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Article
Social Factors That Influence Use of ICT in
Agricultural Extension in Southern Africa
Joyous S. Tata *,† and Paul E. McNamara †
The Department of Agricultural and Consumer Economics (ACE), University of Illinois Urbana Champaign,
326 Mumford Hall, 1301 W. Gregory Drive Urbana, IL 61801, USA; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]; Tel.: +1-217-300-3561; Fax: +1-217-244-7088
† These authors contributed equally to this work.
Abstract: Farmbook is a novel information communication technology (ICT) tool for agricultural
extension that is currently being field tested by the Catholic Relief Services (CRS) in Southern and
East Africa. Farmbook enables extension agents to assess productivity and profitability of farming
enterprises in a faster and more reliable manner, so as to increase farmer incomes and achieve food
security. This study looked at the relationship between challenges faced by extension agents testing
the Farmbook application and select socio-economic indicators influencing their work. Specific
objectives were to identify and categorize the challenges facing extension agents in the field as they
used Farmbook, assess gender differences in the use of Farmbook by extension agents, understand
the relationship between socio-economic status of extension agents and the challenges faced in
using Farmbook. Data were collected through document reviews, administration of a structured
questionnaire and focus group meetings with field agents. Descriptive statistics and multivariate
techniques were used to analyze data. The results show that personal and wider socio-economic
conditions do have an impact on the proficiency of extension agents using Farmbook. The study
goes on to recommend measures to improve the training and ICT proficiency of extension agents
adopting Farmbook.
Keywords: Farmbook; ICT; Catholic Relief Services; agricultural extension; Zambia; mosaic plots
1. Introduction
As the world’s present population grows from 6.7 to 9.1 billion by 2050, food production will
need to double over this same period [1]. Thus, more effective extension services are needed to address
agricultural challenges including meeting the information needs of poor smallholder farmers in
developing countries. In response, agricultural extension experts and institutions around the world are
promoting the use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) by agricultural extension and
education agents. ICTs can expedite the process of agricultural technology transfer from research and
development institutions to farmers. ICTs improve adoption of agricultural technology by supporting
farmer learning, problem solving, and accessibility to profitable markets for their crops [2].
Research findings reveal that ICTs do improve the productivity and livelihoods of poor
smallholder farmers [3]. Interestingly, Anastasios et al. [4], in their study of ICTs as agricultural
extension tools in Greece, found that ICTs supplement rather than replace traditional extension
methods. A study exploring the use of ICTs by extension agents in the Caribbean found that they use
ICTs for personal benefits and increased professional productivity, but also continue to use traditional
interaction methods with farmers [5]. However, Lasley et al. [6] have expressed the view that ICTs
could eventually replace traditional information and training systems used by extension services and
even alter the role of extension agents.
Socio-economic factors have been cited as major determinants of extension agents’ use and
eventual adoption of ICTs. Akpabio et al. [7] found that poor ICT infrastructural development,
high cost of broadcast equipment, high charges for radio/television presentations, high cost of
access/interconnectivity and electricity power problems were amongst the constraints affecting ICT
utilization by agricultural extension officers in the Niger Delta, Nigeria. Anastasios et al. [8] showed
that Internet access in rural Greece was influenced by income and gender for “basic users”, by the
existence of a young member in the family for “interactive users”, and by the digital divide between
rural versus urban location and farmer’s competency for the “farm oriented users”.
In addition, Mwombe et al. [9] showed that age, gender, income and acreage of bananas planted
had an influence on the intensity of use of ICT tools, as a source of agricultural information for
smallholder banana farmers in Gatanga district, Kenya. Results from a comparative study on ICT
use in agriculture in Botswana, Ghana, Kenya and Uganda found that low capacity and inadequate
infrastructure were major challenges to ICT use in agriculture [3]. The study showed that although
cellular phones, the Internet, radio, and web-based applications have become increasingly important
in sharing and disseminating agricultural information and knowledge, and in marketing goods and
services, there is low capacity and usage of ICTs and that inadequate ICT infrastructure in rural areas
is a major problem.
