MODULE 1

INTRODUCTION TO COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL

EDUCATION

LESSON 1
OVERVIEW OF COMPARATIVE AND INTERNATIONAL
EDUCATION AND ORIENTATION ON THE VARIOUS RANGE OF
SPECIFICATIONS

Learning Objectives
1. Discuss the importance of Comparative and International Education (CIE) as a course;
2. Compare the Educational System, Curricula, Culture and Traditions of developed and
developing countries; and,
3. Distinguish the acceptable curricular and instructional practices to strengthen the
school as the seat of higher learning.

Keywords and Phrases

• Comparative Education
• International Education
• Educational System
• Curriculum
• Methodological Challenges
• Disciplinary Identity
• Contemporary Education

General Statement
Comparative and International Education (CIE) prepares professionals to analyze, critically
assess and evaluate educational practice, policies and initiatives taken in a wide variety of social and
educational settings. The approach is interdisciplinary and emphasizes the acquisition of a broad
understanding of educational institutions, systems and their programmes/curricula, stressing an
understanding of the political, cultural, socio-economic, technological aspects of educational
development and change. The role of research and innovation in educational development is emphasized,
as well as the acquisition of planning, management and evaluation skills to be applied within national,
regional, and international contexts.

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 Participants will be trained in solving complex issues within a wide range of theoretical
frameworks provided with a variety of methodological tools. In addition to providing students with a
broad understanding of the field, the programmes/curricula also require the students from the second
term to concentrate their course work on one of the areas of specialization offered. It also intends to
provide deeper insight on an academic thesis.

The government, public and private institutions, non-governmental organizations, international

development agencies and multinational corporations in need of personnel with advanced, specialized
knowledge in education are the employment areas for CIE graduates.

In the fast changing world today, there is evidence on every hand to indicate that even the most
conservative thinker has accepted the view that radical reconstruction of our social life is necessary if we
as a nation are to bring ourselves out of these difficult times and to readjust the social order in the
interest of human welfare. We can no longer follow a laissez-faire policy, a characteristic of the 19th
century, and avoid such serious calamities have overtaken us from time to time in our history. There is a
need for a definitely planned social order if we would avoid further chaos. While thinkers are in
disagreement as to methods, they are in full agreement as to fundamental needs. Our problem, therefore,
is one of method of procedure.

Moreover, one of the most vital and fundamental considerations of our social life – one that is
receiving most continuous attention is education. In its earlier history, education followed a more or less
plan-less procedure. The scientific movement of the 19th century has had a vast influence upon the
schools; the change has led to the expansion of curriculum subject matter and to new methods of
instruction. There has been a reemphasis upon subject-matter values rather than a fundamental change
in the purpose and function of education itself or in the schools as instruments of formal instruction.

It is clear that we are today at the crossroads where we shall have to select a new direction,
where education must serve a new purpose, if it is to contribute to the solution of the problems of the
new social order. Education must be a planned procedure, and not a hit-and-miss process. It must
concern itself with the whole individual as a member of our social life, a unit functioning in a complex
social order. We can no longer concern ourselves primarily with subject matter and method, however
important they may be as means to an end.

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INTRODUCTION
Major issues and problems in education are ongoing in twenty one countries around the world.
Key political, economic, social, and educational factors affecting education against a historical
background are examined. This current issues and problems, policies, approaches and trends, and future
outlooks are truly an international overview because with one exception (that of the Soviet Union), all
country studies were written by native scholars and experts.

During these times of rapid social change and world uncertainties, the systems of education in
the various countries are viewed as moving and changing entities where efforts to resolve problems are
changing constantly.

Comparative and International Education is designed for deans of schools, colleges, and
departments of education; directors of teacher education programs; government officials concerned with
the field of education; teachers; as well as students of comparative and teacher education.

Educational system is the total pattern of formal institutions, agencies, and organizations that
transmit knowledge and cultural heritage that influence the social and intellectual growth of an
individual.

Comparative education examines how countries plan for the expansion, upgrade, and
democratization of their educational system. This pattern will lead to greater insight into the nature of
problems that educational policy makers and practitioners confront - the origins of these problems both
within and outside the school system, the range of solution attempted in various countries, the outcomes
of planned interventions in the schools or factors that may be associated with success or failure of
educational reforms. Special attention to these opportunities is given in comparative education.

Comparative Education is designed to stimulate and contribute to a critical and forward-looking

debate on the future of the field itself. In tune with the current on-line discussion in Current Issues in
Comparative Education (CICE), future submissions on such issues are, therefore, also welcomed from
the Editorial Board of the Journal. In the light of the contemporary challenges identified, a case for a
fundamental reconceptualization of the field is advanced along with pointer towards some new
directions for the future.

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CONTEMPORARY CHALLENGES

The impact of intensified globalization is possibly the most often cited challenge facing the field
of comparative and international education. Somewhat paradoxically, interest in globalization has
attracted many new scholars and professionals to comparative and international research, at the same
time, it has generated critiques of traditionally accepted modes of operations and frameworks of
analysis. At the heart of this are challenges to the prominence of the nation-state as the primary unit of
analysis in so much work carried out within the field. It is argued that global forces are dramatically
changing the role of the state in education and demanding increased attention to be paid to factors
operating beyond the national level. The mechanisms and processes driving globalization are thus
prioritized for examination as the increased significance of multi-lateral agencies in shaping global policy
debates and agenda increased. However, recognition of the fact that the effects of globalization differ
from place to place draws attention back to the nature and implications of such differential effects are
even at the national level. Few empirically grounded studies have compared these differences in any
sustained way to date -- and those that have been carried out have largely focused upon western
industrial economies of East Asia. The impact of globalization on the poorer, post-colonial societies of
the “south” have received much less attention, despite dramatic applications for development process in
such contexts. Here, there is much urgent work for the field of comparative and international in the
future.

The challenges posed by globalization, however, also pull in other directions reflecting what
Arnove and Torres (1999) have usefully characterized as the “dialectic of the global and the local”. To cite
Giddens (1999, p.3), globalization is:

“A complex set of processes, not a single one. And these operate in a contradictory or
oppositional fashion. Most people think of it as simply ‘pulling away’ power or influence from local
communities and nations into global arena. And indeed this is one of its consequences. Nations do lose
some of the economic power they once had. However, it is also has an opposite effect. Globalization not
only pulls upwards, it pushes downward, creating new pressures for local autonomy.”

This draws attention to the fact that national and local cultures can and do play a significant role
in mediating global influences. From this perspective, units of analysis that pay attention to the local
effects of globalization are also prioritized.

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 This, in turn, adds renewed legitimacy to qualitative modes of research that emphasize
grassroots fieldwork, ethnography and the interpretative/hermeneutic paradigms that emphasize micro-
level studies of education (in its broadest sense) in context (see contributions to Crossley & Vulliamy,
1997). While much more can be pervasive influence, numerous other challenges also faced the field and
demanded attention in their own right.

Related to the latter methodological issues, for example, are very significant paradigmatic and
epistemological implications raised by increased sensitivity to culture and context. This is reflected in
the impact on the field of post-structural scholarship (Peters, 2001), and of application and critique of
post-modernist and post-colonial frameworks (Cowen, 1996; Tikly, 1999). In many respects post-
colonial frameworks also draw attention to the challenges generated by dramatically changed
geopolitical realities; from the decline colonialism; from attention to culture and identity; and from the
turbulent latter years of the 20th ethnocentrism, and its recognition of the problematic use of
distinctions and terminology relating to, for example, “developed” and “developing” countries, and the
“North” and the “South”.

For the present writer, the methodological challenges of such developments point most strongly
to the need for the new forms of international relationships in terms of comparative and international
research and partnership between “insiders” and “outsiders”; to research and development work that is
more sensitive to local, social constructions of reality; and to strategies that facilitate the strengthening of
research capacity within the South.

In many respects, the rational for this is related to efforts to help “bridge” the gap between
educational research and its potential to improve policy and practice. This is, in itself; one of the
prominent challenges faced by educational research communities worldwide. The widening
constituency of policy-makers and practitioners who have taken renewed interest in comparative and
international research are certainly looking for findings that will be of use to them in their professional
activities, while this is a complex arena in which there are few simple answers, the challenges raised by
such diversity of audiences are of considerable and renewed significance for the field.
Relatedly, the intensification of international competition spurred on by globalization, neo-
liberalism, and marketization, has major implications for cross-national studies of educational
achievement, for those engaged in or dealing with the powerful influence of national and international
league tables, and for the theoretical frameworks that we employ in our analyses. If the funding of
research is increasingly linked to commercial interest, for example, the potential for critical theory, or for

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alternative cultural perspectives to influence the construction of new knowledge, may be increasingly
challenged, even paradoxically, the new “knowledge” economy. So questions of power and “whose
knowledge counts?” in the process of development arise, perhaps, more strongly than ever before.

To this we could add the challenges raised by rapid advances in information and communications
technology (ICT). As many have pointed out, these are many and varied but, are argued that their
implications arise most strongly in cross-cultural context, where the “digital divide” is greatest, and both
their potential benefits and problems deserve urgent attention.

Growing tensions between the global, the national and the local, thus, so fundamentally
underpin all aspects of contemporary society and development, that a similarly fundamental
reconceptualization of the field of comparative and international education is required if we are to more
effectively address such issues.

Educational System, Curriculum, Culture and Traditions of Developed and Developing Countries

All systems of education are rooted in the past and are compounds of a variety of constituent
factors influencing educational institutions and their functions. Racial and ethnic attitudes have played
an important role in the formation of education policy and in the administration of education in several
countries. Language also affects education in many countries; the existence of more than one official
language must be taken in to account the administration, physical plant, curriculum planning, teacher
preparation and selection, textbooks and the like. The political development of a country is another
potent influence in the educational system. Nations committed to a particular ideology apply these
beliefs to their system of education. Many school systems derived their educational objectives and some
of their content from various religious ideologies. In recent years however, many western nations have
undertaken the secularization of their educational system. In a large majority country, there is a
centralized governmental agency that organizes, administers, finances, and controls the formal and
cultural aspects of education in all regions and localities.

The laws, curricula, personnel and materials, and methods of instruction are in a large measure
determined in the central office. Centralized systems that differ from one another in many respects,
prevail in France, Italy, Denmark, Sweden, Norway, Belgium, Netherlands, Greece, Argentina, Brazil and
El Salvador.

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 Examples of decentralized systems of education exist in Switzerland, the United States of
America, Germany, India, Canada and Australia. Local emphasis in administration generally are to be
found in countries where public schooling originated in grass roots or separatist movements, or where
political unity was achieved out of a confederation of sovereign states.

Characteristics of local control maybe generalized thus, largely advisory in character; financial
support for education is locally derived, aid from central authorities being accepted with only rare
participation in policy making; and administrative power lodged in local boards of education. In
countries such as Canada, Germany, Australia, where the separate states systems are sovereign, states
ministries of education are appointed and the state systems of inspection prevail.

In the United States, the responsibility of the individual states may tend toward centralization or
decentralization. Most state school boards disburse funds, certify teachers, recommend curricula, and
supervise the building and maintenance of school. Local school boards usually carry out actual
administration. Members of local school boards, who are usually elected officials, comply with the
wishes of the community in formulating policies and drawing up budgets.

In still another type of educational system, national and local authorities share administration
and control. The best example of this system is England, where the educational laws originate in the
Parliament but the actual administration is in the hands of the local governments, though it has many
vast differences from the English Educational System, the Japanese System is also jointly controlled.

Private schools and other educational facilities may be controlled but not financed by the central
authority. In others, they may receive full or partial subsidies with varying degrees of autonomy. China
is a prime example of educational administration as controlled by a single political party or ideological
group. In various nations and regions of the world, including Spain, Ireland, certain provinces of Canada,
and such Muslim countries as Pakistan – religious and denominational influences control school
administration.
Each of these systems of education must confront change. Technological developments during
the 20th century have produced industrialized societies in many parts of the world. With the
complicated division of labor, industrialization has meant a growth in the number of occupations
requiring extensive formal education preparation. The number of people who must be able to manage
and manipulate the technical and bureaucratic apparatus in an industrial society is large and requires
constant flow of literate persons and a stream of technically competent individuals.

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 A second major influence on contemporary education is the nature of demographic change, more
particularly the rate of population growth. It is obvious that the structure, size and growth of society’s
population directly affect education. For example, the population is growing at a rate more rapid than
the rate of expansion of educational plants and personnel, the enrollment ratios, literacy rates, median
school years completed and other measures of educational attainment will tend to fall. To maintain in
the coming years the present proportion of children and youth in school will require great efforts
particularly on the part of the nations of the Asia and Latin America. Demand for equality in educational
opportunities has increased as education is increasingly seen as a requisite for respectable status and a
good job.

A. Japan and American Educational System

Monbusho, Japan’s Ministry of Education, Science and Culture, exerts a powerful influence over
the entire nation’s education system, producing national curriculum guidelines that serve as a national
standard. Because of the clearly delineated national curriculum, students and teachers alike know which
topics will be covered on national entrance exams and can determine which content questions are or are
not appropriate to their students. Elementary school students are not required to pass national or
prefectural tests in order to move on to next level of schooling. Rather, the competition, which is
engendered by a strict system of entrance exams and the great need for academic credentials, appears to
motivate students in junior and senior high school to perform at high levels. Parents and teachers tended
to be critical of the overall Monbusho guidelines. Despite this emphasis on preparation for the entrance
exams, Japanese teachers spent a great deal of time preparing material that was aimed at students who
were of lower-than-average academic ability. Japanese administrators and policy makers involve
teachers in the curriculum revision process. Monbusho actively solicits the advice of teachers on its
national panels and makes serious attempts to investigate how the curriculum is implemented in the
classroom. The curriculum revision process is closely tied to what teachers experience in their classes,
and teachers see themselves as curriculum researchers, a role they clearly accept.
Teachers spend a great deal of time researching how to teach. This commitment means that they
devote a good deal of their planning time to the organization and sequencing of lessons. Teachers are not
under pressure to provide extensive materials outside the curriculum or to create their own curriculum.
Rather, they are expected to elaborate on the material provided in the textbooks.

Teachers are expected to adjust the lessons to the level of the class they are teaching and to
demonstrate their techniques to other teachers. Moreover, teachers from around the nation appear to

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share ideas readily. As a result, teacher innovations in methods and content of teaching the courses are
widely disseminated via local and regional meetings. Ideal lesson plans are widely circulated and new
teachers have access to these plans. Efforts at the local and regional levels are coordinated by school
boards and the Monbusho.

This coordination is of benefit because:

It greatly reduces the work that individual schools and districts must do in deciding which
reforms to follow:

Coordination means that what teachers do in the classroom is directly linked to curricular
reform, although local schools and teachers have limits placed on their adaptation of materials.
Ideas created at one district can be readily communicated and implemented in another district, because
of the similarity of the curriculum and school organization.

Teacher Work Patterns

Teachers are generally required to be at school for at least eight hours a day, and often spend
extra hours in planning, meeting within other teachers, advising students, or socializing. Teachers
reported that most of their work are done in school.
Japanese teachers and administrators describe their workplaces as close-knit communities of
educators who readily share information and teaching experiences.
At all levels, teachers see the purpose of education as guiding students to become more fully
developed human beings. Teachers organize and supervise student clubs and help orchestrate
schoolwide events. Particularly at the elementary level, teachers emphasize that their role is to improve
the overall education of the child, and not just to provide academic instruction.

Foundations in Pre-school and Elementary Education

Like previous researchers, it is found out that Japanese educators and parents place great
emphasis on early foundations for learning. Elementary classrooms offer many surprising contrasts to
later years of schooling. Schools favored individual enrichment work through non-academic subjects as
well as math and science lessons that emphasize thinking and discovery. Arts, music, and physical
education play a large role in the general curriculum. Students spend a significant amount of time
planning, preparing, and participating in yearly school-wide events that have no direct bearing on
academic achievement.

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 From the earliest grades on, Japanese children are taught to work in small groups (han) as well as
to participate as classmates, grade members, and members of the whole school. These multiple layers of
group affiliations appear to create a strong sense of identification with the school. The individual
student is recognized less for his or her personal accomplishments than for the contributions he or she
makes to the group, class, grade, or school.

Japanese educators also focus on the interests of average and below-average children. Teachers
place little emphasis on innate ability, and most elementary teachers go out of their way to de-emphasize
ability in favor of interest and effort.

The term “ability differences” (noryokusa) is generally avoided and “difference in mastery levels”
(shujukudo) is preferred. This preference reflects the fact that Japanese adults are deeply uneasy about
dividing children based on ability. One reason given by teachers for not using ability grouping is that it
would hurt students emotionally to the extent that they would lose their motivation to study. Japanese
teachers believe that a child’s motivation is central to success and that all children are capable of
mastering the curriculum with proper encouragement.

Individual Differences and Concepts of Ability

Japanese educators generally see ability differences as the result of differences in upbringing, and
in family background. Teachers do not consider that abilities are innate but rather acquired through
individual effort. Except for students with clearly recognizable disabilities, teachers see all students as
capable of succeeding in school. Individual effort is most often mentioned as the source of achievement
and high ability.

The Role of Schooling in Social Stratification

The competitive atmosphere around the high school entrance exams is linked to the fact that
once students are tracked into a given high school, they will have great difficulty changing their general
academic trajectory. As evidenced by the very different curriculum and attitudes of the students at Meiji
and Naka Vocational, the outlines of students’ future academic and economic prospects are largely pre-
determined by the high school they enter. In the high-ranking academic tracks, students follow a course
of study and extra-curricular involvement that is very similar to the one they experienced in junior high
school.

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Family

Family also voice similar respect for schools and teachers, but are critical on the exams and
academic competitions. Japanese parents give to their children a wide range of support when it comes to
academic matters. Despite the narrow quarters that many Japanese families occupy, Japanese families
generally provide a study desk for children from elementary school on. Most of the families in this study
also provide a separate room once the child reaches junior high school. Almost all of the families in the
study provide their children with some form of outside school support or enroll them in special clubs or
pursue their hobbies.

The Educational System in America

Education is all about life. When you have finished attending high school, it’s time to become
ready for the big leagues. Post secondary education can be divided into two major parts: college and
university. Canada has a lot of both ball parks, but we have more Universities than colleges. Canada’s
education system is highly recognizable in the world. In the United States a lot of students choose to
attend Canadian universities or colleges. Although colleges have a big population, a university should be
more considerable as post secondary education.

The cost of college is not really high. The expectations for college are not high either. College is
pretty much a lower funded, lower educated university. Likewise, college has more broad studies. For
example at any college we can take business/industry linkage. This business/industry course is very
broad; it sounds like a course in high school. Regardless, you shouldn’t judge it by the sound of the
course; you should always take in mind the content of the course.

The time you are at college is not high. When you are at college you can stay there for 2-3 years
minimum. In those 2-3 years you can study a very general subject and get your degree. This is good for
those who slack off in high school and do not do any work. College responsibility is fairly higher than
high school, and the teachers of your course sometimes won’t learn your name throughout the year. For
some colleges all you need is a diploma in high school to get accepted.

The classes in college are a lot smaller, and even worse the teachers in your class see you as just a
number. College is seen as a bad post secondary education because of judgments and non-factual
comments but if you look at the facts and the statistics, college is turning into a cheaper and smaller
university.

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 This is how post secondary education system works in Canada, however the best parts of post
secondary education are the universities. Scholarships are more often seen then in colleges; universities
tend to give out more of them because of the expectations. The education is universities far out beats any
courses of college. In college you have the broad course, in university you have more specific subjects.

B. Educational System in Australia

The Education System in Australia consists of a total of 12 years. Primary schools and high
schools are based on the age of the student, so that every room has the same age group, with a student
hardly having to repeat a year. Students with problems in their studies may be put into special classes to
help cope with academic deficits. The majority of the children start in the primary school with the age of
5 years (year 1) and the child studies in the primary school until they are around 12 years old (year 7).

Primary and Secondary Schools of Australia – There are many types of education for children up
to 5 years, but the main ones are the “Child Care” regulated centers or families in registered residences
who take care of the kids in a system called “Family Day Care”.

High School – the student goes for secondary school with 12/13 years (year 8), and is he/she is
only compulsorily required to stay to year 10, receiving a junior high school certificate but not a high
school certificate. The year 11 (15/16 YO) and 12 (16/17 YO), are optional but are required to be
successfully completed to attain a high school diploma. Some of the options for those students leaving
the school in year 10 include training – apprenticeship, to enter the work force or to study in any
vocational course.

The difference between private and public schools in Australia – Private Schools in general are
related to a religion and usually offer more options in music and sports. In both, students have to use
uniforms but in the private schools the rules are more restricted on the use of a complete uniform. The
educational courses and standards of all high schools are very similar and all prepare students for the
same national, recognized qualifications in the country. Some schools also offer in the year 11 and 12
professional qualifications level for Certificate 2 and 3.

Technical Courses in Australia

The Certificates and Diploma of Vocational Courses allow the students to enter and leave
different levels of academic studies. The unify system of education allows the student to register for
certificate courses which then after completion may give credits to diploma courses or degrees, in case

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the student continues in a university. Professional experience may also be recognized. The technical
courses are often considered a “bridge” to enter in an Australian University.

Part-time or Short courses have reduced a timetable and duration, lasting for a determined time,
they do not give right of the student to work in Australia. They do not demand the required attendance
for the Department of Immigration and they can be done with Tourist Visa as soon as the courses do not
last for more than 3 months.

Courses Full-time as the name suggests, are courses with integral period of study, not less than
20 to 25 hours of lessons per week, and minimum duration of 3 months. These courses are registered by
the government as courses “CRICOS”, which can be offered for international students, but a Student Visa
will be necessary.

School Education

Primary and Secondary education in Australia are delivered through both government and non-
government providers. State and Territory governments have major responsibility for government school
education and contribute substantially to funds for non-government schools. Most students are enrolled
in government schools which operate under the direct responsibility of the State or Territory Education
Minister, while the rest choose non-government schooling.

The Federal Government’s role with respect to schooling includes the provision of significant
supplementary financial support to government and non-government school authorities to support
agreed priorities and strategies. Schooling is compulsory from age 6 to 15 in all states except Tasmania,
where it extends to 16.

However, in most States, children start primary school at the age of 5 when they enroll in
preparatory or kindergarten year, after which primary education continues for either six or seven years,
depending on the State. Secondary education is available for either five or six years, depending on the
State and the length of primary education. Students usually commence their secondary schooling when
aged 12 or 13, reaching year 12 at 17 or 18. Links between the education and training sectors have been
strengthened, partially through the introduction of the Australian Qualifications Framework which is a
unified system of twelve national qualifications in schools, vocational education and training (Technical
and Further Education Colleges and Private providers) and the higher education sector (mainly
universities). The Framework links together all these qualifications and is a highly visible, quality-

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assured national system of educational recognition, which promotes lifelong learning and a seamless and
diverse education and training system.

Higher education

The main objectives of Australian higher education are to: enable individuals to develop their
capabilities for effective participation in the workforce, for constructive contributions to society and for
personal growth and fulfillment; advance knowledge and understanding; aid the application of
knowledge and understanding to the benefit of the economy and the society; enable individuals to adapt
and learn, consistent with the needs of an adaptable knowledge-based economy at local, regional and
national levels; and contribute to a democratic, civilized society. Australian universities are autonomous
self-accredited institutions established by Federal, State or Territory legislation.
The first universities were established in four of the original colonies – the University of Sydney
in 1850; the University of Melbourne in 1853; the University of Adelaide in 1874 and the University of
Tasmania in 1890.

Training of Pre-primary and Primary/Basic School Teachers

There are no national requirements for the teaching profession in Australia. States and
Territories have responsibility for those universities within their jurisdictions that offer teacher
education, although the Federal Government is the main source of funding for those institutions.

The responsibility for school systems and the employment of teachers lie with both government
and non-government education authorities in each State and Territory.
Each of the States and Territories have specific requirements for employment as a teacher in
primary and secondary schools under their jurisdiction. Programmes for preparatory or pre-primary
teachers are often referred to as early childhood education/teaching programmes. They provide
education in the care and teaching of children from birth to 8 years of age, or from age 3 to 8 years. They
usually cover child care education, preschool teacher education, preparatory/pre-primary teacher
education and education for the early years of primary school. Programmes may be at the undergraduate
or postgraduate level. The most common awards are a Bachelor of Education (Early Childhood
Education) or a Bachelor of Early Childhood Education, both of which require 4 years of full-time study.

Training of Secondary School Teachers

Secondary teacher education programmes provide education to teach pupils of around 12 to 18 in

Years 6 or 7 to year 12 of secondary school. Students follow programmes that provide a balance of
integrated professional studies and curriculum studies in one or two disciplines in key learning areas
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appropriate for both the lower and upper years of secondary schooling. Programmes may be at the
undergraduate or graduate levels.

The most common undergraduate award is the Bachelor of Education (Secondary) which
requires four years of full-time study. Students who have already completed a Bachelor degree in a
relevant curriculum area may complete a two-year full-time Graduate Diploma of Education (Secondary)
or a two-year full-time Bachelor of Education (Secondary).

These programmes provide a combination of professional studies in education and methodology

and supervised teaching practice in subjects appropriate to the first degree. There are also a number of
combined degrees such as the Bachelor of Arts/Bachelor of Education which combine secondary teaching
education studies with study in a discipline relevant to secondary school.

Teachers of Vocational Education and Training (VET) courses in schools are expected to be
competent to conduct education and training programmes and to assess skills based on the industry-
endorsed competency standards in the training packages.

Distance Higher Education

Distance education has been a feature of higher education in Australia for at least 80 years. The
geographic size of Australia and the relatively few large population centres in early years meant that for
many distance education provided the only opportunity they had to gain a university degree.
Traditionally, distance education was text-based, but Australia has been an early adopter of new
education technologies and while text is still important, universities use a range of delivery modes,
including on-line courses, email, telephone, video-conferencing, web TV, radio and television.

C. Educational System of China

It shall be convenient, for the purpose of the present essay, to divide the history of the educational
system of China into five major periods:
Pre-1840 (Imperial Education)

1840-1949 (Opium War – P.R.C.)

1949-1966 (P.R.C. – Cultural Revolution)

1966-1976 (Cultural Revolution)

1976-present (Post-Mao Reforms)

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Pre-1840

The roots of a system of formal education in China can be traced back at least as far as the 16th
century B.C. later Shang Dynasty (1523-1027 B.C.) Throughout this period education was the privilege of
the elite few, and for the most part existed for no other purpose than to produce government officials.
Early on, the curriculum centered on the so-called “Six Arts”: Rites, Music, Archery, Chairot-Riding,
History, and Mathematics However, based on the teachings of Confucius (551-479 B.C.) during the
Spring and Autumn and Warring States periods (770-221 B.C.), the curriculum gradually gave way one
based on The Four Books and The Five Classics These works outlined the principles of society and
government, as well as codes for personal conduct, and collectively define Confucian philosophy, which
exerted a fundamental influence on virtually all aspects of life, and certainly on education, at least until
the Liberation and ascent to power by the Communists in 1949.

A system that educated an elite class was established and steadfastly maintained, perpetuating
subsequent generations of an educated elite resting incongruously on a base of mass illiteracy. This is not
to say that the government actively provided for any form of “public education”.

Instead, the imperial government had an active hand in education only inasmuch as it
administered the various levels of the imperial or civil service examinations, which were used for the
selection of imperial officers. The exams themselves consisted of essay questions that tested the
candidate’s understanding of Confucius’ teachings. The students could prepare for these examinations
by enrolling in the private institution of higher education, say, the Shuyuan, which existed for no other
reason than to prepare students for the civil service examinations.

1840-1949

Throughout the thousands of years of imperial rule, even as one dynasty gave way to the next, the
Chinese were steadfast in their belief that socially and intellectually they had no peers, especially as
compared with Western cultures. They had a highly developed culture, and with the “four inventions”
(gunpower, the compass, movable type and paper), they felt also that they had a rich technological
tradition. However, with the humiliating defeat at the hands of the British in the Opium War (1840-
1842), the Chinese were forced to grudgingly re-evaluate their dominance, at least in the area of science
and technology. Following the defeat in the Opium War and the ensuing cessation of Hong Kong to
Great Britain, Western education gradually began to take root in China, for the most part through
schools founded by Christian missionaries.

16
 While the majority of Chinese gentry looked upon these developments with a sense of
humiliation and extreme suspicion, a few more pragmatic and liberal-minded officials saw the
opportunity for a balanced approach to education, where Confucian classics would continue to form the
core, augmented by a component of Western technology.

Against a backdrop of massive illiteracy, the system of civil service examinations continued to be
the only route to officialdom. However, with the defeat in the Sino-Japanese War in 1895, the Chinese
finally became convinced that their own future would rest, at least in part, on the acceptance of certain
aspects of Western-style education. (Indeed, Japan had already been successful in adapting Western
education to a non-Western society). In 1905 the civil service examination system was dismantled, and a
series of reform measures were issued by the Qing Dynasty court calling for the old academies to be
reorganized into a modern system of primary, secondary and tertiary levels of education, to be based on
Western models.

Shortly thereafter, in 1911, the Qing Dynasty itself was overthrown in the bourgeois revolution,
and a Republican form of government was established. By this time,. There were already European,
American and Japanese educational models on Chinese soil. Because of Japan’s successful adaptation,
their system was tried first, implemented by a large number of Japanese-trained Chinese scholars.
During the Chaotic warlord period of the early 1920s, this gradually gave way to a system more closely
patterned on American models.

Even before this, however, especially during the “May Fourth Period” of 1915-1920, there were
intense debates and disputes over the closing of Western-style educational systems in a country trying to
find a new identity after millennia of dynastic rule. Of course, it is inaccurate to say that the debates
were centered only on educational matters; they were largely political, inspired in part by the Russian
revolution and the subsequent takeover by the Marxist government. In turn, the Chinese Communist
Party was born in 1921, with its own ideas about the “correct” form of education in China.

All sides in the debate agreed that a system was needed that could provide for the technological
needs of the country without sacrificing its Chinese identity, and at the same time could be expanded so
as to reach the masses in a predominately rural society. During this period, a number of experiments
were attempted, including the short-lived Hunan Self-Study University established by Mao Zedong and
friends in 1921.

17
 One of the prime objective of this experimental university was to bring higher education to those
who otherwise could not afford it. With the Japanese invasion in the late 1930s, this and other
experiments and debates were suspended until after the Liberation in 1949.

1949-1966

Shortly after the Liberation by the Chinese Communists, a new educational system was
imported: the Soviet Model. This was done with even less concern for the special features of the Chinese
environment than was the case following the Sino-Japanese War. As before, the motivation was driven
by technological needs, and the Soviet Union was now held as the new prototype for success.

However, the Soviet model did very little to address the problem of mass illiteracy. By 1956, it
was still the case that fewer than one-half of primary and secondary aged children were in school. Most
of the energy during this period was devoted to the development and restructuring higher education. As
a result of this restructuring, the number of comprehensive universities diminished in number, while the
number of specialized colleges showed a significant increase.

In to the restructuring efforts, the Ministry of Higher Education was given a stronger role in
overseeing the administration of the comprehensive and polytechnical universities, as well as the teacher-
training institutions. Unfortunately, by 1961, the failed policies of the Great Leap Forward, a spate of
natural disasters, and the breaking of relations with the Soviet Union thwarted further progress along
these lines. Even before this, the Anti-Rightest Campaign in 1957 (which came on the heels of the
Hundred Flowers Movement), had alienated the intellectuals, many of whom had been instrumental in
bringing about the sought-after educational reforms.

1966-1976

The two-tired system of education was seen by many as one that would continue to produce an
echelon of elite few, with the masses having to settle for something less (viz. the first track), if even that.
Increasingly it became felt that the administrators in the “regular” schools were the culprits, that they
were perpetuating a system in such a way that could only be viewed as self-serving.

On May 25, 1966, the party secretary of the philosophy department at Peking University, Nie
Yuanzi and six other colleagues hung a “big character poster” critical of the university’s administration.
This event was covered extensively in the national media, and the Cultural Revolution was under way.
Political struggles against administrators quickly spread to schools across the country. The
government’s first formal response was the commissioning of “workteams” by Liu Shaoqi to oversee, and
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in many cases contain the revolutionary activities. Different workteams responded in a variety, some
siding strongly with the revolutionary students, other more inclined to protect the administrations.

However, by mid-June of 1966, Chairman Mao overtly questioned Liu’s handling of the Cultural
Revolution and soon withdrew the workteams.

This was seen by the students as a clear sanction for their revolutionary efforts, and the Cultural
Revolution on the campuses escalated accordingly. On August 8, 1966, at the eleventh plenum of the
eight Chinese Communist Party Central Committee, the scope and strategy of the Great Proletarian
Cultural Revolution was defined, and once again it was proclaimed that education had been controlled
by bourgeois intellectuals, and that the creation of a new system more closely based on Mao’s teachings
was needed.

During the next three years, campuses were controlled in turn by propaganda teams of Red
Guards, soldiers from the People’s Liberation Army, and finally workers and peasants. Acute
factionalism often brought about a complete cessation of classes.
The primary schools were the least affected by the Cultural Revolution, and by Fall of 1967 most
had reopened for normal operation. However, primary education was, for the most part, shortened from
six years to five or even four years. The secondary schools (including junior and senior secondary)
likewise shortened their programs, from six years to as few as three years. The curriculum was
reconstituted so as to conform with practical needs, resulting in the elimination of coursework in such
subjects as history, geography or literature. Even such core science subjects as physics and chemistry
gave way to courses in industrial skills. These reform measures can be traced directly to the Communist
Party Central Committee (or various sub-committees), rather than to the Ministry of Education, as this
latter organ ceased to function from 1967 through 1974.

The concept of key school was abolished, with enrollments in primary and secondary schools
based on proximity. In June 1966, the system of university entrance examinations was halted. However,
few colleges and universities admitted new students until the early 1970s, and selection of students was
based on political virtue. Those from families of workers, peasants or soldiers were deemed the most
“virtuous,” and were among the first admitted. This has generated the label of worker-peasant-soldier
student (gong-nong-bing xueyuan) for those students entering college during the early 1970s.

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 It is interesting to note here that even those not of worker-peasant-soldier origin could be
“reclassified” as such but subjecting themselves to reeducation in a rural area or factory after finishing
junior or senior secondary school.

1976-Present

With the fall of the “Gang of Four” (sir en bang) and the ascension to power by twice rehabilited
Deng Xiaoping, the educational policies reverted to those that had been initiated during the early 1960s.

The guiding principle was to bring about educational reforms to realize the “Four
Modernizations,” viz., significant advances in the areas of agriculture, industry, national defense, and
science and technology, but in keeping with the “Four Cardinal Principles”: the socialist road, the
people’s democratic dictatorship, the Chinese Communist Party leadership, and Marxism-Leninism-Mao
Zedong thought.

The process of regularization in the schools was resumed, whereby academic standards were
reintroduced at all academic levels, thereby placing an emphasis on quality as opposed to quantity in the
delivery of education. In most cases, a 6-3-3 system (six years primary, three years junior secondary and
three years senior secondary) was reestablished. The designation of key schools once again was used top
single out schools whose mission was to minister to the special needs of the educational elite. At the
same time, it was proposed to expand the system of vocational and work-study schools in order to
provide a meaningful educational track for those not meeting the standards for college, or college
preparatory studies. This invited old debates on populist versus elitist education. Partly in response to
these concerns, the central decision makers promulgating a compulsory nine-year (elementary and junior
secondary) education policy.
The impact of regularization in the schools led to a number of closings and mergings, especially
among the primary schools. In the rural sparsely populated areas, this resulted in declining enrollments.
In fact, in most provinces, enrollments in elementary schools were higher in 1978 than in either 1985 or
1992. A second contributing factor to declining enrollments can be traced to the agricultural
decollectivization, which began in 1978. This provided for a remuneration system based on output, and
so for some families, education for their children, as opposed to working at home, was not always the
most advantageous choice.

In spite of the need for technically trained manpower for the economic reconstruction of China,
the acceptance of technical and vocational secondary schools was slow, at least initially.

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 The perception lingered that these educational streams were only for those not able to pass
muster in the traditional streams. In 1978, enrollment in technical and vocational programs comprised
only 5% of the total enrollment. However, by 1994, of the junior secondary graduates that continued
their schooling, 44.1% entered key and general senior secondary schools (a total of 2,434,000 students),
whereas 55.9% entered specialized technical or vocational schools (a total of 3,079,000 students).

One of the first changes in higher education after the end of the Cultural Revolution was the
restoration of the national unified college entrance exams in 1977. Further reform borrowed heavily from
two important documents of the early 1960s: the “Decision on Unifying Management in the Higher Education
System,” and the “Sixty Articles of Higher Education.” Very briefly stated, the former document was a
regularization decree inasmuch as it called for the setting of academic standards, and empowered the
Ministry of Education as the final authority. This has been the guiding document of reform, not only for
higher education, but for all levels of education during the post-Mao years. Its main points are outlined
below:
1. To bring about the Four Modernizations.
2. To increase state funding for education.
3. To insure that the education system shall supply a sufficient number of highly qualified
personnel.
4. To institute a 9-year compulsory education policy.
5. To expand the system of technical and vocational education.
6. To give provisions for reform of higher education, e.g.,
6.1 To change the system of job-assignments to graduates.
6.2 To grant the colleges and universities more decision-making powers.

D. Educational Systems in South Korea

Demands for Education

• Elementary school
8 to 13 year-old (6 years)

• Middle School
14 to 16 year-old (3 years)

− Wear a uniform
− Many rules control the students
− 45 students in a class

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 − Lots of subjects are scheduled by teacher: Korean, English, Math, Science, Social Studies,
Economics, Chinese letters, Physical Education, Arts, Music, some activities and so on.
• High school 17 – 19 year-old (3 years)

General High school

It is one-step upgraded from middle school.

Public and Private

A special purpose High school

Foreign language High school

It offers Foreign languages to students who major in them.

Science High school

It offers education to students who passed the exam.

• High school 17-19 year-olds (3 years)

− Majors: drama, music, dance and so on
− Students learn not only arts but also academic subjects
− More expensive than general high school
− High school 17-19 year-olds (3 years)
− It offers commercial information to students who want to work after graduation.

Technical High school

− It offers technology education to students.

− Higher education

Community College (2 years)

University (4 years) for bachelor degree

Graduate program (2 years) for master degree

PHD program (4 years) for doctoral degree

Examination for entering a College

• Test Subjects
• When? Once a year

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Korean: 120 score

Mathematics: 80 score

Social Studies and Science: 120 score

English: 80 score

Total: 400 score

• Level: 1-9

For example, 1 level means five percent of the total score

E. Educational System of India

India contains about 888,000 educational institutions with an enrollment of about 179 million
students. The elementary education system in India is the second largest in the world, with 149.4 million
children of 6-14 years enrolled (about 82 percent of the children in that age group) and 2.9 million
teachers.

Being a democratic country, India is committed in principle to compulsory and free education for
all its people with special provisions for its underprivileged and traditionally oppressed people. The
reality, however, is far from the desired outcome. Poverty and cultural deprivation leave millions of
young minds without education. On the contrary, a very sophisticated infrastructure of elitist education
modeled after the British private schools exists for the children of rich and influential people who
continue to dominate the society in different sectors.

Among the residential boarding schools designed exclusively for the elite are: The Lawerence
School, Lovedale; Kodaikanal International School, Kodaikanal; Rishi Valley School, Chittor; Montford
Anglo Indian Boys School, Yercaud; Chinmaya International Residential School, Coimbatore; United
World College, Pune; Dow Hill School, Kurseon; St. Paul’s School, Darjeeling; The Lawrence School,
Sanawar; Mayo College, Ajmer; Welham Girls’ High School, Dehradun; and Colving Tallukedar School,
Lucknow.

History of Education in India

The history of education in India is very rich and interesting. One can trace the ancient India
education to the 3rd century BC. Research shows that in the ancient days, sages and scholars imparted
education orally, but after the development of letter, it took the form of writing. Palm leaves and barks of

23
trees were used for education, and this in turn helped spread the written literature. Temples and
community centers often took the role of schools.

When Buddhism had spread in India, education became available to everyone and this led to the
establishment of some world famous educational institutions: Nalanda, Vikramshila and Takshashila.
These educational institutes in fact arose from the monasteries. History has taken special care to give
Nalanda University, which flourished from the fifth to 13th century AD, full credit for its excellence. This
university had around 10,000 resident students and teaches on its roll at one time. These students
included Chinese, Sri Lankan, Korean and other international scholars.

It was in the 11th century that the Muslims established elementary and secondary schools. This
led to the forming of few universities too at cities like Delhi, Lucknow and Allahabad. Medieval period
saw excellent interaction between Indian and Islamic traditions in all fields of knowledge like theology,
religion, philosophy, fine arts, painting, architecture, mathematics, medicine and astronomy.

Later, when the British arrived in India, English education came into being with the help of the
European missionaries. Since then, Western education has made steady advances in the country. With
hundreds of universities and thousands of colleges affiliated to them, in fact scores of colleges in every
discipline, India has positioned itself comfortable as a country that provides quality higher education to
its people in specific and to the world in general.

Indian Education System comprises stages called Nursery, Primary, Secondary, Higher
Secondary, Graduation & Post Graduation. Some students go in different stream after Secondary for 3
years Technical education called Polytechnics. The system is divided into preprimary, primary, middle,
secondary, and higher levels. Preprimary is usually composed of Lower Kindergarten and Higher
Kindergarten, where primary reading and writing skills are developed. This includes children of ages six
to eleven, organized into classes one through five. Secondary school pupils aged eleven through fifteen
are organized into classes six through ten, and higher secondary school students ages sixteen through
seventeen are enrolled in classes eleven through twelve.

In some places there is a concept called Middle schools for classes between six to eight in such
cases classes nine to twelve are classified under high school category. This provides an opportunity to
specialize in a field and includes English and Hindi (mother tongue or regional language).

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 In India, the main types of schools are those controlled by the state government boards, in which
the vast majority of Indian school-children are enrolled.

National Open School and “international schools in the West in which pattern and syllabi are
considerably more expensive than regular schools. The exams conducted have the syllabus of anyone of
the above-mentioned Council or Boards.

Preprimary Education

In India, kindergarten is divided into two stages – lower kindgergarten (LKG) and upper
kindgergarten (UKG). Typically, an LKG class would comprise children 3 to 4 years of age, and the UKG
class would comprise children 4 to 5 years of age. After finishing upper kindergarten, a child enters Class
1 (or Standard 1) of primary school. Often kindergarten is an integral part of regular schools. In most
cases, the kindergarten is run as a private school. Younger Children are also part of the kindergarten.
There are some organized players with standardized curricula.

Higher Education in India has evolved in distinct and divergent streams with each stream
monitored by an apex body, indirectly controlled by the Ministry of Human Resource Development and
funded by the state governments. However, there are 18 important universities called Central
Universities, which are maintained by the Union Government. The increased funding of the central
universities give them an advantage over state competitors.
Today, India education comprises of one of the largest higher secondary education system in the
world. In a word that is growing technology savvy everyday, Indian universities and institutes of higher
education and research have made a significant contribution to transmission of knowledge in these
technological sectors. Today, India is known as the talent-pool of the world, where intelligent, educated
people are very easy to find, and this fact has definitely given a boost to India education. In India,
education comes most naturally and people who can afford it just flow along with the education system.
And now, with many government policies targeting to bring the whole of India under the literacy
bracket, education in India is bound to touch the lives of every single person in India. This is a huge
effort because India has one of the largest population in the world and most of them are below poverty
line. So education for each one of them could be a tedious task, tedious though but not an impossible
one.

F. Brazil

Education is divided into three levels, with several grades in each division. Fundamental
education (the first educational level) is free for everyone (including adults), and mandatory for children
25
between the ages of 6 – 14. Secondary education is also free, but it is not mandatory. Higher education
(including graduate degrees) is free at public universities.

Pre-school

Pre-school is entirely optional, and exists to aid in the development of children under 7. It aims
to assist in all areas of child development, including motor skills, cognitive skills, and social skills while
providing fertile ground for the later acquisition of knowledge and learning. There are day nurseries for
children under 2, kindergartens for 2-3 year olds, and preschools for children 4 and up.

Fundamental Education

Fundamental Education is mandatory for children ages 6-14. There are 9 “years” (as opposed to
the former 8 “grades”). The current “First Year” broadly corresponds to the former Pre-School last year of
private institutions, and its aim is to achieve literacy. Generally speaking, the only prerequisite for
enrolling in first year is that a child should be 6 years old, but some educational systems allow children
younger than 6 to enroll in first year (as long as they turn 6 during the first academic semester). Older
students who, for whatever reason have not completed their fundamental education are allowed to
attend, though those over 18 are separated from the younger children.

Fundamental Education is divided in two stages, called Ensino Fundamental I (years 1-5) and Ensino
Fundamental II (years 6-9). During Ensino Fundamental I, each group of students is usually assisted by a
single teacher. As for Ensino Fudnametal II, there are as many teachers as subjects.

The length of the school year is set at at least 200 days by the National Education Bases and
Guidelines Law (Lei de Diretrizes e Bases da Educacão). Fundamental schools must provide students with at
least 800 hours of activities per year. The actual school calendar is set by individual schools which, in
rural areas, often organize their calendar by sowing and harvesting seasons.

Secondary Education

Secondary education takes 3 years. The minimum is 2,200 hours of coursework over 3 years.
Students must have finished their Fundamental Education core curriculum comprises Portuguese
(including Portuguese language, and Brazilian and Portuguese literatures), a foreign language (usually
English and sometimes Spanish), History, Geography, Mathematics, Physics, Chemistry, and Biology.
Recently Philosophy and Sociology, which were banned during the military dictatorship (1964-1985),
became compulsory again.

