be used to replace any protruding-head rivet. It is streamlined on
top but thick enough to provide strength without protruding too much into the airflow. A Round Head
rivet, AN430, is used on internal structure where the thicker head is more suitable for automatic riveting
equipment.

In internal locations where a flat head rivet can be driven more easily than either a round or universal
head rivet, the AN442 Flat Head rivet may be used. Where a smooth skin is important, flush rivets such as
AN426 or MS20426, with a 100 countersink head are used. Additionally, rivets with a different
countersink angle, such as 90 and 120 degrees can be found.
Types of Alloy used for Solid Shank Rivets The identification marks on rivet heads serve two important
functions. Firstly, the marks are used to identify the rivet alloy required for a special installation area
and, secondly, the head markings are necessary when trying to identify which kind of rivets are being
removed from an aircraft during disassembly or repair. The alloy identifying marks are made on rivet
heads at the time they are being stamped out during manufacture. Generally, solid rivets are
manufactured in five different materials: For non-structural applications, rivets made from pure
aluminium, sometimes known as 'A' rivets, may be used.

When riveting magnesium alloy sheets, there must be no copper in the rivet alloy, or dissimilar metal
corrosion will set in. Therefore, a 'B' rivet, manufactured from 5056 alloy is used. This contains a large
amount of magnesium with a little manganese and chromium but no copper.

Dimensions
Aircraft rivet dimensions are categorised by the diameter of the shank, ‘D’, and the length, ‘L’, measured
from the end of the shank to the portion of the head that will be flush with the surface of the metal. This
means that a countersink rivet is measured from the top of its head, whilst the remainder are measured
from under the head.

Identification
The complete identification of a rivet includes its head style, its material, its diameter and its length. The
identification code shows the diameter as a number of 1/32ths of an inch and the length as a number of
1/16ths of an inch. For example, An MS20470AD4-4 has a universal head (MS20470), is made from
alloy 2117 (AD), is 1/8" diameter (4 x 1/32”) and 1/4" long (4 x 1/16”).
SPECIAL AND BLIND FASTENERS.

When solid shank rivets become impractical to use, then special fasteners are used. These, you will
remember, are of two types; special and blind fasteners. The term ‘Special Fasteners’ refers first to their
job requirement and second to the tooling needed for the installation. In certain locations, aircraft require
strength that cannot be produced by a solid shank rivet, so a special high strength fastener is used. For
example, if high shear strength is required, then special High Shear rivets are used. These are usually
installed with special tools and will be discussed later in this chapter.

Blind Fasteners
There are several different types of blind fasteners which can be hollow or self-sealing. They include the
following types, all of which can be installed from one side of the work.
1. Chobert
2. Avdel
3. Tucker/Pop
 4. Cherry

Chobert Rivets
These are available with a snap (round) head or a countersink head and are closed by forcibly pulling a
mandrel through the bore of the rivet. This closes the 'tail' and expands the rivet tightly into the hole. To
seal Chobert rivets, a separate sealing pin is driven into the hollow bore of the rivet.

Tucker or 'Pop' Rivets

Tucker/'Pop' rivets are manufactured with either domed or countersunk heads and are supplied on
individual mandrels. The rivets can be either ‘break head’ or ‘break stem’ and when closed, can be sealed
or open depending upon their application. Break head rivets are rarely used due to the 'foreign object' risk
from the broken off heads lying within the internal aircraft structure. Break stem rivets are be divided into
two groups, short and long break mandrels. Long break type leaves the stem in place, greatly increasing
the shear strength of the rivet.

Special Fasteners
These can include Hi-Shear, Avdelock, Jo-Bolts, and Rivnuts. The first three are all formed by means of a
collar which is swaged into the grooves in fastener shank or expanded over the shank to form a blind
head. Rivnuts are formed using a similar method to cherry locks, but with a threaded mandrel screwed
into the Rivnut. The advantage of Rivnuts, is that after closing, a fixed nut is left behind which may be used
for the attachment of de-icing boots, floor coverings and other non-structural parts.

BOLTS AND NUTS

Bolts
A bolt is designed to hold two or more parts together. It may be loaded in shear, in tension, or both. Bolts
are designed to be used with nuts and have a portion of the shank that is not threaded, called the grip,
whereas Machine screws and Cap screws have the entire length of the shank threaded. The dimensions
required to identify a bolt are expressed in terms of the diameter of the shank and the length from the
bottom of the head to the end of the bolt. The grip length should be the same as the thickness of the
material being held together. This measurement can be found by reference to the applicable charts.
Bolt heads are made in a variety of shapes, with hexagonal being the most common.