26
Higher Education

Secondary education is mandatory for those wishing to pursue higher education. In addition,
students must pass a competitive entrance examination (known as vestibular) for their specific course of
study. The number of candidates per available place in the freshman class may be in excess of 30 or 40 to
one in the most competitive courses at the top public universities.

Higher Education in Brazil, as in many nations, can be divided into both undergraduate and
graduate work. In addition to providing education, universities promote research and provide stand-
along classes to the community.

CULTURE of Brazil

Brazilian Culture is a Latin American culture of a very diverse nature. Its chief early influence
was Portuguese culture, due to strong colonial ties with the Portuguese empire that spread the
Portuguese language, legal system and other cultural inheritances. Other important influences came from
other parts of Europe, the Native South American people (such as the Tupi), Africa and Asia creating a
diverse multicultural and multiethnic society.

Religion

The religion of most Brazilians is Catholicism, in fact, Brazil is the largest country in the world
whose predominant religion is Roman Catholicism. Many other beliefs over time have been incorporated
into the Brazilian catholic belief system such as Spiritism, Buddhism, Hinduism, Ayahuasca, and Judaism
as well as religious syncretisms, such as candomble, umbanda, and macumba, that mix Catholicism with
African tribal religions. A majority of the population are non-practicing Catholics and would actually be
considered agnostics in many circles. Certain denominations of Christianity, such as Pentecostalism,
Methodism, and the Baptist church have also gained a large following.

Carnival

Carnival, as it is known in Brazil, is an annual celebration held forty days before Easter and
marking the start of Lent. Carnival in Rio de Janeiro is known worldwide for the elaborate parades
staged by the city’s major samba schools in the Sambadrome and is one of the world’s major tourist
attractions. In other regions such as Bahia and Pernambuco (and throughout Brazil), Carnival takes on a
unique regional flavor. Carnival celebrations in Brazil feature locally-originating traditions and music
(such as axe and frevo).

27
Arts

Thai visual art was traditionally primarily Buddhist. Thai Buddha images from different periods
have a number of distinctive styles. Contemporary Thai art often combines traditional Thai elements
with modern techniques.
Literature in Thailand is heavily influenced by Indian culture. The most notable works of Thai
literature are a version of the Ramayana called the Ramakien, written in part by Kings Rama I and Rama
II, and the poetry of Sunthorn Phu.

There is no tradition of spoken drama in Thailand, the role instead being filled by Thai dance.
This is divided into three categories – khon, lakhon and likay-khon being the most elaborate and likay the
most populist. Nang drama, a form of shadow play, is found in the south.
The music of Thailand includes classical and folk music traditions as well as string or pop music.

Music

Brazil’s rich cultural tradition extends to its music styles which include samba, bossa nova, forro,
frevo and many others. Brazilian contributions to the genres of classical music can be seen in the works
of composers Jose Mauricio Nunes Garcia (1767-1830), Antonio Carlos Gomes (1836-1896), Elias Alvares
Lobo (1834-1901), Heitor Villa-Lobos (1887-1959). Camargo Guarnieri (1907-1993), Claudio Santoro
(1919-1989) and Osvaldo Lacerda (1927).

Literature

The first literary works dated from the first travelers who came before Pedro Alvares Cabral.
There is “The Caramuru” name to Diogo da Silva, a Portuguese seaman who lived here for many years
before the coming of Cabral. There are the chronicles by Jesuits fathers and travelers who show as the
not explored land was a paradise and the native people were organized in societies, later killed by
Portuguese explorers. The first Brazilian writer is Padre Antonio Vieira, although a Portuguese Jesuit
lived all his life in the country, teaching to the natives and learning their idioms. He composed verses to
the Virgin Mary, wrote drama for catequisation and wrote many sermons defending the people of the
place against the Portuguese Crown’s exploration.

Cinema

Brazil has a long cinematic tradition, reaching back to the birth of the medium in the late 19th
century. In the 1950s, Cinema Novo, (literally “New Cinema”) sprang up as a movement concerned with
showing realism in film, in the vein of Italian Neorealism and the French new Wave. In recent years, film

28
like Cidade de Deus (2002 – directed by Fernando Meirelles) and Carandiru (2003 – directed by Hector
Babenco) gained Brazilian cinema a new level of international acclaim.

Sport

Sports are very popular in Brazil, the most notable being futebol (football). Brazil is also home to
several sports which have become internationally popular, such as capoeira and Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu.

Cuisine of Brazil

Brazilian Cuisine is mix of the cuisines of its inhabitants and immigrants: Native Americans,
Portuguese, Africans, Italians, Spaniards, Germans, Syrians, Lebanese, and others. The country is divided
into five main cuisine regions:

1. North (Picadinho de Jacare, Tacaca and Acai)

2. Northeast (Vatapa, Moqueca and Acaraje)
3. Central-West (pamonha, pequi)
4. Southeast (Feijoada)
5. South (Churrasco)

G. Malaysia

Education in Malaysia may be obtained from government-sponsored schools, private schools, or

through homeschooling. The education system is highly centralized, particularly for primary and
secondary schools, with state and local governments having little say in the curriculum or other major
aspects of education. Standardised tests are a common feature.
Education in Malaysia broadly consists of a set of stages which are:
• Pre-school
• Primary Education
• Secondary Education
• Tertiary Education
• Postgraduate

Only Primary Education in Malaysia is mandated by law, hence, it is not a criminal offence to neglect
the educational needs of a child after six years of Primary Education.

29
 Primary and secondary education in government schools are handled by the Ministry of Education,
but policies regarding tertiary education are handled by the Ministry of Higher Education, created in
2004.

In 2003, the government used English as a medium of teaching, in all science subjects, however
this create a discrimination between students who are and who are not fluent in the particular language.

Children begin primary schooling at age of 7 for six years. There are two major types of
government-operated or government-assisted primary schools: national schools (Sekolah Kebangsaan)
which uses Malay as medium of instruction, and national-type schools (Sekolah Jenis Kebangsaan) which
uses either Chinese or Tamil as medium of instruction. Before progressing to secondary level, students in
Year 6 sit for the Ujian Pencapaian Sekolah Rendah (UPSR), or Primary School Assessment Examination.
An exam called Penilaian Tahap Satu (PTS), First Level Assessment, was used to measure the ability of
bright students, and to allow them to move form Year 3 to 5, skipping Year 4. The exam was removed in
2001.

Secondary education in government secondary schools lasts five years. Government schools use
Malay as medium of instruction apart form language, Mathematics and Science subjects. At the end of
the third year or Form Three, students sit for the Penilaian Menengah Ren dah (PMR), Lower
Secondary Assessment. The combination of subjects available to Form 4 students vary from one school
to another. In the last year (Form 5), students sit for Sijil Pelajaran Malaysia (SPM), Malaysian
Certificate of Education, which is equivalent to the British Ordinary or ‘O’ Levels (now referred to as
GCSE).

Students wishing to enter public universities must complete 1 ½ more years of secondary
schooling Form Six and sit for the Sijil Tinggi Persekolahan Malaysia (STPM), Malaysian Higher School
Certificate; equivalent to the British Advanced or ‘A’ levels.

As for tertiary education, there are public universities such as University of Malaya and
Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia. In addition, 5 international reputable universities have set up their
branch campuses in Malaysia since 1998. A branch campus can be seen as an ‘off-shore’ of the foreign
university, which offers the same courses and awards as at the ‘headquarters’. Both local and
international students can acquire these identical foreign university branch campuses in Malaysia are:
Monash University (Sunway Campus), Curtin University of Technology (Sarawak Campus), Swinburne

30
University of Technology Sarawak Campus, University of Nottingham Malaysia Campus and FTMS-De
Monfort University Campus of Malaysia in Kuala Lumpur.

Culture of Malaysia

Malaysian culture or Malaya culture is a mixture of Malay, Chinese, Indian, and various indigenous
tribes dating back to more than fifteen hundred years ago from a Kedah kingdom in Lembah Bujang with
traders from China and India. Other cultures in the past that influenced heavily the culture of Malaya
include Persian, Arab and European.

Orang Asli and Indigenous peoples

The indigenous tribes are the oldest inhabitants of Malaysia. They account for about 5 percent of
the total population, and represent a majority in East Malaysia of Sabah and Sarawak. In Sabah, the
largest official ethnic group is Kadazan, though many unofficially recognized subgroups exist. The same
can be said of other ethnic groups, with as many as a hundred racial groups forming the state’s
population. However, due to the fact that many subgroups possess only minor differences, they are not
always differentiated. In Sarawak, the dominant tribal groups are the Dayak, who typically live in
longhouses if in the rural areas and are either Iban or Bidayuh.

Malay

Malay are Malaysia’s largest ethnic group, accounting for over half the population and the
national language. By definition of the Malaysian constitution, all Malays are Muslims. Traditional
Malay culture can still be found in the village. Malays in different areas of the country speak their own
unique dialects that can sometimes be unintelligible to most of their fellow countrymen.

Chinese

The first Chinese to settle in the Straits Settlements, primarily in and around Malacca, gradually
adopted elements of Malaysian culture and intermarried with the Malaysian community and with this, a
new ethnic group called babas (male) and nyonyas (female) emerged. Babas and nyonyas as a group are
known as Peranakan. They produced a synthetic set of practices, beliefs, and arts, combining Malay and
Chinese traditions in such a way as to create a new culture.

Indian

Indians had been visiting Malaysia for many centuries, but only settled during the nineteenth
century. Most came from South India, fleeing a poor economy or by an organized emigration
administrated by the British authorities. Arriving in Malaysia, many worked as rubber tappers, while
31
others built the infrastructure or worked as administrators and small businessmen. The Indians form the
third largest ethnic group of Malaysia.

H. Mexico

Education in Mexico is centralized with curriculum decisions being made at the federal level
through the Secretariat of Public Education (Spanish: Secretaria de Educacion Publica or SEP). Educational
standards are set by this Ministry at all levels except in autonomous universities chartered by the
government (e.g. UNAM). Accreditation of private schools is accomplished by a mandatory approval
and registration with this institution.

In the 1970s, Mexico established a system of “distance-learning” through satellite

communications to reach otherwise inaccessible small rural and indigenous communities. Schools that
use these systems are known as telesecundarias in Mexico. The Mexican distance learning secondary
education is also transmitted to some Central American countries and to Colombia, and it is used in
some southern regions of the United States as a method of bilingual education. There are approximately
30,000 telesecundarias and approximately a million telesecundaria students in the country.

Culture of Mexico

The culture of Mexico reflects the complexity of Mexico’s history through the blending of pre-
hispanic Mesoamerican civilizations and the culture of Spain, imparted during Spain’s 300-year
colonization of Mexico. Influences from the United States have shaped Mexican culture, and to a lesser
extent, influences from Europe, Africa, and Asia.

Community

Citizens take pride in their economic independence, one nation that still cherishes “community”
in its cities and towns, its plazas and schools, and its work organizations is Mexico. In Mexican culture
the expectation of working and socializing together is a key component of society, and has a basis in the
strong ties formed within the family.

However, lack of faith in the government and other organizations is a result of widespread
political corruption. Mexican culture is the result of a historical process of violent and peaceful exchange
of ideas.

32
International

Mexico’s relationships with the rest of the world are also quite complex. The arrival and
conquest of the Spaniards left the country searching for an identity – as a result of extensive
interbreeding with the Spanish (the vast majority of Mexicans are mestizo, that is, mixed blood), they
lost their native heritage, but similarly are not like their European conquerors.

Religion

With the Spanish conquest and colonization of Mexico, Catholicism was established as the
dominant religion of Mexico, and today, Mexico is 96 percent Christian of whom 92 percent are
Catholic. After Brazil, it has the second largest population of Catholics in the world. Weekly church
attendance is forty-six percent of the Mexican population. Evangelical denominations have grown in
recent years, after being introduced by missionaries and settlers from Europe and the United States in the
19th century. There has also been notable growth among The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints
and the Jehovah’s Witnesses.

Art

Mexico is known world wide for its fold art traditions, mostly derived from a combination of the
indigenous and Spanish crafts. Particularly notable among handicrafts are the clay pottery made in the
valley of Oaxaca and the bird and animal figures made in the village of Tonala. Colorfully embroidered
cotton garments, cotton or wool shawls and outer garments, and colorful baskets and rugs are seen
everywhere.

Cuisine

Mexican gastronomy, in terms of diversity of appealing tastes and textures, is one of the richest
in the world, rich in proteins, vitamins, and minerals, though some people unaccustomed to eating it
characterize it as greasy and excessively spicy. Popular dishes include tacos, enchiladas, and pozole.
Traditionally the main Mexican ingredients consisted of chicken, beef, sweetcorn (not really sweet),
tomatoes, peppers, chillis, onions, squashes, peanuts, avocados, guavas. The Spanish then influenced
these by adding milk, cheese, rice, wheat, cinnamon, and oranges.

Sports

Football (soccer) (futbol in Spanish) is by far the most popular sport in Mexico. Charreria and
bullfighting are also widely appreciated. Many large cities have bullrings. Mexico City has the largest
bullring in the world, seating 55,000 people. Bullfights usually occur on Wednesdays, and other

33
weekdays. Mexico is also known for its strong boxing tradition, having produced world champions such
as Julio Cesar Chavez, Salvador Sanchez, Erik Morales, Marco Antonio Barrera, Juan Manuel Marquez,
and Jesus Chavez. Other popular sports and activities include baseball, basketball, and Jai alai.

I. Thailand

Education in Thailand is provided mainly by the government through the Thai Ministry of
Education. Education is divided into two major levels with 6 years of elementary/primary school
(Prathomsuksa) and 6 years of high/secondary school (Mattayomsuksa). After 2001, the Ministry
changed the system of education into Children Centre, and divided into four levels: the first three years
in elementary school is the first level, the second level is the other half of high school. After each level,
students need to pass the NET (National Educational Test) to graduate. Children are required only to
attend six years of elementary school and at least the first three years of high school. But, if they have
graduated the sixth year of high school, there are two important tests following: O-NET (Ordinary
National Educational Test) and A-NET (Advanced national Educational Test). After graduating from
high school, lots of students in the major cities like to continue their education in bachelor level, so they
need to pass CUAS (Central University Admission System) which contains 50% of O-NET and A-NET
results and the other half of the forth level GPA (Grade Point Average). Since 2001, Thai Education has
changed its face. Lots of students in the major cities don’t like CUAS system and protest it, because
there is no standard GPA result from each school, but there is opposite situation in country area. So,
some university boards decided to avoid the problems by receiving students before CUAS.

Culture of Thailand

The Culture of Thailand is heavily influenced by Buddhism. Other influences have included
Hinduism, conflict and trade with Southeast Asian neighbors such as Laos, Cambodia and Myanmar, and
repeated influxes of Chinese immigrants.

Arts

Thai visual art was traditionally primarily Buddhist. Thai Buddha images from different periods
have a number of distinctive styles. Contemporary Thai art often combines traditional Thai elements
with modern techniques.

Literature in Thailand is heavily influenced by Indian culture. The most notable works of Thai
literature are a version of the Ramayana called the Ramakien, written in part by Kings Rama I and Rama
II, and the poetry of Sunthorn Phu.

34
 There is no tradition of spoken drama in Thailand, the role instead being filled by Thai dance.
This is divided into three categories – khon, lakhon and likay-khon being the most elaborate and likay the
most populist. Nang drama, a form of shadow play, is found in the south.

The music of Thailand includes classical and folk music traditions as well as string or pop music.

Religion

Thailand is nearly 95% Theravada Buddhist, with minorities of Muslims (4.6%), Christians
(0.7%), Mahayana Buddhists, and other religions. Thai Theravada Buddhism supported and overseen by
the government, with monks receiving a number of government benefits, such as free use of the public
transportation infrastructure.

Cuisine

Thai cuisine is famous for the blending of four fundamental tastes:

• sweet (sugar, fruits, sweet peppers)

• spicy hot (chilies)
• sour (vinegar, lime juice, tamarind)
• salty (soy sauce, fish sauce)

Most of the dishes in Thai cuisine try to combine most, if not all, of these tastes. It is accomplished
by using a host of herbs, spices and fruit, including: chili, cumin, garlic, ginger, basil, sweet basil, lime,
lemongrass, coriander, pepper, turmeric, and shallots.

Sports

The Most popular team sport in Thailand is football. However, the professional leagues Thai
League and Pro League in Thailand are in their infancy. The English and Premiership have large
followings. Muay Thai (Thai boxing) is probably the most popular spectator sport in Thailand. The
other main indigenous sport is takraw, which is similar to volleyball, but played with the feet and a light
rattan ball. There are several versions of the game with differing rules.

There is a Swan Boat circuit where the villages field teams complete. The International
invitational race is usually in November.

35
 Egg rolling once enjoyed national-pastime status, but famine and egg shortages around the
middle of the last century caused it to retreat to rural villages, where it is still practiced with traditional
vigour.

Customs

One of the most distinctive Thai customs is the wai, which is similar to the Indian namaste
gesture. Showing greeting, farewell, or acknowledgment, it comes in several forms reflecting the relative
status of those involved, but generally it involves a prayer-like gesture with the hands and a bow of the
head.

Physical demonstrations of affection in public are common between friends, but less so between
lovers. It is thus common to see friends walking together holding hands, but couples rarely do so except
in westernized areas.

A notable social norm holds that touching someone on the head may be considered rude. It is
also considered rude to place one’s feet at a level above someone else’s head, especially if that person is of
higher social standing. This is because the Thai people consider the foot to be the dirtiest and lowest
part of body, and the head the most respected and highest part of the body. This also influences how
Thais sit when on the ground – their feet always pointing away from others, tucked to the side or behind
them. Pointing at or touching something with the feet is also considered rude.

It is also customary to remove one’s footwear before entering a home or a temple, and not to step
on the threshold.

Marriage

Thai marriage ceremonies between Buddhists are generally divided into two parts: a Buddhist
component, which include the recitation of prayers and the offering of food and other gifts to monks and
images of the Buddha, and a non-Buddhist component rooted in folk traditions, which centers on the
couple’s family.

In former times, it was unknown for Buddhist monks to be present at any stage of the marriage
ceremony itself. As monks were required to attend to the dead during funeral, their presence at a
marriage (which was associated with fertility, and intended to produce children) was considered a bad
omen. A couple would seek a blessing from their local temple before or after being married, and might

36
consult a monk for astrological advice in setting an auspicious date for the wedding. The non-Buddhist
portions of the wedding would take place away from the temple, and would often take place on a
separate day.

Funerals

Traditionally funerals last for a week. Crying is discouraged during the funeral, so as not to
worry the spirit of the deceased. Copies of Buddhist scriptures may be printed and distributed in the
name of the deceased, and gifts are usually given to a local temple. Monks are invited to chant prayers
that are intended to provide merit for the deceased, as well as to provide protection against the
possibility of the dead relative returning as a malicious spirit. Often, a thread is connected to the corpse
or coffin which is held by the chanting monks during their recitation; this thread is intended to transfer
the merit of the monks’ recitation to the deceased. The corpse is cremated, and the urn with the ash is
usually kept in a chedi in the local temple. The Chinese minority however buries the deceased.

Nicknames

Thais universally have one, or occasionally more, short nicknames (Thai: play-name) that they use
with friends and family. Often first given by friends or an older family member, these nicknames are
typically one syllable (or worn down from two syllables to one). Though they may be simply shortened
versions of a full name, they quite frequently have no relation to the Thai’s full name and are often
humorous and/or nonsense words.

J. Canada

Education in Canada is provided, funded and overseen by federal, provincial, and local
governments. Education is within provincial jurisdiction and the curriculum is overseen by the province,
without a ministry of education at the federal or national level. Education in Canada is generally divided
into Elementary (Primary School, Public School), followed by Secondary (High School) and Post
Secondary (University, College). Within the provinces under the department of education, there are
district school boards administering the educational programs. Education is compulsory up to an age to
16. Canada generally has 190 school days in the year, officially starting from September (after Labour
Day) to the end of June (usually the last Friday of the month).

Elementary, secondary, and post-secondary education in Canada is a provincial responsibility

and there are many variations between the provinces. Some educational fields are supported at various
levels by Federal Departments. The Department of Citizenship and Immigration is responsible for the

37
Department of Resources and Development which later came under the jurisdiction of the Department of
Northern Affairs and National Resources. Vocational training can be subsidized via the Department of
Labour. Junior Kindergarten (or equivalent) as an official program exists in some, but not all, provinces.
Kindergarten (or its equivalent) is available in every province, but provincial funding, and the number of
hours provided varies widely. Starting at grade one, at about age six, there is universal publicly funded
access up to grade twelve (or equivalent). Dependant on the province the age of mandatory entry is at 5-
7 years, age 6 is the age at which elementary school begins in grade 1. Children are required to attend
school until the age of sixteen (Age 18 in Ontario, Age 15 in Alberta). About one out of ten Canadians
does not have a high school diploma – one in seven has a university degree – the adult population that is
without a high school diploma is a combination of both immigrant and Canadian-born. In many places,
publicly-funded high school graduates versus non diploma-holders is changing rapidly, partly due to
changes in the labour market that require people to have a high school diploma and, in many cases, a
university degree.

Culture of Canada

Canadian culture has historically been heavily influenced by British, French, and Aboriginal
cultures and tradition, and over time has been greatly influenced by American culture. Many forms of
American media and entertainment are popular; conversely, many Canadian cultural products and
entertainers are successful in the US and worldwide.

Development of Canadian Culture

Canadian culture is a product of Canada’s history and geography. Most of Canada’s territory
was inhabited and developed later than other European colonies in the Americas, with the result that
themes and symbols of pioneers, trappers, and traders were important in the early development of
Canadian culture. The British conquest of Quebec in 1759 brought a large Francophone population
under British rule, creating a need for compromise and accommodation, while the migration of United
Empire Loyalists from the Thirteen Colonies brought in strong British and American influences.

Bilingualism and Multiculturalism

French Canada’s early development was relatively cohesive during the 17th and 18th centuries, and
this was preserved by the Quebec Act of 1774, which allowed Francophone culture to survive and thrive
within Canada. In 1867, the British North America Act was designed to meet the growing calls for
Canadian autonomy while avoiding the overly-strong decentralization that contributed to the Civil War
in the United States. The compromises made by MacDonald and Cartier set Canada on a path to

38
bilingualism, and in turn contributed to an acceptance of diversity that later led to both multiculturalism
and tolerance of First Nations culture and customs.

Multicultural heritage is enshrined in Section 27 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and

Freedoms. In parts of Canada, especially the major cities of Montreal, Vancouver, and Toronto (for
example, in Toronto’s Kensington Market area), multiculturalism itself is the cultural norm and diversity
is the force that unites the community.

While French Canadian culture is the most obvious example, Celtic influences have allowed
survival of non-English dialects in Nova Scotia and Newfoundland; however, the influence of Ulster
immigrants to Toronto has had effect of minimizing Irish influences in Ontario’s culture, and
highlighting British influences instead, until the 1980s. Canada’s Pacific trade has also brought a large
Chinese influence to British Columbia and other areas.

Aboriginal Influences

There were, and are, many distinct Aboriginal peoples across Canada, each with its own culture,
beliefs, values, language, and history. Much of this legacy remains celebrated artistically, and in other
ways Olympics is an inukshuk a stack of rocks in human form that is a part of Inuit culture.

Multicultural Elements

Multiculturalism, officially endorsed in Section Twenty-seven of the Canadian Charter of Rights

and Freedoms, has a large influence on Canadian culture, which is post-ethnic and trans-national in
character. According to the Department of Canadian heritage, Canada’s ethnic, racial and religious
diversity is rapidly increasing. According to the 2001 census, more than 200 ethnic origins are
represented in Canada. About 13.5 percent of the population is a member of a visible minority group and
that proportion is expected to reach 20 percent by 2016. Immigration now accounts for more than 50
percent of Canada’s population growth, with immigrants coming mainly from Asia and the Middle East.
It is projected that, after 2025, Canada’s population growth will be based solely on immigration.

American Influences

Easy access to broadcast media has brought many American influences into Canadian culture
since the mid-20th century. As a reaction, many Canadians attempt to define Canadian culture by their
heritage (Canadian Heritage Moment Commercials, Beer Brewing history, peacekeeping, hockey history)
and values as different from those of the United States. Canadian culture often has political overtones,

39
though not necessarily of a partisan nature. Canadian idealism makes many Canadians critical of
government, social, and status reality of other countries.

Art

The works of most early Canadian painters followed European trends. During the mid 1800s,
Cornelius Krieghoff, a Dutch born artist in Quebec, painted scenes of the life of the habitants (French-
Canadian farmers). At about the same time, the Canadian artist Paul Kane painted pictures of Indian life
in western Canada. A group of landscape painters called the Group of Seven developed the first
distinctly Canadian style of painting. All these artists painted large, brilliantly, coloured scenes of the
Canadian wilderness.

Literature

Canadian literature is often divided into French and English-language literature, which are
rooted in the literary traditions of France and Britain, respectively, however, collectively this literature
has become distinctly Canadian. Canada’s literature, whether written in English or French, often reflects
the Canadian perspective on nature, frontier life, and Canada’s position in the world. Canadian identity
is closely tied to its literature. Its literature is often categorized by region or province; by the status of
the author (e.g., literature of Canadian women, Acadians, Aboriginal peoples in Canada, and Irish
Canadians); and by literary period, such as “Canadian postmoders” or “Canadian Poets Between the
Wars.”

Canadian Theatre

Canada has a thriving stage theatre scene, especially in Southern Ontario and in Quebec. Theatre
festivals draw many tourists in the summer months especially the Stanford Festival in Niagara On The
Lake, Ontario. The Famous People Players are only one of many touring companies that have also
developed an international reputation. Canada also boasts the world’s second largest live theatre festival,
the Edmonton Fringe Festival.

Film and Television

The Canadian film market was dominated by the American film industry for decades, although
that film industry has since inception seen a prominent role for actors, directors, producers and
technicians Canadian origin.

The Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission’s Canadian Content

Regulations dictate that a certain percentage of domestic broadcaster’s transmission time must include
40
content that is produced by Canadians or covers Canadian subjects. This also applies to US cable
television channels such as MTV and the Discovery Channel, which have local versions of their channels
available on Canadian cable networks. Similarly, BBC Canada, while primarily showing BBC shows from
the United Kingdom, also carries Canadian output.

Comedy

The Canadian Broadcasting Corporation is noted for political satire such as “This Hour Has 22
Minutes,” “Rick Mercer Report,” and “Royal Canadian Air Force”. Canada has produced many eminent national
humorists. “The Kids in the Hall” was a popular Canadian sketch group. Also the “Second City Television”
show originated in the Toronto Second City operation, which produced many comedians that went on to
success worldwide, including John Candy, Rick Moranis, Eugene Levy, Dave Thomas, Catherine O’Hara,
and others. The team of creators for SCTV, including Lorne Michaels, were later transplanted in New
York City to create Saturday Night Live. Canadian humour is often described as being not a ‘punchline-
friendly’ as its American counterpart, but not as ‘off-the-wall’ as its UK counterpart.

Music

Canada has developed its own brands of traditional music, including the French, Irish and
Scottish-derived Cape Breton fiddle music of the Maritimes, the Franco-Celtic Styles of Quebec that
often include foot percussion and a scat style called turlutte, and other national styles from the Ottawa
Valley to the west. Noted proponents are Buddy MacMaster and his niece Natalie of Cape Breton, and
Madame Bolduc of Quebec, whose recordings in the 1930s lifted her people through depressing times.

Symbol

Official symbols of Canada include the maple leaf, beaver, and the Canadian Horse. Many official
symbols of the country such as the Flag of Canada have been changed or modified over the few decades in
order to ‘Canadianize’ them and de-emphasise or remove references to the United Kingdom. Symbols of
the monarchy in Canada continue to be featured in, for example, the Coat of Arms of Canada and armed
forces Her Majesty’s Canadian Ship.

K. Educational System of France

The French educational system is highly centralized, organized, and ramified. It is divided into three
different states:
• primary education (enseignement primaire);
• secondary education (enseignement secondaire);

41
 • tertiary of college education (enseignement superieur)

Primary and secondary education is predominantly public (private schools also exist, in particular a
strong nationwide network of primary and secondary Catholic education), while tertiary education has
both public and private elements.

Culture of France

The culture of France is very rich and diverse, reflecting regional differences as well as the
influence of immigration. French plays since centuries have an important worldwide role as a cultural
center, with Paris as a world center of high culture.

Religion

France is a secular country where freedom of thought and of religion is preserved, in virtue of the
1789 Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen. The Republic is based on the principle of
laicite, that is of freedom of religion (including of agnosticism and atheism) enforced by the 1880s Jules
Ferry laws and the 1905 law on the separation of the State and the Church, enacted at the beginning of
the Third Republic (187101940). Roman Catholicism is not considered anymore a state religion as it was
before the 1789 Revolution and throughout the various, non-republican regimes of the 19th century (the
Restauration, the July monarchy and the Second Empire). At the beginning of the 20th century, France
was a largely rural country with conservative Catholic morals. In the course of the century, major
changes have occurred: the countryside has become largely depopulated, and the population has largely
become de-christianised. This has led to important changes in social morals.

Art in France

Painting

The Louvre is a very famous art museum created by former emperor, Napoleon Bonaparte. It is
located in Paris, France and is, to date, the largest museum in the world. Before becoming a tourist
attraction, it was a royal palace. The first section of the palace was made into a museum in 1793, during
the French Revolution. It holds the very famous Mona Lisa, by Leonardo da Vinci, and Venus de Milo.
The first paintings of France are those that are from prehistoric times, painted in the caves of
Lascaux well over 10,000 years ago. The arts flourished already 1,200 years ago, at the time of
Charlemagne, as can be seen in many hand made and hand illustrated books of that time.

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Customs and Traditions

France is noted for its cosmopolitan, civilized approach to life, combined with great concern for
style, fashion and appearances, but generalizations are not without risk, as in other countries. There are
huge differences in life style and world view between various ‘elites’ and ‘lower’ people, especially if they
rung parallel with the wide gap between Paris and what is sometimes called ‘le desert Francais’. The
French are often perceived as taking a great pride in the national identity and positive achievements of
France, although many would argue that people of all nations tend to do that. However, there is a notion
of the exception Francaise that is more explicit in France than its equivalent in many other counties. The
culture of France is diverse, reflecting regional differences as well as the influence of recent immigration.
French culture has played an important role with universalist pretensions for centuries, with Paris as a
world center of high culture. Any perceived decline in cultural status is a matter of national concern.
Cultural issues are more integrated in the body politic than elsewhere.

Food and Alcohol

The legal drinking age for alcohol beverages (21% vol. alcohol) is officially 18. Except most
people break the laws and drink at 15 years old.

Sports and Hobbies

The French “national” sport, is football (soccer). The most-watched sports in France are football
(soccer), rugby union, basketball, cycling, sailing and tennis. While football (soccer) is definitely the
most popular, rugby takes dominance in the southwest, especially around the city of Toulouse.
Professional sailing in France is centered on singlehanded/shorthanded ocean racing with the pinnacle of
this branch of the sport being the Vendee Globe singlehanded around the world race which starts every 4
years from the French Atlantic coast. The most played sport in France is Petanque. The social form of
the sport of Petanque is played by about 17 million people in France. It has to be noted that Petanque is
mostly played in the southern part of the country. Petanque is not considered as a sport by many
northern Frenchmen. Babyfoot (table football) is very popular pastime in bars and in homes in France,
and the French are the predominant winners of worldwide table football competitions.

Language

French culture is profoundly allied with the French language. The artful use of the mother
tongue, and its defense against perceived decline or corruption by foreign terms, is a major preoccupation
for some persons and entities.

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Transportation

There are significant differences in lifestyles with respect to transportation between very
urbanized regions such as Paris, and smaller towns and rural areas. In Paris, and to a lesser extent in
other major cities, many households do not own a automobile and simply use efficient mass
transportation. The cliché about the parisien is rush hour in the Metro subway. However, outside of
such areas, ownership of one or more cars is standard, especially for households with children.

L. Italy

Primary and Secondary Schools

Italy has a countrywide educational system, with a five-year primary stage and an eight-year
secondary stage.
Today, there are two stages of education in Italy: primary and secondary. Primary school can be
preceded by 3 years of non-compulsory nursery school (or kindergarten).
Primary school lasts 5 years. Until middle school, the educational curriculum is uniform for all:
although one can attend a private or state-funded school, the subjects studied are the same, except in
special schools for the blind, the hearing-impaired, and so forth.
Secondary education (Scuole medie) is further divided in two stages: “Medie Inferior”, which
correspond to the Middle School grades, and “Medie Superiori”, which correspond to the Secondary
School level.

University

Italian universities have a long history, beginning in mediaeval times with the establishment of
the University of Salerno in the ninth century, and the University of Bologna in 1088. Further universities
were founded in the subsequent centuries: the University of Padova in 1222, and two years later the
University of Naples founded by Frederick II, the University of Florence, founded in 1308, then the
universities of Pisa, Pavia and Turin.

Culture of Italy

The culture of Italy can be found in the Roman ruins remaining in much of the country, the
precepts of the Roman Catholic Church, the spirit of the Renaissance and the Enlightenment, the
architecture. It can also be tasted in Italy’s cuisine.

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Literature

Italian literature began after the founding of Rome in 753 B.C., while the first works in proper
Italian date back almost ten centuries.

Religion

Roman Catholicism is the major religion – 85% of native-born citizens are nominally Catholic –
there are mature Protestant and Jewish communities and a growing Muslim immigrant community. All
religious faiths are provided equal freedom before the law by the constitution. Islam was almost entirely
absent in Italy from the time of that country’s unification in 1861 until the 1970s, when the first few North
African immigrants began arriving. These North Africans, mostly of Berber or Arab origin, came mainly
from heavily Islamic Morocco, though they have been followed in more recent years by Tunisians,
Albanians and to a lesser extent, Libyans, Egyptians, Pakistanis, Middle Eastern Arabs and Kurds. Some
estimate the number of Italian converts to be around 10,000.

Visual Art

Italian art describes the visual arts in Italy from ancient times to the present. In Ancient Rome,
Italy was a centre for art and architecture. There were many Italian artists during the Gothic and
Medieval periods, and the art flourished during the Italian Renaissance. Later styles in Italy included
Mannerism, Baroque and Rococo. Futurism developed in Italy in the 20th century. Florence is a well
known city in Italy for its museums of art.

Cinema and Theatre

The history of Italian cinema began a few months after the Lumiere brothers had discovered it.
The first film was a few seconds long and it was Pope Leo XIII who was giving a blessing to the camera.

Italian theatre can be traced back into the Romans which was heavily influenced by the Greek
tradition, and, as with many other literary genres, Roman dramatists tended to adapt and translate from
the Greek.

Music

Music has traditionally been one of the great cultural markers of what it means to be “Italian”
and holds an important position in society, in general, and even in politics. The music of Italy range
across a broad spectrum, from her renowned opera to modern experimental classical music; and from the
traditional music of the many ethnically diverse region to a vast body of popular music drawn from both

45
native and imported source. Historically, musical developments in Italy in the Middle Ages and
Renaissance helped created much music that spread throughout Europe. Innovation in the use of
musical scales, harmony, notation, as well as experiments in musical theater led directly not just to opera
in the late 16th century, but to classical music forms such as the symphony and concerto, and to later
developments in popular music. Today, the entire infrastructure that supports music as a profession is
extensive in Italy, including conservatories, opera houses, radio and television stations, recording studios,
music festivals, and important centers of musicological research. Musical life in Italy remains extremely
active.

Folklore

It’s difficult to individuate an Italian folklore, because of the vast differences between regions.
In Italy, the following are very important in tradition:
• Proverbs and tales
• Works and consuetudes
• Traditional dresses
• Moral values

In 1956, Italo Calvino selected and recorded a collection of folktales in Italian Folktales

M. Philippines

Philippine Educational System

HISTORY OF THE PHILIPPINE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

46
In the Philippines the educational system aims to:

• provide a broad general education that will assist each individual in the society to attain his/her
potential as a human being, and enhance the range and quality of the individual and the group;
• help the individual participate in the basic functions of society and acquire the essential
educational foundation for his/her development into a productive and versatile citizen;
• train the nation’s manpower in the middle-level skills required for national development;
• develop the high-level professions that will provide leadership for the nation, advance knowledge
through research, and apply new knowledge for improving the quality of human life; and,
• respond effectively to changing needs and conditions through a system of educational planning
and evaluation.

Mission

The mission of the Department is to provide quality basic education that is equitably accessible
to all and lay the foundation for life-long learning and service for the common good. The Department is
primarily responsible for the formulation, planning, implementation and co-ordination of the policies,
standards, regulations, plans, programmes and projects in areas of formal and non-formal education. It
also supervises all basic education institutions, both public and private, and provides for the
establishment and maintenance of a complete, adequate and integrated system of education relevant to
goals of national development.

Reading Assignment:
− E-Journals
• PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
• Password: powersearch

Exercises/written assignments
Answer the following questions intellectually:
1. Differentiate the following countries according to:
1.1. Various range of specialization
1.2. Educational System
1.3. Curricular Program, Evaluation and Implementation

Developed Countries:

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 a. America
b. Japan
c. China
d. Korea
e. Australia
f. Canada
g. France
h. Italy

Developing countries:
a. Philippines
b. India
c. Brazil
d. Malaysia
e. Mexico
f. Thailand

2. How do culture and traditions affect the development of the Educational System of one country?
3. What is the importance of studying Comparative and International Education to future educational
planners/managers?
4. How does Comparative and International Education in terms of intensive studies influence the
growth of developing/transition countries?

References/bibliography
­ Altbck, Philip G.,: “New Approaches to Comparative Education”, www.press.uchicago.edu
­ Hawkins, John N., : “Comparative Education Review”, www.press.uchicago.edu
Internet Sources

http://www.u10.mrs.umn.edu/courses/ed1051

http://www.edstud.ox.ac.w/c/research/rc%20Comp%20ed.htm

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MODULE 2
THE CHANGING GLOBAL ENVIRONMENT

LESSON 1
KEY FACTORS OF DEVELOPMENT IN A GLOBAL ECONOMY

Learning Objectives
1. Know the key economic and non-economic factors that determines the economic
development of any country;
2. Learn the importance of human capital as the source of economy’s total development,;
why education and training is important in today’s’ job market;
3. Discuss how social change affect the present education;
4. Analyze how different countries have been affected by the change in global
environment
5. Discuss how to formulate Recommendation and Action Plans to address problems
caused by global changes.

Keywords and Phrases

• Economic Development
• Non-Economic Factors
• Globalization
• Economic Factors
• Social Technology
• Economic Globalization
• Collar Globalization
• Political Change
• Social change

The Changing Global Environment

I. KEY FACTORS OF DEVELOPMENT IN GLOBAL ECONOMY

Economic development is a progressive process of improving human conditions, such as the

reduction or elimination of poverty, unemployment, illiteracy, inequality, disease and exploitations.

49
 Economic development is not determined by economic factors alone. There are non-economic
factors that affect economic development, and they have greater influence than the economic ones. The
economic factors are capital, technology and market, while the non-economic factors are social structure,
political conditions and geography.

A. Economic Factors

1. Capital – refers to finished goods which are being used to produce other goods.

a. Physical Capital – these are the machines, buildings, tools, equipment, etc. which can
accelerate the production and distribution of goods. Work can be done in lesser time and effort.
This also reduces the unit cost and produces better goods or products.

b. Financial Capital – refers to money. This is used not only to buy and process the raw
materials but also used as funds for road construction, electrification, communication, irrigation
and other vital projects for economic development.

c. Human Capital – refers to the people or manpower. It is considered as the key factor in
economic development because he is the planner, organizer, and coordinator of economic
activities, therefore the person involved must be educated and trained.

2. Technology – generally refers to better techniques or methods of production. However, it can

also be applied in other fields like public administration, education or social work. For instance,
social technology is concerned with he improvement of attitudes and values of the people. Public
administration technology deals with the improvement social goods in order to maximize the
satisfaction of social wants.

a. invention - refers to the discovery of a new technique.

b. innovation – means improving the product or enhancing its usefulness.
­ It can be any change initiated by the entrepreneur which leads to a faster and better
development of an industry.

The innovator is the economic leader and the entrepreneur who has the courage and
imagination to handle old systems, and transforms theory into practice.

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 3. Market – the growth of market reflects on the expanding economic development for as long as
the various sectors of the economy are equitably benefited; economic growth is real and
enduring. Transportation, communication, and electricity greatly help in cost growth of
markets. Such external economic of scale reduce cost for both producers and traders. In
addition, contact between sellers and buyers is easier and more convenient. In this connection,
capital and technology are directly involved machines and other physical facilities are needed to
accelerate production processing and distribution. This is not only favorable to the sellers but
also to the buyers. A more modern production and marketing system saves cost and improves
the quality of the products. Goods with lower cost of production and distribution have generally
lower prices. This increase the purchasing power of the buyers, and so demand for the products
also increases.

A market becomes bigger when more people buy more goods. This stimulates investment and
production. It is only expected that businessmen are willing to produce more if there is a good demand
for their products. The same situation applies to farmers. They are encouraged to raise crops that are
favorable to markets. Thus, a practical and rational way of convincing and for people to produce more
goods is the presence of a favorable market. More markets being established results in more
employment, utilization of resources, equitable distribution of income, taxes being paid to the
government which are used to develop facilities and infrastructure.

B. NON-ECONOMIC FACTORS

1. Social Structure – A society which has a more equitable distribution of wealth and income,
and economic freedom, provides a more fertile environment for economic development.
Members of society are induced to pursue their own individual interests, may it be it
economic, social, cultural or political. This is good for economic development. Being an open
society, even the humblest citizen can aspire to be rich or be the leader of his country.
Opportunities for improvement are open to all members of society. Hence, a man in the
lower class can move upward.

2. Political Condition – has a considerable impact on economic development. Political

stability and fair economic policies stimulate economic development which attract local as
well as foreign investments.

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 The major role of the government is to provide a high standard of living for its people. This
can be attained through higher levels of investments which generate employment and production
and through the equitable distribution of wealth and income. Plans, policies and programs are tools
of economic development. These can only operate efficiently under a regime of good and honest
public administration.

Singapore is a tiny state, in terms of natural resources, it is very poor. And yet it is very
affluent and progressive, compared to most Asian countries: The principal keys to its economic
growth are successful in Singapore because of its excellent political stability and a very efficient and
honest public administration.

In fact, Singapore has put up a modern infrastructure for computer technology. It intends to
transform its place into a computer center of the world. This would attract more international
institutions to invest in Singapore. And this would be favorable to the economy. More investments
mean more employment, production, and income.

3. Geography – refers to climate, soil, natural resources, topography, and structure of the land.
These have considerable influence on economic development. Countries which are endowed
with abundant natural resources have greater potentials for economic development.
Nevertheless, there are some countries with barren land but they are rich in oil resources
such as the Middle East countries. Such resources are good sources of income for funding
various programs for the government. For example, the massive construction projects in that
region are financed by petro dollars. These are the export earnings from oil.

On the other hand, there are countries with poor natural resources but they were able to
achieve remarkable economic growth. Good examples of these are Japan and Israel. In Japan, only
about 16 percent of its total land area is arable or can be farmed. During winter, one-half of said farm
is covered with snow. Because of its meager natural resources, Japan imports about 90 percent of
raw materials for its industries. Despite its geographical limitations, Japan has become the fastest
growing industrial society in the world. Through capital and technology, it has achieved
phenomenal economic growth. The same is true with Israel. Formerly, it was a barren land. In the
beginning, it had a pastoral economy. Today, Israel has a developed economy. Through modern
agricultural technology, its arid land became fertile and verdant. It is now an exporter of farm crops,
aside from industrial goods. The presence of excellent harbors favors both local and international

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 trade. Great rivers help accelerate economic development. In fact, the first civilizations emerged in
great river valleys like Tigris, Euphrates, and the Nile.

II. GLOBAL LABOR MARKET

Globalization – refers to increasing global connectivity, integration, and interdependence in the

economic, social, technological, cultural, political and ecological spheres. It is also defined as:
• the increasing connectivity of economics and ways of life across the world;
• the process by which of everyday life… is becoming standardized around the world;
• According to the International Monetary Fund Economic is the historical process, the result
of human innovation technological process; and,
• the movement of people (labor) and knowledge (technology) across international borders.

Economic Globalization – is the convergence of prices, products, wages, rate of interest and profit
toward develop country. The integration of market, nation-states, and technologies to degree never
witnessed before in a way that is enabling individuals, corporation and nation-station to reach around
the world farther, faster, deeper and cheaper than ever before.
Technological advancement – has made it easier and quicker to complete the international
transactions both in trade and financial forms.
Globalization started taking shape more than two decades with the formation of the “European
Common Market” and later with the regional trading such as the North American Free Trade Agreement
(NAFTA) with the rise of global trading, the labor market of both U.S. and taxes have been greatly
transformed.
Technology – has enabled companies to explore new market which maximizes revenues and new
sources of labor market which minimizes cost. In return we have a much more competitive labor
market. In effect globalization has given companies more choices.

White Collar Globalization

Despite its recent growth, service-providing is not immune to the effects of globalization: many
services by this cluster are now being performed elsewhere. Call centers have been relocated overseas, as
well as accounting services and engineering services. Resent corporate re-organization has cost higher
paying jobs to be moved offshore.
At this point according to an article in Business Week Magazine, upscale jobs are among many
big corporations that are now taking advantage of the highly educated and less expensive white collar

53
labor force available in other countries. Tasks such as bookkeeping, financial reporting, and taxes are
being performed in India, Ireland and the Philippines.

In 1990, corporate American imported hundreds of thousands of immigrants to ease engineering

shortage. Now, routine services and engineering tasks are being sent to nations with surplus of highly
educated workers. Indian and Chinese engineers are now managing research and development
forms in their countries. These trends are encouraging to developing nations but what it means for U.S.
labor force is still unclear.

How are these developing nations benefiting? These countries have a surplus of college
graduates who speak western languages. India has an astonishing 520,000 IT engineers with starting
salaries around $5,000 per year. In comparison, U.S. school produced 35,000 mechanical engineers a
year. Looking at this, it is easy to understand why corporations take advantage of the global labor pool.
By taking in more white-collar jobs, economic development for developing countries has become more of
a reality.

The question becomes: can our country lose these jobs and still prosper? The answer depends on
how well our workforce is educated and trained to meet this challenge. Education and training are the
key ingredients necessary to compete in today’s job market.

In the beginning of the 1990’s “career planning” entailed getting one’s education / training,
starting with a good company, working hard and moving up the career ladder until it was time to
retire. However, either from a lack of knowledge and / or fear of change in the labor market, the labor
market is not adjusting enough and are in danger of being left behind. But there are many resources
available to assist workers through this transition. Example, the government has retraining benefits
under the trade Adjustment Assistance Program. The program assists workers who lose their jobs to
competition with training education. Once admitted into the, workers can get federal money to pay for
retraining and financial help to interview for job in other cities. If the workers find a company that is
willing to retrain them, the government will reimburse the company for the half of the workers salary for
first six months of employment. This is just one example of the many programs and services that are
available.

54
 The labor market has been changed dramatically by globalization. “Corporation will
continue to search for new resources and new locations that will boost productivity, reduce cost,
improve their bottom line.

How are skill workers forced to compete against worker from high skill workers? High skill
workers will benefit as the demand for their labor will increase, raising their wages and creating new
employment opportunities. Others will have to be retrained to fit new and developing technology
markets such as nanotechnology and biotechnology.

The best way to be prepared is to take advantage of available education and training resources.
There has always been a strong correlation between education and earnings and even this new global
labor market cannot change that fact. We need to prepare to meet its challenge. One lesson that has
already been taught is that in global economy, “Learning will never end”.

III. POLITICAL CHANGE and SOCIAL CHANGE

Political Change – refers to the concept of change in politics.

Change in politics can usually take the following:
• appointment and resignation;
• elections ;
• inheritance; and,
• revolution,

1. Appointment – refers to the assignment of a person by an official to perform a duty. Such as

presidential appointment of a judge to a court. This may also happen in an office which is headed by
someone elected, but has an expected vacancy. A person appointed but not yet in the office is a
designate.

2. Resignation – is the formal act of giving up or quitting one’s office or position. It can also refer to the
act of admitting defeat in a game like chess, indicated by the resigning player turning his king on its
side. A resignation can occur when a person holding a position gained by election or appointment
steps down, but leaving a position upon the expiration of a term is not considered. An employee who
chooses to leave a position is considered a resignation, as opposed to termination, which occurs
when the employee involuntarily loses a job. Abdication is the equivalent of resignation of a reigning
monarch or pope, or other holder of a non-political heredity or similar position.

55
 A resignation is a personal decision to exit a position, though outside pressure exists in many
cases. For example, Richard Nixon resigned from the office of President of United States in 1974,
following the Watergate Scandal, when he was almost certain to have been impeached by the
United States Congress. Resignation can be used politically, as in the Philippines during July
2005, when 10 cabinet members resigned in order to put pressure on PGMA to do the same ever
allegation of electoral fraud. Alternatively, resignation as a procedure may be used, as a political
maneuver. In 1995, the British Prime Minster, John Major, resigned as leader of Conservative Party
in order to contest a leadership election with the aim of silencing his cities with the party and
reasserting his authority. Having resigned, he stood again and was re-elected although government
officials may tender their resignations, they are not always accepted. This could be a gesture of
confidence in the official as with the U.S. President George W. Bush’s refusal of his Secretary of
Defense Donald Rumsfeld twice-offered resignation during the Abu Ghraib prison abuse scandal.
However, refusing a resignation can be a method of severe censure if it is followed by dismissal;
Alberto Fujimori attempted to resign as President of Peru but his resignation was refused in order
that Congress could fire him.

For many public figures, primarily departing politicians, resignation is an opportunity to

deliver a valedictory resignation speech in which they can elucidate the circumstances of their exit
from office and in many cases deliver a powerful speech which they can elucidate the circumstances
of their exit from office and in many cases deliver a powerful speech which often commands much
attention. This can be used to great political effect, particularly as, subsequent to resigning,
government ministers are no longer bound by collective responsibility and can speak with greater
freedom about current issues.

3. Election – is a decision making process where people choose people to hold offices. This is the usual
mechanism by which modern democracy fills offices in the legislative, sometimes in the executive,
judiciary and for regional and local government.

The universal acceptance of elections as a tool for selecting representatives in modern

democracies is in sharp contrast with the practice in the democratic archetype, ancient Athens,
where most political offices were filled using sortition, also known as allotment.

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Electoral Reform

A. Democratic Election

The authority of the government in democracies derives solely from the consent of the
general; the principal mechanism for translating that consent of the general. The principal
mechanism for translating that consent into governmental authority is the holding of elections.
It is agreed, that elections should be free and fair.

Free and fair means democratic elections are not merely symbolic.. They are competitive,
periodic, inclusive, definitive elections in which the chief decision-makers in a government are
selected by citizens, who enjoy broad freedom to criticize government, to publish their criticism
and to present alternative.

The Democracy Watch International Website, further defines fair democratic

elections as an “Elections in which greater care is taken to prevent any explicit structural
bias towards any candidate, aside from those beneficial biases that naturally result from an
electorate that is equally well informed about the various assets and liabilities of each
candidate.” This was formally stated in 2000 by Chief Justice Murray Gleeson of the Australian
High Court as “The democratic and lawful means of securing change, if change be necessary
is an expression of the will of an informed electorate.”

While the requirement of free and fair election is easily observable, the requirement of an
informed electorate is difficult to achieve. Only a small part of the electorate will be able to
know the candidates on a personal level and thus the information of the electorate will be
incomplete. The electorate has to rely on 3rd party information and official programs of the
respective candidates. The latter is especially unreliable, since there is only a moral but no
legislative obligation--obligations to keep them in modern democracies. The party with the most
immediate interest in having structural biases is the government conducting the election.

B. Characteristics of Election

The question of who may vote is a central issue in elections. The electorate does not
generally include the entire population. Many countries prohibit those judge mentally
incompetent from voting, and all jurisdiction require a minimum age for voting.

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 Historically many other groups of people have also been excluded from voting. For
instance, the democracy of ancient Athens did not allow women, foreigners or slaves to vote, and
the original United State Constitution left the topic of suffrage to the states; usually only white
male property owners were able to vote. Much of the history of election involves the effort to
promote suffrage for women in many countries the right to vote freely was a major goal of the
American civil rights movement. Extending the right to vote to other groups which remain
excluded in some places (such as felons, members of certain minorities and economically
disadvantaged) continues to be significant goal of voting rights advocates.

Suffrage is typically only for citizens of the country. Further limits may be imposed: for
example, in Kuwait, only people who have been citizens since 1920 on their descendant are
allowed to vote, a condition that majority of residents do not fulfill. However, in the European
Union, one can vote in municipal elections if one lives in the municipality and is a citizen; the
nationality of the country of residence is not required.

In some countries, voting is required by law, if an eligible voter does not cast a vote, he or
she may be subjected to punitive measurement such as a small fine.

1. Who can be eligible to hold an office?

Normally there is a citizenship requirement, an age requirement, a residency
requirement, and perhaps, a non-felon requirement. (Before the Second World War, in
most countries, women were not eligible for public office.)

2. Nomination
Non-partisan system tend to differ from partisan systems in nominations. In a
direct democracy, one type of non-partisan democracy, any eligible person can be
nominated. In some non-partisan representative system (e.g., administrative elections of
the Bahii Faith), no nominations take place at all, with voters free to choose any person
at the time of voting with some possible exceptions such as through a minimum age
requirement in the jurisdiction. In such cases, it is not required that the members of the
electorate be familiar with all of the eligible persons, (though such system may involve
indirect elections at a large geographic levels to ensure that some first-hand familiarity
among potential electors can exist at these levels. As far as partisan system. In some
countries, only members of a particular political party can be nominated. Or, an eligible

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 person can be nominated through a petition; allowing him or her to be listed on a ballot.
In the U.S., for example, typically party candidates are required to have fewer signatures
on petitions than non-party candidates.

3. Who is elected?
The government positions for which elections are held vary depending on the
locale. In a representative democracy, such as United States, some positions are not
filled through elections, especially those which are seen as requiring a certain
competency or excellence. For example, judge are usually appointed rather than elected
to help protect their impartiality but there is also an exception to this practice, however,
some judges in the United States are elected, and in ancient Athens military general were
elected.

4. Types of Election
In most democratic political systems, there are a range of different types of
election, corresponding to different layers of public governance or geographical
jurisdiction.
Some common types of elections are:
• Presidential Election
• General Election
• Primary Election
• By-election
• Local Election
• Co-option

5. Electoral Systems
Electoral system refers to the detailed constitutional arrangement and voting
systems which convert the vote into a determination of which individuals and political
parties are elected to positions of power.

While openness and accountability are usually considered cornerstones of a

democratic system, the act of casting a vote and the content of a voters ballot are usually
an important exception. The secret ballot is a relatively modern development, but it is

59
 now considered crucial in most free and fair elections, as it limits the effectiveness of
intimidation.

6. Scheduling
The nature of democracy is that elected officials are accountable to this people,
and they must return to the voters at prescribed intervals to seek their mandate to
continue in office. For that reason most democratic constitutions provide that elections
are held at fixed regular intervals. In the United States, elections are held between every
three and six months in most states, with exceptions such as the U.S. House of
Representatives, which stands for election every two years. There is a variety of the
schedules, for example presidents: the President of Ireland is elected every seven years,
the President of Finland every six years, the President of France every five years, the
President of Russia and President of United States every four years.
Elections are usually held on one day. There are also advance polls and absentee
voting which have a more flexible schedule. In Europe, a substantial proportion of votes
are cast in advance voting.

B. Scheduling

When elections are called, politicians and their supporters attempt to influence policy
by competing directly for the votes of constituents in what are called campaigns.
Supporters for a campaign can be either formally organized or loosely affiliated, and
frequently utilize campaign advertising.

4. Inheritance

Inheritance is the practice of passing of property, titles, debts, and obligations upon the
death of an individual. It has long played an extremely important role in human societies.

Both anthropology and sociology have made detailed studies in this area. Many cultures
feature matrilineal succession, also known as gravel kind, where only male children can inherit.
Some cultures also employ matrilineal succession only passing property among the female line.
Other practices include primogeniture, under which all property foes to the eldest child. Or
often eldest son, or ultimogeniture, in which everything is left to the youngest child. Some

60
 ancient societies and most modern states employ portable inheritance, under which every child
inherits (usually equally). Historically there were also mixed systems.

• In Eastern Swedish culture, from the 13th century until the 19th century, sons inherited
twice as much as daughters. This rule was introduced by the Regent Birger Jarl, and it
was regarded as an improvement in its era, since daughters were previously usually left
without.
• Among ancient Israelites, the eldest son received twice as much as the other son.
• Among Galician people it was typical that all children (both men and women) had a part
of the inheritance, but one son (the one who inherited the house) inherited one-third of
all the inheritance. This son was called the mellorado. In some villages themellorado
even received two-thirds of all the inheritance. This two-thirds would be all the family’s
lands, while other children received their part in money.
• According to Islamic inheritance jurisprudence, sons inherit twice as much as daughters.
The complete laws governing inheritance in Islam are complicated and take into account
many kinship relations, but in principle males inherit twice as females in most cases.
There is one interesting exception. The Indonesian Minang Kabau people from West
part of Sumatra Island despite being strong Muslims employ only complete matrilineal
succession with property and land passing down from mother to daughter. They find no
contradiction between their culture and faith.

5. Revolution

A revolution (from late Latin revolution which means “a turn around”) is a significant
change that usually occurs in a relatively short period of time. They vary in terms of members of
their participants (revolutionaries), means employed by them, duration, motivating ideology and
many other aspects. They may result in a socio-political change in the socio-political institution
or a major change in a culture or economy.

A. Political and Socioeconomic Revolutions

Perhaps most often, the word revolution is employed to donate a socio-political change
in the socio-political institutions. Revolution is any and all instances in which a state or a
political regime is over thrown and there by transformed by a popular movement in an irregular,
extra constitutional and /or violent fashion. Revolution is not only mobilization and regime

61
 change, but also more or less rapid and fundamental social, economic and /or cultural change,
during or soon after the struggle for state power.

B. Types of Political and Socioeconomic Revolutions

Some popular types of revolutions are:

• Great Revolutions – revolutions that transform economic and social structure as well as
political, institutions, such as the French Revolution of 1789 or Russian Revolution of 1917
and Islamic Revolution of Iran.
• Political Revolutions – revolutions that change only state institutions.
• Social Revolutions – revolutions that involve autonomous lower class revolts.
• Elite Revolutions or Revolutions from Above – sweeping reforms carried out by elites who
directly control mass mobilization.
• Proletarian or Communist Revolution – revolutions inspired by the ideas of Marxism that
aims to replace capitalism with communism.

III. SOCIAL CHANGE OR SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT

• Change in the nature, the social institutions, the behavior or the social relations of a society,
community people, or other social structure.
• Any event or actions that affect a group of individuals that have shared values or
characteristics.
• Acts of advocacy for the cause of changing society in a normative way.
Social change is used in the study of history, economies and politics and includes topic
such as the success or failure of different political systems, globalization, democratization,
development of some characteristics of this group of individuals. While the term is usually
applied to changes that are beneficial to society it may result in negative existing ways of life
that are considered positive.

Theories of Social Change

1. the idea of decline or degeneration or in religious terms, the fall from an original state of
grace, connected with theology
2. the idea of cyclical change, a pattern of subsequent and recurring phases of growth and
decline and the social cycles
3. the idea of continuous social progress

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 Jared Diamond – is a current popular author on social change. It is claimed that a primary agent of
social agent is technological leads to imbalance in the economic relationship between economic
agents. This in turn leads to changes in the social balance of power therefore leading to social
change.

Example of Social Change

Some recent trends in global change are:

• that the world population has become more concentrated in the less developed world and in
cities;
• there has been a tremendous growth in the internet use;
• infant mortality rates have declined;
• illiteracy has declined;
• poverty has declined ; and,
• Western society changing values on trends as the birth control pills, voting rights for non-
land holders and the ups and downs of acceptance of homosexuality.

Summary of Social Development Principles

1. We define social development in its broadest social terms as an upward directional

movement of society from lesser to greater levels of energy, efficiency, quality,
productivity, complexity, comprehension, creativity, choice, mastery, enjoyment and
accomplishment.
2. Social development is driven by the subconscious aspiration/will of society for
advancement.
3. Development of society occurs only in fields where that collective will is sufficiently
strong and seeking expression.

IV. INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION REVOLUTION MANAGING INFORMATION

TECHNOLOGY

Information Technology (IT) is a power tool. It significantly extends what people can do. As a
learning device, it is very effective. Students encounter different economic facets and levels of
knowledge by using this information technology. Learning experiences can involve learning a
subject matter, and learning how to use IT tools required, at both conceptual and operational
levels.

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FEATURES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY

• IT is an interesting and exciting teacher, for it can make learning about plants, could include
written information about their habitat; and pictures of it.
• IT is also a responsive and a patient teacher. Software does not get tired of waiting for responses.
Computer-aided learning software can give students immediate feedback.
• IT is student-centered. Unlike traditional teaching, strategies for teaching IT emphasize
student-centered, resource-based. This helps IT teachers with problems that have in planning
and controlling continuity, progression differentiation and breadth and depth of learning.
• IT supports open, independent and flexible learning. This level support will increase as
hardware becomes cheaper and more portable.
• It gives access to online learning experience, for instance, on the World Wide Web (WWW).
The WWW is based on the Internet where a network TV cable networks and telephone
networks are part of bringing the WWW to most homes and schools.
• IT is available everywhere. The experience of IT schools by the students as they come into
contact with a variety of access points to large IT networks and systems, such as libraries and
supermarkets checkouts. For adults, they will directly have access to large IT systems such as
telephone and banking services.
• IT promotes sharing and collaboration. As local and International networks are upgraded,
schools join consortia. These could virtually extend current collaboration with the various
activities in the community, business, industry, communication, colleges and universities.
Consortia will be the building structures of global village. This can be district or regional
collaboration sharing resources and develop their own educational and training programs.
Students of all ages could have access to independent learning materials for distance learning in
all subjects at all levels.
• IT promotes diversity. IT provides a lot of opportunities to learn about the different cultures,
religion and political systems across international networks.
• IT affects employment. Teleworking will become more widespread in the future and more
people can work at home. This trend is already evident. Employers hire their employees in a
global market. Some students leave schools and look for job in the international market after
they have acquired the skills and experience they need.
• IT is a valuable resource. It is now uncommon for schools to use the same computers as
commercial companies, and to teach students using industry standard software.

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COMPUTERS IN EDUCATION

The proliferation of the microcomputer in the market, as well as in schools has virtually made it
accessible to everyone. Today, software games are available and youngest learn to operate computers and
appreciate games they can play thorough a computer, however, computers can be effective vehicles in
other areas of human endeavor; e.g., business and industry, science and technology and educational
institutions.

A computer is a mechanical or electronic apparatus capable of carrying out repetitious and highly
complex mathematical operations as higher speed, within its central processing unit, based on a set of
program instructions and produces results in the form of meaningful and useful output. The use of the
computers is influential almost in every facet of human modern life.

The pervasiveness of technology has not only reached man’s daily life but also in education.
Modern information and communication technologies are integrated to provide a teaching and learning
process, these technologies have revolutionized teaching and learning process in the classroom.

Information – the communication or reception of knowledge or Intelligence

Communication – a process by which information is exchanged between individuals through a common
system or symbols, signs, or behavior.

Reading Assignment:
− E-Journals
• PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
• Password: powersearch

Exercises/written assignments
Answer the following questions:

1. What are the possible effects of technology to the development of economy?

2. Why is market considered one of the factors to the development economy?
3. How important is the capital in the development of economy?
4. Do you think political condition affect the development of economy? Why?
5. Which among the economic and non-economic factors greatly affect the development of economy?
Explain.
6. How globalization affects the employer and the workers in terms of business?
7. Explain “How does new technology help in improving our economy?”
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8. Why education and training are important in today’s job market?
9. What is the effect of politics in global economy?
10. How does political changes take place? Explain.
11. What do you mean by social change or social development? Give examples.
12. How does social change affect the present education?
13. What is the significance of Information Technology in the learning process?
14. What are the features and characteristics of Information Technology?

References/bibliography
Dhammaranda, K. Sir, 1973 “What Buddhists Believe.” Kuala Lumpur. The Buddhist Missionary Society

Frederick, Howard H. 1993. “Global Communication and International Relations.” Belmont, California:
Wadworth Publishing Co.

Mody, Bella, Johannes M. Baver and Joseph D. Straiibhaar, eds. 1995. “Telecommunication Politics: Ownership
and Control of the Information Highway in Developing Countries.” Mahwah, N.J.: Lawrence Eribaum
Associates

Read, William H. and Jan L. Youtie.1996. “Telecommunications strategy for Economic Development.” Westport,
conn.. Praeger.

Stevenson, Robert L., 1994. “Global Communication in the Twenty-First Century.” New York & London,
Longman.

Webliography

http://www.mnstate.edu/gunarats/s/s.html

http://diac.cpsr.org./cgl_bin/diac02/pattern.cgi/public?pattern_id=561

http://www.carregieendowment/index.efm?fa=eventDetralsid=2618#

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MODULE 3
EDUCATION AND DEVELOPMENT

LESSON 1
EDUCATION DURING THE PRE-COLONIAL AND COLONIAL
TIMES OF THE DEVELOPED AND DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

Learning Objectives
1. Discuss how did education during the pre-colonial and colonial times develop;
2. State the historical development of education during the pre-colonial and colonial
times; and,
3. Analyze the role of education and developing countries in relation to globalization.

Keywords and Phrases

• ABC Hornbook
• Traditional Education
• Catechism
• Village Pathshalas
• Professional Lyce’es
• Oriented
• Modernized Education

Introduction
Education encompasses teaching and learning specific skills, and also something less tangible
but more profound: the imparting of knowledge, positive judgment and well-developed wisdom.
Education has one of its fundamental aspects the imparting of culture from generation to generation.
Education means to draw out; facilitating realization of self-potential and latent talents of an individual.
It is an application of pedagogy; a body of theoretical and applied research relating to teaching and
learning and draws on many disciplines such as psychology, philosophy, computer science, linguistics,
neuroscience, sociology and anthropology.
The education of an individual human being starts at birth and continues throughout life. Some
believe that education begins even before birth, as evidenced by some patents’ playing music or reading

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to the baby in the womb in the hope it will influence the child’s development. For some, the struggles
and triumphs of daily life provide far more instruction than does formal schooling. Family members may
have a profound educational effect — often more profound than they realize — though family teaching
may function very informally.

Education has taken many turns throughout its fairly short history in the world.
Although nothing has been entirely drastic, the changes made have chiseled and shaped the foundations
of education and formed what we have today.

In the 15th century, the world had been colonized by European countries. In this time,
European countries explored and colonized the newfound world and the Far East. For this reason, much
of those colonized countries influenced their culture as well as their education.

In pre-colonial period education in most countries can be described as informal -- usually

from the school fund in the church or even in the family. The parents educated their own children
wherein that education was passed from generation to next generation. They teach their children
practical education like farming for boys and house keeping for girls. Practical education is very useful
that time. Parents believe that if they learned this kind of education they can live their lives orderly. In
some countries, education was led by the priest or the members of the religious groups. The churches
served as the school, so basically, the curriculum includes religion.

During the colonial years, colonizers influenced education. They used education to
promote their goals and objectives to the colonized country. Some colonizers used religion to educate
like the Spaniards in the Philippines and the Puritans in America. They developed education in the way
they want. They established different schools and universities. During colonial years, education
developed, and by that time, they gained their independence. Some continued they type of education
they inherited and some change for they believed that education was neglected during their colonial
years like in Cambodia.

After the colonization era and countries gain their independence to their colonizers,
many countries focus on their economic development and from this, we have now the so-called
“developed countries” and “developing countries”. In effect, globalization was invented. Nowadays
globalization has a big effect in economic as well as in education. They said in globalization, rich
countries become richer and poor countries become more poorer. In education, developing countries are

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trying to compete with other developed countries but because of globalization, they are left behind.
Nowadays, students can freely study anywhere they want as long as they have money and these kinds of
students who are able to choose the kind of education that they want choose to study in “developing
countries” like in the U.S. and France. Globalization forced, most professionals to leave their countries
and work abroad because they believe better to work in “developed countries” where in they have
chances to be rich. In this case, education suffers especially in “developing countries”, some excellent
teachers go abroad to work and find a nice job for them which in effect result in lack of good teachers.

JAPANESE EDUCATION

Japanese Education During the Pre-Colonial Period

The history of education in Japan dates back at least to the sixth century, when Chinese
learning was introduced at the Yamato court. Foreign civilizations have often provided new
ideas for the development of Japan’s own culture.

6th to 15th century

• Chinese teachings and ideas reached Japan.
• Buddhism brought that Chinese system of writing and its literary tradition, and Confucianism.
• By the ninth century, Heian-kyo (today’s Kyoto), the imperial capital, had five institutions of
higher learning, and during the remainder of the Heian period, other schools were established by the
nobility and the imperial court.
• During the medieval period (1185-1600), Zen Buddhist monasteries were especially important
centers of learning, and the Ashikaga School (Ashikaga Gakko) flourished in the fifteenth century as a
center of higher learning.

16th century (and early 17th century)

Japan experienced intense contact with the major European powers. Jesuit missionaries,
who accompanied Portuguese traders, preached Christianity and opened a number of religious schools.
Japanese students thus began to study Latin and Western music, as well as their own language.

Edo period
• By 1603 Japan had been reunified by the Tokugawa regime (1600-1867),

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 • By 1640 foreigners had been ordered out of Japan, Christianity was banned, and virtually all
foreign contact prohibited. The nation then entered a period of isolation and relative domestic
tranquility, which lasted 200 years. When the Tokugawa period began, few common people in Japan
could read or write. By the period’s end, learning became widespread. Tokugawa education left a
valuable legacy: an increasingly literate populace, a meritocratic ideology, and an emphasis on discipline
and competent performance. Under subsequent Meiji leadership, this foundation would facilitate
Japan’s rapid transition from feudal country to modern nation.

Europeans who arrived in Japan at the end of the Edo period were the Japanese who were very
well educated. Popular cultures also existed that were amazed widely believed at that time to be
something that could not exist without an industrial revolution. It is estimated that the literacy rate was
already over 80% for men and somewhere in the 60s or 70s for women and much higher in cities like Edo
and Osaka.

Tokugawa period
• The role of the many bushi, or samurai, changed from warrior to administrator, and as a
consequence, their formal education and their literacy increased proportionally.
• Samurai curricula stressed morality and included both military and literary studies. Confucian
classics were memorized, and reciting them were common methods of study.
• Arithmetic and calligraphy were also studied.
• Most samurai attended schools sponsored by their han (domains), and by the time of the Meiji
Restoration of 1868, more than 200 of the 276 han had established schools. Some samurai and even
commoners also attended private academies, which often specialized in particular Japanese subjects or in
Western medicine, modern military science, gunnery, or Rangaku (Dutch studies), as European studies
were called.
• Education of commoners was generally practically oriented, providing basic training in
reading, writing, and arithmetic, emphasizing calligraphy and use of the abacus. Much of this education
was conducted in so-called temple schools (terakoya), derived from earlier Buddhist schools. These
schools were no longer religious institutions, nor were they, by 1867, predominantly located in temples.
By the end of the Tokugawa period, there were more than 11,000 such schools, attended by 750,000
students. Teaching techniques included reading from various textbooks, memorizing, abacus, and
repeatedly copying Chinese characters and Japan script.
Meiji period

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• After 1868 new leadership set Japan on a rapid course of modernization. The Meiji leaders
established a public education system to help Japan catch up with the West and form a modern
nation. Missions like the Iwakura mission was sent abroad to study the education systems of leading
Western countries. They returned with the ideas of decentralization, local school boards, and
teacher autonomy. Such ideas and ambitious initial plans, however, proved very difficult to carry
out. After some trial and error, a new national education system emerged. As an indication of its
success, elementary school enrollments climbed from about 40 or 50 percent of the school-age
population in the 1870s to more than 90 percent by 1900, despite strong public protest, especially
against school fees.

• By the 1890s, after earlier intensive preoccupation with Western, particularly, United States,
educational ideas, a much more conservative and traditional orientation evolved: the education
system became more reflective of Japanese values. Confucian precepts were stressed, especially those
concerning the hierarchical nature of human relations, service to the new state, the pursuit of
learning, and morality. These ideals, embodied in the 1890 Imperial Rescript on Education, along
with highly centralized government control over education, largely guided Japanese education until
the end of World War II.

Pre-war 20th century

Early 20th century

• Primary level – education was egalitarian and virtually universal.
Higher levels – education was multitracked, highly selective, and elitist.
College level – education was largely limited to the few imperial universities, where German
influences were strong.
• Three of the imperial universities admitted women, and there were a number of women’s
colleges, some quite prestigious, but women had relatively few opportunities to enter higher
education
• During this period, a number of universities were founded by Christian missionaries, who also
took an active role in expanding educational opportunities, for women, particularly at the
secondary level.
• After 1919 several of private universities received official status and were granted government
recognition for programs they had conducted, in many cases, since the 1880s.

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 • In the 1920s the tradition of liberal education briefly reappeared, particularly at the kindergarten
level, where the Montessori method attracted a following. In the 1930s, education was subject to
strong military and nationalistic influences.

Japanese Education During the Colonial Period

During World War II, many Japanese students were enlisted to actively help in the war effort,
effectively turning schools into factories. Bombings destroyed many schools. After the war, this left a lot
to occupation forces to help rebuild.

The occupation team addressed the educational system. The Japanese methods were nearly
opposite to that of the United States: control of schools was highly centralized, rote memorization of
verbatim book knowledge without much interaction described the standard student-teacher relationship
and the study texts were described as boring.

The ratio of school years was made to resemble of the United States’ which was: elementary
education – 6 years; lower secondary education – 3 years; upper secondary education – 3 years; higher
(University) education – 4 years.

Over the period of occupation, these and many other trends were changed. A less centralized
hierarchy of school administrators was introduced; totally unprecedented, parents were allowed to vote
for school boards. A new textbook industry was created.

However, after the end of occupation, much of Japan’s educational system reverted to the older
system.

By 1945 the Japanese education system had been devastated, and with the defeat came the
discredit of much prewar though. A new wave of foreign ideas was introduced during the postwar
period of military occupation.

Occupation policy makers and the United States Education Mission, set up in 1946, made a
number of changes aimed at democratizing Japanese education: instituting the six-three-three grade
structure (six years of elementary school, three of lower-secondary school, and three of upper-secondary
school) and extending compulsory schooling to nine years. They replaced the prewar system of higher-
secondary schools with comprehensive upper-secondary schools (high schools). Curricula and

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textbooks were revised, the nationalistic morals course was abolished and replaced with social studies,
locally elected school boards were introduced, and teachers unions established.

With the abolition of the elitist higher education system and an increase in the number of higher
education institutions, the opportunities for higher learning grew. Expansion was accomplished initially
by granting university or junior college status to a number of technical institutes, normal schools, and
advanced secondary schools.

Globalization

Globalization (or Globalisation) refers to increasing global connectivity, integration and

interdependence in the economic, social, technological, cultural, political, and ecological spheres.
Globalization is an umbrella term and is understood as a unitary process inclusive of many sub-processes
(such as enhanced economic interdependence, increased cultural influence, rapid advances of
information technology, and novel governance and geopolitical challenges) that are increasingly binding
people and the biosphere more tightly into one global system. An example of globalization was the
invention of the telephone.

There are several definitions and all usually mention the increasing connectivity of economies
and ways of life across the world. The Encyclopedia Britannica says that globalization is the “process by
which the experience of everyday life… is becoming standardized around the world.” While some
scholars and observers of globalization stress convergence of patterns of production and consumption
and a resulting homogenization of culture, others stress that globalization has the potential to take many
diverse forms.

In economics, globalization is the convergence of prices, products, wage, rates of interest and
profits towards developed country norms. Globalization of the economy depends on the role of human
migration, international trade, movement of capital, and integration of financial markets. The
International Monetary Fund notes the growing economic interdependence of countries worldwide
through increasing volume and variety of cross-border transactions, free international capital flows, and
more rapid and widespread diffusion of technology. Theodore Levitt is usually credited with
globalization’s first use in an economic context.

Throughout most human prehistory and history, the vectors that organized and gave meaning to
human lives and imaginaries were structured primarily by local geography and topology, local kinship

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and social organization, local worldviews and religions. Even a few hundred years ago, a minute in
human evolutionary time, the lives of our ancestors were largely shaped by local economies, local social
relations, and local knowledge. Prior to the transoceanic explorations and conquests, villagers were
likely to be born, raised, and schooled (however shortly), to work, marry, reproduce, and be buried in the
same locale. They were largely oblivious to changes taking place even a few hundred miles away. Then
“the village was practically the beginning and end of his or her world: visitors were rare, few travelers
passed by, and excursion from the village would, in all likelihood, have only been to the nearest market
town. . . . Contact with the outside world would have been the exception rather than rule” (Held 2000).

Today the world is another place. While human lives continue to be lived in local realities, these
realities are increasingly being challenged and integrated into larger global networks of relationships.
The forces of globalization are taxing youth, families, and education systems worldwide. All social
systems are predicated on the need to impart values, morals, skills, and competencies to the next
generation (see Gardner, this volume). The main thesis of this book is that the lives and experiences of
youth growing up today will be linked to economic realities, social processes, technological and media
innovations, and cultural flows that traverse national boundaries with ever greater momentum. These
global transformations, we believe, will require youth to be develop new skills that are far ahead of what
most educational systems can now deliver. New and broader global visions are needed to prepare
children and youth to be informed, engaged, and critical citizens in the new millennium.

Education’s challenge will be to shape the cognitive skills, interpersonal sensibilities, and
cultural sophistication of children and youth whose lives will be both engaged in local contests and
responsive to larger transnational processes.

Effects of Globalization

Globalization has various aspects which affect the world in several different ways such as:
• Industrial (alias trans nationalization) – emergence of worldwide production markets and broader
access to a range of goods for consumers and companies.
• Financial – emergence of worldwide financial markets and better access to external financing for
corporate, national and subnational borrowers
• Economic – realization of a global common market, based on the freedom of exchange of goods and
capital.

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• Political – Political globalization is the creation of a world government which regulates the
relationships among nations and guarantees the rights arising from social and economic
globalization.
• Informational – is the increase in information flows between geographically remote locations.
• Cultural – growth of cross-cultural contacts; advent of new categories of consciousness and
identities such as Globalism – which embodies cultural diffusion, the desire to consume and enjoy
foreign products and ideas, adopt new technology and practices, and participate in a “world
culture”. Boundary water and air pollution, over-fishing of the ocean, and the spread of invasive
species.
• Social – is the achievement of free circulation by people of all nations.
• Transportation – is the advent of fewer and fewer American cars on American cars on American
roads each year.
• Greater international exchange
o spreading of multiculturalism, and better individual access to cultural diversity (e.g.
through the export of Hollywood and Bollywood movies). However, the imported
culture can easily supplant the local culture, causing reduction in diversity through
hybridization or even assimilation. The most prominent form of this is Westernization,
but Sinicization of cultures has taken place over most of Asia for many centuries.
o greater international travel and tourism
o greater immigration, including illegal immigration
o spread of local consumer products (e.g. food) to other countries (often adapted to their
culture)
o world-wide fads and pop culture such as Pokemon, Sudoku, Numa Numa, Origami, Idol
series, YouTube, Facebook, and MySpace.
o world-wide sporting events such as FIFA World Cup and the Olympic Games.
o formation or development of a set of universal values.
• Technical/legal
o Development of a global telecommunications infrastructure and greater transborder data
flow, using such technologies as the Internet, communication satellites, submarine fiber
optic cable, and wireless telephones.
o Increase in the number of standards applied globally; e.g. copyright laws, patents and
world trade agreements.
o The push by many advocates for an international criminal court and international justice
movements.
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Since World War II, barriers to international trade have been considerably lowered through
international agreements – General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT). Particular initiatives
carried out as a result of GATT and the World Trade Organisation (WTO), for which GATT is the
foundation, have included:
• Promotion of free trade
o reduction or elimination of tariffs; construction of free trade zones with small or no
tariffs.
o reduced transportation costs, especially from development of containerization for
ocean shipping.
o reduction or elimination of capital controls
o reduction, elimination, or harmonization of subsidies for local business
• Restriction of free trade
o harmonization of intellectual property laws across the majority of states, with more
restrictions.
o supranational recognition of intellectual property restrictions (e.g. patents granted
by China would be recognized in the United States)

The Role of Education in Japan

Education is an important issue in Japanese society. There are three ways that a young Japanese
child is educated in Japan: by attending a public school for a compulsory education, by attending a
private school for a compulsory education, or by attending a private school that does not adhere to
standards set by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT).

While high school (“upper secondary education”) is not compulsory, more than 90% of the
population attends high school. There are, however, many high schools which are not strictly academic,
including agricultural and technical high schools. More than 2.5 million students advance to universities
and colleges. In the past, the selection process for advancing to higher education had been described as
“hellish” and “war-like”. But with the number of Japanese children being born declining, the tide has
turned the other way. Now schools are having the compete amongst themselves to gather students.
However, many children continue to be sent to Juku (cram schools) in addition to state schools.
Education is the most important factor which plays a leading role in human development. It
promotes a productive and informed citizenry and creates opportunities for the socially and economically
unprivileged sections of society. Globalization has made economic life more competitive and demanding,

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making human expertise development more significant. Only an educated workforce equipped with
modern skills can compete and benefit from exploiting the opportunities created by globalization.

AMERICAN EDUCATION

American Education during Pre-Colonial Period

American education stems from family life much as the economy comes from household
management. At the beginning of British settlement in North America, the family was the dominant
institution in education.

Originally all teaching was done by the parents of the child and much of that education passed
on was dedicated to learning the techniques and skills needed to man the house. For girls that meant
candle making, sewing, and soap making; and for boys that often meant farm work.

Early Educational Materials in America

American Education during Colonial Period

Puritan – are groups of people who grew discontent in the Church of England and worked towards
religious, moral and societal reforms.
• offered free schooling for all children
• the first to write books for children, and to discuss the difficulties in communicating with them.
At a time when other Americans were physically blazing trails through the forests, the Puritans
efforts in areas of study were advancing our country intellectually.
• Region led up to scientific thought the Bible stimulated their corporate intellect by promoting
discussions of literature. Greek classics of Cicero, Virgil, Terence and Ovid were taught, as well

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 as poetry and Latin verse. They were encouraged to crate their own poetry, always religious in
content.
• In the 1700’s schools in the colonies were strongly influenced by religion. It was the intent of the
colonists that all children should learn to read and in 1642 Puritan Massachusetts passed a law
stating this. They believed that an inability to read was Satan’s attempt to keep people from the
Scriptures.
• The New England Primer followed a tradition of combining the study of the alphabet with Bible
reading. It introduced each alphabet letter in a religious phrase and then illustrated the phrase
with a woodcut. The primer also contained a catechism of religious questions and answers.
Emphasis was placed on fear of sin, God’s punishment and the fact that all people would have to
face death.

Here are some examples of alphabet rhymes that teach moral values as well as reading.

A. In Adam’s Fall
We sinned all.

B. Thy Life to Mend

This Book Attend.

C. The Cat doth play

And after slay.

D. A Dog will bite

A Thief at night.

E. An Eagle’s flight
Is Out of sight.

F. The Idle Fool

Is Whipped at School.

Also, first appearing in the New England Primer was the Children’s Prayer beginning “Now I lay me
down to sleep…”

Elementary education was widespread in New England. Early Puritan settlers believed it was
necessary to study the Bible, so children were taught to read at an early age. It was also required that
each town pay for a primary school. Most boys in England had some form of formal education on account
of this law. About 10 percent enjoyed secondary schooling and funded grammar schools in larger towns.
Most boys learned skills from their fathers on the farm or s apprentices to artisans. Few girls attended
formal schools, but most were able to get some education at home or at so-called “Dame schools” where

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women taught basic reading and writing skills in their own houses. By 1750, nearly 90% of New
England’s women and almost all of its men could read and write. Many churches in New England
established colleges to train ministers while Puritans founded many places of higher learning such as
Harvard College in 1636 and Yale College in 1701. Later, Baptists founded Rhode Island College (near
Brown University) in 1764 and a Congregationalist minister established Dartmouth College in 1769. Few
people (no women and a small number of men) attended college, making higher education available only
for wealthy merchant families.

Schools

DAME SCHOOL
For the first time in history, free schooling was offered for all children. Puritans formed the first
formal school in 1635, called the Roxbury Latin School. Four years later, the first American College was
established; Harvard in Cambridge. Children aged 6-8 attended a “Dame school” where the teacher, who
was usually a widow, taught reading. “Ciphering” (math) and writing were low on the academic agenda.
The Dame School was what we might call today an informal day care center. It involved parents
leaving their children with a neighborhood lady (a “dame,” as such ladies was then called) who would
teach the children their letters (abc’s), numbers, and prayers while she went about her daily household
tasks.

LATIN GRAMMAR SCHOOLS

In the early 1600’s Puritan families were concerned with the thoughts that someday their trained
and learned leaders would be no more. This also caused them to put their first major stress on secondary
and higher learning. This stress caused the establishment of Latin Grammar Schools. In a further
attempt to ease their fears of not having an educated ministry the Puritans founded Harvard College. In
order to enter this college one has to pass an entrance exam which demanded that they knew how to
read and speak Latin and Greek.

The first Latin Grammar School was established in Boston in 1635. These schools were originally
designed for only sons of certain social classes who were destined for leadership positions in church,
state or courts. The study of Latin and Greek and their literatures was blended with the religious
denominationalism coming from the heritage of the Protestant Reformation. The only pupils who were
even considered for these schools were the male students who belonged to a certain class bracket. Girls
were not considered for these schools because all of the world leaders and important “persons” were
males from the upper class brackets.

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 Boys did not enter the schools until after they had learned the rudiments of their own language
which gave them the foundations that were required to learn the basic of Latin and eventually Greek.
The schools taught reading, writing, and arithmetic. The purpose of Grammar Schools was to prepare
the boys for the entrance test for Harvard College. Thus, there was great concern placed upon the ability
for the beginning of their Greek and Latin.

The Grammar school’s distinct purpose was as a specialist in preparing boys for higher learning.
This purpose can be compared to modern high schools which are to prepare today’s pupils for the
beginning of their higher learning in College.

HARVARD COLLEGE
During its early years, the College offered a classic academic course based on the English
university model but consistent with the prevailing Puritan Philosophy of the first colonists. Although
many of its early graduates became ministers in Puritan congregations throughout New England, the
College was never formally affiliated with a specific religious denomination. An early brochure,
published in 1643, justified the College’s existence: “To advance Learning and perpetuate it to Posterity;
dreading to leave an illiterate Ministry to the Churches.”

EDUCATION IN FRANCE

The French educational system is reputed to be one of the most thorough in the world. Public
education is free at the primary and secondary levels and is compulsory from age six to sixteen.
Universities are public and tuition is nominal. The majority of schools (85%) are State run (L’ECOLE
PUBLIQUE). Private schools (L’ECOLE PIVEE), often Catholic, are partially subsidized and fully
regulated by the State.

We have found that these private schools have been helpful in assisting the English speaking
pupils/students into integrating into the French school system. There is more flexibility in dispensing
the student of required French courses to allow more time for ‘French as a foreign language’ tutoring.
Some of these schools even allow the tutor (paid for by the parents) onto their premises; something
unheard of in the public school system. There also seems to be a general consensus that these schools
look more at the ‘individual needs’ of the student. This is perhaps why many French parents send their
children to private schools when the public school experience has not had good results. These

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private/catholic schools are open to the general public and count among their population a good number
of non-Catholics and/or secular students. Catechism is waived upon request.

Another aspect of private schools is that they, for the most part, have Saturday morning off;
whereas many public schools work on Saturday morning. Also, most public schools have up to a 2 hour
lunch break, with school ending at 5:00 to 6:00 p.m., whereas private schools tend to insist on
EVERYONE lunching at school, thus having a shorter break, which ends the day at 4:00 to 4:30 p.m.
Another surprising factor is that these private schools are NOT overpriced, with lunch being the greatest
expense. There are certainly exceptions to this, especially private non-parochial schools.

French education is centralized with a nationwide curriculum imposed by the Ministry of

Education that ensures national uniformity. This curriculum is dense and demanding. The approach to
education is aimed towards the examination process at both the secondary and university levels.

The French constitution guarantees all permanent residents a basic education. School
attendance is compulsory for students aged 6 to 16, and all public schools up to the university level are
free. Higher public education is free for all students who qualify. There are also private schools and
colleges in France, most controlled by the Roman Catholic Church. About one in six students under the
age of 16 attends private schools. The adult literacy rate in France is 99 percent, one of the world’s
highest.

Public education in France is highly centralized. The centralization of state control over school
administration began in the early 19th century under Napoleon I. Prior to the French Revolution in 1789,
most schools were administered by the Roman Catholic Church. Many of the main features of the
modern educational system were adopted in the late 19th century, under the leadership of Education
Minister Jules Ferry. A series of Laws, enacted between 1881 and 1886, provided for free, compulsory
public education entirely under government control. Among later modifications were the establishment
of free tuition in secondary and technical schools, the separation of church and state in education in 1905,
and the extension of compulsory school attendance to the age 16 in 1959.

Today, the central government’s administrative role is strongest in primary and secondary
education. Metropolitan France is divided into 26 educational districts called academies. Each district is
under the jurisdiction of a rector, who is accountable to the ministry of education. The ministry is

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responsible for maintaining schools, hiring and allocating staff, defining academic programs and
curricula, and other matter. The ministry also supervises private schools.

As a result of students unrest in 1968, in which strong demands were made for greater
decentralization in higher education, the government created an independent ministry of universities.
Prior to 1968, the universities were organized into faculties, or schools, according to the subject taught,
and were directly administered by the ministry of education. Afterward, they were reorganized into
autonomous multidisciplinary universities, and students and faculty were given a voice in university
administration. Under the reform, most of France’s large universities were restructured into smaller
units. The University of Paris, the largest, was split into 13 independent universities, 3 of which were
formed from the oldest unit, the Sorbonne.

The French educational system is competitive. After two or three years of optional preschool
activities, students attend a primary (elementary) school from age 6 to 11. Secondary education is divided
into two phases. In the first phase, students attend a college (middle school) unit the age of 15. During
the second phase, students either take academic courses in separate institutions called professional
lycees. Students attending professional lycees typically earn a professional certificate or diploma after
one to three years of study. The general lycee program lasts three years and ends with a comprehensive
nationwide examination for the baccalaureate degree, which is required to enter the universities. The
baccalaureate examination is rigorous; only two-thirds of those taking the test typically pass it the first
time.