General Purpose Bolts

All-purpose structural bolts used for both tension and shear loading is made under 'AN' standards from 3
to 20, the bolt diameter is specified by the AN number in 1/16"; for example:

AN3 = 3/16" diameter

AN11 = 11/16" diameter

The range is from AN3 to AN20 which have hexagon heads, are made from alloy steel and have UNF (fine)
threads. The length of the bolt is expressed as a dash number. Bolts increase in length by 1/8" and the
dash number(s) will show the length.

Clevis Bolts
These bolts (AN21 to 36) are designed for pure shear load applications such as control cables. The slotted,
domed head results in this bolt often being mistaken for a machine screw. A clevis bolt has only a short
portion of the shank threaded with a small notch between the threads and the plain portion of the shank,
which allows the bolt to rotate more freely in its hole. Because the length of this bolt is more critical than
normal bolts, its length is given in 1/16" increments.

Nuts
All nuts used on aircraft must have some sort of locking device to prevent them from loosening and falling
off. Many nuts are held in place on a bolt, by passing a split pin through a hole in the bolt shank and
through slots, or castellations, in the nut. Others have some form of locking insert that grips the bolt's
thread, whilst others rely on the tension of a spring-type lock-washer to hold the nut tight enough against
the threads to prevent them from vibrating loose. Sometimes, nuts that are plain with no locking devices
are used and prevented from coming undone, once they have been tightened, by the use of locking wire
attached to an adjacent nut or to the aircraft structure.

There are two basic types of nuts, self-locking and non self-locking. As the name implies, a self-locking nut
locks onto a bolt with no external help, whilst a non self-locking nut relies on either a split pin, lock-nut,
locking washer or locking wire, to stop it from undoing.

Another type of nut in general use is the Anchor nut. These are permanently mounted on nut plates that
enable inspection panels and access doors to be easily removed and installed, without access being
required on the reverse side of the work. To make fitment of the panel easier when there is a large
number of screws, the nuts are often mounted 'floating' on their mounts, which allows for small
differences in the position of the attaching screws.

ADHESIVE BONDED STRUCTURES

Adhesive Bonding is the technique of joining materials using special adhesives. In the past a common type
of adhesive widely used in metal to metal joints was the ‘Redux’ epoxy resin system. ‘Redux’ is the trade
name for a range of adhesives produced by the Ciba-Geigy company and the epoxy bonding
procedure in general, refers to a hot-melt, hot-cure adhesive, which is available in partly cured strips or
sheets.

In metal to metal bonding, the sheets of partly cured adhesive, which at this stage resemble strips of
chewing gum, are cut to exact size. With the backing paper peeled away, they are carefully placed
between each of the components being joined together and the joint securely clamped. The complete
assembly, which for example might consist of a wing skin with all its stringers and ribs in place, is then
loaded into an autoclave (pressure cooker) to complete the curing process.

METHODS OF SURFACE PROTECTION

As mentioned in an earlier chapter, there are many different types of surface protection added to the
basic structural materials and hardware.

Anodising

A method of protecting aluminium based alloys from corrosion, especially when cladding is impractical, is
by a process called Anodising. This is an electrolytic treatment which coats the host metal with a film of
oxide. This film is hard, waterproof, air-tight and to aid in identification of some parts, will permanently
accept a coloured dye. There are a number of different organic finishes applied to aircraft to protect the
surfaces:
Synthetic Enamel

An older finish which cures by the process of oxidation It has a good surface finish, but is poor when it
comes to its resistance to chemicals or wear.
Acrylic Lacquer
A popular finish in the mass production market, easy to apply and has a fairly good resistance to chemical
attack and weather. Polyurethane.- One of the most durable finishes which has high resistance to wear,
fading and chemicals. It also has a 'wet look'.

Chromating
Chromate coatings are used to protect Magnesium-based alloys, as well as zinc and its alloys. Components
are immersed in a bath containing potassium bichromate and results in a yellowish coating on magnesium
alloys. The coating can be restored locally with Alocrom 1200 treatment.

Cladding
There are two metals most commonly alloyed with aluminium, to produce high strength skin and
component parts for aircraft manufacture. These are, Copper and Zinc. These alloys suffer extensively
from the effects of corrosion, so a cladding technique is used as a form of corrosion protection. ‘Alclad’ as
it is termed is a soft, highly corrosion-resistant, pure aluminium skin, rolled onto the face of each base
alloy sheet, effectively sandwiching the alloy.

Surface Cleaning
Most aircraft will be cleaned before starting on large inspections, but it is common sense to keep an
aircraft clean all of the time. Dirt can cover up cracked or damaged components as well as trap moisture
and solvents which can lead to corrosion.