The university sector has gradually expanded to offer a wider range of educational opportunities
and serve an increasing number of students. In 1966 several institutes universitaires de technologie
(technological institutes or IUTs) were founded. These schools depart from the general studies of the
traditional university and specialize in technology subjects. Community colleges, called antennas
universitaires, have been established in medium-sized towns such as Blois, Troyes, Tarbes, Beauvais, and
Bayonne. In 1991 the government adopted an ambitious program designed to enlarge the system of higher
education. By 1999 there were 100 IUTs and 87 universities in France. Besides the Universities of Paris I-
XIII, noted French institutes of higher education include the Universities of Aix-Marseille I-III, the
Universities of Lille I-III, the Universities of Lyon I-III, the Universities of Nancy I-II, and the
Universities of Strasbourg I-III.

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 Alongside the universities is an elite network of graduate schools, known as the “grandes ecoles.”
Admission to the grandes ecoles is limited by special competitive examinations. Founded by Napoleon
Bonaparte, these prestigious schools train executives for the highest positions in business and
government. Among the best known of these schools are the Ecole Polytechnique (Polytechnic School),
founded in 1794 to instruct military professionals, and the Ecole Nationale d’Administration (National
School of Administration), a training ground for government leaders.

In a unique category are the College de France, founded in 1530, and the Academie Francaise,
founded in 1635. The College de France invites eminent scholars from all over the world to lecture
publicly on their research. Membership in the Academie Francaise is limited to 40 of the nation’s most
prominent citizens, the immortels. The Academie was established to uphold the highest standards in the
French language and literature, and it is responsible for the publication of the standard grammar and
dictionary of the French language

Views on French Education:

One of the more important consequences of the revolution of 1848 was to bring intense attention
to the field of education. Reformers and conservatives alike saw the educational system both a cause of
the revolution and a hope for a renewed society. They differed in their vision of what the new society
should be. Historians have differed too concerning the ultimate effect of the Revolution depending on
whether they have emphasized short-term results or the fulfillment decades later of principles
enunciated in the heavy few months following the February Revolution. Most historians have
concentrated on the debates concerning the role of schooling in society, but the most immediate effects
on the Revolution were on those then intimately involved on the system – students and teachers.
Uniquely in the history of French education from the Restoration to the end of the nineteenth century,
student enrollment declined in primary schools between 1847 and 1850 – by 208,000 students (6 percent)
from 3,530,000 to 3,322,000. This decline occurred during a steady annual growth rate of 2 to 3 percent
between 1840 (2,897,000) and 1860 (4,287,000). About 1,500 school teachers lost their jobs (precisely
how many were fired for political reasons of for other reasons is impossible to determine). And funding
for the ecoles d’arts et métiers whose students and graduates had participated in the uprisings of 1848
was cut in the budgets of 1850 and 1851. The immediate social effects of the revolution were disruptive
on the school system.

Nevertheless, the revolution of 1848 had little long-term effects on the systematic development of
schooling. Enrolment in primary schools grew at about the same pace in the decade before the revolution

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and in the two decades after it by which time nearly every child in France was completing primary
school. The number and qualifications of teachers steadily increased, and, despite an increase in the
number on nuns teaching during the Second Empire, the number of lay teachers increased steadily until
full laicization of the system was achieved at the beginning of the twentieth century. The “ecoles d’arts et
métier rs" flourished and evolved into true professional schools with their graduates holding major
positions in both private enterprise and state. Within the general history of the systemic development of
the French educational system, established by the 1830s, 1848 represented but an aberration, important
for the teachers and students of the time but not for long-range trends.

The proposals made about schooling and the visions expressed at the time illuminate social
tensions about the social role of schools, the competing interest of church and state, and the twists and
turns that French education would take over the next half century. Despite a number of proposed bills,
no significant legislation was passed during the second republic until the controversial Falloux law
March 15, 1850, but the four months immediately following the February revolution, presaged the Ferry
Laws passed thirty years later under the Third Republic.

On March 6 Carnot sent a memorandum to all the rectors of the academies (administrative units
of public instruction) exhorting them to enlist school teachers in the republican cause. Teachers should
prepare manuals, modeled after the Catholic catechism, to teach children the rights and duties of citizens
under the republic and “guarding against ignorance”. This Rousseauian idea of forming man was to have
a distinctly secular and republic base, which would supersede religious and local culture. It would be the
only Third Republic that such citizenship manuals would be produced, however.

Carnot’s most famous and far-reaching “project of law” was that submitted to the assembly on
June 30 and under study by a committee for six months until the newly-elected president, Louis
Napoleon, withdrew it. Article 2 and 6 respectively would have made primary schooling for both sexes
both obligatory so that citizens could properly exercise universal suffrage and without charge, in order to
abolish distinctions between rich and poor within public institutions. The curriculum would be
expanded. Teachers would receive three years of training in a normal school without fee, though they
would be obligated to teach for ten years, and guaranteed a minimum wage of 600 to 1200 francs for men,
500 to 1000 for women. All of these proposals would eventually become law – minimum wages for
teachers in 1850 and free and obligatory education in the Ferry Laws of 1880.

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 The Falloux Law, presented to the chamber of June 1849 and was passed on March 15, 1850, had
been recognized as a major event in the political and educational history of France but denounced by
republican historians as a conservative reaction to the revolution of 1848. Its most important and
controversial provision was the legal incorporation of the principle of “liberty of education,” which had
the effect of expanding the role of the Church in schooling and making it partner with the state at the
secondary level as it had been at the primary level. It was passed at a time of political conservatism
following the June Days and demonstrated in the elections of May 1849, and made no provision for free
and obligatory primary education as Carnot had proposed. The committee rejected those principles as
inconsistent with the historical tradition of France, too expensive, and an interference with parental
rights.

But recognition of the principle of liberty of education was not a sudden turning point. The
Guizont Law permitted the church to operate primary schools. Charles Forbes Montalembert had led a
Catholic campaign for it throughout the 1840s. Carnot had proposed it, and it was enshrined in article
IX of the constitution of 1848. The commission itself was a moderate one (nine members from the
University, six representatives of the church – but only one priest – and nine other deputies); Falloux had
deliberately excluded both vocal anticlericals and Catholic extremists like Louis Veuillot. Hardly anyone
wanted monopoly for either church or state. So concerned about “socialist” tendencies among lay
teachers, Thiers, chairman of the committee, offered a monopoly of primary schooling to the Church only
to find out that Catholic members would have no part of it. He was adamant, however, about state
supervision of Catholic secondary schools and was dismayed that the final law did not exclude Jesuits
from teaching. Because the Falloux Law made no mention of the “unauthorized” religious congregations,
the Jesuits and other large religious orders were able to establish secondary schools for boys and nuns –
with a “letter of obedience” from their superior – to open a plethora of primary schools for girls. The
law’s silence about the congregations, growing social demand for schooling, and the conservative climate
of the Second Empire let to an explosive growth in Catholic schools that was unforeseen even by
Catholic proponents of liberty of education.

At the level of secondary schooling, the law allowed anyone who was twenty-five years of age or
older and had a baccalaureate or five years teaching in a secondary school to find a secondary school. The
state had the right to inspect all schools and it alone the right to administer the baccalaureate. The law
created a partnership between church and state in public instruction. It further permitted any town to
transfer its public college to the clergy; the result was that the number of colleges “communaux” declined
by 25 percent in a decade. Enrolment in Catholic secondary schools meanwhile exploded. By 1854 21,195

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students attended an ecclesiastical school (about 20,000 in Catholic ones); by 1867, 36,924 attended one;
another 20,000 to 25,000 enrolled in a minor seminary, most of whom never intended a priestly vocation.
Private lay schools, taking advantage of the law, prospered too; their enrolment in 1854 was in fact twice
that of Catholic schools, but such schools proved unable to compete against the twin powers of church
and state and atrophied. Catholic schools sustained growth, however – a growth rate of 75 percent
versus 34 percent for the whole secondary system 1854 – 1867.

At the elementary level, the law continued the tradition of non-obligatory, paid schooling, with
tuition waivers for the poor. Both teachers and their training school (ecole normale) suffered more
regulation; enseigne ment superieure disappeared – a backward step that explains in part the popularity
of special secondary programs during the Second Empire. But the curriculum was expanded, a girls’
school was required of communes of 800 francs – all proposals consistent with Carnot’s project. The law
encouraged girls’ schooling such that 6,000 (21,000 to 27,000) new girls’ schools were established
between 1850 and 1863 (only 2,000 more would be established in the thirteen years following 1863) but
5,000 of shoes schools were directed by nuns. Enrollment in all primary schools during that period
would grow by 1,000,000 students, 650,000 of those in Catholic schools. Liberty of education at both the
primary and secondary level came to mean instruction by priests and nuns. As long as the system was
expanding, Church and State could cooperate in the education of France’s next generation. By the Third
Republic, however, the system had reached fulfillment with nearly all school-aged children in school;
then Church and State began to compete with each other for the same students. Then, not in the 1850s,
demands for a lay, state monopoly of schooling or, at least, severe restrictions on “liberty of education”
became a major political issue.

The revolution of 1848 disrupted schooling in France for about three years. Liberal principles
and an increased influence of the church produced a greater role for the church in education. A social and
political reaction to the revolution created a climate in which Catholic schools were preferred by many,
particularly in the countryside where the educational system was less established. Republicans of the
Third Republic harkened back to republican ideals of the second republic as ideals that had been
subverted by an aggressive church. The Revolution of 1848 affected perceptions of future generations
much more than it did schooling which experienced systematic growth from the July Monarchy through
the Third Republic.

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French Educational Development in the Twentieth Century

The French significantly expanded the system of Franco-Cambodian schools in the first few
decades of the 20th century. Following the establishment of the Franco-Cambodian Norodom School in
Phnom Penh in 1903 (Forest, 1980, p. 152), schools were opened in most provincial capitals. By 1907,
there were 18 Franco-Cambodian schools in Cambodia; this number had risen to 29 in 1916 (Bilodeau,
1995, p.17). The French encouraged participation in the modern educational system with a 1916 decree
which required the attendance of all boys living within two kilometers of a French school (Bilodeau,
1955, p. 17). At least a few of these schools included sections for girls (Forest, 1980). A school for girls
was opened within the Norodom school, for example, in 1911 (Morizon, 1931, p. 185).

France, upon graduation from higher education, these students typically assumed senior
positions in the French colonial administration in Cambodia. Chandler (1993) notes, however, that few
students matriculated to higher education. Only six Cambodians had graduated with baccalaureats from
French lycees in Vietnam by 1930 (Chandler, 1993, p. 160), and “perhaps a dozen Cambodians had been
trained in tertiary institutions abroad [by] 1939” (Chandler, 1993, p. 164). The College Sisowath became
the Lycee Sisowath in 1933 and instituted an upgraded secondary curriculum in 1935 (Ne pote, 1979, p.
775). The first Cambodian students graduated from the Lycee Sisowath with baccalaureats in 1939
(Smith, 1971, p. 59).

Ne pote (1979) describes the system of French education in Cambodia as an “educational

pyramid” (p. 775), heavily weighted toward elementary education, with only the most successful
students graduating to complementary and secondary schooling. Ultimately, the “best of the best” were
prepared for service in the French colonial administration. French education, then, “permitted the
schooling of an increasing number of children and, at the same time, selected the better students for
advanced education in order to equip the country with a large number of modern and competent civil
servants” (Ne pote, 1979, p. 775). In the early 20th century, however, this sorting machine did not operate
at full efficiency because Franco-Cambodian schools were not accepted by all Cambodians. In spite of
mandatory school attendance policies for those living near Franco-Cambodian schools and the
availability of residential scholarships for those living farther away (Ne pote, 1979), most Cambodians
continued to send their sons to what schools “as they had done traditionally” (Forest, 1980, p. 155).

CAMBODIAN EDUCATION

Pre-colonial Period
• Strongly influenced by Indian Culture

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 • Grew around Theravada Buddhism
• The teachers were the Buddhist monk and local wat
• Students were almost entirely young boys and the education was limited to memorizing
Buddhist chants.
• Wats and Temple
Wat school purpose – to support social solidarity by ensuring social cohesion and the
maintenance of traditional values
Lesson
• Reading and writing Khmer
• Principles of Buddhism, rules of propriety and some arithmetic
• They emphasize the importance of work.

Colonial Period
• French become a protectorate of Cambodia
• French had final say on all topics in Cambodia
• They neglected the Cambodian Educational System
• They established Franco–Cambodian schools
o Ex. French Language School of the Protectorate
• French language was used for instruction

Curriculum
• Writing, Arithmetic, and reading in French

Traditional Cambodian Education

Before the French arrived in Indochina, education in Cambodia was limited to boys and was
carried out by Buddhist monks in wats or temples (Ablin, 1991; Bilodeau, 1955; Gyallay-Pap, 1989;
Kiernan, 1985; Quinlan, 1992; Ross, 1987; Torhorst, 1996). While not standard from one school to the
next (Bilodeau, 1995), wat-school curriculum usually consisted of reading and writing Khmer [the
Cambodian language], principles of Buddhism, rules of propriety, [and] some arithmetic (Gyallay-Pap,
1989, p. 258). Wat-school education also emphasized the importance of work, as students “worked with
the monks to build temples, dwellings, roads, bridges, and water reservoir and to manufacture…furniture
and other things” (Torhorst, 1966, p. 154).

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 In spite of the importance in the curriculum of the Khmer language, Bilodeau (1995) argues that
most students left wat schools illiterate: Boys learnt to read the Buddhist sacred texts…and copied out
the written characters. In actual fact, the texts were learnt by heart, as a result of endless repetition, and
the pupils were quite incapable of reading the words separately. A Cambodian boy leaving the wat
school had his memory stocked with edifying passages, but could neither read [no] write. (p.21) Ne pote
(1979) similarly concludes that skill in reading and writing “was only a dye that had quickly washed off
and that, in practice, illiteracy was widespread (p. 770).

Quinlan (1992) suggests, however, that wat-school education served a broader purpose than
literacy. Beyond its curricular goals, education was intended to support social solidarity by ensuring
social cohesion and the maintenance of traditional values (p.8). Ne pote (1979) agrees, arguing that wat-
school education was fundamentally religious, moral, and oriented toward Cambodian “cultural values”
(p. 769). An East German educational historian concludes on the same note but with a somewhat
different emphasis that the education provided in wat schools was “in close agreement with the state
power” (Torhorst, 1966, p. 154). Though they approach the subject from opposing ideological
perspectives, these scholars agree that education in the precolonial era was a fundamentally Cambodian
project, intended to serve and advance Cambodian goals.

Nineteenth Century French Colonial Cambodia

Cambodia became a French protectorate in 1863, one year after France had established a colony
in Cochinchina, or southern Vietnam (Osborne, 1969). Cambodia’s King Norodom agreed to French
protection as a means of escaping a subordinate relationship with Thailand, but soon found himself
struggling to limit French involvement in Cambodian affaires. Throughout the 19th century, Norodom
with the French, slowing but not stopping the establishment of French residences throughout the
country and the assumption by residents of control over Cambodias administration (Chandler, 1993;
Osborne, 1969; Thomson, 1945). In fact, it was only after Norodom’s death in 1904 and the ascent to the
throne of his brother Sisowath, a “fawning collaborator” (Chandler, 1993, p. 149), that the French truly
gained control in Cambodia.

In the 19th century, the French were less interested economically in Cambodia than in Vietnam,
and the country was valued primarily as a buffer for Vietnam against English colonial interests in
Thailand (for discussion, see Osborne, 1969). Perhaps for these reasons, or perhaps because the French
found most Cambodians to be as uncooperative as their king, the French did little to “develop” or
otherwise change Cambodia during the first half of their colonial tenure (Chandler, 1993; Evans &

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Rowley, 1990; Osborne, 1969). In one departure from this laissez-faire approach to colonialism, the
French encouraged the immigration to Cambodia of Vietnamese settlers and colonial civil servants,
whom they found to be “better workers, more dynamic” (Chanda, 1986, p.56), and more easily controlled
(Haas, 1991) than Cambodians.

Nguyen-vo (1992) suggests that the disproportionate number of Vietnamese clerks in

Cambodia’s colonial civil service (Ablin, 1991; Chanda, 1986; Chndler, 1993; Osborne, 1969) was the result
of greater educational development by the French in Vietnam than in Cambodia. The French did not
develop an alternative to the traditional wat schools in Cambodia in the19th century (Kiernan, 1985;
Quinlan, 1992), for instance, though in Vietnam “between 1860 and the turn of the twentieth century a
colonial school system emerged in areas under French occupation” (Kelly, 1978, p. 97). Neither did the
French make attempts in Cambodia to romanize the indigenous writing system and, at least from the
colonial point of view, facilitate education and communication (Osborne, 1969), as they had done in
Vietnam (DeFrancis, 1977; Kelly, 1982). Very few Cambodian students were sent to the metropole to
study in the 19th century (Morizon, 1931; Osborne, 1969), though 90 Vietnamese students were enrolled
in educational programs France in 1870 alone (Osborne, 1969, p. 104). Nguyen-vo (1992) argues that this
uneven and preferential educational development afforded Vietnamese graduates advantages in the
Indochina-wide civil service examinations and explains their predominance in the French colonial
administration in Cambodia.

It is possible to conclude from these comments that the Vietnamese were favored over
Cambodians by the French in terms of education, and it is tempting to define this preference in terms of
France’s 19th century efforts to consolidate power in Cambodia. One could argue, for instance, that the
comparative development of education in Vietnam and Cambodia served the purpose of subordinating
the uncooperative Cambodians within their own country to the more-cooperative Vietnamese and, in the
process, achieving for France a fuller control. In fact, Shawcross (1994) contends that the French actually
“prevented the growth of a strong… administrative class in Cambodia and instead imported Vietnamese
administrators” (pp. 5-6). As we shall see in the following section, however, the apparent goal of French
educational development in Cambodia militates against this argument.

French Educational Development in the Nineteenth Century

Most scholars state simply that France ignored or neglected education in Cambodia in the 19th
century (Chandler, 1993; Gyallay-Pap, 1989; Smith, 1965, 1971). However, while leaving the wat schools
to their own devices, the French did establish a small system of “modern” Franco– Cambodian schools in

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the decades following their arrival in Cambodia. The first of these was the French-language School of the
Protectorate, opened by a French-language School of the Protectorate, opened by a French infantry
officer, Ferry Rolles, in Phnom Penh in 1873 (Morizon, 1931, p. 178). The school was renamed the College
of the Protectorate in 1893 (Bilodeau, 1955; Forest, 1980; Quinlan, 1992). In addition to the School-then-
College of the Protectorate, in 1885 the French-language primary schools in provincial capitals (Morizon,
1931, p. 178). It is not clear what happened to these provincial schools. Kiernan (1985) comments that in
1900 “the only remaining primary school for Cambodian students was the College of the Protectorate in
Phnom Penh (p.151; all Forest quotes are my translation).

Out of these Franco-Cambodian schools came educated men who formed the nucleus of
Cambodia’s European-trained civil service (Quinlan, 1992, p. 9) and who assisted the French authorities
in their work of colonization” (Bilodeau, 1955, p.16). Scholars frequently refer to these graduates as “new
men” (Vickery, 1986, p. 5; quotes in the original; also see Osborne, 1969; Vickery, 1991), suggesting that
through their interactions with the French, educational and otherwise, these men were fundamentally
changed, discarding traditional values and ideologies for those things French. Morizon (1931), for
example, describes the new French men as Westernized Cambodians who, through their loyal service,
advanced the French civilizing mission (p. 178; all Morizon quotes are my translation).

Of central importance and value to the French was the ability of the new man to speak French
and act as bilingual intermediaries in French-Cambodian interactions. Chandler (1993) comments that
most French administrators in Cambodia could not speak Khmer, even after years in the country, and as
a result it was as if a great deal of Cambodian life…was carried out behind a screen, invisible and
inaudible to the French (p. 158). The bilingual new French men allowed the European administrators to
pierce that screen and function in the colonial setting. It would not be overstating the case to suggest
that French-Khmer bilingual ability was among the most important skills that the new French men
brought to the colonial administration and among the most valuable skills for which the French
employed them. In fact, Vickery (1991) mentions French language ability ahead of other “modern skills”
(p.93) as the key to success in the French administration.

French education in 19th century Cambodia was developed concurrently with significant
immigration from other Asian countries, and many who availed themselves of Cambodia’s limited French
educational opportunities were sons of these recent immigrants (Osborne, 1969), particularly the
Vietnamese (Forest, 1980). The immigrants saw in learning French and serving the colonial
administration a means of social and financial advancement which would have been impossible to them

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in Cambodia’s traditional, elite-controlled government structure (Vickery, 1991, for discussion of this
structure, see Chandler, 1993). They did not seek to overturn the social system, but only secure place for
themselves at the top. Accepted for their ability by the French in a way they would not have been
accepted previously that is, in the traditional Cambodian administration, they served the new regime
energetically while, incidentally, amassing considerable personal wealth. (Vickery, 1991, p.5)

Most Cambodians, on the other hand, kept their children away from Franco-Cambodian schools,
perhaps to minimize contact with the children of Vietnamese immigrants, whom they disliked and
distrusted (Forest, 1980; Osborne, 1969), or perhaps simply out of resistance to French innovations. In
this resistance, they may have been following the lead of Cambodia’s King Norodom, who displayed no
interest in assisting the development of French-sponsored education (Osborne, 1969, p. 255) and who
,with the rest of the royal family, looked down on all that was foreign” (Vickery, 1986, p. 5) and resisted
the French language (Forest, 1980, p. 151). As a consequence of these different attitudes toward
education, Cambodians continued to send their sons to wat schools, while Franco-Cambodian schools
came to be dominated by Vietnamese immigrant children (Forest, 1980). In 1883, for example, only 8 of
the 100-plus students at the School of the Protectorate were Cambodians (Forest, 1980, p. 150-151). As a
subsequent consequence, Cambodians did not acquire the French language and other skills necessary for
French service and, therefore, remained unrepresented in the colonial administration.

Far from celebrating this marginalization, the French lamented the lack of Cambodian
participation, including that in education. A colonial-era document concerning the School for the
Protectorate, for instance, reads, “sadly the idea of creating a school for Cambodians has not been
realized, since we have so few Cambodian students” (cited in Forest, 1980, p. 151). That the French were
acutely aware of and unhappy with the degree of Cambodian educational participation indicates that
their goal in education was not the ultimate subordination of Cambodians to Vietnamese, as Nguyen-vo
(1993) and Shawcross (1994) suggested above. Rather, the French appear to have been genuinely
concerned with increasing Cambodian educational participation and, remembering the purpose of
French education, with producing new Cambodian French men willing to assist them in their work of
colonization. As we shall see below, it was not until the 20th century that the French hit upon a broad
system of education capable of achieving this goal.

Twentieth Century French Colonial Cambodia

After King Norondom’s death in 1904, royal resistance to the French presence in Cambodia
ceased (Osborne, 1969). The new king, Sisowath, was contented to have achieved the throne, and he

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allowed the French to assume control over all but ceremonial aspects of Cambodia’s administration.
Sisowath submitted even his own decisions for review to the French Resident Superieure who, being
assured of their conformity to the spirit of the protectorate, appended his signature next to the king’s
(Morizon, 1931, p. 43).

Cambodia continued to be strategically important to France as buffer for Vietnam after the turn
of the century, but the protectorate also assumed economic importance in its own right as a major
exporter or rubber and rice (Chandler, 1993). Whitaker et al. (1973) describe Cambodia at this time as
peripheral to the metropolitan industrial center in the French economic system, arguing that the French
essentially developed Cambodia as a colonial extension of their own industrialized society, orienting the
Cambodian economy principally toward the growing of primary products (p. 43). The main consequence
for Cambodians of increased agricultural production was a corresponding increase in colonial taxes,
which went in large part to pay for French infrastructure developments designed to bring raw materials
to market (Chandler, 1993).

Many scholars summarize French educational development during this period of increasing
economic exploration with a selective list of statistics and a recognizable tone of disgust. Kiernan (1985)
provides a good example: there were 160 modern that is, controlled by the French primary schools with
10,000 students by 1925… But even by 1944, when 80,000 Cambodians were attending some sort of
modern primary schools, only about 500…students per year completed their primary education
certificate. Those enrolled even now made up less than 20 percent of the male school-age population
(few females were enrolled). In the same year, 1944, there were only 1,000…secondary students. The first
high school, the Lycee Sisowath in Phnom Penh, offered a full secondary education only after 1933. Even
by 1953 there were still only 2,700…secondary students enrolled in eight high schools. (There were of
course no universities). Only 144 Cambodians had completed the full Baccalaureate by 1954. (p.xiii)

Such histories frequently support arguments that the French purposefully withheld education
from Cambodians in order to restrict the development of an intellectual elite which might lead the
country into rebellion. Smith (1971), for instance, comments the French did little to train Cambodians to
fill positions of responsibility and trust because it did not suit their purpose to have an educated elite
which might demand government reform or, worse, independence (p. 59). Whitaker et al. (1973)
similarly state that there was no indication that the French wanted an elite with modern education; such
persons might have questioned French control of the country (p. 42).

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 These arguments offer a tempting critical analysis of French colonial rule and education in
Cambodia. However, a careful examination of Cambodia’s educational history in the first half of the 20th
century reveals a steady expansion of educational opportunity, not a restriction. Numerous educational
reforms were initiated by the French in the 20th century expressly for the purpose of increasing
Cambodian educational participation, not inhibiting it. Contextualizing these reforms, Ne pote (1979),
argues that the French recognized in the lack of significant Cambodian participation the failure of their
educational effort and so several times stopped the machine, corrected and modified their policies, and
directed the modern educational system toward a point of balance and integration (pp. 781 – 782).

Restriction or Resistance? French Colonial Educational Development in Cambodia

By 1944, after eight decades of French colonial control, only a small percentage of eligible
students in Cambodia attended French schools. Several scholars argue on the basis of such evidence that
the French purposefully restricted education for Cambodians in order first to achieve and then to
maintain power in the colony. This article examines educational development in Cambodian during the
French colonial period and concludes that the lack of Cambodian educational participation stemmed
from Cambodian resistance, rather than French planning. French educational reforms sought to
understand Cambodian resistance, to overcome it, and to draw Cambodians into schools dedicated to the
training of colonial civil servants.

Continued Resistance to French Education

Scholars propose a number of reasons for Cambodian resistance to French education in the early
20th century. Center for Applied Linguistics (1978) suggests that educational opposition was rooted in
resistance to the French language; Cambodians were no more enthusiastic (Center for Applied
Linguistics, 1978, p.13) about this unfamiliar foreign language, perhaps, than they had been in the 19th
century. Quinlan (1992) comments more generally that the French education system was not ‘legitimate’
for Cambodian society (p.10). Bilodeau (1995) agrees, arguing somewhat patronizingly that the sole
ambition of the Cambodian peasant was to settle his son on his rice-field, which supplied all his needs.
He himself had never gone to school, and was quite happy. It was natural for him to think that his son
could acquire little useful information at the state school, where much French was taught no agriculture
(p. 18).

Rather, Bilodeau (1995) continues, wat-school education suited the traditional Buddhist
mentality of the country better…than Franco-Cambodian schools and this suitability accounted for the
eagerness of young people to enter the wat schools and their comparative lack of interest in Franco-

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Cambodian schools (p. 19). Forest (1980) indicates further that monks at wat schools, at least some of
whom identified French education as a peril for the Buddhist doctrine” (p. 155), may have incited
resistance among Cambodian peasants toward Franco-Cambodian schools also discouraged Cambodian
educational participation. There were never more than a few French teachers in Cambodia, and this
number actually declined from 40 in 1912 (Delvert, 1956, p. 312) to 34 in 1931 and to 28 in 1939 (Bilodeau,
1955, p. 19). The bulk of instructional responsibilities was therefore given to Cambodian teachers who
were underprepared and overworked. Morizon (1931) comments that teachers in elementary schools
possessed only a complementary education diploma and had neither sufficient general culture nor
necessary pedagogical skills to perform their jobs well (p. 183), and a 1921 colonial report describes
Cambodian teachers as poor creatures whose fund of knowledge inspires no great confidence among the
local people (cited in Bilodeau,1995, p.20).

In spite of this unpreparedness, teachers were often required to teach more than one class at the
same time (Delvert, 1956). Even so, there were not enough Cambodian teachers because Cambodians do
not like to entrust their children to Vietnamese teachers” (cited in Forest, 1980, p. 156). Nevertheless,
some Vietnamese teachers, many of whom “were unable to speak the language of the country” (Bilodeau,
1955, p.19), took up posts in Franco-Cambodian schools, and angry Cambodian parents and children
immediately “deserted French schools” (Forest, 1980, p. 157).
As a result of Cambodian attachment to traditional education and resistance to Franco-
Cambodian schools and their language and educational policies, in the first few decades of the 20th
century Franco-Cambodian schools reached only a limited student population. While some traditional
elites followed King Sisowath’s lead in accepting the new French order and began sending their children
to Franco – Cambodian schools (Ne pote, 1979), the French schools continued to be dominated by the
children of Cambodian immigrants (Forest, 1980). In a few cases, Cambodian students were completely
absent and Vietnamese was established at the initial language of education. Forest (1980) states, for
instance, that ‘at the Norodom School for Girls in 1912 and in the Norodom School for Boys in 1917, the
choice of Vietnamese as the language of education was authorized (p.156). That the French were
dissatisfied with the direction their education system had taken, and in particular with the lack of broad
Cambodian participation, is evident in their significant reforms of the next few decades.

Overcoming Cambodian Resistance to French Education

The first French attempt to bring large numbers of Cambodians into the French educational
system came early in the 20th century. In 1907, the French became aware of a “modern” educational
phenomenon in Cambodian provinces bordering Thailand (Delvert, 1956, p. 311; Forest, 1980, p. 158).

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Education in these provinces had been influenced by developments in Thailand, notably by the decision
of Thai King Chualongkorn to modernize temple schools in that country in 1884 (Kalab, 1976, p. 67), and,
by the first decade of the 20th century, approximately 30 wat schools in these Cambodian provinces
(Bilodeau, 1955, p. 16) had been similarly “modernized” (Kalab, 1976, p. 67). It is not clear how it had
been similarly modernized” (Kalab, 1976, p.67). It is not clear how the curriculum in these schools
differed from traditional schools; scholars merely comment that primary education was dispensed…by
monks…and other teachers…trained in Bangkok according to modern methods (Forest, 1980,pp. 158-159).
The French apparently recognized these Thai-oriented modernized wat schools as both a threat and an
opportunity. They were a threat because they presaged a rise in Thai influence in western Cambodia
(Delvert, 1956), and they were an opportunity because they awoke the French to a model for external,
modern education which was not resisted by Cambodians (Forest, 1980). In order to “counterbalance
the Thai influence” (Delver 1956, p. 311) and exploit the Cambodian acceptance of this model of
schooling, the French took over this system of education beginning in 1908 (Forest, 1980, p. 158). These
schools were secularized in 1911 and came to be known as khum or communal schools (Delvert, 1956, p.
313). The Khum School Model was extremely popular among Cambodians, especially in rural areas, and
it spread rapidly across the country (Delver, 1956). By 1931, there were 203 Khum Schools, at least one in
every province (Morizon 1931, p. 180); this number rose to 268 in 1939 (Delvert, 1956, p. 313). At some
point after the Second World War, khum schools “were gradually transformed into Franco-Cambodian
schools under state administration” (Bilodeau, 1955, p.16). Khum Schools appear to have incorporated
characteristics of both Franco-Cambodian schools and traditional wat schools. Like Franco-Cambodian
schools, Khum Schools were secular and staffed by Cambodian graduates of French education (Delvert,
1956; Morizon, 1931). As with wat school, the local community was involved in the construction and
maintenance of Khum Schools, and education in these schools appears to have in Khmer (Delvert, 1956;
Morizon, 1931). Scholars do not discuss the curriculum of Khum Schools in detail, but apparently these
schools provided a bridge for rural students into Franco-Cambodian schools. Delvert (1956), for
instance, comments that Khum Schools offered the advantage of preparing students…from the
countryside…for Franco-Cambodian schools (p.311; also see Torhorst, 1966). As Khum Schools spread
rapidly across the country, then, large number of rural Cambodian children were brought into the French
colonial civil servants grew correspondingly.

French reforms to improve the quality of teaching and the appropriateness of teachers in Franco-
Cambodian schools can also be seen as an effort to increase Cambodian participation in education.
Before the 1920s, Cambodian teachers were graduates of complementary education who received in-
service training from French educators during vacation periods (Delvert, 1956). As mentioned above,

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these teachers were poorly prepared and were insufficient in number to fill the staffing needs of Franco-
Cambodian schools. In order to address these problems, in 1923 the French opened a four-year training
course for teachers or instituteurs at the College Sisowath, and in 1925, the French initiated at the
College a shorter course for assistant teachers or instituteurs were auxiliaries (Morizon, 1931, p. 187). For
the most part, instituteurs were placed as teachers in full-course schools under the direction and
supervision of French administrators and teachers, and instituteurs auxiliaries assumed positions as
teachers in elementary schools and khum schools; Khum Schools were also staffed by moniteurs,
graduates of the elementary cycle of education (Delvert, 1956; Forest, 1980; Morizon, 1931). After the
inauguration of teacher training section at the college, the need to import Vietnamese teachers for
Franco-Cambodian schools apparently disappeared, as references to the presence of Vietnamese teachers
in Cambodia cease after the early 1920s. it is reasonable to assume that with the disappearance of
Vietnamese teachers and the establishment…of a corp of excellent Cambodian teachers (Delver, 1956,
p.313), at least some Cambodinian students who had previously rejected French education because of
their teachers’ ethnicity or qualifications enrolled or reenrolled in Franco-Cambodian schools.

Finally, the French asserted control over Cambodia’s wat schools, modifying and placing them in
harmony with modern times and French civilization (Morizon, 1931, p. 181) and, in the process,
increasing by many times the number of Cambodian children within the French educational system
(Delvert, 1956). The French first tried in 1912 to bring the wat-school curriculum in line with that of
Franco-Cambodian elementary schools (Delvert, 1956, p. 313), but this reform failed, largely because no
program was initiated to train monk teachers in the new curriculum (Forest, 1980). Another reform
launched in 1924 recognized the fundamental importance of teacher training to the success of wat-school
reform (Bilodeau, 1955). After negotiations which apparently overcame Buddhist resistance to French
education, monks in the southern province of Kampot agreed in 1924 to send a few wat-school teachers
for French-style training at a demonstration school (Bilodeau, 1955, p. 21). In this school, monks received
daily the directives of a Cambodian instructor who initiated them into the methods of Franco-
Cambodian primary education (Morizon, 1931, p. 181). During their nine-month training course, monks
were trained by practical demonstration. In each subject, the principal gave standard lessons which
students had to copy and whose structure was analyzed. At the end of the course, the students sat for a
proficiency examination and, if they passed it, were sent back to their local wats as teachers (Bilodeau,
1955, p. 21).

By 1930, 58 monks had successfully completed the teacher training course and had returned as
teachers to their schools, which were then known as ‘modernized wat schools (Bilodeau, 1955, p. 21).

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Based on the “immediate success” (Whitaker et al. 1973, p. 110) of the Kampot experiment, after 1930
demonstration schools were opened in every province to train monk teachers, and traditional wat
schools were modernized at a rapid pace (Bilodeau, 1955). By 1931, there were 101 modernized wat
schools, and 908 such schools were in operation in cities, towns, villages, and rural areas throughout the
country by 1939 (Bilodeau, 1955, p. 21-22). A few years later, a higher demonstration school was
established in Phnom Penh in which former monk teachers were trained to be heads of provincial
demonstration schools and inspectors of modernized wat schools (Bilodeau, 1955, p. 24). Modernized
wat schools offered curriculum similar to that in Franco-Cambodian elementary schools, except that all
courses were in Khmer (Bilodeau, 1955). Students learned reading, writing, and arithmetic (Delvert,
1956) sufficient to manage their affairs or organize a business (Morizon, 1931, p. 181). Like Khum Schools,
modernized wat schools provided a bridge into Franco-Cambodian schools. If graduates of modernized
wat schools were successful in the elementary school-leaving examination, they could enter Franco-
Cambodian complementary schools, though they were first required to take a preparatory course in
which they learned French (Bilodeau, 1955). Bilodeau (1955) comments that students in modernized wat
schools were less frequently successful in the school-leaving examination than students in Franco-
Cambodian elementary schools and that very few (p. 21) graduates of modernized wat schools
matriculated to the complementary cycle. Nevertheless, it is safe to conclude that at least some students,
after having been introduced to French-style education in modernized wat schools, succeeded to
complementary schools and, further, into the French civil service.

By 1944, 15 to 20 percent of Cambodia’s school-age boys attended some kind of French schooling,
either Franco-Cambodian schools, Khum Schools, or modernized wat schools (Ne pote, 1979, p. 776).
Taking this figure in isolation, one could conclude that the French purposefully withheld education from
Cambodians and, further, could critically analyze that restriction as a means of limiting the development
of an intellectual elite which might compromise French power. Such arguments by Kiernan (1985),
Smith (1971), Whitaker et al. (1973), above, introduced this discussion. However, when this educational
statistics is considered within the context of the reforms preceding it, this conclusion and analysis are
difficult to accept. Instead of denying education to Cambodians, the French dramatically expanded
educational opportunities through teacher education reforms and the establishment of khum and
modernized wat schools. Once again remembering the purpose of French education, these reforms
appear to have been intended to broaden the base of the French educational pyramid, to increase the pool
of candidates brought to the sorting of machine and, ultimately, to improve the preparedness and the
quantity of Cambodians promoted through education to positions in the colonial administration.

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 Indeed, the significant increase in Cambodian educational participation after the run of the 20th
century almost certainly contributed to the rise in Cambodian administrative participation relative to
that of the Vietnamese by the late 1930s (Chandler, 1933). Though the reapportionment of the civil
service in the 1930s reflected as well new French policies calling for greater local participation in
government (Chandler, 1993; Ne pote, 1979; Ne pote & Khing, 1981) and may have been linked with
French uncertainty about Vietnamese loyalty (Chandler, 1993), the rise of the Cambodian civil servant
would have been impossible had not significant number of Cambodians been prepared for service in the
expanded French educational system.

Understanding Cambodian Resistance and French Educational Development

In the 19th century, the French developed a small system of Franco-Cambodian schools. When by
the turn of the 20th century it became clear that these schools were failing to attract Cambodians, the
French embarked on a series of educational reforms intended to overcome Cambodian resistance and to
increase Cambodian educational participation. By improving the quality of teaching in Franco-
Cambodian schools and eliminating the need to import Vietnamese teachers, the French identified and
countered two fundamental aspects of Cambodian resistance to colonial education. In their other
significant reforms of the 20th century, the French chose to circumvent Cambodian resistance, rather
than to confront it. With both khum- and wat-school initiatives, the French worked from within extant
educational systems which were contemporaneously accepted by Cambodians. In an attempt to explain
why Cambodian monks, parents, and students accepted the French assumption of control over wat
schools, Whitaker et al. (1973) argue that as an extension of the traditional system, the modernized wat
school won the approval of many parents and students who had been reluctant to accept Franco-
Cambodian schools (p. 110). When the success of modernized wat schools is considered alongside that
of Khum Schools, however, the emergent common denominator for Cambodian acceptance of French-
controlled education appears to have been language, not tradition. Both the Buddhist-oriented,
modernized wat schools with their roots in ancient Cambodian educational practice and the secular
khum schools, based from their inception on non-Cambodian models, offered education in the Khmer
language. It may be that, by allowing education to be offered in Khmer in khum and wat schools, the
French were seeking to avoid one source of Cambodian resistance to Franco-Cambodian schools, that the
use of French in education.

As a result of French reforms which both confronted and circumvented Cambodian educational
resistance, by the mid 20th century, large number of Cambodians had been drawn into the electric
colonial educational system. Despite the arguments of some scholars, then, it seems clear that the French

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were interested in increasing Cambodian educational participation, rather than restricting it. As such, it
should be possible to acquit the French of charges that they sought through education first to
subordinate Cambodians to the Vietnamese and thus consolidate power in the protectorate and, second,
to inhibit the growth of an intellectual elite which might challenge French colonial authority.

The French did not use education to thus advance their purpose in Cambodia, however, does not
mean that their educational vision was disassociated from the colonial enterprise. Throughout the
colonial period, the system of Franco-Cambodian schools provided a means of producing civil servants
willing an able to assist the French in the business of colonialism. As the French reached out into khym
and wat schools, linking them with Franco-Cambodian schools and the preparation of colonial
administrators, these indigenous forms of education were turned away from a Cambodian purpose and
similarly redefined in terms of the colonial enterprise.

INDIAN EDUCATION

History

India has a long history of organized education. The Gurukul System of education is one of the
oldest on earth but before that the Guru Shishya System was extant, in which students were taught
orally and the data would be passed from one generation to the next. Gurukuls were traditional Hindu
residential schools of learning; typically the teacher’s house or a monastery. Education was free, but
students from well-to-do families paid Gurudakshina, a voluntary contribution after the completion of
their studies. At the Gurukuls, the teacher imparted knowledge of Religion, Scriptures, Philosophy,
Literature, Warfare, Statecraft, Medicine Astrology and “History” (“Itihaas”—actually mythology). Only
students belonging to Brahmin and Kshatriya communities were taught in these Gurukuls. However, the
advent of Buddhism and Jainism brought fundamental changes in access to education with their
democratic character. The first millennium and the few centuries preceding it saw the flourishing of
higher education at Nalanda, Takshashila University, Ujjain, & Vikramshila Universities. Art,
Architecture, Painting, Logic, Grammar, Philosophy, Astronomy, Literature, Buddhism, Hinduism,
Arthashastra (Economic & Politics), Law, and Medicine were among the subjects taught and each
university specialized in a particular field of study. Takshila specialized in the study of medicine, while
Ujjain laid emphasis on astronomy. Nalanda, being the biggest centre, handled all branches of
knowledge, and housed up to 10,000 students at its peak. British records show that education was
widespread in the 18th century, with a school for every temple, mosque of village in most regions of the
country. The subjects taught included Reading, Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy,
Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science and Religion. The schools were attended by students

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representative of all classes of society. Traditional structures were not recognized by the British
government and have been on the decline since. Gandhi is said to have described the traditional
educational system as a beautiful tree that was destroyed during the British rule.

But scholars have questioned the validity of such an argument. The village pathshalas were often
housed in shabby dwellings and taught by ill-qualified teachers. Instruction was limited mainly to the
three Rs and the native mahajanilzamindari accounts. Printed books were not used, and most writings
was done on palm leaf, plantain leaf, or on sand. There was no fixed class routine, timetable, or school
calendar. There was no annual examination, pupils being promoted whenever the guru was satisfied of
the scholar’s attainments. There were no desks, benches, blackboards, or fixed seating arrangements.
The decline probably started in the mid-1700s. By the 1820s neither the village schools not the tols or
madrasas were the vital centers of learning. In 1823, Raja Rammohan Roy wrote to the governor-general,
Lord Amherst, requesting that he not spend government funds on starting a Sanskrit College in Calcutta
but rather employ European Gentlemen of talent and education to instruct the natives of India in
Mathematics, Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, Anatomy and other useful sciences. The current system of
education, with its western style and content, was introduced & founded by the British in the 20th
century, following recommendations by Macaulay.

Up to the 17th century

The first millennium and the few centuries preceding it saw the flourishing of higher education
at Nalanda, Takshila, Ujjain, & Vikramshila Universities. Art, Architecture, Painting, Logic, Grammar,
Philosophy, Astronomy, Literature, Buddhism, Hinduism, Arthashastra (Economics & Politics), Law,
and Medicine were among the subjects taught and each university specialized in a particular field of
study. Takshila specialized in the study of medicine, while Ujjain laid emphasis on astronomy. Nalanda,
being the biggest centre, handled all branches of knowledge, and housed up to 10,000 students at its
peak.

Colonial Period

Dharampal, the well known Gandhian and historian of Indian Science, has given a detailed
accounts of the extensive indigenous system of education that was thriving in India before the British
came in his famous book, The Beautiful Tree. We give below a brief summary of his report. Dharampal’s

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account is based on the British Collector’s reports when he came to India and were asked to report on
sate of the indigenous education.

Indian historical knowledge has been derived from the writings and some other valuable account
left by the foreigners. For example, the universities of Nlanda and Taxila have been better known as
some Greek of Chinese travelers had written about them centuries ago, which had survived in the form of
some journals. Thus, these journals provide us very useful information about indigenous education.

The information about indigenous education, which is available today, whether published, or
still in manuscript form in the government records, largely belongs to the 1820’s and 1830’s period. It is
significant to emphasize that indigenous education was carried out through pathshalas, madrassahs and
gurukulas. These three institutions were the source of traditional knowledge systems in India and played
a very significant role in the Indian education. These institutions were in fact the watering holes of the
culture of traditional communities. Therefore the term school is a weak translation of the roles these
institutions really played in Indian society.

The most well-known and decisive point, which emerged from the educational surveys, lies in an
examination made by William Adam. He, in his observations found that there existed about 1,000,000
village schools in Bengal and Bihar around the 1830s. Men like Thomas Munro, had observed that ‘every
village had a school’. Observations made by Dr. G. W. Leitner in 1882 show that the spread of education
in the Punjab around 1850 was of a similar extent. At about the same time, England had very few schools
for the children of ordinary people till about 1800, and many of the older grammar school were in poor
shape. According to A.E. Dobbs, the University of Oxford might be described as the chief Charity School
of the poor as well as the chief Grammar School in England. It was also one of the greatest places of the
education for students of theology, law and medicine.

The men who wrote about India belonged to the late eighteenth and early nineteenth century of
Great Britain. These surveys, based on hard reveal a great deal about the nature of Indian education and
detailed information on the background of those benefiting from these institutions.

According to this hard data, in terms of the content, the proportion of those attending
institutional school education in India in 1800 is certainly not inferior to what was obtained in England
then; and in many respects Indian schooling seems to have been much more extensive. The content of
studies was better in India than in England. The method of school teaching was superior in India at that

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time. The school attendance, especially in the district of Madras Presidency, even in the decayed state of
the period 1822-25, was proportionately far higher than the numbers in all variety of schools in England
in 1800. The only aspect in which India was behind was the education of girls. Girl schooling may have
been proportionately more extensive in England in 1800.

However, the Madras Presidency and Bengal-Bihar data presented a kind of revelation.
According to this data, the education of any sort in India, till very recant decades, was mostly limited to
the twice born amongst the Hindus, and amongst the Muslims to those from the ruling elite.

Two of the collectors sent detailed information pertaining to those who were being educated at
home, or in some other private manner. The Collector of Malabar sent details of 1,594 scholars who were
receiving education in Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics and Medical Science in his
district from private tutors. The collector of Madras, on the other hand, reported in his letter of February
1826 that 26,963 school-level scholars were then receiving tuition at their home in the area under his
jurisdiction.

The government of Madras presidency completed a survey of Indian educational institutions in

182324. After that it came to be known that despite the poverty and disturbance, there were about
13,000 schools and 740 colleges under the presidency. According to this survey the original number of
students in school and colleges were 188,650 out of 42,502 were Brahmans and 85,400 were from the
castes known as Shudras. The remaining were Vaishya, Mohammedan and from other Hindu castes. The
numbers of girls were only 4,540, but according to the report this lesser number of girls as alleged was
mainly due to the prevalence of home education of girls. But the number of Mohammedan girl students
in Malabar district was very large. The number of girl students there was 1,122 and for boy students
3,196. How these institutions of education were destroyed is known to some extent by what Gandhiji
said.

The Government of the Presidency of Madras on 10 March 1826 ultimately reviewed the reports
of the collectors. The Governor, Sir Thomas Munro, was of the view that while the institutional
education of females seemed negligible, that of the boys between the ages o 5 to 10 years appeared to be a
‘little more than one-fourth’ of the boys of that age in the Presidency as a whole. Taking into
consideration those who were estimated as being taught at home, he was inclined ‘to estimate the
portion of the male population who receive school education to be nearer to one-third than one-fourth of
the whole.

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 The Caste-wise division of students provides the more interesting and historically more relevant
information. This is true not only as regards boys, but also with respect to the rather small number of
girls who, according to the survey, were receiving education in schools. Furthermore, the information
becomes all the more curious and pertinent when the data is grouped into the five main language areas –
Oriya, Telugu, Kannada. Malayalam and Tamil. These constituted the Presidency of Madras at this
period, and throughout the nineteenth century.

In the Tamil speaking areas where the twice-born ranged between 13% in the south Arcot to
some 23% in Madras, the Muslims were less than 3% in South Arcot and Chingleput to 10% in Salem,
while the Soodras and the other castes ranged from about 70% in Salem and Tinnevelly, to over 84% in
South Arcot.

In Malayalam-speaking Malabar, the proportion of the twice born was still below 20% of the
total. Because of a larger Muslim population, however, the number of Muslim school students went up
to nearly 27%, while the Soodras and the other castes accounted for some 54% of the school going
students.

In the largely kannada-speaking Bellary, the proportion of the twice-born (the Brahmins and the
Vysees) went up to 33%, while the Soodras, and the other castes still accounted for some 63%.

The position in the Oriya-speaking Ganjam was similar: the twice-born accounting for some
35.6%, and the Soodras and other castes being around 63.5%.

It is only in the Telugu-speaking districts that the twice born formed the major proportion of the
school going students. Here, the proportion of Brahmin boys varied from 24% in Cuddapah to 46% in
Vizagapatam; of the Vysees from 10.5% in Vizagapatam to 29% in Cuddapah; of the Muslims from 1% in
Vizagapatam to 8% in Nellore; and of the Soodras and other castes from 35% in Guntoor to over 41% in
Cuddapah and Vizagapatam.

The main subjects, which were reported to be taught in the schools of Bellary and also in
Rajahmundry, were reading, writing and arithmetic. Ramayanum, Maha Bharata, Bhagvata, were some
other books which were reported to be taught in these schools.

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 While several of the collectors observed that no institutions of higher learning were then known
to exist in their districts, the rest reported a total of 1,094 such places. These were enumerated under the
term ‘colleges’ (as mentioned in the prescribed form). The largest number of these, 279, were in the
district of Rajahmundry with a total of 1.454 scholars; Coimbatore came next 173 such places (724
scholars); Guntoor had 171 (with 939 scholars); Tanjore 109 (with 769 scholars); Chingleput 51 (with 398
scholars); Masulipatarn 49 (with 199 scholars); Bellary 23; Treichnopoly (with 131 scholars) and Malabar
with one old institution with 75 scholars.

The books used in these institutions probably were the Vedas, the various Sastras, the Purans, the
more well known books on Ganeeta, and Jyotish-sastras and epic literature.

Several collectors, especially collector of Canara, who did not send any statistical returns at all,
mentioned the fact that many of the boys and especially the girls received education at home from their
parents, or relatives, or from privately engaged tutors. The data from Madras regarding the number of
boys and girls receiving tuition at their home is equally pertinent. In comparison to those being educated
in schools in Madras, this number is 4.7 times.

The number of girls attending the school was very small. Leaving aside the districts of Malabar
and the Jeypoor division of Vizagapatarn distict, the girls from Brahmin, Chettri, and Vysee castes were
practically non-existent in schools. However, there were some Muslim girls receiving school educations:
56 in Trichnopoly, and 27 in Salem.

Thirteen years later, a more limited semi-official survey of education was taken up in the
Presidency of Bengal, which is known as the Adam’s Reports. In spite of the controversies, Adam’s Reports
have mentioned that there were perhaps 1,000,000 village schools in Bengal and Bihar in some form till
the 1830.

Adam divided the period spent in elementary schools into 4 stages, which were: first stage a
period of about ten days, during which the young scholar was taught to form the letters of the alphabet;
the second stage, extending two and a half to 4 years, was distinguished by the use of palm leaf as the
material on which writing was performed and the scholar was taught to read and write and also learn the
Cowrie table, the Numeration Table, the katha table and the Ser table; the third stage, extended from 2 to 3
years, which were employed in writing on the plantain leaf and addition, subtraction and other
arithmetical operations were taught during this period; and finally in the fourth stage, which extended

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up to 2 years, the writing was done on the paper and the scholar was expected to read the Ramayana,
manas mangal etc.

About 45 years after Adam, Dr. G. W. Leitner prepared an even more voluminous survey of
indigenous education. This survey was more direct and much less complementary to British rule.
Leitner’s researches showed that at the time of the annexation of the Punjab, the lowest computation
gave 3,300,000 pupils in the schools of the various denominations who were acquainted with reading,
writing and some methods of computation.

There is a sense of widespread neglect and decay in the field of indigenous education within a
few decades after the onset of British rule. This is the major common impression, which emerges form
the (1822-25) Madras Presidency data, the report of W. Adam on Bengal and Bihar (1835-38), and the
Punjab survey by G. W. Leitner.
Gandhiji was very disappointed at the condition of Indian education during the British period.
Gandhiji observed two main points in Indian education: (1) Today India is more illiterate than it was fifty
or hundred years ago; and (2) the British administrators instead of looking after education and other
matters which had existed, began to root them out.

Education under British Rule

British records show that indigenous education was widespread in the 18th century, with a school
for every temple, mosque or village in most regions of the country. The subjects taught included Reading,
Writing, Arithmetic, Theology, Law, Astronomy, Metaphysics, Ethics, Medical Science and Religion.
The schools ere attended by students representative of all classes of society. But scholars have
questioned the validity of such an argument. They argue that proponents of indigenous education fail to
recognize the importance of the widespread use of printed books in the West since the sixteenth
century, which led to a remarkable advancement of knowledge. Printed books were not used in Indian
schools till the 1820s or even later. There were institutions such as Gresham’s college in London that
encouraged scientific learning. In fact, there were a number of such academic and scientific societies in
England, often supported by Puritan and non-Conformist merchants, the like of which probably did not
exist in India. The entire claim of indigenous education proponents is based on the thesis advocated by
Dharampal which says that there was a general decline in Indian society and economy with the coming of
British rule. In the process, indigenous education suffered. This, however, is too broad a generalization,
and the exact impact of British rule on different regions at different times has to be studied more
carefully before we conclude that the curve everywhere steadily declined. He argues that pre-British

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schools and colleges were maintained by grants of revenue-free land. The East India Company, with its
policy of maximizing land revenue, stopped this and thus starved the Indian education system of its
financial resources. Again, we need more detailed evidence to show how far inam lands were taken over
by the government. More often, military officers, zamindar – and talukdars were deprived of revenue-free
land rather than temples, mosques, madrases. Recent research has revealed that inam lands continued to
exist well into nineteenth century, much more than was previously suspected.

The current system of education, with its western style and content, was introduced & funded
by the British in the 19th century, following recommendations by Macaulay. Traditional structures were
not recognized by the British government and have been on the decline since. Gandhi is said to have
described the traditional educational system as a beautiful tree that was destroyed during British rule.

The British established many colleges like St. Xavier’s College Sydenham College, Wilson
College and Elphinstone College in India.

According to Prof. Emeritus M. G. Sahadevan, F.R.C.P. (London), the first medical college of
Kerala was started at Calicut, in 1942-43, during World War II. Due to shortage of doctors to serve the
military, the British Government decided to open a branch of Madras Medical College in Malabar, which
was under Madras Presidency then. After the war, the medical school at Calicut was closed and the
students continued their studies at Madras Medical College.

After independence
After independence, education became the responsibility of the states. The Central
Government’s only obligations was to co-ordinate in technical and higher education and specify
standards. This continued till 1976, when the education became a joint responsibility of the state and the
Centre.

PHILIPPINE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEM

Historical Perspective of the Philippine Educational System

From the pre-Spanish times to the present, the educational system of the Philippines has
undergone several states of development. These stages have been affected largely by the changing
political regimes that have controlled the native people.

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 Pre-Magellanic times – informal education based by Spanish Missionaries for elites only.

Educational Decree of 1863 – education by Filipinos at one primary school for boys and girls in
each town, and a school for male teachers under the direction of the Jesuits. Primary instruction was
free, and the teaching of Spanish was compulsory.

Aguinaldo’s Republic of a Revolutionary Government 1898 – free and compulsory elementary

education established.

Philippine Commission Act no. 74, 1901 – a highly centralized public school system. The free
public school system was run by both chaplains and non-commissioned officers assigned to teach using
English as the medium of instruction. The shortage of teachers to run this new system was
accommodated by hiring 600 Thomasites from the U.S.A.

Philippine Commission 1902 – Provincial governments develop high schools, special educational
institutions, schools of the arts and trades, and agricultural school, and a commerce and marine institute.
Philippine Legislature approved Act no. 1870 – created the University of the Philippines.

Military Order no. 2, 1942 – Philippine Executive Commission established the Commission of
Education, Health and Public Welfare. Under the Japanese Regime, the teaching of Tagalog, Philippine
History, and Character Education was reserved for Filipinos.

Executive Order no. 94, 1947 – Department of Instruction was changed to Department of
Education. During this period, the regulation and supervision of public and private schools belonged to
the Bureau of Public and Private Schools.

Proclamation 1081, 1972 – Department of Education and Culture and the Ministry of Education
and Culture created thirteen regional offices, and major organizational changes were implemented in the
educational system.

Educational Act of 1982 – created the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports, which later
became the Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS).

108
 Commission on Higher Education (CHED) and Technical Education and Skills Development
Authority (TESDA) established to supervise tertiary degree programs and non-degree, technical-
vocational programs.

Republic Act 9155, 2001 – the Governance of Basic Education Act passed to rename DECS to
Department of Education, RA 9155 provided the overall framework for 1) school head empowerment by
strengthening their leadership roles, and 2) school-based management within the context of
transparency and local accountability.

“The goal of basic education is to provide the school age population and young adults with skills,
knowledge, and values to become caring, self-reliant, productive and patriotic citizens.”

Historical Perspective of the Philippine Educational System

Education in the Philippines has undergone several stages of development from the pre-Spanish
times to the present. In meeting the needs of the society, education serves as focus of emphases/priorities
of the leadership at certain periods/epochs in our national struggle as a race.

As early as in pre-Magellanic times, education was informal, unstructured, and devoid of

methods. Children were provided more vocational training and less academics (3 Rs) by their parents
and in the houses of tribal tutors.

The pre-Spanish system of education underwent major changes during the Spanish colonization.
The tribal tutors were replaced by the Spanish Missionaries. Education was religion-oriented. It was for
the elite, especially in the early years of Spanish colonization. Access to education by the Filipinos was
later liberalized through the enactment of the Educational Decree of 1863 which provided for the
establishment of at least one primary school for boys and girls in each town under the responsibility of
the municipal government; and the establishment of a normal school for male teachers under the
supervision of the Jesuits. Primary instruction was free and the teaching of Spanish was compulsory.
Education during that period was inadequate, suppressed, and controlled.

The defeat of Spain by American forces paved the way for Aguinaldo’s Republic under a
Revolutionary Government. The schools maintained by Spain for more than three centuries were closed
for the time being but were reopened on August 29, 1898 by the Secretary of Interior. The Burgos

109
Institute in Malolos, the Military Academy of Malolos, and the Literary University of the Philippines
were established. A system of free and compulsory education was established by the Malolos
Constitution.

An adequate secularized and free public school during the first decade of American rule was
established upon the recommendation of the Schurman Commission. Free primary instruction that
trained the people for the duties of citizenship and avocation was enforced by the Taft Commission per
instructions of President McKinley. Chaplains and non-commissioned officer were assigned to teach
using English as the medium of instruction.

A highly centralized public school was installed in 1901 by the Philippine Commission by virtue
of Act No. 74. The implementation of this Act created a heavy shortage of teachers so the Philippine
Commission authorized the Secretary of Public Instruction to bring to the Philippines 600 teachers form
the U.S.A. They were the Thomasites.
OFFICIAL NAME OF OFFICIAL
YEAR LEGAL BASES
DECS TITULAR HEAD

Superior Commission of Educational Decree of

1863 Chairman
Primary Instruction 1863

Department of Public General Act. No. 74 of the

1901-1916
Instruction Superintendent Philippine Commission,

Department of Public Organic Act Law of 1916

1916-1942 Secretary
Instruction (Jones Law)

Renamed by the
Japanese Executive
Department of Education,
1942-1944 Commissioner Commission, June 11,
Health and Public Welfare
1942

Renamed by Japanese
Department of Education,
1944 Minister Sponsored Philippine
Health and Public Welfare
Republic

Renamed by Japanese
Department of Public
1944 Secretary Sponsored Philippine
Instruction
Republic

Department of Public Renamed by the

1945-1946 Instruction and Secretary Commonwealth
Information Government

1946-1947 Department of Instruction Secretary Renamed by the

Commonwealth

110
 Government

E.O. No. 94 October

1947-1975 Department of Education Secretary 1947 (Reorganization
Act of 1947)

Department of Education Proc. No. 1081,

1975-1978 Secretary
and Culture September 24, 1972

Ministry of Education and P.D. No. 1394, June 2,

1978-1984 Minister
Culture 1978

Ministry of Education,
1984-1986 Minister Education Act of 1982
Culture and Sports

RA 7722 and RA 7796,

Department of Education,
1987-1994 Secretary 1994 Trifocalization of
Culture and Sports
Education Management

RA 9155, August
2001 – present Department of Education Secretary 2001(Governance of
Basic Education Act)

The high school system supported by provincial governments, special educational institutions, school of
arts and trades, an agricultural school, and commerce and marine institutes were established in 1902 by
the Philippine Commission. In 1908, the Philippine Legislature approved Act No. 1870 which created the
University of the Philippines.

The Reorganization Act of 1916 provided the Filipinization of all department secretaries except
the Secretary of Public Instruction.

Japanese educational policies were embodied in Military Order No. 2 in 1942. The Philippine
Executive Commission established the Commission of Education, Health and Public Welfare and schools
were reopened in June 1942. On October 14, 1943, the Japanese– sponsored Republic created the
Ministry of Education. Under the Japanese regime, the teaching of Tagalog, Philippine History, and
Character Education was reserved for Filipinos. Lover for work and dignity of labor was emphasized.
On February 27, 1945, the Department of Instruction was made part of the Department of Public
instruction.

111
 In 1947, by virtue of Executive Order No. 94, the Department of Instruction was changed to
Department of Education, during this period, the regulation and supervision of public and private schools
belonged to the Bureau of Public and Private Schools.

In 1972, it became the Department of Education and Culture by virtue of Proclamation 1081 and
the Ministry of Education and Culture in 1978 by virtue of P.D. No. 1397. Thirteen regional offices were
created and major organizational changes were implemented in the educational system.

The Education Act of 1982 created the Ministry of Education, Culture and Sports which later
became the Department of Education, Culture and Sports in 1987 by virtue of Executive Order No. 117.
The structure of DECS as embodied in EO No. 117 has practically remained unchanged until 1994 when
the Commission on Higher Education (CHED), and 1995 when the Technical Education and Skills
Development Authority (TESDA) were established to supervise tertiary degree programs and non-degree
technical-vocational programs, respectively.

The Congressional Commission on Education (EDCOM) report the impetus for Congress to pass
(RA 7722 and RA 7796 in 1994 creating the Commission on Higher Education (CHED) and the Technical
Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA), respectively.
The trifocal education system refocused DECS’ mandate to basic education which covers
elementary, secondary and nonformal education, including culture and sports. TESDA now administers
the post-secondary, middle-level manpower training and development while CHED is responsible for
higher education.

In August 2001, Republic Act 9155, otherwise called the Governance of Basic Education Act, was
passed transforming the name of the Department of Education, Culture and Sports (DECS) to the
Department of Education (DepEd) and redefining the role of field offices (regional offices, division
offices, district offices and schools). RA 9155 provides the overall framework for (i) school head
empowerment by strengthening their leadership role and (ii) school-based management within the
context of transparency and local accountability. The goal of basic education is to provide the school age
population and young adults with skills, knowledge, and values to become caring, self-reliant, productive
and patriotic citizens.

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DepEd MANAGEMENT STRUCTURE

To carry out its mandates and objectives, the Department is organized into two major structural
components. The Central Office maintains the overall administration of basic education at the national
level. The Field Offices are responsible for the regional and local coordination and administration of the
Department’s mandate. RA 9155 provides that the Department should have no more than four
Undersecretaries and four Assistant Secretaries with at least one Department.

At present, the Department operates with four Undersecretaries in the areas of: (1) Programs and
Projects; (2) Regional Operations; (3) Finance and Administration; and (4) Legal Affairs; four Assistant
Secretaries in the areas of: (1) Programs and Projects; (2) Planning and Development; (3) Budget and
Financial Affairs; and (4) Legal Affairs.

Backstopping the Office of the Secretary at the Central Office are the different services, bureaus
and centers. The five services are the Administrative Service, Financial and Management Service, Human
Resources Development Service, Planning Service, and Technical Service. Three staff bureaus provide
assistance in formulating policies, standards, and programs related to curriculum and staff development.
These are the Bureau of Elementary Education (BEE), Bureau of Secondary Education (BSE), and the
Bureau of Nonformal Education (BNFE). By virtue of Executive order No. 81 series of 1999, the function
of a fourth bureau, the Bureau of Physical Education and School Sports (BPESS), were absorbed by the
Philippine Sports Commission (PSC) last August 25, 1999.

Six centers or units attached to the Department similarly provide technical and administrative
support towards the realization of the Department’s vision. These are the National Education Testing
and Research Center (NETRC), Health and Nutrition Center (HNC), National Educators Academy of
the Philippines (NEAP), Educational Development Projects Implementing Task Force (EDPITAF),
National Science Teaching Instrumentation Center (NSTIC), and instructional Materials Council
Secretariat (IMCS). There are four special offices under OSEC: the Adopt-a-School Program Secretariat,
Center for Students and Co-curricular Affairs, Educational Technology Unit, and the Task Force
Engineering Assessment and Monitoring.

Other attached and support agencies to the Department are the Teacher Education Council
(TEC), Philippine High School for the Arts, Literacy Coordinating Council (LCC), and the Instructional
Materials Council (IMC).

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 At the sub-national level, the Field Offices consist of the following:
1. Sixteen (16) Regional Offices, including the Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao
(ARMM*), each headed by a Regional Director (a Regional Secretary in the case of ARMM);
2. One hundred fifty-seven (157) Provincial and City Schools Divisions, each headed by a Schools
Division Superintendent. Assisting the Schools Division Offices are (2,227 School Districts, each
headed by a District Superior;
3. Under the supervision of the Schools Division Offices are forty-eight thousand, four hundred
forty-six (48,446) schools, broken down as follows:
o 40,763 elementary schools (36,234 public and 4,529 private)
o 7,683 secondary schools (4,422 public and 3,261 private)

Reading Assignment:
− E-Journals
• PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
• Password: powersearch

Exercises/written assignments
Answer the following questions intellectually
1. Discuss briefly the Japanese Education during the Pre-Colonial Period and its effect in our
educational system?
2. How does Globalization affect the political and cultural growth of a country?
3. Who are the “new men” of Franco? How did they help in the development of Cambodia?
4. What are the different programs instituted by DepEd to alleviate the economic status of the
Filipino people?

References/bibliography
http://www.news.harvard.edu/guide/intro
http://www.homesteadtoys.com/earlyamerican/education.html
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colonial_America
Baker, Donald and Patrick J. Harrigan (eds.), The Making of Frenchmen: Current Direction in the History of
Education in France, 1679-1975. (Waterloo, Ontario: Historical Reflections Press, 1980).
Chessenau, Georges. La Commission extraparlementaire de 1849: Texte integral inedit des process – verbaux
(Paris: 1937).
Compulsory Education in France
Dharampal, 2000. Introduction in The Beautiful Tree, Volume III, PP. 07 – 86. Mapusa: Other India Press.
Education and Economic Development; Carnold Anderson and Mary Jean Bowman; 1965; p. 130
114
Francoise Mayeur, Tome III de la Revoluion a lecole republicaine. Paris: Nouvelle Librairie de France,
1981).
Grew, Raymond and Patrick J. Harrigan. The Development of a National System of Education in France. (Ann
Arbor, Michigan: University of Michigan Press, 1990).
Gontard, Maurice. Les ecoles primaire de la France bourgeoise (1833-1975)
Institute for International Studies in Education
Michael, Henry. La Loi Falloux. (Paris: 1926)
Microsoft Encarta Reference Library 2003. 1993-2002 Microsoft Corporation
Moody, Joseph N. French Education Since Napoleon. (Syracuse, New York: Syracuse University Press, 1978).
Parias, Louis-Henry (ed.), Histoire generale de I’enseignement et de l’education en France. 4 Vol
Patrick J. Harringan
Thomas Clayton
(Toulouse: C.R.D.P., 1957
University of Pittsburgh, USA [email protected]
Note: The archaic spellings have not been changed.

MODULE 4
CULTURAL, POLITICAL, ETHICAL AND
ECONOMIC CONTEXTS OF EDUCATION

LESSON 1
ROLE OF EDUCATION IN PROMOTING HUMAN, SOCIAL,
ECONOMIC, AND POLITICAL DEVELOPMENT AND IN
SUSTAINING ECONOMIC GROWTH
Learning Objectives
1. Discuss the Role of Ethical and Economic Context of Education of developed and
developing countries;
2. Practice how to institute values and instill moral development to both staff and
trainees; and,
3. Enumerate the contribution of education to Economic Growth of selected countries.

Keywords and Phrases

• Moral Education

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 • Values Analysis
• Values Clarification
• Moral Development

ROLE OF ETHICAL AND MORAL DEVELOPMENT IN EDUCATION

Ethics is a branch of philosophy that attempts to help us understand which ways of life are
worth following and which actions are right or wrong. Ethics addresses questions of right and wrong
using reason rather than faith or tradition.
Economic development and ethical development are viewed as complementary and highly
integrated activities. Income-generating skills can best be learned and used in a context of human
dignity and honor, of trustworthiness and mutual support; hence, these values are emphasized in the
Institute’s programmed. The conscious integration of economic development with the promotion of civic
values is especially critical in crafts training programme, as economic ventures may be crippled by
corruption or lack of trust. The institute values the influence of personal morality and seeks consciously
to cultivate it in both staff and trainees.

There is wide agreement that education has an important role to play in motivating and
empowering people to participate in the changes towards more sustainable lifestyles. Schumacher (1973
p. 64) described education as the ‘greatest resource’ for achieving a just and ecological society. Since
then, the major international reports have emphasized the critical role education is to play in the search
for sustainable living.

The Brundtland Report, (WCED 1987) argued that teachers had ‘a crucial role to play in helping
to bring about the extensive social changes’ (p.xiv) necessary for sustainable development. The 1980
World Conservation Strategy was more explicit about the role of education in bringing about such
changes. It argued that:

‘A new ethic, embracing people is required for human societies to live in harmony with the natural world on
which they depend for survival and well-being. The long term task of environmental education is to foster or
reinforce attitudes and behaviors compatible with this new ethic’ (IUCN UNEP & WWF 1980 sect. 13).
Agenda 21, the internationally agreed report of the Earth Summit, committed countries to
promoting environmental sustainability through education. It states that:
‘Education is critical for promoting sustainable development and improving the capacity of the people to
address environment and development issues…It is critical for achieving environmental and ethical awareness,
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 values and attitudes, skills and behaviour consistent with sustainable development and for effective public
participation in decision-making’ (UNCED 1992, chap 36 p.2).

Character education is a type of instruction that focuses on values, such as honesty,

responsibility, respect, caring, and fairness among students. The character education movement
encourages schools to develop programs that emphasize ethics and responsibility. Supporters of such
programs believe that “good character” can be formed through teaching, the setting of examples, practice
in a supportive school community. The long-term goal of character education is the development of a
more responsible and caring society.

Character education begins with the establishment of core ethical values that form the basis for
instruction in school and the community. The values are then integrated into school activities and into
the general lesson strategies of the teachers. Character education can be presented at any grade level. In
early grades, character education usually emphasizes behavioral skills. In later grades, it includes such
topics as reducing prejudice and resolving conflicts. Service learning, in which students participate in
programs that help other, is a central component of character education.
Character education programs are widespread in the United States. A variety of organization—
including nonprofit associations, universities, and school districts—suggest strategies for effectively
incorporating character education into the curriculum. A similar emphasis on character education can be
found in schools in most developed nations.

Moral education is instruction focused on questions of right and wrong. Moral education also
includes the development of values, the standards by which people judge what is important, worthwhile,
and good. People receive moral education from many sources, including their family, church, friends, and
teachers—and even television. Schools have always been involved in such education, either intentionally
or unintentionally. For example, many stories for young readers include a moral lesson. During the
1970’s, educators in the United States began to develop special teaching methods to help students deal
with moral questions.

Methods of Moral Education

Schools use four chief methods in moral education. These methods are (1) inculcation, (2) values
clarification, (3) moral development, and (4) value analysis. Some schools use a combination of these
methods in an approach called comprehensive moral education.

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Inculcation is an effort to teach children the values that educators believe lead to moral behavior. These
values include honesty, compassion, justice, and respect for others. One way of teaching such standards
is to provide appropriate praise and punishment. Another means is to have teachers reflect the desired
values in their own behavior.
Values clarification helps students develop their own values and moral standards by teaching them a
decision-making process. The learning procedures stress setting goals, choosing thoughtfully form
alternatives, and acting on one’s own convictions.

Moral development helps improve their ability to judge moral questions. This method is based on the
theory that people progress from lower to higher stages of moral reasoning. According to the theory,
people progress from making moral decisions based on self-interest, to seeking the approval of others, to
following rules, to respecting the rights of others, and so on. At the highest moral level, an individual
might oppose the laws of society if they conflict with moral principles that are even higher.
Educators stimulate moral development primarily by having students discuss difficult questions called
moral dilemmas. One dilemma might be, “Should Heintz steal food to feed his starving family?” Educators
also stimulate moral development by establishing just schools, in which students govern themselves
according to the principles of fairness and justice.

Value analysis helps students apply techniques of logic and scientific investigation to matters involving
values. Teachers stress the importance of exploring all alternatives, of gathering and evaluating the facts,
and of making a logical decision.

Arguments about moral education

Some people oppose the teaching of moral education in schools. Many of these individuals feel
that only the family and church should provide such instruction. Others argue that moral education
takes class time that should be used for such basic subjects as reading, writing, and mathematics.
Surveys indicate that most parents favor some form of moral education in schools. Supporters such
education argue that the family and church need help in teaching moral behavior. Many believe that
schools in a democratic society must teach such values as hard work, honesty, fairness, cooperation,
tolerance, and respect.

The Role of Education in Promoting the Political Development of Africa

Some African conflicts have to do with the way countries were created to suit the needs of
colonial powers. In many cases, tribes were divided in order to weaken them and they fell under various

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flags. After independence, some of these tried to regroup and this led to border conflicts. In other cases,
century old tribal antagonisms resurfaced once colonial power left. This may be the case of one of the
oldest modern armed conflict in Africa and still going on in Sudan, due to cultural and religious
differences. The Muslim North dominated political and economic power, drawing its strength from
ethnic Arabs. The South, mostly populated by Black Africans and mostly Christians, ahs constantly been
fighting to gain “respect”. The war in Sudan, where instances of slavery by the North on the South have
been reported, has now become the subject of a new peace process. The US government sent a special
envoy to talk to both sides of the conflict.

According to the research, statistics abound to show that Africa is a continent where peace is
severely threatened. It is on crises on economic, social, environmental, political and religious. Aids
taking a heavy toll on human life, environmental degradation and increasing population is putting a
strain on natural resources and there is a rise of religious fundamentalism.

Peace is a priority of Africa because of high crime rate, strikes, violence in all places and the law
enforcers are not visible in the streets.

Higher Educational Institutions and Universities, train young professionals and future leaders
through teaching programs. They create knowledge through research activities and provide community
service outreach programs. In the University level, the association of the use of module related to peace is
being observed. And so, these institutions can therefore play a meaningful role in developing a culture of
peace and redressing the present situation.

The different levels of education, colleges and universities device school curricula and address to
local, regional and institutional issues and problems of peace and human rights.

Through their teaching research and programs, higher educational institutions in Africa can
assist in developing a culture of peace by ensuring that society develops the right attitude of tolerance
and understanding, that is free from prejudices and misconceptions, that is well informed and that it has
the ability to critically, objectively and intelligently asses past and present crises. It would appear that
universities in many parts of Africa have embarked on peace programs.

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CONTRIBUTIONS OF EDUCATION TO ECONOMIC GROWTH

Role of Education in Economic Development in Japan

The contributions of education in achieving the modernization of the country since the Meiji
Restoration (1868), might be evaluated from various points of view. Recently, the interests of countries
abroad have been centered on the role of education in achieving the economic development of Japan.
The first point – was the economic reconstruction after World War and the prosperity that
followed in Japan. The remarkable recovery from the economic losses suffered from the war and the
following spectacular economic growth in this country as well as in West Germany is deemed as the
miracle in the current world. It is said that this economic development has mainly depended on such
human factors as knowledge and talents which had been accumulated since pre-War periods. And such
accumulated knowledge and talents are no doubt the very results of education in the past. The first
point stated that the unexpectedly rapid revival from the socio-economic collapse following World War,
and the following prosperity in Japan resulted largely from the accumulated efforts of pre-War
education.

The second point – to be mentioned is the fact that Japan is included among such countries as
Canada, West Germany, Israel, the U.S.S.R. and the U.S.A. which have achieved exceedingly rapid
economic growth through this century. The second points mentioned that Japanese education had
successfully met the needs of industries which had developed on the bases founded in an earlier period.

The third point – noted from comparison with other countries concerning the role of education
in achieving economic development in Japan, is the overcoming of disadvantages by the introduction and
diffusion of a modern educational system during the so-called ‘take-off’ period. Education in early Meiji
Era, as the third point, supported the foundation on which the modern Japanese economic system was
created, rather than contributing directly to economic growth. In other words, the diffusion of
elementary education raised the quality of the people’s skills, modernized their thought, and made it
possible for them to participate successfully in modern economic activities.

Political, social and cultural factors undoubtedly contributed to the economic growth of this
country, but the effects of these factors varied between countries in both kind weight. The countries
mentioned achieved rapid economic growth, however, have one factor in common: namely, the important
role of their educational institutions. Further, it should be noted that the educational system of such
countries were modernized ones intentionally and strongly orientated toward technological progress and
economic development. Japanese modern education also had been developed. Japan now is approaching

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the economic level of developed Western countries, in advance of other Asian-African countries, despite
beginning modernization of society and industry later than the European countries, her overcrowded
population and her very scarce natural resources. Like Japan in Asia, Denmark in Europe is mentioned as
a country which overcame such disadvantages of underdeveloped status, overcrowded population and
scarcity of natural resources. A common basis for the economic development of Denmark and Japan has
been the introduction of a modern educational system, especially the spread of general elementary
education to farm families who constituted the major part of the labor force beginning period of
modernization. Thus, the role of education in achieving economic development in this country should be
attributed to the effort of the people who had restricted consumption and invested the money thus saved
in education. That the rate of educational expenditures to national income in Japan was among the
highest in the world substantiates this statement.

Key challenges to sustaining Japan’s improved economic performance

Japan has overcome many of the structural problems that hindered growth during the decade
following the collapse of the asset price bubble in the early 1990s, helping it to achieve a sustained
expansion led by domestic demand. Although robust economic growth is projected to continue through
2007, Japan must address a number of problems to sustain the expansion over the medium term. The five
key challenges are:

1. ensuring a definitive end to deflation under a new monetary policy framework;

2. achieving fiscal consolidation in the context of high public debt and rapid population ageing;
3. addressing rising income inequality and poverty while reducing government spending;
4. boosting productivity growth by upgrading the innovation system, focusing on the R&D
framework, product market competition and the education system; and
5. strengthening the integration of Japan in the world economy to benefit more fully form
globalization.

Role of Education in promoting social developments and in sustaining economic growth

Different nations have different cultures, beliefs, traditions and norms. These differences play a
big role in their developments which is affected by several factors such as economic, political and
cultural.

We are now an interconnected world. Education does not focus on the school community alone
but the larger communities of state, region, nation and whole world. With the expansion of Internet
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usage, new links have opened up huge sources of information and communication. Students benefit from
active involvement with other people directly relate to all multicultural and global applications especially
understanding and experiencing the global society and its interrelatedness and interdependence.

The Cultural Environment

Traditional Social Values and Success of China

Traditional Chinese society was composed of four estates of people: scholars, peasants, artisans
and merchants. The scholars were of the highest prestige. To them, to be a moral man was the most
important of all. It was especially important for the perfect gentleman who was characterized by
righteousness, observance of rites, and faithfulness. As morality was the most important element of a
human being, everyone should strive to be a moral man. When applied to education, the most important
function of education was to cultivate moral men. As Mencius said “Learning is nothing else but the rediscovery
of one’s virtuous conscience which has gone astray.”

Up to now, this Chinese culture still plays an important part in their society which has a great
influence in their educational system. Although knowledge was important, it was always preceded by
morality whenever the two were compared. The traditional goal of Chinese people was thereby moral-
political and so the trained virtuous governors. Because of the moral-political emphasis in achievement
and education, people’s attitude towards education had certain being self-disciplined and hardworking
persons with good characteristics such as loyalty, filial piety, and friendliness.

Japanese Culture and Education

The Confucian past continue to exercise considerable influence on Japan. They are also divided
into four estates. Samurai, peasants, artisans and merchants. The difference was that samurai ranked
first among the four estates instead of scholars. Samurais were privileged warriors. Because their society
was peaceful, they spent their leisure usefully in improving themselves. They were educated, they even
entered business to improve their financial situation.

As time went by, in official schools, among the various subjects taught, marital arts and ethnics
were of dominant significance. Students were taught martial arts, not only military skills. They learned
to develop the hierarchical and personal relationship with their master, which was a forestate of the
feudal lord-samurai relationship.

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 As compared to many developing countries today and even to the more advanced European
states of the period, Japan had an exceedingly high rate of literacy that’s why it enjoyed technological
progress. It is generally accepted that widespread literacy and education promote development.

Philippine Culture, and Education

As a people we are person-oriented, and relationships with others are a very important part of
our lives. Thus, we are capable of much caring and concern for others. On the other hand, in the extreme
– our person orientation leads us to lack of objectivity and a disregard for universal rules and procedures
so that everyone is treated equally. Our person orientation leads us to be concerned for people, yet unfair
to some.
We are also family oriented which gives us a sense of rootedness and security, both very essential
to any form of reaching out to others. It is both strength and a weakness. It develops in us an in-group
orientation that prevents us from reaching out beyond the family to the larger community and the nation.

Our flexibility, adaptability, and creativity are strengths that allow us to have the sense of joy
and humor that serves us well in difficult times. It makes life more pleasant, but serious problems do
need serious analysis. However, humor can also be destructive because some Filipinos who don’t think
wisely seem to neglect important matters or become lax and the “bahala na” attitude comes in. Our faith
in God and our religiosity are sources of strength and courage. But they also lead to an external
orientation that keeps us passive and dependent of forces outside ourselves.

There are contradictions in the many faces of the Filipino. We find pakikipagkapwa-tao and the
kanya-kanya mentality living comfortably together in us. We are other-oriented and capable of great
empathy; and yet we are self-serving, envious of others, and unconstructively critical of one another.

We also find Filipinos described alternatively as hardworking and lazy. Indeed we see that we
are capable of working along and hard at any job. However, our casual work ethic as well as our basic
passivity in the work setting also is apparent as we wait for orders and instructions rather than taking
the initiative.

The Many Faces of the Filipino

Strengths of the Filipino Character

1. Regard for other (Pakikipagkapwa-tao)
2. Family Orientation

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 3. Joy and Humor
4. Flexibility, Adaptability and Creativity
5. Hard work and Industry
6. Faith and Religiosity
7. Ability to survive

Weaknesses of the Filipino Character

1. Extreme Personalism
2. Extreme Family Centeredness
3. Lack of Discipline
4. Passivity and Lack of Initiative
5. Colonial Mentality
6. Kanya-kanya Syndrome
7. Lack of Self-Analysis and Self-Reflection

Roots of the Filipino Character

1. The Family and Home Environment
2. The Social Environment
3. Culture and Language
4. History
5. The Educational System
6. Religion
7. The Economic Environment
8. The Political Environment
9. Mass Media
10. Leadership and Role Models

Reading Assignment:
− E-Journals
• PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
• Password: powersearch

Exercises/written assignments
Answer the following questions intellectually

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 1. How does the system of a person affect his decision in making his/her life to become
successful?
2. What is the relevance of Moral Development in Education?

References/bibliography
http://www.Unu.edu/dialogue
http:/users.erols.com/zigbal/sep282.htm
www.geocities.com/ceteris_paribus_to2/i_zturk.htm

MODULE 5
CREATION OF ENABLING ENVIRONMENT, NATIONALLY AND
INTERNATIONALLY

LESSON 1
NATURE AND SCOPE OF ENABLING ENVIRONMENT

Learning Objectives
1. Specify the nature and scope of the enabling environment;
2. Describe the developmental process in sustained and effective manners, be it a policy,
program or project; and
3. Describe the conceptual and methodological framework for assessing the range of
conditions related to enabling environment.

Keywords and Phrases

• Iceberg Model
• Fluctuating Exchange Rates
• Inflation Rates
• Organizational Culture
• Technological Environment
• Sexual Harrassment
• Consumer Safety

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Introduction
In post-conflicting countries in particular, the creation of job is of the greatest development of a
nation’s success or failure. As for profit businesses are essential for creating jobs and provide goods and
services. Developed countries support the promotion of enabling environment, which is the expression
that encompasses government policies and laws that focus on creating and maintaining an overall
macroeconomic environment that brings together supplier and consumers, school and students,
government and schools in an inter-organization cooperation. It is also a set of interrelated conditions
such as political, cultural, socio-economic and technological aspects that create an impact on the
capacity of education and other developmental factors to engage in developmental process in a
sustainable and effective ways.
The government as well as the private organizations creates laws and policies that serve as the
mainstream and socially responsible sectors that stimulate local initiatives and draw inward
investments, both of which can have rapid and dramatic effects in employment and human resource
development.

An enabling environment encourages organizations to shoulder a share of the burden of national

development. It also persuades good managers, doctors, nurses and teachers to stay and serve their
country rather than to migrate once they graduated and skilled.

An enabling environment at national and international levels are essential for the information
society. Information and Communication Technology should be used as an important tool for good
governance.

A dynamic and enabling environment is a support for foreign direct investment, transfer of
technology and international compensation particularly in the areas of finance, debt and trade as well as
full and effective participation to developing countries in global decision-making which are vital
complements to national development efforts related to Information and Communication Technology.
Improving global affordable connectivity would contribute significantly to the effectiveness of these
development achievements.

The government can most effectively interact with civil society by creating the conditions that are
most conducive to transformation of the whole society. The central ingredients to the public sector
strategy are:

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 1. focusing the public sector on the unique functions that it must perform, such as creating the
enabling environment for the private sector, ensuring health and education are widely available
and spearheading the drive to eliminate poverty;

2. strengthening of the capabilities of the public sector, including the development of an effective
civil society, a restructuring of the public sector, to make more effective use of incentives and
market and market-like mechanism; and

3. matching both responsibilities and modes of operation to the capabilities of the state.

In conclusion, creating an enabling environment is possible but also not inevitable. We have
learned that creating an enabling environment is not just a technical adjustment but a transformation of
society. A society that promotes and maintains social organization and enhancing social capital that is
significant to successful development transformation. Moreover, it is important to note that much of our
progress is associated with successful development such as an open mind to new knowledge and
technology, eradication of poverty, increased opportunities of employment and openness to process that
may contribute to a more open democratic society.

The concern for nation-building and national development are the main objectives of every
country or government. We can attain nation-building and national development through quality and
excellent education. Education is a process of human capital formation and therefore, a factor in
economic growth and productivity. There are claims on what can education do for the individual and
society and among these claims are:

a. education is the great social and economic equalizer;

b. education is the key to economic and social opportunities;
c. education increases labor productivity by developing in the individual the required
knowledge, skills and attitudes for social and economic roles; and;
d. education is humanizing (Cortez, 1987).

It is significant to know and understand what development is, development is a positive

progress in peoples’ lives. It is also based on getting and giving people their needs for survival and life.

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 Further, development represents transformation of society, a movement from traditional
relations, traditional way of thinking, traditional ways of dealing with health and education, traditional
methods of production, to more modern ways. For instance, a characteristics of traditional societies are
the acceptance of the world as it is, the modern perspective recognizes change, it recognizes that we, as
individuals and societies can take actions that reduces infant mortality, extend lifespan and increases
production. Key to these changes is the movement to scientific ways of thinking, identifying critical
variables that affect outcomes, attempting to make inferences based on the available data.

Development enriches the life of individuals by widening their horizons and reducing their sense
of isolation. It reduced the afflictions brought on by disease and poverty, not only increasing lifespan by
improving the vitality of life.
The government should utilize development strategy to facilitate the transformation of society in
identifying the barriers to, as well as potential catalysts for change. Approaching development from the
perspective of transforming society has profound implications not only for the government and aid
agencies can do, but how they can proceed and how they engage in participation and partnership.

The principle of the New Development Strategy takes as its core objective development, which is
the transformation of society. A transformation society is an integral part of a successful development
and can be seen in the increase of Gross Domestic Products (GDP) per capita. However, this is only part
of the story, and even this will not be achieved unless the country adopts a broader development focus. If
successful, the new development strategy will not only raise GDP per capita but also the living standards
of the people as evidenced by standards of health and literary.

Another factor is sustainable development. It is a pattern of resources used that aims to meet
human needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their
own needs.

The field of sustainable development can conceptually broken down into three constituent parts:

a. Environment sustainability. It is the process of making sure current procedures of interaction with
the environment are pursued with the idea of keeping the environment as primitive as naturally possible
based on ideal-seeking behavior. It also occurs when natural capital, the nature’s resources, is used up
faster than it can be filled out again. It requires that human activity only uses nature’s resources at a rate
at which they can be replaced naturally.

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 b. Economic sustainability. It refers to identified information, integration and participation to help
countries achieve development that recognizes the mutually reinforcing interdependent pillars, the
economic development, social development and environment protection. It emphasizes that in
sustainable development everyone is a user and provider of information. It stresses the need to change
from old sector-centered way of doing business to new approaches that involved cross-sector
coordination and the integration of environment and social concerns into all developmental processes.

c. Socio-political sustainability. It can be separated from cultural, ecological, economic, political and
spiritual environment in which it takes place. It is linked to development of peace, freedom, stability and
security both nationally and internationally.

According to Hasna, (2007) sustainability is a process which tells the development of all aspects
of human life affecting sustenance. It means resolving conflict between various competing goals and
involves the simultaneous pursuits of economic prosperity, environmental quality and social equity
popularly known a three dimensions which is the resultant vector being technology, hence it is a
continually involving process.

The fundamental prerequisite for achieving sustainable development is the public participation
in formulation of policy, programs, projects and decision-making related to nation building and national
development.

Policies on environment protection, economic development and social development should be

strictly implemented by the government to preserve our natural resources, hence prevent natural
disasters, reduce pollution, and thus result to economic progress.