Exterior Cleaning
Exterior cleaning is an important facet of corrosion control, but there are a number of points which must
first be protected from cleaning materials and high pressure water sprays. The pitot tubes and static vents
must be properly blanked off to prevent water ingress and the wheels, tyres and brake assemblies need to
be covered to keep them free of aggressive cleaning agents.

Only cleaning agents and chemicals recommended by the manufacturer are to used. for the job in hand or
the risk of serious contamination may result. One of the unseen effects of using non-approved cleaning
agents is hydrogen embrittlement. Engine cowlings and wheel well areas usually have grease, oil or brake
dust deposits that require special treatment.

EXTERIOR FINISH MAINTENANCE

All materials used on the exterior of an aircraft must be approved by the manufacturer of that aircraft to
ensure no abrasives or solvents are applied where they can do damage.

Non-Metallic Cleaning
Non-metallic components sometimes require different cleaning techniques from metal parts. For example,
the slightest amount of dust on plastic or acrylic panels will scratch and severely reduce the optical quality
if rubbed with a dry cloth. This can also build up a static charge and attract more dust so the correct
procedure in this situation is to wash down, rinse with water without rubbing with a cloth. Oil
and hydraulic fluid also attack rubber components such as tyres, so any spillages must be cleaned up
immediately. Neoprene rubber leading-edge de-icer boots and composite structures are other examples
of parts that need special cleaning procedures, all of which will be detailed in the AMM.

Engine Cleaning

Apart from external cleaning carried out on the engine cowlings, with the associated protection of
electrical components; gas turbine engines are regularly washed internally to remove the deposits of dust,
sand and salt, that tend to accumulate on internal parts of the engine. This coating if not removed, can
have a serious effect on the engine's performance. Indeed, the output of the engine could fall below the
manufacturers minimum figures, resulting in an unscheduled and expensive engine change.

Alignment and Symmetry

Aircraft can have abnormal occurrences during their life, when for example, a very heavy landing could
occur, some accidental external damage or the need to replace a major component, etc. All of these
instances will require special checks to be carried out to guarantee that the aircraft is perfectly
symmetrical and aligned before its next flight.

The checks consist of measuring very accurately from a number of datum points on the airframe, such as
from wing tips, the nose, the horizontal stabiliser and the top of the vertical stabiliser. The checks vary,
depending on the aircraft manufacturers requirements, but all ensure that measurements taken on the
lefthand side of the aircraft are within a minimum tolerance of the measurements from the right-hand
side. These checks are usually taken with the aircraft on jacks and in the rigging position, ie: a nominally
level ‘in flight’ attitude.

On light aircraft, these measurements are usually taken using a surveyors tape measure. (It is a check of
comparison, not of outright measurement). As the aircraft get larger, optical theodolite style methods are
used. These can be a microscopic level with the use of sighting rods or even a laser ranging alignment
device. Deeper checks that are carried out after any of the above mentioned situations, as well as on a
routine basis, include checks on the wing, tail and control surfaces to ensure that they are set at the
correct angles. These checks are usually known as 'rigging checks' and are carried out using purpose built
leveling boards and an accurate measuring device known as a Clinometer.

FUEL STORAGE

Rigid Tanks
Because of their shape, wings are often designed to be used for fuel storage. They can either contain
separate fuel tanks within the wing structure, or use the wing structure itself, suitably sealed, to make
integral tanks. Separate internal tanks are usually manufactured from either light alloy or from flexible,
rubberized fabric. Rigid light alloy tanks are first riveted, then welded to make them fuel tight and are
securely clamped into the wing structure by straps or tie bars. They will often have baffles inside, to
prevent fuel surge from one end of the tank to the other.

Flexible Tanks
Flexible tanks, also referred to as 'bladder' tanks, have to be located snugly into the tank bay within the
wing, because the sides of the bay provide support to the relatively weak tank skin. Older types of flexible
tanks were made from rubber- covered fabric. These days the fabric is replaced by man-made
fibres, impregnated with neoprene or some similar fuel tight material.

Integral Tanks
Integral fuel tanks are found on most, if not all, modern commercial aircraft. During manufacture,
practically the entire wing structure becomes a box, comprising front and rear spars, top and bottom wing
skins, inboard and outboard sealed ribs, into which are installed pumps, drains, filler caps and vents. The
main advantage of the integral tank, is that it provides maximum fuel capacity for the minimum amount of
weight and the only sealing required, is that applied to the seams after construction is completed.

Landing gear
As mentioned earlier, the attachments for major components can often be strong points on the wing
spars, or even a separate spar built specifically for that purpose.. One such component that falls into this
category is the main landing gear, otherwise known as the undercarriage. On some very large aircraft, like
the Boeing 747 or Airbus A340, additional body gears, as well as conventional wing gears are to be found.
These have to have reinforcements built into the lower fuselage structure to absorb the extreme loads at
touchdown.