Types of Enabling Environment

Enabling Environment for Civic Engagement. It is a set of conditions often inter-related with the
impact of which is on the capacity of all citizens and civil society organizations to engage in
development processes in a sustained and effective manner, whether at the policy, program, or
project level. It includes legal, regulatory and policy frameworks and political, socio-cultural and
economic factors. Civil Society Organizations are important factors in building necessary social
consensus for economic reforms and long term development, in promoting effective governance

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 by fostering transparency and accountability of public institutions and in efforts to fight
inequality and exclusion.

Promotion of environments for Civic engagements are through:

1. The Participation and Civic Engagement (PCE) group

World Bank has developed and piloted tools that feed into upstream analytical work which seeks
to deepen the understanding of constraints and opportunities to effective civic engagement at the
country level. The analysis is designed to:
a. provide a conceptual and methodological framework for assessing the range of
conditions impacting civic engagement; and,
b. to guide Bank country teams in identifying priorities and developing strategies for
promoting effective civic engagement.
2. The improvement of the Business Enabling Environment

The objective of the Business Enabling environment is to promote reforms that support private
sector development. The Business Organization aim is to provide advisory services to clients in the
public as well as the private sectors in developing countries and support the World Bank operational
units with their reform efforts.

Depending on the specific priorities and needs of the local private sector, they target the most
critical areas affecting local businesses such as burdensome business regulations, and bring small
businesses into the public-private dialogue.

The aim is to be a knowledge center in the area of implementing business environment reforms.
They collect, summarize, and analyze various data on the successes and failures of business environment
reform efforts, and develop practical guides for designing and implementing these reforms. They are
currently focusing on business registration, business licensing, business inspections, municipal
simplification, corporate tax administration, export/import procedures, building the capacity of business
membership organizations, and alternative dispute resolution.

3. The Enabling Environment for Social Development

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 Social development is inseparable from the cultural, ecological, economic, political and
spiritual environment in which it takes place. Social development is linked to the development of peace,
freedom, stability and security, both nationally and internationally. To promote social development
requires an orientation of values, objectives and priorities towards the well-being of all and the
strengthening and promotion of conducive institutions and policies. Human dignity, all human rights
and fundamental freedom, equality, equity and social justice constitute the fundamental values of all
societies. The pursuit, promotion and protection of these values, among others, provides the basic
legitimacy of all institutions and all exercise of authority promotes an environment in which human
beings are at the centre of concern for sustainable development. They are entitled to a healthy and
productive life in harmony with nature.

The ultimate goal of social development is to improve and enhance the quality of life of all people.
It requires democratic institutions, respect for all human rights and fundamental freedom, increased and
equal economic opportunities, the rule of law, the promotion of respect for cultural; diversity and the
rights of persons belonging to minorities, and an active involvement of civil society. Empowerment and
participation are essential for democracy, harmony and social development. All members of society
should have the opportunity and be able to exercise the right and responsibility to take an active part in
the affairs of the community in which they live. Gender equality and equity and the full participation of
women in all economic, social and political activities are essential. The obstacles that have limited the
access of women to decision-making, education, health-care services and productive employment must
be eliminated and an equitable partnership between men and women established, involving men’s full
responsibility in family life. It is necessary to change the prevailing social paradigm of gender to usher in
a new generation of women and men working together to create a more humane world order.

4. The Enabling Environment for Economic Development

The economies and societies of the world are becoming increasingly interdependent. Trade and
capital flows, migrations, scientific and technological innovations, communications and cultural
exchanges are shaping the global community. The same global community is threatened by
environmental degradation, severe food crisis, epidemics, all forms of racial discrimination; various forms
of intolerance, violence and criminality and the risk of losing richness of cultural diversity. Government
recognizes that its responses to changing circumstances and their desires to achieve sustainable
development and social progress will require increased solidarity, expressed through appropriate
multilateral programs and strengthened international cooperation. Such cooperation is particularly

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crucial to ensure that countries in need of assistance such as those in Africa and the least developed
countries can benefit from the process of globalization.

Economic activities, through which individuals express their initiative and creativity and which
enhance the wealth of the communities, are fundamental bases for social progress. But social progress
will not be realized simply through the free interaction of market forces. Public policies are necessary to
correct market failures, to complement market mechanisms, to maintain social stability and to create a
national and international economic environment that promotes sustainable growth on a global scale.
Such growth should promote equity and social justice, tolerance, responsibility and involvement.

A favorable national and international economic environment is achieved through:

a. the promotion of mutually reinforcing, broad-based, sustained economic growth and sustainable
development on global scale, as well as growth in production, a non-discriminatory and multi-
lateral rule-based international trading system, employment and incomes, as a basis for social
and economic developments, requires the following actions;

b. the establishment of an open, equitable, cooperative and mutually beneficial international

economic development; and,

c. implementation of sound and stable macroeconomic and sectoral policies that encourage broad-
based, sustained economic growth and development that is sustainable and equitable, that
generate jobs, and that are geared towards eradicating poverty and reducing social and economic
inequalities and exclusion.

5. The Enabling Community Empowerment

The local authority should be open and should run a bank account to serve the needs of a village
and provide political and administrative environment for community empowerment.

The environment includes a whole range of factors, from laws of the country enacted by decree of
legislation, through the rules and regulations of various units and departments. At national, regional and
local levels and the practices of civil servants based on attitudes and various interpretations of the laws

132
and regulations. The environment also includes the policies and practices of relevant non-government
organizations and private sector businesses which in turn, also affect the government factors.
The task of the mobilizers is to stimulate and encourage community activities that will help the
community develop itself, to become empowered. Those mobilizing interventions, however, can not be
applied in a vacuum because every community exists within the political and administrative
environment.

Reading Assignment:
− E-Journals
• PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
• Password: powersearch

Exercises/written assignments
a. Define the following terms:

1. Enabling environment
2. Education
3. Development
4. Transformation of society
5. Sustainable development

b. How would you promote an enabling environment?

c. Cite some government policies on:

1. Policy on education
2. Policy on employment
3. Policy on alleviation of poverty
4. Policy on Manpower Development

d. Discuss the role of education in promoting human development.

References/bibliography
Bartle, Phil. Ph.D. Political and Administrative Factors Affecting Self-Reliance, http:// www.ifc.org/bee Retrieved
08-25-2008.
Carague, Guillermo, N., 2001 The Alternative Path (Effective People Governance) A Selection of Articles and
Speeches, Published by Commission on Audit.

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Cortez, Josefina R., 1987. Education and National Development: The Philippine Experience and Future Possibilities,
Publishers’ Printing Press,
Hasna A.M. 2007. Dimensions of Sustainability. Journal of Engineering for Sustainable Development: Energy,
Environment, and Health 2 (1) 47 – 57.
United Nations. 1987. Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, General Assembly
Resolution 42/187, 11 December, 1987. Retrieved: 04-12-2007.

LESSON 2
CREATING INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

Learning Objectives
1. Participate in community activities that will help the community to become
empowered;
2. Discuss the importance of the different enabling environment to the life of an
individual in particular and society in general; and,
3. Promote enabling environment based on a people-oriented approach to sustain
development.

Keywords and Phrases

• Economic Development
• Good Governance
• Enabling Environment
• External Development
• Human Resource Management
• Organizational Climate
• Sustainable Development
• Global Economic Development
• Internal Environment
• Global Consumer Safety
• Poverty Eradication

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Introduction
The organization’s resources, its capabilities and competencies make up the internal
environment of an organization. The internal environment plays a crucial role in the strategic
management process, which is the development of infrastructure that supports the delivery of technology
and the effectiveness of its human resources by designing a comprehensive human resource development
system for effective performance. It is a direct reflection of what the organization can do in the event of a
business related exigency.

An organization exists in an external and an internal environment. It is imperative for the

organization to assess the situation prevailing in its external environment. An internal environment
could not exist without the help of the external environment.

a. Building and Human Development Policies

The budget of a nation is the most important economic policy instrument of the government. It
reflects the value of the country and is a powerful tool for the transformation of societies. The
government allocates a certain budget for the infrastructure and for human resources development.

The issue of improving the targeted public expenditure is crucial to the sustainable development
of societies. The conventional classification of expenditure into capital construction is a primary concern
of the government. The purchase of a physical asset like a school building is regarded as capital
accumulation which contributes to growth and development.

The Bureau of Elementary Education follows a definite method and has a fixed standard of
acquiring school sites and constructing school buildings. The school buildings should be properly
planned, intelligently selected and constructed based on the prescribed rules and regulations of the
Department of Public Highways. The equipment should be well-selected and economically purchased by
the school administrator. It is worth doing a good job of teaching in a well-ventilated building and has
an adequate learning equipment for effective instruction and great amount of learning among students.

The selection of school site is an administrative as well as a supervisory function of the

government. In selecting a school site, the school organization, size of enrolment, location, the
immediate surrounding, and drainage should be taken into considerations.

The Philippine School buildings are planned, maintained and operated to provide total setting
for learning. The school building should be approved by the Bureau of Public School based on the set
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standards. The School Building Program provides for the construction of classrooms, science laboratories
and multipurpose workshops and the provision of equipment for instruction for selected elementary and
secondary schools within the country and in remote and rural areas.

Factors to be Considered in the Construction of School Building

1. Location. The school should be located and constructed in the quietest place free from noise.
2. Health. Students’ health should be the primary consideration by the school administrator in the
construction of school building.
3. Safety. The safety of the student is of great importance in building a school.
4. Lighting. Proper lighting in the classroom is fundamental in the operation of the school.
Windows should be one-fifth of the floor and should not be less than three-and-a-half- feet from
the floor.

It is therefore, important for the school officials to have a school plan which are designed for the
community-centered education that could provide quality and high level of instructions (Administration
Control of School, Plan Ground and Equipment, Bureau of Elementary Education).

Human Development Policy

The basic purpose of human development is to widen people’s choices so that they can develop
their potential to the fullest and lead productive and creative lives according to their needs and interests.
Fundamentally, to widen these choices is the process of building human capabilities and skills that is
having a healthy life, having access to resources needed for a decent standard of living and having the
ability to participate in the life of the community thus building better lives and finding solutions to
national and global development.

Capacity Building: Human Resources Development and Training Policies

1. Each person should have the opportunity to acquire the necessary skills and knowledge in
order to understand, participate actively in the community projects and activities.
2. Literacy and universal primary education are the key factors for building a fully inclusive
Information Society, paying particular attention to the special needs of girls and women.
3. The use of Information and Communication Technology in all stages of education, training
and human resource development should be promoted, taking into account the special needs
of persons with disabilities and disadvantaged groups.
4. Continuous and adult education, retraining, life-long learning, distance-learning and other
special services such as employability and ICT training.
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 5. To achieve a sustainable development of the Information Society, national capability in ICT
research and development should be enhanced.
6. The attainment of the shared aspiration, in particular for developing countries and countries
with economies of the Information Society and their positive integration into the into the
knowledge economy, depend largely on increased capacity building in the areas of education,
technology know-how and access to information which are the major factors in determining
development and competitiveness, http://www.itu.int/wsis/outcome/booblet/Retrieved 8-13-
08/declaration-Bhtml.

An enabling environment at national and international levels is essential for the Information
Society. ITCs should be used as an important tool for good governance.

The development of human resource strategy is an important instrument to enhance human

potentials and skills for national capital investments. Human resource development strategy includes
training in necessary participatory skills, to support the advocacy and encouragement of the enabling
environment.

The main issues of human resource development strategy are the following:

1. Possibly, the most outstanding issue for human resource strategy in the next ten (10) years in
developing countries is how to effectively reach the poor to improve their human capital and
quality of life. The choice is largely between direct human resource program in health and
education or indirect approaches via income generations and employment creation. The
criteria to be considered include political factors, including the probability that direct
programs will actually reach their intended targets, resources availability and the probability
of success given the low levels of existing human capitals.

2. Another major issue for human resource development strategy is sectoral emphasis of
programs particularly education and manpower programs.

President Ramos’ programs of the Philippines 2000 is the improvement of the economic well-
being of Filipinos residing in the countryside (Carague, 2001).

Modern education curricula are often accused of being irrelevant to rural children,
merely encouraging those who do survive in the system to become migrants to rural areas. On

137
 the other hand, separate curricula for rural schools would certainly be interpreted as offering a
second class education and would close off the options of rural children for the more highly paid
modern sectors jobs. Perhaps the principal education requirement in rural areas is not special
curricula but better standards of basic education, especially in primary level. Human resource
development for rural population, the poor and the informal sector is attainable, but only with
careful planning and a strong measure of political commitment.
3. The role of participation and of beneficiary organizations in the implementation of human
resource development. The political weakness of the poor, combined with the poor quality of
their human capital, demands political interventions if human resource development programs
are to succeed. In rare case this may be achieved with the assistance of an organization or
beneficiary but in most cases a measure of self-help will be necessary. Group actions may
counteract the weakness of individuals and raise their influence vis-à-vis other groups.

It is further discussed that development can only be sustained to the extent that it is
human-centered. It must be geared to the needs of the people which can be successfully
achieved by ensuring their full and unhindered participation.

Equitable Distribution of the Benefits of Growth

The promotion of mutually reinforcing, broad-based, sustained economic growth and sustainable
development on a global scale, as well as growth in production a non-discriminatory and multilateral
ruled-based international trading system, employment and incomes, as a basis for social development
require the following action:

1. Promoting the establishment of an open, equitable, cooperative and mutually beneficial

international economic environment.

2. Implementing sound and stable macroeconomic and sectoral policies that encourage broad-
based, sustained economic growth and development that is sustainable and equitable, that
generate jobs, and that are geared towards eradicating poverty and reducing social and
economic inequities and exclusion.

3. Promoting enterprise, productive investment and expanded access to open and dynamic
markets in the context of an open equitable, secure, non-discriminatory, predictable,
transparent and multilateral rule-based international trading system, and to technologies for

138
 all people, particularly those living the poverty and the disadvantaged, as well as for the least
developed countries.

4. Increasing food production, through the sustainable development of the agricultural sector
and improvement of market opportunities and improving access to food by low-income
people in developing countries, as a means of alleviating poverty, eliminating malnutrition
and raising their standard of living.

To ensure that the benefits of global economic growth are equitably distributed among countries
the following actions are essential:

1. Continuing efforts to alleviate the onerous debt and debt-service burdens connected with
the various types of debt of many developing countries, on the basis of an equitable and
durable approach and where appropriate, addressing the full stock of debt of the poorest
and most indebted developing countries as a matter of priority, reducing trade barriers and
promoting expanded access by all countries to markets, in the context of an open equitable,
secure, non-discriminatory, predictable, transparent and multilateral rule-based
international trading system, as well as to productive investment, technologies and know-
how.

2. Strengthening and improving technical and financial assistance to developing countries to

promote sustainable development and overcome hindrances to their full and effective
participation in the world economy.

3. Changing unsustainable consumption and production patterns, taking into account that the
major cause of the continued deterioration of the global environment is the unsustainable
pattern of consumption and production in industrialized countries, which is a matter of
grave concern, aggravating poverty and imbalances.

4. Elaborating policies to enable developing countries to take advantage of expanded

international trading opportunities in the context of the full implementation of the Final Act
of Uruguay Round of multilateral trade negotiations; and assisting countries particularly in
Africa, that are not currently in a position to benefit fully from the liberalization of the world
economy(hrtp://www.scn.org/cmp/modules/en-en.htm).

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* Promote Effective Governance

Promote effective governance through:

1. establishment of policies on facilities necessary for economic growth and development;

2. formulation of effective educational policies and objectives to achieve the education targets;

3. support economic reforms to improve the functioning of commodity markets and commodity
diversification efforts through appropriate mechanisms, bilateral and multilateral financing
and technical cooperation;

4. support institutions, programs and systems to disseminate practical information to promote

social progress;

5. enact rules and regulations and creating a moral and ethical climate that prevents all forms of
corruption and exploitation of individuals, families and groups; and

6. strengthen the capacities and opportunities of all people, especially those who are
disadvantaged or vulnerable, to enhance their own economic and social development, to
establish and maintain organizations representing their interests and to be involved in the
planning and implementation of government policies and programs by which they will be
directly affected.

*Direct Delivery of Social and Economic Services

Social services are an integral part of; and positively contribute to social and economic
development. The primary responsibility for ensuring provision of and universal access to social
services rests with government.

It is the responsibility of the State to promote and protect all human rights such as civil,
political, social, and economic. Social services contribute to realize the objectives of social
development, empowerment of people in the context of a people-centered development. Social
services further contribute to the realization of all human rights.

The World Bank’s interest and support related to social accountability initiatives derive
from its core goals of promoting poverty reduction and effective and sustainable development

140
 There are three (3) main arguments underlying the importance of social accountability,
namely:
a. Governance
b. Increased development effectiveness
c. Empowerment

How does social accountability work? Social accountability mechanisms refer to a broad
range of actions that the citizens, communities and civil society organizations can use to hold
government officials accountable. These include citizen participation in public policy making,
participatory budgeting, public expenditures tracking, citizen monitoring of public service
delivery and citizen advising boards. Mechanisms that involve participation of citizens in the
process of managing public resources have proved to be particularly effecting and are the
cornerstone of the participation and civil engagement group
(http://web.worldbank.org/Website/External/Topic/EXTSOCIAL/development/EXTPCENG/O,
contentMDK;Retrieved 03-07-09).

In all western countries, government has become the largest single actor in the economy
and the principal provider of the wide range of social services that are the hallmark of the welfare
state.

In the Philippines, the government implements various taxes to increase government

revenues to fund social and economic programs that will benefit the masses.

Moreover, there are proposed solutions such as raising taxes, borrowing more or slashing
spending to solve the fiscal imbalance of the country’s economy. Further, innovation approaches
to both the government and the delivery of services that citizens have come to expect and the
majority of voters believe that the modern, civilized society ought to provide (World Summit for
Social Development, Copenhagen, March 6 – 12 March, 1995).

Social services are also clearly linked to the development of peace, freedom, stability and
security both nationally and internationally. To promote social development requires an
orientation of values, objectives and priorities toward the well-being of all and the strengthening
and promotion of conducive institutions and policies, human dignity, all human rights and
fundamental freedoms, equality, equity and social justice constitute the fundamental values of all

141
 societies. The pursuit, promotion and protection of these values, among others, provide the basic
legitimacy of all institutions and all exercises of authority and promote and environment in
which human beings are at the centre of concern for sustainable development. They are entitled
to a healthy and productive life in harmony with nature
(http://www.earthsummit2002.org/wesd/3.html,Retrieved 03-07-09).

On the other hand, economies and societies of the world are becoming increasingly
interdependent. Trade and capitals flow, migration, scientific and technological innovations,
communications and cultural exchanges are shaping the global community.

In the Philippines, there are organizations and institutions that are responsible for social
and economic development of its people to name a few are:

1. Department of Social Welfare Development: (DSWD): It develops quality assurance, measures and
regulates the implementation of social welfare and development policies, rules and regulations through
its registration, licensing, and accreditation functions. Republic Act No. 6972 Functions of the DSWD:

a. formulates the criteria for selection, qualifications, training and accreditation of barangay day-care
workers and the standard implementation of the total development and protection of children
program;
b. coordinates activities of non-government organization with the day-care workers and other social
services may be utilized for the attainment of the programs goals; and
c. protects and assists abused, neglected or exploited children and secure proper government
assistance for said children (http://dswd.gov.ph/articledetails.php?id=836 Retrieved 03-10-09).

2. Department of Education (DepEd): It is responsible for the management or upkeep of the

Philippine system of basic education. It is a chief formulator of Philippine educational policy and is
responsible for the Philippine primary and secondary school system.

3. Commission on Higher Education (CHED): Republic Act No 7722, an Act creating the
Commission on Higher Education in 1994. The role of the CHED is to oversees both public and private
higher educational institutions as well as the degree programs in all public and private educational
institutions. The functions are to promote quality education, take appropriate steps to ensure and
protect academic advancement of learning and research, the development of responsible and effective
leadership, the education of high level professionals and the enrichment of historical and heritage.

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 4. National Economic Development Authority (NEDA): It is the country's independent economic
development and planning agency. It is the lead negotiator for institutional trade in services.

5. Philippine Ministry of the Sister of Social Service: Council for Health Development a national
organization of non-government community-based health program, institutions, and individuals serving
the poor and marginalized segments of Philippine society.

6. Center for Alternative Development Initiatives: A Civil Society Organization (CSO) dedicated to
the study, encouragement and implementation of sustainable development.

7. Children Rehabilitation Center: A non-government institution serving children and families who
are victims of state violence.

8. Foundation for a Sustainable Society, Inc.: A Philippine NGO managed foundation that seeks to
demonstrate the link between external debt reduction and sustainable development.

9. Health Action Information Network: A non-profit, non-government organization which is

involved in health education and research mainly works with community-based organization involved in
health and development.

10. Philippine Sustainable Development Network Foundation Inc. (PSDN): A non-stock, non-profit
corporation, composed of organizations which are actively involved in the pursuit of sustainable
development.

11. Technical Education and Skills Development Authority (TESDA):

It is one of the agencies under the Philippine Department of Labor and Employment and the main
function is to manage technical education and skills development in the country.

12. Philippine Overseas Employment Administration (POEA) It is a government agency which is

responsible for optimizing the benefits of the country’s overseas employment program. It was created in
1982 through the Executive Order 797 to promote and to monitor the overseas employment of Filipino
workers.

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 A creation of internal environment is conducive to initiate, expand and sustain quality assurance
necessary to institutionalize quality assurance. Such internal enabling environment includes the
following elements:

1. Policy: It is a written policy that support quality through clear, explicit and communicated
directions/directives and provide support, guidance and reinforcement for quality assurance as
an integral part of the organization;
2. Leadership: The leaders who work directly and openly to improve quality by setting priorities,
modeling core values, promoting a learning atmosphere, acting on recommendations, advocating
for supportive policies and allocating resources for quality assurance;

3. Core Values: An organizational values are articulated, promoted and practiced. These values
emphasize quality care, ongoing learning, and continuous improvement of services; and

4. Resources; A sufficient allocation of human and material resources for conducting, supporting
and maintaining quality assurance activities.

The institutionalization of quality assurance requires a clear delineation of roles and responsibilities
and accountabilities for the implementation of quality assurance activities. The specific organizational
structure for implementing quality assurance can vary from one organization to another and will evolve
over time as the quality assurance program activities.

There is no correct or best structure for quality assurance. An effective structure for quality
assurance may be combined many forms such as quality assurance unit, and quality improvement teams
and facilities.

It can be observed that quality assurance project has more than one effective way to organize. And
this reflects both differences in the evolution of quality assurance within an organization and the
political, technical and economic environment in which the organization operates. Organizations in
more centralized environment will structure quality assurance differently than those who operate in a
more decentralized environment. Technological development and economic status will also derive
decisions about how quality assurance programs are organized.

Whatever form the quality structure takes, institutionalization needs mechanisms to ensure
oversight, coordination, delegation of roles and responsibilities and accountabilities.

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 1. Oversight: Any description of structure must address where the responsibility for
oversight of quality assurance activities lie. This oversight includes both leadership
support (developing strategic direction, setting priorities, follow-up, monitoring of
progress) and technical oversight of quality assurance activities;

2. Coordination: Quality assurance implies that it will be implemented in a variety of

setting, circumstances and levels of an organization. The structure must also define how
the different components and levels of a quality assurance program fit together and how
they will be coordinated and synchronized;

3. Roles and Responsibilities: The structure for quality assurance is manifested on how the
roles and responsibilities for performing quality assurance activities are divided and/or
delegated within the organization. The roles and responsibilities can be reflected in
routine job descriptions of the individuals; and

4. Accountability: With the maturity of a quality assurance programs, every individual

becomes accountable for results and responsible for quality. However, in the early stages
of quality assurance development, it may be useful to clearly outline the specific duties,
lines of reporting, and accountability of results, to ensure that quality assurance
activities are duly implemented and that there is necessary time allocated for staff
participation in quality assurance.

This structure of quality assurance activities may be coordinated in taking shape and focus on the

Reading Assignment:
− E-Journals
• PUP website: infotrac.galegroup.com/itweb/pup
• Password: powersearch

Exercises/written assignments
Answer the following questions:

1. What are the elements that composed the organization’s internal environment?
Discuss each.
2. Give some factors to reduce poverty in the country. Explain each

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 3. Site some factors that affect the domestic resource mobilization, aid and debt relief
of people in a certain organization.
4. What are the opportunities/aspects of human resource development in the field of
education?
5. State the objectives of external environment? Explain each

References/bibliography
Bartle, Phil. Ph.D. Political and Administrative Factors Affecting Self-Reliance, http:// www.ifc.org/bee Retrieved
08-25-2008.
Carague, Guillermo, N., 2001 The Alternative Path (Effective People Governance) A Selection of Articles and Speeches,
Published by Commission on Audit.
Cortez, Josefina R., 1987. Education and National Development: The Philippine Experience and Future Possibilities,
Publishers’ Printing Press,
Hasna A.M. 2007. Dimensions of Sustainability. Journal of Engineering for Sustainable Development: Energy,
Environment, and Health 2 (1) 47 – 57.
United Nations. 1987. Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, General Assembly
Resolution 42/187, 11 December, 1987. Retrieved: 04-12-2007.

MODULE 6
OPPOTURNITIES AND CHALLENGES OF GLOBALIZATION

LESSON 1
SOCIAL AND ECONOMIC IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION

Learning Objectives
1. Discuss the modern concept of globalization;
2. State with the historical developments of globalization; and
3. Identify the various impact of globalization to the social and economic milieu.

Keywords and Phrases

• Exploration
• Cultural exchange
• Colonization

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 • Enculturation
• Circular Causation
• Concept
• Process
• Transcendence
• Transference
• Transformation

Introduction
Globalization, the growing integration of economies and societies around the world – has been
one of the most hotly-debated topics in the local and international scenes over the past few years. Rapid
growth and poverty reduction in China, India, and other countries that were poor 20 years ago, has been
a positive aspect of globalization. But globalization has also generated significant various oppositions
over concerns that it has increased in equality and environmental degradation.

Globalization as a Concept and Process

Globalization (globalization) in its literal sense is the process of transformation of local or regional
phenomena into global ones. It can be described as a process by which the people of the world are unified
into a single society and function together. It is a process of interaction and integration among the
people, companies, and governments of different nations, a process driven by international trade and
investment and aided by information technology. This process has effects on the environment, on culture,
on political systems, on economic development and prosperity, and on human physical well-being in
societies around the world.

Globalization is not new, though. For thousands of years, people—and, later, corporations—
have been buying from and selling each other in lands at great distances, such as through the famed Silk
Road across Central Asia that connected China and Europe during the Middle Ages. Likewise, for
centuries, people and corporations have invested in enterprises in other countries. In fact, many of the
features of the current wave of globalization are similar to those prevailing before the outbreak of the
First World War in 1914.

But policy and technological developments of the past few decades have spurred increases in
cross-border trade, investment, and migration so large that many observers believe the world has entered

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a qualitatively new phase in its economic development. Since 1950, for example, the volume of world
trade has increased by 20 times, and from just 1997 to 1999 flows of foreign investment nearly doubled,
from $468 billion to $827 billion. Distinguishing this current wave of globalization from earlier ones,
author Thomas Friedman has said that today globalization is “farther, faster, cheaper, and deeper.”

This current wave of globalization has been driven by policies that have opened economies
domestically and internationally. In the years since the Second World War, and especially during the
past two decades, many governments have adopted free-market economic systems, vastly increasing their
own productive potential and creating myriad new opportunities for international trade and investment.
Governments also have negotiated dramatic reductions in barriers to commerce and have established
international agreements to promote trade in goods, services, and investment. Taking advantage of new
opportunities in foreign markets, corporations have built foreign factories and established production
and marketing arrangements with foreign partners. A defining feature of globalization, therefore, is an
international industrial and financial business structure.

Technology has been the other principal driver of globalization. Advances in information
technology, in particular, have dramatically transformed economic life. Information technologies have
given all sorts of individual economic actors—consumers, investors, businesses—valuable new tools for
identifying and pursuing economic opportunities, including faster and more informed analyses of
economic trends around the world, easy transfers of assets, and collaboration with far-flung partners.

Globalization is deeply controversial, however, proponents of globalization argue that it allows

poor countries and their citizens to develop economically and raise their standards of living, while
opponents of globalization claim that the creation of an unfettered international free market has
benefited multinational corporations in the Western world at the expense of local enterprises, local
cultures, and common people. Resistance to globalization has therefore taken shape both at a popular
and at a governmental level as people and governments try to manage the flow of capital, labor, goods,
and ideas that constitute the current wave of globalization.

History of Globalization

The term "globalization" has been used by economists since the 1980s although it was used in
social sciences in the 1960s; however, its concepts did not become popular until the latter half of the
1980s and 1990s. The earliest written theoretical concepts of globalization were penned by an American
entrepreneur-turned-minister Charles Taze Russell who coined the term 'corporate giants' in 1897.

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 Globalization is viewed as a centuries long process, tracking the expansion of human population
and the growth of civilization, that has accelerated dramatically in the past 50 years. Early forms of
globalization existed during the Roman Empire, the Parthian empire, and the Han Dynasty, when the
Silk Road started in China, reached the boundaries of the Parthian empire, and continued onwards
towards Rome.

The Islamic Golden Age is also an example, when Muslim traders and explorers established an
early global economy across the Old World resulting in a globalization of crops, trade, knowledge and
technology; and later during the Mongol Empire, when there was greater integration along the Silk Road.
Globalization in a wider context began shortly before the turn of the 16th century, with two Kingdoms of
the Iberian Peninsula - the Kingdom of Portugal and the Kingdom of Castile.

Portugal's global explorations in the 16th century, especially, linked continents, economies and
cultures to a massive extent. Portugal's exploration and trade with most of the coast of Africa, Eastern
South America, and Southern and Eastern Asia, was the first major trade based form of globalization. A
wave of global trade, colonization, and enculturation reached all corners of the world.
Global integration continued through the expansion of European trade in the 16th and 17th
centuries, when the Portuguese and Spanish Empires colonized the Americas, followed eventually by
France and England. Globalization has had a tremendous impact on cultures, particularly indigenous
cultures, around the world. In the 15th century, Portugal's Company of Guinea was one of the first
chartered commercial companies established by Europeans in other continent during the Age of
Discovery, whose task was to deal with the spices and to fix the prices of the goods.

In the 17th century, globalization became a business phenomenon when the British East India
Company (founded in 1600), which is often described as the first multinational corporation, was
established, as well as the Dutch East India Company (founded in 1602) and the Portuguese East India
Company (founded in 1628). Because of the high risks involved with international trade, the British East
India Company became the first company in the world to share risk and enable joint ownership of
companies through the issuance of shares of stock: an important driver for globalization.

Globalization was achieved by the British Empire (the largest empire in history) due to its sheer
size and power. British ideals and culture were imposed on other nations during this period.

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 The 19th century is sometimes called "The First Era of Globalization." It was a period
characterized by rapid growth in international trade and investment between the European imperial
powers, their colonies, and, later, the United States.

It was in this period that areas of sub-saharan Africa and the Island Pacific were incorporated
into the world system. The "First Era of Globalization" began to break down at the beginning of the 20th
century with the First World War The "First Era of Globalization" later collapsed during the gold
standard crisis in the late 1920s and early 1930s.

Globalization, since World War II, is largely the result of planning by politicians to breakdown
borders hampering trade to increase prosperity and interdependence thereby decreasing the chance of
future war. Their work led to the Bretton Woods conference, an agreement by the world's leading
politicians to lay down the framework for international commerce and finance, and the founding of
several international institutions intended to oversee the processes of globalization.

These institutions include the International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (the
World Bank), and the International Monetary Fund. Globalization has been facilitated by advances in
technology which have reduced the costs of trade, and trade negotiation rounds, originally under the
auspices of the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade (GATT), which led to a series of agreements to
remove restrictions on free trade.
Since World War II, barriers to international trade have been considerably lowered through
international agreements - GATT. Particular initiatives carried out as a result of GATT and the World
Trade Organization (WTO), for which GATT is the foundation, has included:

• Promotion of free trade:

o Reduction or elimination of tariffs; creation of free trade zones with small or no tariffs
o Reduction transportation costs, especially resulting from development of
containerization for ocean shipping.
o Reduction or elimination of capital controls
o Reduction, elimination, or harmonization of subsidies for local businesses
o Creation of subsidies for global corporations
o Harmonization of intellectual property laws across the majority of states, with more
restrictions.

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 o Supranational recognition of intellectual property restrictions (e.g. patents granted by
China would be recognized in the United States)

Cultural globalization, driven by communication technology and the worldwide marketing of

Western cultural industries, was understood at first as a process of homogenization, as the global
domination of American culture at the expense of traditional diversity. However, a contrasting trend
soon became evident in the emergence of movements protesting against globalization and giving new
momentum to the defense of local uniqueness, individuality, and identity, but largely without success.

The Uruguay Round (1986 to 1994) led to a treaty to create the WTO to mediate trade disputes
and set up a uniform platform of trading. Other bilateral and multilateral trade agreements, including
sections of Europe's Maastricht Treaty and the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) have
also been signed in pursuit of the goal of reducing tariffs and barriers to trade.

Global conflicts, such as the 9/11 terrorist attacks on the United States of America, is interrelated
with globalization because it was primary source of the "war on terror", which had started the steady
increase of the prices of oil and gas, due to the fact that most OPEC member countries were in the
Arabian Peninsula.
World exports rose from 8.5% of gross world product in 1970 to 16.1% of gross world product in
2001.

Social and Economic Impacts of Globalization

Globalization has various aspects which affect the world in several different ways such as:

• Economic - realization of a global common market, based on the freedom of exchange of

goods and capital. The interconnectedness of these markets, however meant that an
economic collapse in any one given country could not be contained.
• Social (International cultural exchange) - increased circulation by people of all nations with
fewer restrictions.
o Spreading of multiculturalism, and better individual access to cultural diversity
(e.g. through the export of Hollywood and Bollywood movies). Some consider such
"imported" culture a danger, since it may supplant the local culture, causing
reduction in diversity or even assimilation. Others consider multiculturalism to
promote peace and understanding between peoples.
o Greater international travel and tourism

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 o Greater immigration, including illegal immigration
o Spread of local consumer products (e.g. food) to other countries (often adapted to
their culture).
o Worldwide fads and pop culture such as Pokémon, Sudoku, Numa Numa,
Origami, Idol series, YouTube, Orkut, Facebook, and MySpace. Accessible to those
who have Internet or Television, leaving out a substantial segment of the Earth's
population.
o Worldwide sporting events such as FIFA World Cup and the Olympic Games.
o Incorporation of multinational corporations in to new media. As the sponsors of
the All-Blacks rugby team, Adidas had created a parallel website with a
downloadable interactive rugby game for its fans to play and compete.

Whilst it is all too easy to look at the positive aspects of Globalization and the great benefits that
are apparent everywhere, there are also several negative occurrences that can only be the result of or
major motivating factors that inspire some corporations to globalize.

Beyond Dichotomous Accounts of Globalization

Certain dualities recur in the literature on this subject. In one widely influential distinction,
there are two primary forces at work in the rise of globalization: globalization from above, a process that
primarily affects the elites within and across national contexts, and globalization from below, a popular
process that primarily draws from the rank-and-file in civil society. This contrast highlights an important
political dynamic (and it makes for a handy, hopeful picture of struggle and resistance on a world scale)
but its widespread use obscures the ways in which these two trends are not entirely independent of one
another. For example, the groups from "above" and "below" tend to merge in certain nongovernmental
organizations; and the popular movements "from below" may still be perceived in certain local contexts
as an imposition "from above."

Still other dualities prevail: tensions between the global and the local; between economic and
cultural dimensions of globalization; between globalization viewed as a trend toward homogenization
around Western (or, even more narrowly, around American) norms and culture, and globalization
viewed as an era of increased contact between diverse cultures, leading to an increase in hybridization
and novelty; and between the material and rhetorical effects of globalization -- or, as it might be put,
between globalization and "globalization." Finally, there is the distinction about whether globalization is
a "good thing" or not: Is globalization beneficial to the cause of economic growth, equality, and justice, or

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is it harmful? Does it promote cultural sharing, tolerance, and a cosmopolitan spirit, or does it yield only
the illusion of such understanding, a bland, consumerist appreciation, as in a Disney theme park, which
elides issues of conflict, difference, and asymmetries of power?

For us, none of these either/or capture the subtlety or difficulty of the issues at stake. Each
replicates an easy choice between polar alternatives, "good" and "bad" kinds of globalization, rather than a
conflicted situation of sustained tensions and difficult choices. A reconsideration of, and in many cases a
direct challenge to, these sorts of easy dichotomies will recur throughout this book. It is, in our view,
central to understanding globalization in all its complexity and ambiguity.

The Crucial Characteristics of Globalization

In light of these many debates, it could be extremely risky to advance a description of the
characteristics of globalization that most closely affect education, but these seem to include, at the very
least:

• in economic terms, a transition from Fordist to Post-Fordist forms of workplace organization; a rise in
internationalized advertising and consumption patterns; a reduction in barriers to the free flow of goods,
workers, and investments across national borders; and, correspondingly, new pressures on the roles of
worker and consumer in society;

• in political terms, a certain loss of nation-state sovereignty, or at least the erosion of national autonomy;
and, correspondingly, a weakening of the notion of the "citizen" as a unified and unifying concept, a
concept that can be characterized by precise roles, rights, obligations, and status (see Capella, in this
volume);

• in cultural terms, a tension between the ways in which globalization brings forth more standardization
and cultural homogeneity, while also bringing more fragmentation through the rise of locally oriented
movements. Benjamin Barber characterized this dichotomy in the title of his book, Jihad vs. McWorld;
however, a third theoretical alternative identifies a more conflicted and dialectical situation, with both
cultural homogeneity and cultural heterogeneity appearing simultaneously in the cultural landscape.
(Sometimes this merger, and dialectical tension, between the global and the local is termed "the glocal.")

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The Dilemmas of Globalization

Is globalization merely deleterious, or are there positive features associated with its practices and
dynamics? We have already tried to challenge such an easy frame of judgment. Two features that might
be termed "positive" are the globalization of democracy or, at least, a peculiar form of liberal democracy
(more a democracy of method than a democracy of content); and the prevalence and expansion of a belief
in "human rights" and the growth of organizations attempting to monitor and protect them. For those
fortunate enough to be living in certain sectors of society, globalization is associated with a higher
standard of living, not only in the availability of consumer goods, but in occasions for travel and for
enriching contact with other world cultures.

The most obvious "evils" of globalization are structural unemployment, the erosion of organized
labor as a political and economic force, social exclusion, and an increase in the gap between rich and poor
within nations and, especially, worldwide. Some people associate globalization with an increase in urban
insecurity due to growing urban violence; with the growing presence of extra-territorial, extra-state
movements that thwart international development and may pose serious threats to security, peace,
stability, and development (such as drug trafficking, mafias, merchants of weapons of mass destruction,
or terrorist organizations).
But is it possible to sort out the benefits from the evils? Indeed, are "benefits" from one
standpoint "evils" from the standpoint of others? In one sense, the framework of such judgments needs to
be not simply a matter of whether globalization is "really happening" or not, but of globalization in what
respects and on whose terms? A number of developing countries, such as China or Malaysia, have become
increasingly suspicious of globalization and have tried to find ways to constrain its effects on their
national way of life. Yet, at the same time they desire some of the benefits of participation in a global
economy and exchange of goods and information. A major question today is the extent to which societies
will be able to pick and choose the ways in which, and the degree to which, they can participate in a
global world; or whether, as with other Faustian bargains, there is no halfway alternative.

Similarly, both below and beyond the national level, there are clearly regional and traditional
movements for whom globalization is something to be resisted vigorously. The rise of some new social
movements and the role of local and international nongovernmental organizations exert an influence that
may be termed "counter-globalization." In some instances these groups are equally "global" in character
(international human rights organizations, such as Amnesty International; environmental organizations,
such as Greenpeace; or labor organizations such as the ILO). In other cases they are anti-globalization,
profoundly resistant to the economic, political, and cultural interpenetration of different societies and

154
cultures (for example, regionalist and fundamentalist groups of various types). While globalization is
clearly happening, its form and shape are being determined by patterns of resistance, some with more
progressive intentions than others.

Is it possible, then, to give general answers to the question of how globalization is affecting
educational policy and practice worldwide? As indicated by our earlier discussion, we believe that there
can be no single answer; national and local economic, political, and cultural changes are affected by, and
actively responding to, globalizing trends within a broad range of patterns. Indeed, because education is
one of the central arenas in which these adaptations and responses occur, it will be one of the most
myriad of institutional contexts. Hence, the answers developed will require a careful analysis of trends in
education, including:

• the currently popular policy "buzz words" (privatization, choice, and decentralization of
educational systems) that drive policy formation in education and prevailing research agendas
based in rational organization and management theories (see Michael Peters, James Marshall,
and Patrick Fitzsimons, in this volume);
• the role of national and international organizations in education, including teacher unions,
parent organizations, and social movements (see Bob Lingard, in this volume);
• the new scholarship on race, class, gender, and the state in education (and hence concerns
about multiculturalism and the question of identity in education, critical race theory,
feminism, postcolonialism, diasporic communities, and new social movements -- see Jill
Blackmore; Douglas Kellner; Allan Luke and Carmen Luke; Cameron McCarthy and Greg
Dimitriades; Fazal Rizvi; and Stephen Stoer and Luiza Cortesão; all in this volume).

Questions about the role of participatory action research, popular education, and multicultural
democratic struggle emerge as central in these debates. From these critical perspectives might emerge
new educational models to confront the winds of change, including education in the context of new
popular cultures and nontraditional social movements (and hence the role of cultural studies to
understand them); new models of rural education for marginalized areas and the education of the poor;
new models for migrant education, for the education of street children, for the education of girls and
women in general, but particularly in the context of traditional societies and cultures that have
suppressed women’s educational aspirations; new models of partnerships for education (between state,
NGO, third sector, and in some instances religious or private organizations); new models for adult

155
literacy and nonformal education; new models of university/business relationships; and new models for
educational financing and school organization (for instance, charter schools).

Some reform initiatives have been actively supported by UNESCO and other UN agencies. These
include, for instance, reforms toward universal literacy and universal access to education; educational
quality as a key component of equity; education as lifelong education; education as a human right;
education for peace, tolerance, and democracy; eco-pedagogy, or how education can contribute to
sustainable ecological development (and hence to an eco-economy); and educational access and new
technologies of information and communication (see Nicholas C. Burbules, in this volume). Thus, the
influence of globalization upon educational policies and practices can be seen to have multiple, and
conflicting, effects. Not all of these can be classified simply as beneficial or not, and some are being
shaped by active tensions and struggles. The essays in this book illuminate such dilemmas in all their
complexity.

Reading Assignment:
• Links
o http://www2.hawaii.edu/~fredr/glonotes.htm
o http://72.14.235.132/search?q=cache:Zdvrv18-
KusJ:club.fom.ru/books/Bartelson00_2.pdf+concept+of+globalization&hl=en&ct=clnk&c
d=6
o http://www.sociology.emory.edu/globalization/

Exercises/written assignments
Title of Activity: AH-HAH !

Objectives: To identify the student’s collective perspective and understanding about the
social and economic impact of globalization in the Philippines
Methodology: individual drawing activity

Duration: 15 minutes

Tasks:

1. Reflect on the following questions:

“In your own point of view, what is the over-all impact of globalization to the everyday life
of common Filipinos?”

156
 “What do you think is happening with regards to action (or lack of action) of the
government to the perceived negative impacts of globalization?”
2. On a piece of paper given to you, draw a picture/illustration of what came out of your reflection.
Afterwards, post your drawing/illustration on the designated area for presentation.
3. When asked, explain your drawing to the large group (if necessary)

Materials needed: pieces of colored bond paper (various colors and shapes), crayons, marking pens
of various colors, masking tape

References/bibliography
Bhagwati, Jagdish. In Defense of Globalization, Oxford, New York: Oxford
University Press, 2004.

Croucher, Sheila L. Globalization and Belonging: The Politics of Identity in a

Changing World, p.10. Rowman & Littlefield, 2004.

Dreher, Axel, Gaston, Noel and Martens, Pim. Measuring Globalisation:

Gauging Its Consequences, Springer, ISBN 978-0-387-74067-6.

Flew, Terry. Twenty New Media Concepts, P.26. 2008.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Globalization

http://www1.worldbank.org/economicpolicy/globalization/

LESSON 2
GENDER PARITY AND COHESION

Learning Objectives
1. differentiate the concept of gender and sex;
2. discuss the various manifestations of gender biases;
3. analyze the root of gender inequality;
4. discuss gender and rights based approach to sexual reproductive health and rights; and
5. prepare the GAD Affirmative Action Plan.

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Keywords and Phrases
• Sex
• Gender
• GAD
• Gender Bias
• Masculine
• Feminine
• Discrimination
• Gender
• Equality

Introduction
Equality between women and men or gender parity—promoting the equal participation of
women and men in making decisions; supporting women and girls so that they can fully exercise their
rights; and reducing the gap between women’s and men’s access to and control of resources and the
benefits of development—is still out of reach for most women worldwide. Women continue to have
fewer rights, lower education and health status, less income, and less access to resources and decision-
making than men. Socially constructed roles too often thwart the potential of girls and women.
Discrimination denies them health care and education. Nevertheless, women’s critical roles in food
production, income generation, management of natural resources, community organization and domestic
responsibilities are essential for sustainable development.

If equitable and sustainable progress is to be achieved, women’s status must be improved, their
rights must be respected, and their contributions must be recognized.

By recognizing and addressing discrimination against girls and women, success in the fight
against all forms of discrimination -- class, race, ethnicity and age -- will become more likely, and more
lasting. We have learned that entire societies develop when girls and women are enabled to be fully
contributing community members.

Sex and Gender Distinguished

Sex

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 • It is the natural distinguishing variable based on biological/physiological characteristics of a
woman or a man.

• It refers to physical attributes pertaining to a person’s body contours, features,

genitals, hormones, genes, chromosomes and reproductive organs.
Gender

• It refers to socially differentiated roles, characteristics and expectations attributed by culture to

women and men.

• It is created, produced, reproduced and maintained by social institutions.

• Gender roles and attributes are not natural nor biologically given.

SEX GENDER

biological & physiological social & historical

construct
• what makes one male or
female  what makes one

• determined by feminine or

chromosomes masculine
 determined by
• difference in sex organs
society, defined
by culture
constant across time constant across time

constant across different constant across

society and culture different society and
culture

Gender Biases

• Gender roles are learned through a process called gender role socialization.
• Three aspects associated with gender roles in society:
• positions within the social structure indicated where women and men are expected to belong
• rules of behavior and interaction prescribed for men and women
• relationships between women’s and men’s roles
Manifestations of Gender Biases
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 Marginalization
• Women in the economic scenario are put outside the margin
• Under or non-valuation recognition of women’s work
• Unequal pay for work of equal value
• Last to be hired, first to be fired
• Limited opportunities
• Exacting sexual favors
Subordination
• Pertains to the power or politics of relationship between men and women in the family,
in organizations, at work, etc., which encompass the following:
• Position
• Status
• Decision-making
• Process of socialization

Multiple Burden
• refers to the multiple roles expected of women including housework, parenting and
productive/economic activity

Gender stereotyping
• refers to how women and men are perceived in society--the roles and
and qualities assigned to women and men, and the limitations designed to each gender.

Violence Against Women (VAW)

• VAW may be verbal, psychological, or physical
• Examples: sexist jokes, wolf whistle, peeking, chancing or making sexual passes, sexual
harassment, domestic violence, incest, rape, prostitution, sex trafficking

Gender Biases Against Men

• inherently aggressive and violent

• don’t feel the pain or incapable of experiencing human relations
• inherently expressive of their sexuality
• don’t need closeness, reassurance, and attention

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 • should be the breadwinner

Gender Equality: a Cornerstone of Development

Gender equality is, first and foremost, a human right. Women are entitled to live in dignity and in
freedom from want and from fear. Empowering women is also an indispensable tool for advancing
development and reducing poverty.
Empowered women contribute to the health and productivity of whole families and communities
and to improved prospects for the next generation. The importance of gender equality is underscored by
its inclusion as one of the eight Millennium Development Goals. Gender equality is acknowledged as
being a key to achieving the other seven goals.

Yet discrimination against women and girls--including gender-based violence, economic

discrimination, reproductive health inequities, and harmful traditional practices - remains the most
pervasive and persistent form of inequality. Women and girls bear enormous hardship during and after
humanitarian emergencies, especially armed conflicts. For more than 30 years, the Fund has been in the
forefront of advocating for women, promoting legal and policy reforms and gender-sensitive data
collection, and supporting projects that improve women's health and expand their choices in life.

Things to Ponder

AGENDA EQUALITY

161
162
 FOR EVERY WOMAN
by Nancy Smith

For every woman

Who is tired of acting weak
when she knows she is strong
there is a man
who is tired of appearing strong
when he feels vulnerable.

For every woman

who is tired of acting dumb
There is a man
who is burdened with the constant
expectation of “knowing everything”.

For every woman

who is tired of being called
“an emotional female”
there is a man
who denied the right
to weep and be gentle.

For every woman

who feels “tied down” by her children
there is a man
who is denied the full pleasure
of shared parenthood.

For every woman

who is denied of meaningful
employment and equal pay
there is a man
who must bear full financial
responsibility for another
human being.

For every woman

who is not taught the intricacies of an automobile
there is a man
who is not taught the
satisfaction of cooking
FOR EVERY WOMAN
WHO TAKES A STEP TOWARD
HER OWN LIBERATION.

THERE IS A MAN
WHO FINDS THAT THE WAY
TO FREEDOM HAS BEEN MADE
A LITTLE EASIER.

Reading Assignment:

• Link
 http://www.hinduonnet.com/fline/fl1822/18220040.htm
 http://www.un.org/womenwatch/daw/csw/beirutglobal.htm

Exercises/written assignments
Activity No. 1

Title of Activity: GAD Affirmative Action Planning

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Objective: To prepare a Gender and Development Affirmative Action Plan based on the
analysis of own conditions and challenges

Methodology: individual activity

Duration: 1 hour

Tasks: Using the format provided, identify what you want to:

• Stop Doing
• Start Doing
• Continue Doing

In the following areas of concern:

• Self
• Family
• Work

ACTION PLAN FORMAT

Area of Concern Stop Doing Start Doing Continue Doing

SELF

FAMILY

WORK

Activity No. 2

Title of Activity: Identifying the nature of gender bias

Objectives: To discuss gender bias on the personal levels and identify the conditions, needs
and problems of women and men.
Methodology: individual reflection activity

Duration: 1 hour

Tasks:

1. Answer the following questions:

• What things am I prevented or discouraged from doing because of my being a woman?
• What things am I prevented or discouraged from doing because of my being a woman, being a
man?
• How do the above affect my development as an individual person?
164
 2. After 10 mins., discuss your answers and come up with a visualization in the form of a common
symbol/poster based on the your reflections.

References/bibliography
http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/CIDAWEB/acdicida.nsf/En/JUD-31192610-JXF

http://www.ilo.org/gender/lang--en/index.htm

http://www.pslink.org

http://www.unfpa.org/gender/

http://www.unicef.org/gender/

LESSON 3
SUSTAINING HUMAN AND PRODUCTIVE CAPACITIES

Learning Objectives
1. show recognition on the human and productive gains caused by globalization;
2. discuss with the human developments of globalization; and,
3. identify the various impact of globalization to the human and economic
productivity.

Keywords and Phrases

• Diversification
• Private sector participation
• Enabling Environment
• World-class
• Human Capital
• Sustainable productivity
• Wealth creation
• Commercialization
• Alignment

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Introduction
The prevailing theorizing of globalization’s influence of human well-being suggests to assess
both the favorable and unfavorable outcomes. Within developing countries, globalization’s human
influence was not as significant as in industrial countries, however. Several hypotheses about
globalization’s potential negative effects through increasing societal instabilities and reducing state
power and social spending are not supported in analysis. It is concluded that globalization identified by
increased global flows and exchanges contributes rather than hampers progress in human welfare.

The fact remains that human development, as the case with globalization, is a multifaceted as
well as inter-paradigmatic issue which cannot be addressed sufficiently from a narrow perspective. Our
perception of a three dimensional and multilevel paradigm is a reflection of this reality. But for practical
considerations, due to space, time, data, and scope, we have to be selective in what to cover in our
discussions on the likely effects of globalization on human development.

THE CAPABILITY DIMENSION: HEALTH, EDUCATION AND INCOME

Globalization (through privatisation effects on efficiency and resource allocation as well as

others liberalization measures) could release significant financial resources and re-channelling them to
improve standard of activities provided by the social sector such as education and health. Furthermore,
introducing some privatisation methods into education (beyond states obligation for, say, primary
schooling or pre- higher education) might improve educational standards and structurally transforming
it to cater for employment market requirements. The same is also valid for health services (beyond states
obligation to provide preventive and treatment health service for fixed and low income groups). In other
words private involvement in education and health sectors could bring with it more investment, more
competition, better service, and wider choices. Successful liberalization and privatisation programmes
could also accelerate growth, boost domestic investment and attract foreign capital, generate
employment and increase (per capita) income.

On the other hand, reform packages calls for restoring budgetary balance through, mostly and
immediate, reduction in public expenditures. This could very well lead to a shrink in funds allocation for
the social sector and contraction of public works investment. Furthermore, private sector involvement in
health and education services could lead to public-private "Dutch disease": migration of human resources
from public to private sector, thus affecting the performance of public sector and this in turn undermines
the services it renders to the majority of population with fixed and low incomes.

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REVISITING THE CONTESTED MEANINGS OF GLOBALIZATION

Since coming to the fore as one of the most talked-about issues of the late twentieth century and
the new millennium, the phenomenon of globalization has captured world attention in various ways.
From +
the information superhighway to the international trade in drugs and arms, to the phenomenal impact of
MacWorld, Nike and the global media, the subject of globalization has come to concern all and sundry.
At the core of most discussions of the issue is the extraordinary explosion of both technology and
information, in ways that have considerably reduced the twin concepts of time and space. In particular,
information and communications technology (ICT) has emerged as perhaps the most dominant force in
the global system of production, albeit with significant ramifications in all other spheres of contemporary
human existence.

While recognizing the contribution of ICT and the attendant forces of the global economy to the
emergence of globalization as we know it, too much has been made of the phenomenon of globalization
in its economic dimensions. In a sense there is a new orthodoxy or ethos about the economic dimensions
of globalization that exalts it above all other human values or phenomena, indeed even above the basic
condition of human beings themselves. The unfortunate consequence of this has been to denigrate (or
mask) the social, cultural and especially the political roots and ramifications of the phenomenon. As
Brazilian President Enrique Cardoso argues, it is a serious mistake to think of globalization as the result
of market forces alone: "The boundaries within which the market operates are defined politically, in direct
negotiations between governments in multilateral forums, such as the World Trade Organization. The
power game is always present in such negotiations." Moreover, it is a power game the rules of which are dictated
by very few actors. However, its impact affects the vast majority. Consequently, understanding the
political and other dimensions of the phenomenon of globalization is essential to the development of a
rational and considered response to it.

Because of globalization's multifaceted nature, it is essential to grasp the different motivating

forces that are impelling these developments aside from the purely economic, and also to recognize the
different directions from which they are coming. As Paul Streeten has pointed out, there is a
globalization that can come "from above" in the form of multinational firms, international capital flows
and world markets. Intrinsic to this form of globalization is a growing legal and institutional framework
within which the regimes of contemporary international trade, finance and investment are being
conducted. The legal dimensions of that framework are best captured within the context of international

167
economic law generally speaking, while the Bretton Woods MLIs and the WTO are the specific
institutional mechanisms within which it is organized.

Another form of globalization can come from below (such as the environmental, women's and
anti-nuclear movements, or in the case most relevant to this discussion, human rights struggles). The
human rights movement has long laid claim to a universalizing (indeed some would say a globalizing)
mission. This is evident in the assertion that the regime of rights and freedoms established through the
Universal Declaration of Human Rights - and the numerous other instruments that have since been
promulgated in the same spirit - extend beyond the arena of purely national concern. The globalization-
from-below activists have the potential to add a democratic dimension to the debates about globalization
from above. In this way, globalization can be brought down from the rarefied and glorified atmosphere of
corporate boardrooms, and home to the daily realities of ordinary human beings. Especially important, it
can help them mobilize in resistance against the hegemonizing tendencies that globalization from above
may present.

Notwithstanding the above, a clear bias is manifested in the dominant modes of thinking that
abound about globalization. Describing such thinking as "globalitarian" and "globalcentric", Arif Dirlik
argues that such definitions of globalization are biased against both place and locality. Thus, the global is
equated with " capital, space, history and the power to transform " while the local is equated with " place,
labour, tradition and, not infrequently, women, indigenous people, peasants and others who are 'still
attached to place'". The implication is that the latter are marginal to the discourses on globalization, and
that their knowledge and practices are unhelpful in the construction of a truly global contemporary
world. Dirlik urges for review of this prejudiced approach to alternative visions of the manner in which
the world can be constructed, and for mobilization of all the movements that feel they have a stake in the
issue. Indeed, there is a need for a recommitment to a bringing together of all the world's peoples around
an agenda that does not seek to stifle the very productive and revolutionary innovations that
technological development has unleashed. However, it is essential that in so doing we do not forget basic
and fundamental obligations that have been recognized and honoured for decades as essential to a
wholesome human existence. Technology and economic development must be put to the service of
humankind as a whole. In particular, such developments should not marginalize, discriminate or
systemically deny access to the majority of the world's populace.

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THE INSTITUTIONAL CONTEXT OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE, INVESTMENT AND
FINANCE

Since the late 1990s and particularly at the present time, the role and place of international,
rather than national forces and institutions has assumed a particularly prominent profile in the human
rights debate. Indeed, one scholar has argued that " the processes of militarism, economic restructuring,
and trade and financial liberalization are the primary causes of human rights abuses". In other words, it is
no longer the State to which we should be paying attention, but rather to forces in the international
arena. This assertion is only half-correct. There is little doubt that the State has been somewhat eclipsed
by forces that operate in a fashion that pays little heed to issues of sovereignty, self-determination or
statehood itself. However, such a view of the role of the State is not simply a shortsighted one; it also lets
the State off too easily. As President Cardoso remarks, in the wake of globalization the role of the State
has become much more complex today than at any other time:

"In addition to its classic functions in the area of law enforcement, health, education, and foreign policy, the State
must now meet increasing demands for more equity, more justice, a sound environment, and a greater respect for human
rights. A more demanding society has to be matched by a more sophisticated State. A well-organized and efficient State will
be better placed to meet those demands, many of them springing from globalization itself. Furthermore, the State must also be
well equipped so that, in negotiating the rules within which globalization is to take place, national interests are preserved."

Hence, rather than dismissing statehood as such it is more appropriate to view the phenomenon
as having undergone a metamorphosis under the influence of various forces. Without doubt, among the
most prominent of these forces can be found in the arena of international trade, investment and finance.

It is trite to point out that there are many dimensions to the debate on the directions that the
regimes of international trade, investment and finance should assume. Neoliberal economists - whose
voice is the dominant one in this discipline - argue simply that more is better. Consequently, they
contend that perceived barriers to the faster evolution of these international forces should be reduced
both within the international context, as well as at the nation-State level. Within the framework of a
variety of international and regional instruments, this vision of the world is receiving greater articulation
by the day. It was the same vision that informed the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development (OECD) when it sought to introduce a Multilateral Agreement on Investment (MAI), (25)
and it has been the vision of the Bretton Woods organizations in their various programmes since the
1980s. The issue is nevertheless not so black and white. As Lourdes Benería and Amy Lind point out:

169
 "The benefits of trade may be both positive and negative, since its impact on economic activity produces both
winners and losers. Therefore, any discussion of trade liberalization is not a simple matter of taking a "pro-trade" or an
"anti-trade" position; rather, a substantive discussion requires an understanding of the nature of the process generated by
trade liberalization and its likely consequences, so that appropriate policies may be developed and appropriate actions taken,
particularly to compensate those negatively affected."

From the preceding analysis, a number of questions emerge. Among the most prominent is
whether the institutions designed to foster these policies pay heed to the possible negative effects -
particularly in the human rights context - of their operations? We begin by examining the institution
that is most often targeted whenever the issue of international trade and globalization crops up - the
World Trade Organization.

Globalization and the International Financial Institutions (IFIs)

As is the case with WTO, the twin Bretton Woods institutions - the World Bank and the
International Monetary Fund (IMF) - have come under increased and intensified scrutiny. The April
demonstrations represented a deep-seated resentment against two institutions that have in fact played a
much longer and a critically more dominant role in shaping the essential characteristics of the global
economy than WTO. Indeed, for many developing countries, the Bretton Woods organizations have not
only more deeply penetrated their very existence and operation, but they have also had much more
significant ramifications on basic human rights questions. Such questions extend from the right to self-
determination and the observation of civil and political rights, to the ability of developing countries to
progressively realize economic, social and cultural rights, especially in the arena of health, education and
basic welfare.

Of the two institutions, the World Bank is generally recognized to have made more progress in
attempting to address many of the criticisms against it, especially concerning its addiction to grandiose
projects, its insensitivity to environmental, indigenous and minority concerns and to the issue of gender.
It has tried to reach out to civil society and has declared that the alleviation of poverty is the main
objective of the James Wolfenson presidency, which commenced in 1995. The Bank has also been active
in designing mechanisms to address the issue of the debt burden, culminating in the highly indebted poor
countries (HIPC) initiative. All these reforms have been undertaken in a bid to move away from what is
known as the "Washington Consensus" -- the set of shock-therapy measures of structural adjustment
and economic liberalization that were applied in the 1980s and early 1990s in a bid to reform the
macroeconomic policies of developing countries. In the field of human rights, the Bank followed UNDP

170
by issuing a set of guidelines linking its activities to what it perceived as its human rights obligations.
While the guidelines do indicate that the Bank is thinking about the issue, clearly it needs to do much
more. The fact that the reforms do not go far enough is illustrated by the fact that both with respect to
the Poverty Alleviation and HIPC initiatives, the frameworks of approach remain the same, i.e.
conditionality and free market reforms.

By contrast, the IMF has confined its steps towards reform to the release of information (on a
comprehensive and well-organized Web site) including auditor's reports, and improving its systems of
national and international oversight. However, the Fund has been much more recalcitrant about being
drawn into the debate about the human rights implications of its operations, arguing that its founding
Charter mandates that it pay attention only to issues of an economic nature. The furthest the Fund has
come in engaging any matter that may have human rights overtones is through a broad and rather
nebulous document on "Good Governance". Issued in 1997, the instrument is stated to be the IMF's
response to the fact that " a broader range of institutional reforms is needed if countries are to establish
and maintain private sector confidence and thereby lay the basis for sustained growth". Two points can
be made about the Fund's Governance Guidelines. The first is that the purview of the Fund's concerns is
extremely narrow, and confined to " issues such as institutional reforms of the treasury, budget
preparation and approval procedures, tax administration, accounting and audit mechanisms, central
bank operations, and the official statistics function. Similarly reforms of market mechanisms would focus
primarily on the exchange, trade, and price systems, and aspects of the financial system. In the regulatory
and legal areas, IMF advice would focus on taxation, banking sector laws and regulations and the
establishment of free and fair market entry".

There is a heavy emphasis on corruption and the need for the establishment of transparent
systems of operation within the countries that the Fund deals with. Although couched as "advice", for
many developing countries IMF prescriptions are in fact edicts giving the latter little choice and almost
no room for manoeuvre. The Guidelines also say nothing about the Fund itself, presumably because the
systems and methods the Fund employs are beyond reproach. The second point--and perhaps the more
critical one--is that throughout the guidelines there is absolutely no mention of the term "human rights".
And yet, the linkage between macroeconomic policy and human rights issues has been firmly established.

Despite the fact that the Fund is well behind the Bank in its approach to human rights, a
"democratic deficit" is apparent in both organizations. Take, for example, the issue of leadership. As
Helleiner and Oyejide point out, the governance practices of both institutions are "problematic". Our

171
view is that they are in fact arcane and immoral, with the leadership of both institutions confined to a
"royal family" of select individuals who must meet the criterion of regional--indeed ethnic--origin. Thus,
"by custom" the President of the World Bank is from the United States, while the Managing Director of
the Fund has always been a European. At the last changing of the guard, when long-serving Michel
Camdessus prematurely resigned his position at the Fund last year, a slight impasse ensued when the
United States initially backed Stanley Fischer as its candidate against the European choice. One of the
elements that was cited by the United States in coaxing developing (especially African) countries to root
in Fischer's favour was that although a naturalized American, he was born in Zambia! Such practices
demonstrate the duplicitous character of institutions that insist that the countries that borrow from
them must be exemplars of what they describe as "good governance". Helleiner and Oyejide once again:
"Although there may have been a rationale for such disproportionate voting arrangements and
undemocratic management selection procedures within these institutions at the time of their
foundation, it is difficult to defend them today - particularly when both institutions press
borrowing countries to improve their own governance via conditions on their lending."

The IMF continues to retain practices of intense secrecy, centralization of power and denial of
responsibility even when crises can be traced to the policies that a country was forced to adopt on
account of Fund conditionality. This was the case, to cite a recent example, when the East Asian
countries were afflicted by currency shocks in the late 1990s. Indeed, the IFIs began by heaping much of
the blame on the Governments involved. Adjectives such as " poorly supervised", "poorly functioning,"
"badly-regulated," "corrupt" and "government-directed" abound in the descriptions of the reasons for the
crisis. It is as if the IFIs had nothing to do with the problems, and indeed such comments represented a
significant volte-face from what they had said about the very same countries only a few years earlier,
describing them as "tigers", economic "miracles" and "impressive". Although the IMF later admitted some
connection between the crises and its policy prescriptions, and conducted ad hoc evaluations of some of
its programmes (with critical results), there is no indication that the organization is willing to take the
next most important step - accountability. Indeed, the fact that both in conception and practice, the
policies of the Fund remain virtually the same as before the crisis illustrates that little has changed, either
by way of conception, or genuine concern for the plight of the majority. It is still a case of counselling the
swallowing of a bitter pill for the present with the promise of recovery and robust health in the future.

Thus, the most critical question that emerges when discussing the issue of the responsibility of
MLIs and kindred institutions is that of transparency and accountability. It is precisely for these reasons
that the protesters in Washington assembled to condemn the Bank and the Fund.

172
As Smith and Naím argue:

"The functional argument for transparency and accountability is equally important. No

institution of authority now can long endure without the informed consent of those who are
governed by it. Globalization itself is arming people with the information they need to give
consent and, in some cases, the means to refuse it But lack of democratic processes is keeping
international institutions weak People living in democracies are understandably reluctant to
transfer allegiance and power to organizations less accountable (and even more remote) than
their own national Governments."
What is clear is that the institutional mechanisms of globalization have yet to seriously address
the issue of human rights in a fundamental and democratic fashion--both with respect to their operations
within countries, and also in relation to the internal make-up and functioning of their own institutions. If
there is to be a genuine commitment to human rights in a holistic fashion, then these institutions must
pay attention to both civil and political rights, as well as to economic, social and cultural rights. In
addition, basic human rights principles--principles that can be translated into common parlance like
transparency, accountability and participation-- need to be applied to these organizations. The fact that
the latter are still a problem was graphically demonstrated by the dramatic resignation of former Bank
Chief Economist Joseph Stiglitz because of his open criticism of many of the Bank's and the Fund's
policies, and for pushing too far in the direction of reform and democratization. No other incident
demonstrates so well that despite all the pretensions at reform, the IFIs still apply the old adage: "do as I
say, but not as I do!".

GLOBALIZATION, EQUALITY AND NON-DISCRIMINATION

The preceding analysis allows us to turn to the issue of the relationship between globalization
and equality and non-discrimination in a more concrete fashion. The two concepts are central to the
corpus and ethos of human rights instruments and practice. The Universal Declaration and other human
rights instruments are unequivocal in their declaration that all persons are equal, and that the right to
non-discrimination is a basic and fundamental human right. The grounds upon which non-
discrimination is prohibited are also clear, and have been expanded over time to accommodate new forms
and expressions of an insidious practice that unfortunately is as old as humanity. Especially important
are the prohibitions of discrimination based on race, colour, gender, religion and ethnicity. Indeed, with
regard to certain of these prohibitions, it has been argued that they enjoy the status of jus cogens. As such,
there can be no derogation from their observation even in times of war--the point in time at which
derogations have been most easily justified.

173
 It would be absurd to claim that globalization created inequality. Inequality and discrimination
unfortunately existed long before globalization was recognized as a distinct phenomenon on the
international scene. That globalization has caused global conditions of inequality and discrimination to
worsen is clear even by simply examining the statistical data. UNDP uses the Internet as a prime
indicator of the creation of and access to wealth today, and asks the critical question: Who is in the loop?
The fact is that the "loop" of globalization has left out the vast majority of the world's citizenry. This
means that not only is there further marginalization, but also increasing immigration in a world of
ostensibly increasing plenty. If we ask a further question, viz. What is the colour, race or sex of those left
out? The connection between globalization and the forces of inequality and discrimination become all the
more graphic.

Reading Assignment:
• Links
 http://209.85.175.132/search?q=cache:10BTrA5JnKoJ:www.soc.duke.edu/resources/sinet/
papers06/Tsai.pdf+human+capacities+in+globalization&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=7
 http://www.free-eco.org/articleDisplay.php?id=378
 http://www.david-kilgour.com/secstate/globali2.htm
 http://www.globalpolicy.org/globaliz/econ/2008/0326spread.htm

Exercises/written assignments
Activity

Today we live in an inevitable globalized society. Prepare a 5-page paper on any of the topics
below:

1.1 Impact of Globalization to the Health Programs of the Government

1.2 Philippine BPOs’ Sustainability and Viability in Amidst Global Recession
1.3 Virtual and E-Crimes
References/bibliography
Arie M. Kacowicz, "Regionalization, Globalization, and Nationalism: Convergent, Divergent, or Overlapping
Alternatives?".
Thomas Wallgren, "Political Semantics of Globalization: A Brief Note", in Development 42/2 (June 1998), at p.
32.

174
http://www.unhchr.ch/huridocda/huridoca.nsf/(Symbol)/E.CN.4.Sub.2.2000.13.En?Opendocument

LESSON 4
CREATING ENABLING NATIONAL ENVIRONMENTS

Learning Objectives
1. Show recognition the ecological and environmental problems often have impacts beyond
borders;
2. Explain the ability of humans to act and think at a global scale in bringing a new dimension of
global responsibility—not only to planetary resources but also to planetary fairness; and,
3. Apply the learning by preparing an advocacy plan on environment.

Keywords and Phrases

• Clear Air Act
• Pollution
• Advocacy
• Regulation
• Campaign
• Standard of Living
• Control
• Sustainable Development
• Impact
• Ecology

Introduction
The advent of global environmental challenges effectuated by the globalization process that
might be solved with international cooperation, such as climate change, cross-boundary water and air
pollution, over-fishing of the ocean, and the spread of invasive species. Since many factories are built in
developing countries with less environmental regulation, globalism and free trade may increase pollution.
On the other hand, economic development historically required a "dirty" industrial stage, and it is argued
that developing countries should not, via regulation, be prohibited from increasing their standard of
living.

175
 The processes that everyone now thinks of as globalization were central to the environmental
cause well before the term globalization came into its current usage. Global environmental concerns
were born out of the recognition that ecological processes do not always respect national boundaries and
that environmental problems often have impacts beyond borders; sometimes globally. Connected to this
was the notion that the ability of humans to act and think at a global scale also brings with it a new
dimension of global responsibility—not only to planetary resources but also to planetary fairness. These
ideas were central to the defining discourse of contemporary environmentalism in the 1960s and 1970s
and to the concept of sustainable development that took root in the 1980s and 1990s.

The current debate on globalization has become de-linked from its environmental roots and
contexts. These links between environment and globalization need to be re-examined and recognized. To
ignore these links is to misunderstand the full extent and nature of globalization and to miss out on
critical opportunities to address some of the most pressing environmental challenges faced by humanity.

Environment and Globalization

The relationship between the environment and globalization although often overlooked—is
critical to both domains. The environment itself is inherently global, with life-sustaining ecosystems and
watersheds frequently crossing national boundaries; air pollution moving across entire continents and
oceans; and a single shared atmosphere providing climate protection and shielding us from harsh UV
rays. Monitoring and responding to environmental issues frequently provokes a need for coordinated
global or regional governance. Moreover, the environment is intrinsically linked to economic
development, providing natural resources that fuel growth and ecosystem services that underpin both
life and livelihoods. Indeed, at least one author suggests that “the economy is a wholly-owned subsidiary
of the ecology.”

While the importance of the relationship between globalization and the environment is obvious,
our understanding of how these twin dynamics interact remains weak. Much of the literature on
globalization and the environment is vague (discussing generalities); myopic (focused is
proportionately only on trade-related connections); and/or partial highlighting the impacts of
globalization on the environment, but not the other way around). It is important to highlight that not
only does globalization impact the environment, but the environment impacts the pace, direction and
quality of globalization. At the very least, this happens because environmental resources provide the fuel
for economic globalization, but also because our social and policy responses to global environmental

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challenges constrain and influence the context in which globalization happens. This happens, for
example, through the governance structures we establish and through the constellation of stakeholders
and stakeholder interests that construct key policy debates. It also happens through the transfer of social
norms, aspirations and ideas that criss-cross the globe to formulate extant and emergent social
movements, including global environmentalism. In short, not only are the environment and globalization
intrinsically linked, they are so deeply welded together that we simply cannot address the global
environmental challenges facing us unless we are able to understand and harness the dynamics of
globalization that influence them. By the same token, those who wish to capitalize on the potential of
globalization will not be able to do so unless they are able to understand and address the great
environmental challenges of our time, which are part of the context within which globalization takes
place.

The dominant discourse on globalization has tended to highlight the promise of economic
opportunity. On the other hand, there is a parallel global discourse on environmental responsibility. A
more nuanced understanding needs to be developed—one that seeks to actualize the global
opportunities offered by globalization while fulfilling global ecological responsibilities and advancing
equity.

Reading Assignment:
• Links
 http://www.bcca.org/ief/ddahl98b.htm
 http://www.uiowa.edu/ifdebook/issues/globalization/readingtable/environment.shtml
 http://www.theglobalist.com/StoryId.aspx?StoryId=6088
 http://www.theglobalist.com/StoryId.aspx?StoryId=5518

Exercises/written assignments
Activity

Title of Activity: Action Research

Using Formal Political Processes
Using the Law

Methodology: Application Workshop

Duration: 30 minutes

Mechanics:

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 1. Follow the link: http://www.chanrobles.com/philippinecleanairact.htm

2. Using the Philippines Clean Air Act, discuss how you are going to utilize action, formal political
processes and the law when you carry out your campaign for the environmental protection in the
country. Answer the questions in bold letters and formulate your answers as activities you will
undertake.

Prioritized (specific) Issue:

Campaign Goal:
Immediate Objectives:
Short-term Objectives
Campaign Message:
Resources to use:

Whom to talk to or Person Timeframe/

Campaign Tools budget
where to go? responsible deadline

1. What types of media will you

use and how?
2. Are you going to build or join
existing networks and
coalitions in the region? How?
Identify which network or
coalition you are going to join.

3. How are you going to lobby for

your campaign agenda? Identify
what lobbying activities you
will use.

4. Will you engage in direct action

in your campaign? What type
of direct actions?

5. Does your campaign calls for an

action research? How will you
do it?

6. What formal political processes

will you engage in? How?

7. Does your campaign calls for the

use of litigation? How?

3. Report your output.

Materials needed: manila paper, marking pens, masking tape

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References/bibliography
Bekemans, L., The idea and practice of Europe in a globalising world: reality
and responsibility, in Rivista Pace Diritti Umani, 1, Aprile 2005,
p. 121- 133.
European Commission, European Values in the globalised world, Communication
from the Commission to the European Parliament, the Council, the ECOSOC and the
Committee of the Regions, Brussels, 20/10/2005, 15 p.
ILO, A fair globalization: creating opportunities for all, World Commission on
the Social Dimension of Globalization, February 2004, p. 1-128 p.
Stiglitz, J., Making globalization work, London: Penguin, 2006, Ch 1, Another
world is possible, p. 3-24.
[email protected]

LESSON 5
ROLE OF EDUCATION IN ICT AND ECONOMY

Learning Objectives
1. discuss the role of education in economic development;
2. show appreciation for the paramount importance ICT on future education, vice versa; and,
3. identify room of improvements in one’s workplace or agency, thus, planning for possible ICT
usage for the benefit of identified stakeholders.

Keywords and Phrases

• Economic Development
• Social Capital
• Computer-based
• ICT
• Democratization
• Unequal education
• MDGs
• Social barriers

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Introduction
Knowledge and technological innovation play a crucial role in economic activities in parallel
with the technological infrastructure recognized by managers, scientists, and engineers, together with
the related telecommunications, information systems, environment, microelectronics machinery and
computer-based transportation. As it could be easily seen, technical progress has direct effects only on
production. Through process or product innovation, it is evident that to maintain a kind of feedback on
education and human capital formation is the natural result of the investment inputs closely connected
with the scholastic fashion. Education and technological change are major determinant of economic,
cultural, political, social, demographic changes. It must be borne in mind that considering the global
aspect of the economic system, one should emphasize the importance of the inclusion of information and
communication technologies (ICT) in education, which naturally result in the productivity of education
outputs. In parallel with the close relationship between human capital and social capital, which are
closely connected with each other and at the same time trigger each other. All of them aim at the well
being of economy. It related theoretical literature framework of our study would be analyzed in the light
of variable such as globalization, ICT, education, human capital, social capital, and economy well being.
Education and ICT

ICT in Education towards the Millennium Development Goals

Educators and policymakers alike agree that information and communication technologies are of
paramount importance to the future of education. ICT in education initiatives that focus on the
following areas are most likely to successfully contribute to meeting the Millennium Development Goals:

• Increasing access through distance learning. ICTs can provide new and innovative means to
bring educational opportunities to greater numbers of people of all ages, especially those who
have historically been excluded, such as populations in rural areas, women facing social barriers,
and students with disabilities.

• Enabling a knowledge network for students with knowledge as the crucial input for productive
processes within today’s economy, the efficiency by which knowledge is acquired and applied
determines economic success. Effective use of ICTs can contribute to the timely transmission of
information and knowledge, thereby helping education systems meet this challenge.

• Training large numbers of school teachers will be needed to meet the Millennium Development
Goals for education. The use of ICTs can help in meeting teacher training targets. Moreover,
ICTs provide opportunities to complement on the job training and continuing education for

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 teachers.

• Broadening the availability of quality education materials.

Network technologies have the potential to increase the availability of quality educational
materials. Their interactivity and global reach allow for customized sharing of knowledge,
materials, and databases, quickly and cheaply over long geographic distances. Furthermore,
online resources offer teachers access to a vast and diverse collection of educational materials,
enabling them to design curricula that best meet the needs of their students.

• Enhancing the efficiency and effectiveness of educational administration and policy of new
technologies can help improve the quality of administrative activities and processes, including
human resource management, student registration, and monitoring of student enrollment and
achievement.

Education as a fundamental factor of Economic Development

No country can achieve sustainable economic development without substantial investment in

human capital. Education enriches people's understanding of themselves and world. It improves the
quality of their lives and leads to broad social benefits to individuals and society. Education raises
people's productivity and creativity and promotes entrepreneurship and technological advances. In
addition it plays a very crucial role in securing economic and social progress and improving income
distribution.

The main purpose is to show the role of education in economic development and the effect of
education on labor productivity, poverty, trade, technology, health, income distribution and family
structure. Education provides a foundation for development, the groundwork on which much of our
economic and social well being is built. It is the key to increasing economic efficiency and social
consistency. By increasing the value and efficiency of their labor, it helps to raise the poor from poverty. It
increases the overall productivity and intellectual flexibility of the labor force. It helps to ensure that a
country is competitive in world markets now characterized by changing technologies and production
methods. By increasing a child's integration with dissimilar social or ethnic groups early in life, education
contributes significantly to nation building and interpersonal tolerance.

Why is education important to development?

Education is central to development. It empowers people and strengthens nations. It is a

powerful "equalizer", opening doors to all to lift themselves out of poverty. It is critical to the world's

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attainment of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Two of the eight MDG's pertain to
education-namely, universal primary completion and gender parity in primary and secondary schooling.
Moreover, education-especially girls' education-has a direct and proven impact on the goals related to
child and reproductive health and environmental sustainability. Education also promotes economic
growth, national productivity and innovation, and values of democracy and social cohesion.

The Importance of Education in Economic Development

Prior to the nineteenth century, systematic investment in human capital was not considered
specially important in any country. Expenditures on schooling, on-the-job training, and other similar
forms of investment were quite small. This began to change radically during this century with the
application of science to the development of new goods and more efficient methods of production, first in
Great Britain, and then gradually in other countries.
During the twentieth century, education, skills, and the acquisition of knowledge have become
crucial determinants of a person's and a nation's productivity. One can even call the twentieth century
the "Age of Human Capital" in the sense that the primary determinant of a country's standard of living is
how well it succeeds in developing and utilizing the skills and knowledge, and furthering the health and
educating the majority of its population.

No country has achieved constant economic development without considerable investment in

human capital. Previous studies have shown handsome returns to various forms of human capital
accumulation: basic education, research, training, learning-by-doing and aptitude building. The
distribution of education matters. Unequal education tends to have a negative impact on per capita
income in most countries. Moreover, controlling for human capital distribution and the use of
appropriate functional form specifications consistent with the asset allocation model make a difference
for the effects of average education on per capita income, while failure to do so leads to insignificant and
even negative effects of average education. Investment in human capital can have little impact on growth
unless people can use education in competitive and open markets. The larger and more competitive these
markets are, the greater are the prospects for using education and skills.

Benefits of Education

Investment in education benefits the individual, society, and the world as a whole. Broad-based
education of good quality is among the most powerful instruments known to reduce poverty and
inequality. With proven benefits for personal health, it also strengthens nations' economic health by
laying the foundation for sustained economic growth. For individuals and nations, it is key to creating,

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applying, and spreading knowledge-and thus to the development of dynamic, globally competitive
economies. And it is fundamental for the construction of democratic societies.

Benefits to the Individual

• Improves Health and Nutrition. Education greatly benefits personal health. Particularly powerful
for girls, it profoundly affects reproductive health, and also improves child mortality and welfare
through better nutrition and higher immunization rates. Education may be the single most
effective preventive weapon against HIV/AIDS.
• Increases Productivity and Earnings. Research has established that every year of schooling
increases individual wages for both men and women by a worldwide average of about 10 percent.
In poor countries, the gains are even greater.
• Reduces Inequality. Education is a great "leveler", illiteracy being one of the strongest predictors
of poverty. Primary education plays a catalytic role for those most likely to be poor, including
girls, ethnic minorities, orphans, disabled people, and rural families. By enabling larger numbers
to share in the growth process, education can be the powerful tide that lifts all boats.

Benefits to Society

• Drives Economic Competitiveness. An educated and skilled workforce is one of the pillars of the
knowledge-based economy. Increasingly, comparative advantages among nations come less from
natural resources or cheap labor and more from technical innovations and the competitive use of
knowledge. Studies also link education to economic growth: education contributes to improved
productivity which in theory should lead to higher income and improved economic performance.
• Poverty-reducing Effects. Education can vitally contribute to the attainment of the Millennium
Development Goals. While two of the goals pertain directly to education, education also helps to
reduce poverty, promote gender equality, lower child mortality rates, protect against HIV/AIDS,
reduce fertility rates, and enhance environmental awareness.
• Contributes to Democratization. Countries with higher primary schooling and a smaller gap
between rates of boys' and girls' schooling tend to enjoy greater democracy. Democratic political
institutions (such as power-sharing and clean elections) are more likely to exist in countries
with higher literacy rates and education levels.
• Promotes Peace and Stability. Peace education-spanning issues of human security, equity, justice,
and intercultural understanding- is of paramount importance. Education also reduces crime:
poor school environments lead to deficient academic performance, absenteeism, and drop out-
precursors of delinquent and violent behavior.

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 • Promotes Concern for the Environment. Education can enhance natural resource management
and national capacity for disaster prevention and adoption of new, environmentally friendly
technologies.

Education and Trade

Some countries have successfully combined openness and investment in learning and education,
forming a virtuous circle: openness creates demand for education, and learning and education make a
country's export sector more competitive.
In conclusion, education is indispensable to economic development. No economic development is
possible without good education. A balanced education system promotes not only economic
development, but productivity, and generates individual income per capita. Its influence is noticeable at
the micro level of an individual family.

Reading Assignment:
• Links
 Dowladable PDF File at http://www.docuticker.com/?p=10654
 http://verykaka.wordpress.com/2008/07/25/the-role-of-ict-in-education-sector/
 http://www.unescobkk.org/index.php?id=1683

Exercises/written assignments
Activity Task

Prepare an action plan for 2009 reflecting your faculty and student development programs in ICT. Use
the table below:
Objectives Activities Personnel Budget Performance Expected
Involved Indicators Outputs

References/bibliography

http://ideas.repec.org/h/izm/prcdng/200627.html

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 http://web.worldbank.org/WBSITE/EXTERNAL/TOPICS/EXTEDUCATION/0,,contentMDK:2
0264888~menuPK:617610~pagePK:148956~piPK:216618~theSitePK:282386,00.html
http://www.socyberty.com/Education/Role-of-Education-in-Economics-Development.204407

LESSON 6
MANAGEMENT OF EDUCATION AND LEARNING

Learning Objectives
1. identify the theoretical models of educational management and substantive topics that may
be conceived with, and draws implications for, how managers learn and the educational
process and context;
2. discuss the practices of management learning and education; and
3. analyze educational institutions from primary education, secondary education, higher
education, distance education, and corporate training and their best practices of educational
and learning management.

Keywords and Phrases

• Leadership
• Model
• Vision
• Learning
• Practice
• “Common Sense”
• Management
• Theory
• Disciplinary
• Identity

Introduction
The process of deciding on the aims of the organization is at the heart of educational
management. In some settings, aims are decided by the principal, often working in association with

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senior colleagues and perhaps a small group of lay stakeholders. In many schools, however, goal setting is
a corporate activity undertaken by formal bodies or informal groups.

School aims are strongly influenced by pressures from the external environment. Many countries
have a national curriculum and these often leave little scope for schools to decide their own educational
aims. Institutions may be left with the residual task of interpreting external imperatives rather than
determining aims on the basis of their own assessment of student need. The key issue here is the extent
to which school managers are able to modify government policy and develop alternative approaches
based on school-level values and vision.

Distinguishing Educational Leadership and Management

The concept of management overlaps with two similar terms, leadership and administration.
“Management” is widely used in Britain, Europe, and Africa, for example, while “administration” is
preferred in the United States, Canada, and Australia. “Leadership” is of great contemporary interest in
most countries in the developed World. Dimmock (1999) differentiates these concepts whilst also
acknowledging that there are competing definitions.

School leaders [experience] tensions between competing elements of leadership, management

and administration. Irrespective of how these terms are defined, school leaders experience difficulty in
deciding the balance between higher order
tasks designed to improve staff, student and school performance (leadership), routine maintenance of
present operations (management) and lower order duties (administration).

Administration is not associated with “lower order duties” in the U.S. but may be seen as the
overarching term, which embraces both leadership and management. Cuban (1988) provides one of the
clearest distinctions between leadership and management.

By leadership, I mean influencing others actions in achieving desirable ends . . . . Managing is

maintaining efficiently and effectively current organizational arrangements . .. . I prize both managing
and leading and attach no special value to either since different settings and times call for varied
responses.

Leadership and management need to be given equal prominence if schools are to operate
effectively and achieve their objectives. “Leading and managing are distinct, but both are important . . . .

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The challenge of modern organizations requires the objective perspective of the manager as well as the
flashes of vision and commitment wise leadership provides” (Bolman & Deal, 1997, p. xiii-xiv).

The Significance of the Educational Context

Educational management as a field of study and practice was derived from management
principles first applied to industry and commerce, mainly in the United States. Theory development
largely involved the application of industrial models to educational settings. As the subject became
established as an academic field in its own right, its theorists and practitioners began to develop
alternative models based on their observation of, and experience in, schools and colleges. By the 21st
century the main theories, featured in this chapter, have either been developed in the educational context
or have been adapted from industrial models to meet the specific requirements of schools and colleges.
Educational management has progressed from being a new field dependent upon ideas developed in other
settings to become an established field with its own theories and research.

Conceptualizing Educational Management

Leadership and management are often regarded as essentially practical activities. Practitioners
and policy-makers tend to be dismissive of theories and concepts for their alleged remoteness from the
“real” school situation. Willower (1980, p. 2), for example, asserts that “the application of theories by
practicing administrators [is] a difficult and problematic undertaking. Indeed, it is clear that theories are
simply not used very much in the realm of practice.” This comment suggests that theory and practice are
regarded as separate aspects of educational leadership and management. Academics develop and refine
theory while managers engage in practice. In short, there is a theory/ practice divide, or “gap” (English,
2002). The theory-practice gap stands as the Gordian Knot of educational administration. Rather than be
cut, it has become a permanent fixture of the landscape because it is embedded in the way we construct
theories for use the theory-practice gap will be removed when we construct different and better theories
that predict the effects of practice.

The Relevance of Theory to Good Practice

If practitioners shun theory then they must rely on experience as a guide to action. In deciding on
their response to a problem they draw on a range of options suggested by previous experience with that
type of issue. However, “it is wishful thinking to assume that experience alone will teach leaders
everything they need to know” (Copland et al, 2002).

Teachers sometimes explain their decisions as just “common sense.” However, such apparently
pragmatic decisions are often based on implicit theories. When a teacher or a manager takes a decision it

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reflects in part that person’s view of the organization. Such views or preconceptions are colored by
experience and by the attitudes engendered by that experience. These attitudes take on the character of
frames of reference or theories, which inevitably influence the decision-making process.

Theory serves to provide a rationale for decision-making. Managerial activity is enhanced by an

explicit awareness of the theoretical framework underpinning practice in educational institutions. There
are three main arguments to support the view that managers have much to learn from an appreciation of
theory, providing that it is grounded firmly (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) in the realities of practice:

1. Reliance on facts as the sole guide to action is unsatisfactory because all evidence requires
interpretation. Theory provides “mental models” (Leithwood et al, 1999, p. 75) to help in
understanding the nature and effects of practice.

2. Dependence on personal experience in interpreting facts and making decisions is narrow

because it discards the knowledge of others. Familiarity with the arguments and insights of
theorists enables the practitioner to deploy a wide range of experience and understanding in
resolving the problems of today. An understanding of theory also helps reduces the
likelihood of mistakes occurring while experience is being acquired.

3. Experience may be particularly unhelpful as the sole guide to action when the practitioner
begins to operate in a different context. Organizational variables may mean that practice in
one school or college has little relevance in the new environment. A broader awareness of
theory and practice may be valuable as the manager attempts to interpret behavior in the
fresh situation.