Pylons
Many aircraft have engines mounted on pylons attached to the wing. With this so called ‘podded engine’
configuration, the pylons have to take very large thrust forces from the engines and transfer it to the
airframe. This is normally achieved by attaching the engine to strong points on the pylon and attaching the
pylon to the wing spars. Thrust links are then fixed to the engine frame and the wing spars to transfer the
engine thrust efficiently. Pylons must be positioned low enough so that the engine exhaust doesn’t strike
the wing structure, but not too close to the ground to risk a runway scrape.

Control surface and high lift/drag attachments

All of the flying controls on the wing will be attached to strong points on either the front or rear spars. This
includes high and low speed ailerons, leading and trailing edge flaps, slats, roll spoilers, speed brakes and
lift dumpers. The wing structure must therefore be made strong enough not only to carry the lift forces in
flight but the additional loads of pilot control inputs, additional drag devices, etc. Consequently, the spars,
are always the strongest part of the wing structure.

11.3.3 STABILIZERS
The vertical stabilizer (fin) produces directional or lateral stability, whilst the horizontal stabilizer
(tailplane) produces longitudinal stability. As was mentioned in the aerodynamics section, these surfaces
are of similar construction to the wings with spars, ribs, stringers etc,. They have to resist the twisting
forces from the control surfaces mounted on the trailing edges. In many cases, the fin is similar to one half
of the tailplane and on a number of light aircraft, it is actually constructed in this way, thereby simplifying
production and component parts. Light aircraft have stabilizers manufactured from welded tube or
fabricated from thin aluminium sheet of simple construction. As the aircraft size and weight
increases, the surfaces will be made from stronger milled or machined skins and forged spars.

11.3.4 FLIGHT CONTROL SURFACES

The construction of most flight control surfaces is critical, since the designer wants to make them as light
as possible. The control surfaces in the early years of aviation were a light, tubular frame covered with
fabric and in later years when light alloy was adopted the quest for lightness continued. Today, metallic
structures with honeycomb cores or epoxy reinforced composite construction are utilised for most control
surfaces. The control surfaces are attached to the wing, fin or stabiliser by hinges, the spars being
reinforced where these attachments are located.

To prevent the risk of flutter, as previously described, the ailerons, elevator and rudder, are all
constructed so that the part of the surface behind the hinge line, is as light as possible and a number of
calibrated weights are added to the leading edge of the surface. These weights are known as mass balance
weights, (see cutaway above) and the procedure is known as mass balancing. In addition to mass
balancing, surfaces that do not have the benefit of hydraulic power assistance, (see later) and are difficult
to move when the aircraft is at high speed, have the benefit of aerodynamic balancing. To achieve this
simply and as previously discussed, the hinge of the control is inset, so that part of the surface in front of
the hinge line projects into the airstream, when the control is deflected from neutral.

11.3.5 NACELLES AND PYLONS

It has been mentioned previously, how the nacelles and pylons are attached to the wings, generally and to
other parts of the airframe on selected aircraft. The main purpose of all these engine fairings is to keep
the engines outside of the airframe itself. There are several reasons for this, but the major reasons are
that it is safer, in the event of a fire or explosion, if it isolated from the fuselage or the wings by firewalls.
Also, it is much easier for routine maintenance and engine changes, if the engine is externally mounted.

Most nacelles are simply fairings which cover the power-plant in a streamlined manner, although, they
usually also serve as the intake for jet and turbo-propeller engines. Most are covered by large, easy-to-
open doors and panels, which allow quick and easy access. On some designs there can be smaller, quick
release panels fitted into the larger ones, which allow access for maintenance, such as oil level quantity
indicators, which need to be checked every time the engines are shut down. On light aircraft, engine
nacelles are usually fairly simple GRP fairings which are split into two parts and removed by releasing a
few screws or quick release fasteners. These also contain a small intake for the air to reach the carburettor
of the piston engine.

On many larger aircraft, particularly those with fan bypass engines, are fitted with thrust reversers as part
of the cowlings. These are usually doors which translate rearwards and open up panels containing cascade
vanes, which re-direct the exhaust thrust in a forward direction, when reverse thrust is selected after
landing. The pylons which support the engines fitted on to the wings or the rear fuselage all have one
main purpose, which is to transmit the full thrust of the engines into the airframe. They must be extremely
strong and yet flexible, as the wing mounts especially have to move with the flexing of the wings.

All engines must be isolated from the rest of the aircraft, so that a fire can be completely contained within
the nacelle and extinguished if the aircraft is equipped a fire extinguishing system. To this end, there will
be a sealed bulkhead or divider (Fire wall) between the engine and the airframe made of a fire resistant
material such as titanium or stainless steel.