Of course, theory is useful only so long as it has relevance to practice in education. Hoyle (1986)
distinguishes between theory-for-understanding and theory-for-practice. While both are potentially
valuable, the latter is more significant for managers in education. The relevance of theory should be
judged by the extent to which it informs managerial action and contributes to the resolution of practical
problems in schools and colleges.

The Nature of Theory

There is no single all-embracing theory of educational management. In part this reflects the
astonishing diversity of educational institutions, ranging from small rural elementary schools to very
large universities and colleges. It relates also to the varied nature of the problems encountered in schools
and colleges, which require different approaches and solutions. Above all, it reflects the multifaceted

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nature of theory in education and the social sciences: “Students of educational management who turn to
organizational theory for guidance in their attempt to understand and manage educational institutions
will not find a single, universally applicable theory but a multiplicity of theoretical approaches each
jealously guarded by a particular epistemic community” (Ribbins, 1985, p. 223).

The existence of several different perspectives creates what Bolman and Deal (1997, p. 11)
describe as “conceptual pluralism: a jangling discord of multiple voices.” Each theory has something to
offer in explaining behavior and events in
educational institutions. The perspectives favored by managers, explicitly or implicitly, inevitably
influence or determine decision-making.

Griffiths (1997) provides strong arguments to underpin his advocacy of “theoretical pluralism.”
“The basic idea is that all problems cannot be studied fruitfully using a single theory. Some problems are
large and complex and no single theory is capable of encompassing them, while others, although
seemingly simple and straightforward, can be better understood through the use of multiple theories . . .
particular theories are appropriate to certain problems, but not others” (Griffiths, 1997).

The Characteristics of Theory

Most theories of educational leadership and management possess three major characteristics:

1. Theories tend to be normative in that they reflect beliefs about the nature of educational
institutions and the behaviour of individuals within them. Simkins (1999) stresses the
importance of distinguishing between descriptive and normative uses of theory. “This is a
distinction which is often not clearly made. The former are those which attempt to describe
the nature of organizations and how they work and, sometimes, to explain why they are as
they are. The latter, in contrast, attempt to prescribe how organizations should or might be
managed to achieve particular outcomes more effectively”.

2. Theories tend to be selective or partial in that they emphasize certain aspects of the
institution at the expense of other elements. The espousal of one theoretical model leads to
the neglect of other approaches. Schools and colleges are arguably too complex to be capable
of analysis through a single dimension.

3. Theories of educational management are often based on, or supported by, observation of
practice in educational institutions. English (2002, p. 1) says that observation may be used in
two ways. First, observation may be followed by the development of concepts, which then

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 become theoretical frames. Such perspectives based on data from systematic observation are
sometimes called “grounded theory.” Because such approaches are derived from empirical
inquiry in schools and colleges, they are more likely to be perceived as relevant by
practitioners. Secondly, researchers may use a specific theoretical frame to select concepts to
be tested through observation. The research is then used to “prove” or “verify” the efficacy of
the theory (English, 2002, p.1).

Reading Assignment:

• Links
 Models of Educational Management http://cnx.org/content/m13867/latest/
 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Learning_Management_System

Exercises/written assignments
Activity

Title of Activity: Workshop on Models of Educational Management

Methodology: Individual Reflection Activity
Duration: 1 hour
Mechanics:

1. Using the Models of Educational Management, choose 3 good examples of situations derived
from varied experiences of your fellow members in the organization, which you will try to
analyze. The situations must be descriptive of the 3 different models of educational management.
Identify what was the model of management existed and the style of leadership used in each
particular situation. If you believe that the model and style used were not appropriate, identify
its effects to the organization’s members and decide on what model and style respectively should
have been used. Give your reasons. You may use the following template to simplify your
presentation:

Materials needed: bond papers, pen

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References/bibliography
Walker, A. and Dimmock, C. (2002). Introduction, in Walker, A. and Dimmock, C.
(Eds.). “School Leadership and Administration: Adopting a Cultural Perspective” Routledge Falmer,
London.

Wallace, M. (1989). “Towards a collegiate approach to curriculum management in

primary and middle schools” in M. Preedy (ed.). Approaches to Curriculum Management, Open
University Press, Milton Keynes.

http://cnx.org/content/m13867/latest/

LESSON 7
EVALUATION OF EDUCATION

Learning Objectives
1. discuss the importance of evaluation in assessing the strengths and weaknesses of educational
programs, policies, personnel, products, and organizations to improve their effectiveness;
2. show recognition and promote evaluation as part of professional practice in educational
process; and
3. apply evaluation of education for the generation of theory and knowledge about effective
human action.

Keywords and Phrases

• Lawful
• Quality
• Evaluation
• Ethical
• Professional
• Self-determination
• Effectiveness
• Standards

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Introduction
Educational evaluation is the evaluation process of characterizing and appraising some aspect/s
of an educational process.
There are two common purposes in educational evaluation which are, at times, in conflict with
one another. Educational institutions usually require evaluation data to demonstrate effectiveness to
funders and other stakeholders, and to provide a measure of performance for marketing purposes.
Educational evaluation is also a professional activity that individual educators need to undertake if they
intend to continuously review and enhance the learning they are endeavoring to facilitate.

The Personnel Evaluation Standards

• The propriety standards require that evaluations be conducted legally, ethically, and with due
regard for the welfare of evaluatees and clients involved in.
• The utility standards are intended to guide evaluations so that they will be informative, timely,
and influential.
• The feasibility standards call for evaluation systems that are as easy to implement as possible,
efficient in their use of time and resources, adequately funded, and viable from a number of other
standpoints.
• The accuracy standards require that the obtained information be technically accurate and that
conclusions be linked logically to the data.

The Program Evaluation Standards

• The utility standards are intended to ensure that an evaluation will serve the information needs
of intended users.
• The feasibility standards are intended to ensure that an evaluation will be realistic, prudent,
diplomatic, and frugal.
• The propriety standards are intended to ensure that an evaluation will be conducted legally,
ethically, and with due regard for the welfare of those involved in the evaluation, as well as those
affected by its results.
• The accuracy standards are intended to ensure that an evaluation will reveal and convey
technically adequate information about the features that determine worth or merit of the
program being evaluated.

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The Student Evaluation Standards

• The Propriety standards help ensure that student evaluations are conducted lawfully, ethically,
and with regard to the rights of students and other persons affected by student evaluation.
• The Utility standards promote the design and implementation of informative, timely, and useful
student evaluations.
• The Feasibility standards help ensure that student evaluations are practical; viable; cost-
effective; and culturally, socially, and politically appropriate.
• The Accuracy standards help ensure that student evaluations will provide sound, accurate, and
credible information about student learning and performance.

Criticism of Educational Evaluation

Evaluation in a democratic school

Sudbury model of democratic education schools do not perform and do not offer evaluations,
assessments, transcripts, or recommendations, asserting that they do not rate people, and that school is
not a judge; comparing students to each other, or to some standard that has been set is for them a
violation of the student's right to privacy and to self-determination. Students decide for themselves how
to measure their progress as self-starting learners as a process of self-evaluation: real life-long learning
and the proper educational evaluation for the 21st Century, they adduce.
According to Sudbury schools, this policy does not cause harm to their students as they move on
to life outside the school. However, they admit it makes the process more difficult, but that such
hardship is part of the students learning to make their own way, set their own standards and meet their
own goals.

The no-grading and no-rating policy helps to create an atmosphere free of competition among
students or battles for adult approval, and encourages a positive co-operative environment among the
student body.

The final stage of a Sudbury education, should the student choose to take it, is the graduation
thesis. Each student writes on the topic of how they have prepared themselves for adulthood and
entering the community at large. This thesis is submitted to the Assembly, who reviews it. The final stage
of the thesis process is an oral defense given by the student in which they open the floor for questions,
challenges and comments from all Assembly members. At the end, the Assembly votes by secret ballot on
whether or not to award a diploma.

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Reading Assignment:
• Links
 http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/pigs/pig3.htm
 http://www.tltgroup.org/programs/seven.html

Exercises/written assignments
Activity

1. Evaluation is a potent part of ensuring the high standards of education. From the teachers'
point of view, the learning outcomes should drive the assessment. The challenge is to align
the learning outcomes with the assessment tasks. Explain this by giving your
recommendations on how to use assessment in teaching and learning effectively and
productively.

2. Surf the net and prepare a powerpoint presentation of at least three

(3) types of performance evaluations on teachers that you believe will spur and motivate
people to render quality education delivery.

References/bibliography
Greenberg, D. (2000). 21st Century Schools, edited transcript of a talk delivered at the April 2000
International Conference on Learning in the 21st Century.
Greenberg, D. (1987). Chapter 20, Evaluation, Free at Last — The Sudbury Valley School.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Educational_evaluation

LESSON 8
INTERNATIONALIZATION

Learning Objectives
1. analyze and identify current trends in internationalization of education;
2. show appreciation the international dimension of education sector in a context that includes
other countries and regions of the world; and
3. stimulate reflection on several major questions and challenges facing the higher education
sector regarding the international aspects of teaching, research, training, and service.

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Keywords and Phrases
• Mobility
• Transnational Education
• Knowledge economy
• Cross-border
• Stakeholder
• Holistics
• Accreditation

Introduction
A well-educated citizenry is the foundation of social equity, cohesion and successful participation in the
global knowledge economy. As a result, most countries have set goals to increase the share of the population with
education and/or broaden access to education for individuals that are under-represented because of socio-
economic status, race, ethnicity, religion, age, gender, disability or location.

As a general rule, countries with low rates of participation in education seek to expand access by
increasing the number of opportunities available while those countries that have already achieved a significant
level of participation in education tend to focus on broadening access so as to include more individuals from
under-represented groups. There are many reasons why some countries may focus on one aspect rather than the
other or why some countries feel the need to meet both challenges simultaneously. Over time, however, paying
attention to both is becoming important for all.

Each country should be committed in promoting the twin goals of equitable access to, and successful
participation in education for all members of society. It is a truth that equitable access to quality learning
contributes significantly to the development of national human resources, promotes social justice and cohesion,
enhances personal development, employability and, in general, facilitates sustainable development.

Government for that matter should urge educational institutions and government decision-makers at all

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levels to adopt the following principles and recommendations on equitable access and successful participation in
education and to act, with some urgency, on their implementation.

Key Principles of Internalization of Education

• Access to higher learning should be made possible to all regardless of race, ethnicity, gender,
economic or social class, age, language, religion, location or disabilities.
• The goal of access policies should be successful participation in education, as access without a
reasonable chance of success is an empty promise.
• Equitable access and academic excellence are essential and compatible aspects of a quality
education.
• To improve access to education, admission criteria must move away from a primary focus on each
learner’s achievements and entry qualifications towards the recognition of his/her potential,
without the latter becoming the sole criterion for admission.
• Targeted strategies and policies designed specifically to elicit the students' full potential are
required so as to increase access to, and success in education by individuals who are traditionally
under-represented because of their social background, economic status, gender, ethnic origin,
disabilities, low quality of prior schooling or for other reasons.
• National and institutional policies and programs should be developed through ongoing dialogue
among all stakeholder groups and should acknowledge and address the broad array of academic,
financial and personal barriers facing potential learners.
• Education that responds to the challenges of equitable access and successful participation
requires sound policies and adequate public funding for institutions and students. Such policies
must be sensitive to local conditions; borrowing policy solutions from other countries that have
different problems and priorities may not be the best solution.
• Equitable access to and broader participation in education requires active linkages between
education and primary and secondary education and seamless, educational pathways beginning
with early childhood and continuing throughout life, and aided by career guidance and
counseling services when appropriate.
• Responding to the varied needs of learners and of society requires a differentiated but coherent
education system reflected in a transparent qualifications framework; a system in which
institutions are assessed according to their specific mission and goals.
• To promote access and student success, different institutional models, flexible programs of study
as well as a variety of delivery modes must be available to allow individuals at all stages of life to
move through education in a manner that suits their needs.

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 • International mobility, exchanges and cross-border education activities must integrate the twin
goals of increased access and equitable participation.

Recommendations for Education Institutions

Based on these principles, the International Association of Universities proposes the following
action agenda for adoption and implementation by education institutions, while recognising the diversity
of economic and financial conditions as well as the particular political, cultural, and historical aspects
that define various national contexts.
• Integrate the goals of equitable access and successful participation for all learners into the
institutional mission and develop specific objectives and strategies for achieving them.
• Work in partnership with government, representatives of other educational sectors, professional
associations and employers in order to address issues of access and successful participation in a
holistic manner, taking into consideration the outcomes of secondary level schooling, labor
market trends and national development needs.
• Call for and participate in a multi-stakeholder dialogue with government and/or competent
bodies to develop policies and secure adequate financial support for the pursuit of the access and
success agenda.
• Develop or strengthen admission policies and practices that emphasise the potential of each
applicant and address equity of access and successful participation by offering a variety of
flexible learning pathways for entry and exit.
• Provide students with a comprehensive academic, financial and social support system paying
particular attention to the specific needs of learners from under-represented groups and/or those
who experience difficulties.
• Reward quality teaching, curricular innovation and responsiveness to learner diversity in the
academic career structure of faculty members.
• Provide faculty with pedagogical training based on a culture of student-centred learning and
with a focus on learning outcomes.
• Facilitate access to learning, respond to diverse learning needs and increase outreach by the
appropriate and effective use of a variety of delivery modes.
• Mainstream the assessment of prior and experiential learning (e.g. learning through work
schemes, accreditation of work placements) as well as blended, distance and e-learning into the
admission and credit accumulation processes.
• Interact with the media and the general public to develop an understanding of, and build support
for, the need and value of institutional differentiation.

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 • Ensure that all institutional policies for international mobility, academic exchanges as well as
other cross-border educational activities take into consideration the challenges of equitable
access and broadening participation at home and abroad.
• Provide reliable and timely information on access, successful retention and graduation rates to
students, the general public, employers and governments in a proactive manner.

Recommendations to Governments

Governments at all levels have an essential role in promoting and enabling access to high-quality
education for all members of society. Based on the principles outlined, and recognizing the diversity and
significance of context at the local, national, and regional levels, the International Association of
Universities proposes the following action agenda for adoption and implementation by governments
worldwide. In addition, it is imperative to encourage governments to discuss these principles in national
and international education fora.
• In consultation with all stakeholder groups, articulate an integrated educational, social and
economic agenda to promote equitable access, broadened participation and success in education.
• Demonstrate a commitment to equitable access and success by providing adequate funding,
using models that are sensitive to, and appropriate for, local conditions and that support
education institutions and students with financial need.
• Promote the value of, and encourage mission differentiation among education institutions within
a transparent qualifications framework that is responsive to societal needs and labor market
realities.
• Create a policy environment that is conducive to increased public and private sector funding in
support of equitable access of potential and enrolled learners with financial need.
• Initiate targeted polices and programs to eliminate academic and other non financial barriers to
access and successful participation in education.
• Consider the educational system in a holistic manner, developing coherent policies and strategies
that build effective links with prior levels of education and allow for flexible and seamless
pathways for entry to and exit from education for all learners.
• Recognize and reward education institutions that successfully serve individuals from under-
represented groups.
• Invest in the necessary and appropriate infrastructure to supports the effective use of
information communication technologies in education, thereby improving opportunities for all
learners, especially adults, and expanding outreach activities in education institutions.

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 • Given the growing importance of internationalization of education, provide funding to ensure
that opportunities for international mobility are made accessible to all.
• Report on the achievement of access and retention goals and make widely available accurate,
timely, user-friendly information that may serve to facilitate access, including information on
financial student aid.

Conclusion
Equitable access and broadening participation in education are fundamental to “knowledge
societies” in all parts of the world. The global educational community calls for all stakeholder groups,
especially governments and education institutions, to act on the promise and potential of these principles
and recommendations. Only robust and collective action, based on ongoing research, data analysis and
the systematic monitoring of progress, will help achieve these goals. Access and participation in
education are essential for the empowerment of all, especially those often excluded.

Reading Assignment:
• Links
o http://www.unesco.org/iau/internationalization/i_definitions.html
o http://globalhighered.wordpress.com/2008/04/19/gats-basics-key-rules-and-
concepts/
o http://www.utwente.nl/cheps/documenten/2008artikelGATS.pdf
o http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001473/147363E.pdf

Exercises/written assignments
Activity

1. List the a. positive effects on education brought about by internationalization and the b.
hindrances to its application to the Philippine setting. Justify your answers.

2. Enumerate the a. issues and problems of development brought about by internationalization

of education b. propose relevant solutions to these issues and problems.

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References/bibliography
Borderless higher education 'Down Under': quality assurance of Australian cross-border
initiatives/ Woodhouse, Davis; Stella, Antony / Observatory on Borderless Higher Education
[UK].-- London, 2008. 37 p. (Report)
Borderless Knowledge: Understanding the "New" Internationalisation of Research and Higher
Education in Norway/ Gornitzka, Ase; Ed.; Langfeldt, Liv; Ed..-- Springer, 2008. 193 p. (Higher
Education Dynamics. 22) ISBN: 978-1-4020-8282-5

Facts and Figures on the International Nature of Studies and Research in Germany 2008
(Wissenschaft weltoffen. Daten und Fakten zur Internationalität von Studium und Forschung).
/ Deutscher Akademischer Austausch Dienst [DAAD][Germany]; German Academic Exchange
Service.-- 2008. 95 p. ISBN: 978-3-7639-3366-2

Foreign-backed universities: a status report on international academic affiliation / Lanzendorf,

Ute / Observatory on Borderless Higher Education [UK].-- London, 2008. 49 p. (Report)

Globalization of higher education and cross-border student mobility/ Varghese, N.V. / UNESCO
International Institute for Educational Planning [IIEP].-- Paris, 2008. 29 p. (IIEP Research
Papers)

MEETING: Glion VI Colloquium. Geneva, 2007.

The Globalization of Higher Education / Weber, Luc E.; Ed.; Duderstadt, James J.; Ed. /
University of Geneva.-- London, Paris, Geneva, Economica, 2008. 290 p. - ISBN: 978-2-7178-
5507-4

The Internationalization of Higher Education [Theme issue] / UNESCO European Centre for
Higher Education [Romania].-- In: Higher Education in Europe, vol. 32, no. 4, 2008. ISSN: 0379-7724

Transnational education in China: critical issues, and strategies for success/ Helms, Robin
Matros / Observatory on Borderless Higher Education [UK].-- London, 2008. 31 p. (Report)

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LESSON 9
CHALLENGES AND IMPACT OF GLOBALIZATION IN HIGHER
EDUCATION

Learning Objectives
1. discuss how globalization and the educational needs of developed nations present
universities with a number of challenges and opportunities;
2. show how it is ideally suited to form international partnerships with other educational
systems; and
3. explain the need for access to the Philippine higher educational system in a global context.

Keywords and Phrases

• Challenge
• Strategic partnerships
• Interdependence
• Knowledge of Society
• Internationalism
• Internal Fabric
• Multi-cultural education

Introduction
Globalization is simply a new form of Capitalism. It certainly couldn’t be that simple. It is
definitely a much more complex, far reaching concept, influencing almost every aspect of our lives.
Globalization is a kind of standardization or harmonization. In the world of international business and
industry, standardization insures consistent quality and a common basic for cooperation.

The Influence of globalization is not limited to governmental and economic situation. Such
diverse areas as fashion, language, education, cultural value, art, law and society can be significantly
influenced, and a more subtle influence can be felt all aspects of human activity. Those segments most
directly impact by the effects of globalization.

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 Globalization causes internationalization to occur, or more accurately, internationalization is
the result of globalization. The result of bringing cultures, people, economics, laws and governments into
direct interaction and influence or the preparation of the countries to adjust to accommodate the changes
associated with globalization.

Globalization and Higher Education: Eight Common Perceptions From University Leaders

The term “globalization” represents the international system that is shaping most societies today.
It is a process that is “super charging” the interaction and integration of cultures, politics, business and
intellectual elements around the world. Driven by technology, information and finance, a full spectrum of
views exist, some praising, some disparaging, as to the value of globalization. However, most observers
believe that the ability to harness the good from globalization and avoid the bad lies in the cultivation of
knowledge (see - Robertson 1992; Ali 2000; Friedman 2000; Newman, Couturier and Scurry 2005).

Today, possessing knowledge and having the ability to use knowledge in a world-wide arena is
critical to personal and societal advancement. Likewise, having a skilled and globally focused workforce
is perhaps the most important ingredient to any organization’s competitiveness in a world where
competitors can come from next door or around the world. Any entity that does not support an
environment that attracts, sustains and retains creative, imaginative, and globally resourceful individuals
will eventually fall behind. The role of higher education in such nurturing is most apparent as universities
and colleges are considered by many to be the primary suppliers of such individuals (see Florida 2002
and Friedman 2005).

What are institutions of higher education doing to create an environment that nurtures
promising individuals and allows future knowledge workers to compete globally? How are such
institutions responding to the needs of students, faculties and their communities such that each has the
ability to prosper in the interconnected milieu of the 21st century? Do the leaders of such institutions
profess a common body of thought, wisdom or insight with respect to higher education and
globalization? The following represents the findings of a year-long investigation into these questions.
Eight commonly shared perceptions of the “realities” of globalization and higher education were revealed
from this effort. Each represents what leaders of U.S. universities, in general, are thinking in terms of the
internationalization of their institutions and communities.

In the research, 110 U.S. institutions of higher education (drawn primarily from the Institute of
International Education’s 2004 Open Doors Report) were benchmarked. “Benchmarking” entailed – 1)

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extensive perusal of institutional perspectives on internationalization or globalization as illuminated on
official web pages; 2) reviewing relevant secondary documents/reports, scholarly articles and conference
proceedings; and 3) interviewing presidents, vice-presidents, deans, directors and others who guide the
international education at the universities examined (a complete list of references related to this study is
available from the author upon request). The vast majority of participating institutions were research-
focused universities with 77% percent classified as Doctoral Research Extensive and 15% as Doctoral
Research Intensive. One hundred and one of the 110 were publicly funded.

Eight Common Perceptions

1. The internationalization of campus and community is both an opportunity and a challenge that
must be dealt with today. Study results indicated that university leaders understand and embrace this
point and feel an urgency to deal with it. Those in charge of programs, curricula and initiatives are
looking for solutions to the challenges of globalization. Key questions posed by those interviewed
included:

• What kind of careers are emerging in today’s interconnected world, where are they emerging
and how do we prepare our students and communities for them?

• How can our departments, schools and universities as a whole achieve an enhanced
international presence?

• How can institutions of higher education be positioned for success in today’s global
environment and what role should local, regional, national and international partners play?

• What global trends, developments and related research topics are most important to our
scholarly disciplines today, and how can we take advantage of such to create new knowledge in
the future?

The realities of globalization (greater competition, relentless pressures to innovate, new

worldwide markets and production options, growing concerns over cultural and environmental
degradation) have resulted in a common perception that “knowledge societies,” those that constantly
develop new ideas, technologies, methods, products and services are crucial for future prosperity. This
has resulted in even greater demands on universities to develop deep rooted entrepreneurial cultures that
are international in scope, such that the creation, transfer and use of knowledge is ongoing and evolving.

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Likewise, the growing competition among universities and other entities that now develop, distribute
and market education are compelling academic leaders to seek unique ways to differentiate their
programs from others’ programs.

To meet these challenges, institutions of higher education are seeking ways to further connect
their faculty, students and outside communities in a strategic infrastructure where ideas flow, new
initiatives blossom, flexibility abounds and global reputations expand. Knowledge development and the
commercialization of that knowledge in the international context are seen as the primary work of 21st
century universities.

When asked for his definition of a successful 21st century institution, Dr. John Heyl, Executive
Director for International Programs at Old Dominion University responded:

“Every campus is different so it depends on what environment you are in, what your
strengths are, to whom you are trying to cater, and where you want to go. For example,
the international student population at ODU has doubled over the last six years, and
we believe this has come about because of the goals we set for the university and the
resulting international programs and initiatives that we have developed. If you
provide a distinct and high quality product and back it up with meaningful service, the
rest will take care of itself. Institutions begin to be successful when they realize that
globalization is not going away and in response build a campus and community
culture that embraces tolerance, interconnectivity and openness.”

2. Vision matters - an institution’s buildings and infrastructure are only part of success equation.
Great universities need to let the world know they have a purpose and a vision concerning what they are
and what they seek to become.
University leaders interviewed tended to express a common vision that institutions of higher
education have two central responsibilities in society today, including 1) enlightening and preparing, not
just their students, but their respective communities as a whole for the challenges and opportunities
brought on by globalization, and 2) being the major supplier of the intellectual capital (knowledge
workers) that communities need to survive and prosper in the era of globalization.

Indeed, it was a vision or philosophy transmitted from the highest levels of university leadership
concerning the necessity and value of internationalization that guided and motivated most of the
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excellent programs and initiatives that were examined in this investigation. Without solid top level
visionary underpinnings, most exercises in internationalization were treated like ‘step children,’ allowed
at the table, but never given equal status with others, and thus, never really influential in terms of campus
culture or community impact.

Former President Herman B. Wells of Indiana University - Bloomington set the tone for bringing
the world to large public university, saying that “the campus of Indiana University is not just in
Bloomington, or even the state of Indiana; it encompasses the four corners of the globe. And our campus
culture from the top echelons of leadership to the bottom rungs of entering freshmen must reflect this
reality.”

3. Effective university leaders do not demand an embrace of the international arena at their
institutions. What they do is establish broad policies and priorities related to innovative initiatives
aimed at developing a global culture throughout their campus and community, and then let the creative
entrepreneurs take over.

The study revealed that the most fruitful internationally focused initiatives, while meshing with
broad university values (i.e., top quality scholarship, excellence in teaching, high moral standards, a
student oriented environment), were also aimed at establishing a campus and community-wide global
orientation. Likewise, for almost all universities that embraced significant international programs there
were clearly delineated “guiding principles” that defined where priorities would lie, how efforts related
to such priorities would be supported and how success would be rewarded. Clearly stated policies and
resulting priorities led to a myriad of noteworthy international initiatives among the universities
examined. These initiatives include exceptional visiting scholar support, unique degree and non-degree
certification options, distinctive overseas study agendas, exclusive international internships, innovative
student scholarships, part-time job options in the international arenas; outstanding cross-disciplinary
grant opportunities for faculty, and promising overseas partnerships, all of which meshed with their
respective institutional vision and strengths.

Getting meaningful initiatives off the ground was typically accompanied by broad-based “buy-
ins,” beginning with the top university leadership, but also including deans and department heads at
specifics schools, directors of centers, individual faculty members, students, and the broader community-
based leadership as well. In 1995, The University of Pennsylvania initiated a planning process entitled
“Agenda for Excellence,” which had as one of its primary goals the enhancement of the university’s global

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position and international reputation both at home and overseas. Today, all twelve of Penn's schools and
virtually every academic program incorporate a global perspective as part of their curricula, and faculty in
a wide variety of disciplines view international issues and comparative approaches as integral to their
research agendas. Leadership at the university has continually restated its commitment to this focus and
has indicated in a variety of communications that global dimensions are becoming even more important
as information and technology reduce the natural barriers of time and distance, resulting in the need for
more globally educated graduates.

4. Exemplary international programs and initiatives succeed or fail based primarily on the
dedication and capability of their faculty champions, their creative entrepreneurs.
Among the universities studied, the role of faculty was seen as central and critical to an
institution’s embrace of globalization. While many internationally-focused programs tended to have a
clear vision of what they hoped to accomplish, along with solid backing from the president and other key
leaders (as well as a dedicated and skilled support staff), it was a motivated, entrepreneurial faculty,
more so than any other component, which drove international success. In numerous ways, interviewees
indicated that universities must create a team of dedicated, internationally focused faculty, give them
responsibility for initiatives, and then get out of their way and reward them for superior effort and
results. Findings also indicate that global focused faculty can come from many different places, including
one’s own campus, overseas institutions, alliances of multiple institutions, or the cross-town community
college.

The University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill (UNC), through its University Center for
International Studies (UCIS) is an excellent example of an institution which emphasizes the central role
of its faculty in developing programs of excellence. Mr. Raymond Farrow, Director of Development for
UCIS, explained that in the early 1990s only a small number of individual faculty at UNC accomplished
what the university undertook internationally. For the most part, these individuals operated
independently and, because of this, UNC failed to realize significant synergies of effort. Mr. Farrow
indicated that these “faculty champions” of international initiatives were primarily self-motivated as
there were no specific rewards for such work at UNC. Likewise, there were no significant efforts at UNC
to join these champions into some sort of coherent whole. Realization of this shortcoming led to the
establishment of the UCIS in 1993. This pan-university center is now charged with identifying and
encouraging UNC faculty members to further their careers by incorporating an international dimension
into all they do. The Center also forms the basis for cross-campus sharing of international undertakings
and the breaking down of traditional disciplinary “silos” such that cross-functional insights and ideas can

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be nurtured and brought to fruition. UNC appreciated early on that much could be gained in the overall
arena of international research and education, if motivated faculty members were encouraged to interact
and to know what one another were doing. Mr. Farrow emphasized that at the core of UNC’s global
culture is a widely held belief that much of the “new knowledge” being developed comes from these
efforts.

5. Students are central to the success of any university’s attempt to globalize its campus and
community, and students are the primary reason why a university should embrace
internationalization.

Findings also revealed a widely held tenet, that if students are to fully assume positions of
leadership and responsibility in specific organizations and in society as a whole, then they must be
prepared to deal with the global environment that confronts them today and will continue to challenge
them in the future. Both domestic and international students must be woven into any institution’s
“international fabric” if a genuinely globalized on-campus and community-wide environment is to be
achieved.

Institutions with outstanding international programs were those that cultivated an underlying
philosophy of providing an international environment and international experience for all their students.
This required a concerted focus on both international students studying on campus and domestic
students studying abroad. It also required dedicated efforts by faculty and administrators to create
innovative on-campus courses, programs and events of learning that allowed both international and
domestic students to interact with one another and to think outside their regional or national “boxes.” It
also required strategic alliances with the outside communities that envelop a university and bring a “real
world” dimension to the initiatives and programs undertaken on behalf of students. The more successful
institutions tended to view themselves as an education service provider with the larger community being
their customer, and the student being their “raw material” that was being shaped, molded and guided in
order to eventually achieve excellence in the global arena. Most understood that making their students
receptive to this view depended on what they offered in the way of globally relevant education and
experience opportunities and how they catered to and provided services related to their global education.

Georgia Tech University exemplifies this in many ways. GTU has over 2,400 international
students representing 100 countries. This comprises roughly thirteen percent of the total student
population. Forty percent of all master level graduate students at GTU are international, as are 50

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percent of doctoral candidates. The university supports these students through 33 internationally
oriented clubs and organizations. The majority of these organizations are designed to promote cultural
interaction among all GTU students and the Atlanta community. The university also makes effective use
of its international educational partnerships to recruit overseas students. One successful tactic in this
regard is to promote GTU as an institution where one can get an additional “third” cultural experience
(i.e., beyond one’s home country and the United States) by studying at one of the university’s partner
institutions in Hong Kong, Europe, or South America. The university also hosts an annual “Culture Fest”
that brings students, faculty, and Atlanta businesses and government leaders together in a “melting pot”
of cultural activity. [To read more about GTU, an honorable mention recipient of IIE’s 2006 Heiskell
Awards, go to page XXX.]

6. No institution is an island. Partnerships and alliances are critical components of international

educational development and a global focus.

The value of university partnerships (whether they are developed by the university as a whole, or
contained within various colleges, schools, departments or programs) with local, regional, national and
international communities is well understood by leaders in higher education. Partnerships or alliances
can take on many forms including those with other institutions of education (within the United States
and overseas), within a framework of a consortium of universities (again, within the United States and
overseas), with a university and its alumni (both U.S. based and international), and with a university and
various for-profit, not-for-profit, governmental, non-governmental, and other types of organizations. The
list of possibilities is truly only limited by a university’s vision and corresponding goals.

The goals of university-community alliances can vary widely, including enhancing the content
and array of educational offerings, recruiting new students and faculty, and raising funds or developing
streams of revenues to support mutual aspirations such as building a shared global reputation as a
progressive and engaged community. In the words of Dr. William Bosher, Former Dean, School of
Education, Virginia Commonwealth University: “The focus of the university should not be location,
location, location, but relation, relation, relation. A central ingredient to strong international programs is
the establishment of meaningful relationships based on common values and goals and a sense of trust
between partners. In today’s globalized world this reality has never been more important.”

7. The organization behind a university’s international efforts appears to work best when it is both
centralized and decentralized.

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 Perhaps the most prominent commonality among the institutions examined, particularly those
that exhibited progressive and innovative approaches to their international programs, initiatives and
alliances, was the organizational structure that guided their efforts. Both centralized and decentralized
dimensions were apparent. On the one hand, the majority of successful institutions had a centralized
“one-stop” office for administering, advising, coordinating, implementing, and maintaining all
international activities.

On the other hand, it was apparent that while information on almost all international programs
could be found in the centralized international office, most successful international programs were
championed by a specific faculty (or individual) of a specific school, department, center or other
decentralized branch of an institution. In general, innovative initiatives tended to have clearly designated
individuals with known “creative” expertise who developed, promoted, managed, maintained and
continually sought to improve a given program. Such “champions” tended to passionately advance their
programs by actively campaigning for their support both within the academic and larger outside
community environments.

Dr. John Holm, executive director of Cleveland State University’s Center for International
Services and Programs (CISP) articulated this reality saying that “…it is information flow that forms the
basis of a campus and community-wide international culture. Good ideas can come from the top, the
bottom or the side. The key is to have an organizational structure that encourages and facilitates the
exchange of information, ideas and ultimately knowledge.”

8. Branding of the university in the international arena is a responsibility that all must understand
and share.

Another commonly held perception that was derived from this research centered on the notion of
branding a university in the international arena. Most of the university leaders interviewed viewed their
institutions as a brand, whose reputation (good and bad) is built primarily by the people that make up its
entire or extended community, including creative faculty, loyal students, proud alumni, committed
partners, and visionary administrators. Such people tend to be guided by the principle that a university’s
global standing is a product of the relationships it has with its extended constituencies.

These relationships were considered equal in value to a university’s infrastructure or its ultimate

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product, namely education itself. The more successful, globally focused universities tended to be those
that proactively harnessed the emotional as well as the intellectual connections with all members of their
extended communities. Such universities articulated worthy causes, communicated important outcomes
and promised meaningful experiences worthy of one’s energies, time and allegiance. In other words,
among great universities, an overarching reality is that success is not just about the education (the
product), or the buildings (the infrastructure) it is about the people.
Two concluding insights from this work can be offered. The first relates to perhaps the most
profound hallmark of the new millennium – the ever-increasing interdependence of our world.
Globalization is here, it is not going away, and those that embrace it will benefit the most. Indeed, the
majority of forward-thinking individuals interviewed for this research envisioned their university, city,
region and state from an emerging global community perspective. The second insight is that a good part,
if not the majority of any institution of higher education’s success comes from the people that develop,
nurture, manage, consume and grow from the international experience offered by the institution.
Universities that understand this, and get it right, are more than likely to be out in front in terms of
global preeminence.

Reading Assignment:
• Links
 http://www.iienetwork.org/page/84658/
 http://72.14.235.132/search?q=cache:irVQgBvisUkJ:conf.ncku.edu.tw/satu/event/2003/file
/Presentation/Narong%2520Jaiharn,%2520Vice%2520Rector%2520of%2520Thammasat
%2520University,%2520Thailand.doc+Challenges+and+Impact+of+Globalization+for+H
igher+Education&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=9

Exercises/written assignments
Activity

Today we live in a globalized education and economy. Prepare a 5 page paper on the impact of
globalization to the Philippine higher educational system and its institutions.

References/bibliography
Ali, Abbas, J. (2000), Globalization of Business: Practice and Theory, International Business Press,
Binghamton, NY.
Florida, Richard (2002), The Rise of the Creative Class, Basic Books, New York, New York.

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 Friedman, Thomas L. (2000), The Lexus and the Olive Tree, First Anchor Books edition, New York,
New York.
Friedman, Thomas L. (2005), The World is Flat: a Brief History of the Twenty – First Century, Farrar,
Straus and Giroux, New York, New York.
Institute of International Education (2004), Open Doors, Retrieved from http://www.iie.org/
Newman, Frank; Lara Couturier and Jamie Scurry (2005), The Future of Higher Education: Rhetoric,
Reality, and the Risks of Markets, John Wiley & Sons, San Francisco, Ca.
Robertson, R. (1992), Globalization: Social Theory and Global Culture, London, Sage Publications.
http://www.iienetwork.org/page/84658/

LESSON 10
VIRTUAL SCHOOLS AND THE 21ST CENTURY SKILLS

Learning Objectives
1. analyze the effectiveness of the present education in the Philippines;
2. combine the modern skills with the effective use of technology to succeed in current and
future jobs; and
3. ensure that students who learn in online environments are gaining the skills necessary to
compete as citizens and workers in the 21 century.

Keywords and Phrases

• Traditional Degree
• Wi-fi
• Distance Learning
• e-Learning
• WBT
• Access Equity
• CBT

Introduction
Education has been around for thousands of years, but computers and the Internet have recently
made classrooms available to more people than ever before. Whether you call it online education,

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distance learning, e-learning, or by some other name, electronic communication has revolutionized
teaching and learning.

What is Virtual or Online Education/Distance Learning?

Online education, commonly called e-learning or distance learning, is a method of offering

education to learners who are not located on a campus. The instructor prepares lessons and assigns
homework like normal, but the assignments are posted on the Internet, where the students can retrieve
them from any computer. Most assignments are also submitted electronically and grades are sent via e-
mail.

What are the types of Online Education?

Online education comes in a wide variety of styles. You may never actually meet your instructor
face to face on the other hand, your teacher may use a mixture of in-person and online learning for the
class. All of your instructional materials may be online, or they may be standard textbooks. You may have
a CD or DVD as supplementary material for your class.

How do potential employers view degrees and academic qualifications earned through online
education?

Most employers these days are familiar with the concept of online classes, even entire degree
programs conducted in the "virtual" classroom. Employers are more concerned that the educational
institution from which you graduated is accredited than the method you used to obtain your degree.
Many students today employ a mix of in-person and online classes to reach their degrees, so even
completely online degrees are no longer uncommon.

How common is Distance Learning?

Distance learning is everywhere today. Corporations and the Federal Government use it to cut
down on training costs and deliver "just in time" training to employees. Colleges and universities use it to
reach out to non-traditional students or to the disabled. Many instructors also enjoy teaching online, as
they have resources at their fingertips via the Web, and can hold online discussions that are as
challenging as in-person.

What are the Online Education trends?

While online education is still in its infancy, some trends are developing. One is that online
classes are generally listed right alongside standard, on-campus classes. That's because the content is
now identical. Also, more companies are offering complete "turn key" packages to learning institutions,

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making the addition of e-learning options as easy as signing a contract. A third trend is that gaming
concepts such as role playing and interactive games are being used to engage adult learners.

How to avoid plagiarism?

Plagiarism, or the practice of using someone else's words or work as your own, is a growing
problem on college campuses. The availability of information via the Internet has exacerbated the
problem, but it's easily avoided. Once you read a reference source, take a few minutes to condense it into
your own words. How would you explain it to a friend? To your professor? Write that down, and you'll
avoid plagiarism.

What is the difference between earning an online and traditional degree?

Other than location, there is no difference between earning an online or traditional degree. Just
like any other class, you'll be assigned reading tasks, homework and other work to complete. Your work
will be graded. You can confer with your instructor and usually with your classmates. An online degree
can carry exactly the same weight as a traditional degree.

What do I need to get started?

To get started with distance learning, you first need to decide what you want to do. Online
education offers a variety of schooling, such as Associate, Bachelor and Masters degrees and vocational
training.
Next, you need to find an accredited online organization. Many schools, colleges and universities
offer online education. Distance learning is becoming more popular and so the number of online courses
is multiplying, but not all of them offer valid qualifications. You also need to ensure that the course offers
you what you want in terms of qualifications and subjects covered. Be sure to find out the prerequisite
class and equipment requirements needed to complete the course. It's important to remember that some
online courses do have a classroom element and you need to find out if that is the case for the class (es)
you take.

How do I know if it is for me?

Online education is suitable for a wide range of people, young and old, working or unemployed,
experienced or inexperienced. It gives people the opportunity to earn an educational degree / training
even if they don't have the time to spend in the classroom. However, because there is little personal
contact, you do need to be someone who is disciplined and can study independently. You can work at
your own pace and re-take courses if necessary, but you need to persist in order to succeed. You will also

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need to have good reading and comprehension skills. In addition, you will be missing out on the social
element of the more traditional schools so you should consider whether this matters to you or not.

What preparations are needed?

If you have been out of an education setting for a considerable period of time, you might want to
brush up on your study skills. Some websites offer free course materials that include study skills. These
do not offer certificates or qualifications, but they can give you the skills required to complete a course.
They will also give you an idea of what it is like to study online. Some online education courses may
include all of the study materials that you require, but for others you may need to buy textbooks and if
this is so, then you should get a list before you start.

What kind of equipment and technical requirements should I have?

The equipment that you will need in order to take advantage of online education depends on the way
the course is constructed. Some courses are conducted via email, while others require you to have more
complicated systems such as video or voice conferencing and mobile devices. At minimum, you will
require:
• An up-to-date computer, preferably no more than 3 years old.
• A high-speed Internet connection, either broadband or Wi-Fi.
• A TV and VCR or DVD player.
• A CD player.
• A personal email account.
If you don't have such equipment available to you at home, many public libraries have computers and
Internet access that can be used for a fee. There are also many Internet cafes, although this may work out
to be quite expensive. As most of your course will be conducted online, you need to have at least a
working knowledge of computers. You don't need to be able to program, but you do need to know how
to login, process your email and navigate your way around the computer.

What are the educational requirements?

This depends on the type of online course you are taking. Some online courses do not require any
formal qualifications, although you may be required to obtain a certain amount of relevant job
experience. However, if you are attempting to acquire a degree, then you will need to achieve a certain
educational standard in the relevant subjects. You should contact your chosen school, college or
university to find out what their requirements are. Some may have an exam that you must complete
successfully before you are accepted into the program.

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Advantages and Disadvantages of Online Learning

There are several distinct advantages and disadvantages of designing, developing, and delivering
web-based training [WBT]. By carefully weighing your audience and training content against this list of
advantages and disadvantages, you should be able to better judge if what you have in mind is right for
Web dissemination.

ADVANTAGES:

1. Extendibility, Accessibility, and Suitability - Users can proceed through a training program at
their own pace and at their own place. They can also access the training at any time, receiving
only as much as they need.
2. Quicker (and cheaper) turn-around of finished product.
3. Collaborative and exploratory learning environments.
4. Easy and affordable training delivery - ...Validate what browser(s) your audience has and what
version(s).
5. Cross Platform - ...you can deliver your training course to any machine over the Internet or
company intranet without having to develop a different course for each unique platform.
6. Inexpensive worldwide distribution - No separate or distinct distribution mechanism is needed
(i.e., distributing CD-ROMs for CBT training). WBT can be accessed from any computer
anywhere in the world while at the same time keeping delivery costs down.
7. Reduced technical support.
8. Ease of content update - The changes you make to any of your content are immediately available
to your learning audience across the world.
9. Installation options on private networks for security or greater bandwidth. If you opt for intranet
delivery, you have more control over plug-ins and bandwidth.
10. Travel cost and time savings - Learning is delivered directly to the learner.
11. Web browsers and Internet connections are widely available.
12. WBT-based development is easier to learn and pick up than CBT[computer]-based development.
13. Vast, untapped market for training
14. Access is controllable - You can direct and monitor who receives web training - when, how many
times, and in what sequence.
15. Billing options - You can bill - and collect on that bill - through Net distribution, billing by user
ID, number of accesses, date/time of access, or any other means by which you want to assess
usage.
16. Direct access to many other training resources

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DISADVANTAGES:

1. Limited formatting of content in current browsers - The WBT you create will not resemble the
CBT you might be familiar with because of Net bandwidth constraints. So if your content relies
on a lot of media "bells and whistles," or particular formatting, the Net might not be the best
delivery medium.
2. Bandwidth/browser limitations may restrict instructional methodologies -...If your content relies
on a lot of video, audio, or intense graphics, and your audience isn't on a T1 line, Net delivery will
only frustrate your learners.
3. Limited bandwidth means slower performance for sound, video, and large graphics...
4. Someone must provide web server access, control usage, and bill users (if applicable)...
5. Time required for downloading applications.
6. Student assessment and feedback is limited.
7. Many, if not most, of today's web-based training programs are too static, with little if any
interactivity.
8. Cannot design and develop robust multimedia courses - The bandwidth limitations of the Net
constrain what can be delivered effectively.
9. Are computers replacing human contact? - The Net is not right for all training.
10. Newness - ...new technologies always require time, experience, and money in order to take full
advantage of its capabilities.
11. Web-based training has high-fixed costs."

Reading Assignment:
• Links
 http://209.85.175.132/search?q=cache:TAtZxZC3oWsJ:telem-
pub.openu.ac.il/users/aviv/papers/AERA-
ContentAnalysis.pdf+concept+of+online+education&hl=en&ct=clnk&cd=8
 http://www.ion.uillinois.edu/resources/tutorials/overview/reid.html

Exercises/written assignments
Activity

To answer the problem on "access and equity", alternative learning systems are offered in all levels of
education. Cite at least five (5) features of this innovation mode of delivery higher education programs.

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Give two existing programs of (any of the three) innovative ways of delivering education programs and
propose a program designed by you on open and distance learning.

References/bibliography
http://www.academicinfo.net/online-education#box-2-1

http://www.comminit.com/en/node/210058/36

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