In view of these findings that socio-economic factors influence the adoption of ICTs by agricultural
extension agents, this study seeks to understand how socio-economic factors influenced the pilot
roll-out of Farmbook, a new ICT tool, among extension agents in Southern Africa. The study proceeds
by assessing the relationship between challenges faced by extension agents using Farmbook and select
socio-economic indicators including gender. The study is informed by the Diffusion of Innovation
(DoI) theory [10].
This theory has been widely used to inform the design of several information systems projects,
and in managing the diffusion of agricultural innovations [12,13]. An important critique of Rogers
diffusion theory is its inherent assumption that diffusion is a one-way top-down process from sender to
receiver; development communication experts now acknowledge that effective adoption of innovation
is more likely through participatory processes than through top-down processes [14]. Rogers diffusion
theory also focused more on the perceived attributes of the innovation as the driver of adoption and
less on the social and economic factors [15,16]. This study thus contributes to understanding the role
of social and economic factors in the diffusion of innovation.
In this study diffusion is viewed as a process by which the innovation, in this case Farmbook,
is communicated through certain channels, including public and private extension systems, farmer
based organizations, and farmers groups over time among smallholder farmers (particularly farmers
doing farming as a business or collective marketing). In this study, Farmbook is presented as an
innovation that can be used to substitute the traditional business planning methods currently used by
extension agents in developing countries. The traditional process of business planning is lengthy, time
consuming, performed with paper and pen, is highly prone to error, difficult to conduct on a large
scale, and high in transaction costs.
1.3. Objectives
The overall objective of this study is to assess the influence of select socio-economic factors on
adoption of Farmbook ICT by extension field agents in Southern Africa. Specific objectives were:
1. To identify and categorize the challenges hindering extension agents from the effective use
of Farmbook
2. To understand the relationship between selected national development indicators and the effective
use of Farmbook by extension agents
3. To assess gender differences in the use of Farmbook by extension agents
4. To understand the relationship between socio-economic status of extension agents and the
challenges faced in using Farmbook
5. To understand the relationship between proficiency in the use of the Internet and the use of
Farmbook by extension agents
6. To recommend adaptive measures to improve the training received by extension agents adopting
Farmbook in order to enhance their effective use of the technology
‚ What is the relationship between challenges faced by extension agents using Farmbook and the personal
and societal socio-economic context influencing their work?
Following from this, the research null hypothesis guiding this study is as follows:
‚ Personal and wider socio-economic context have no impact on challenges faced by extension agents using
Farmbook.
Agriculture 2016, 6, 15 4 of 10
2. Experimental Section
Agriculture 2016, 6, 15 5 of 10
and 36.7% from Zimbabwe. In addition 76.7% were male and 23.3% were female giving a ratio of 3:1.
ratiodistribution
Age of 3:1. Age distribution
was from 22 wasto 50from 22with
years, to 50an
years, withofan
average 35average of 3546.7%
years; with years;below
with 35
46.7%
and below
53.3%
35 and 53.3% above 35 years. On the academic front 23.3% had high school qualifications,
above 35 years. On the academic front 23.3% had high school qualifications, 20% had professional 20% had
professional qualifications, 46.7% had Bachelor’s degree, and 10% had Masters’ degree.
qualifications, 46.7% had Bachelor’s degree, and 10% had Masters’ degree. Lastly, on the broad job Lastly, on
the broad job
description description 66.7%
of respondents, of respondents, 66.7%
are principally are principally
field-based field-based
while 33.3% while 33.3%
are office-based, giving are
a
office-based,
ratio of 2:1. giving a ratio of 2:1.
Figure 1. Challenges
Figure 1. Challenges to
to using
using Farmbook and country
Farmbook and country of
of research
research participants.
participants.
The height
The height of
of the
the bars
bars in
in Figure
Figure 11 represents
represents the
the variable
variable “farmbook
“farmbook challenges”
challenges” on
on the
the (Y)
(Y) axis.
axis.
This has two data points: “farmlevel challenges” and “technical challenges”. Farmlevel challenges
This has two data points: “farmlevel challenges” and “technical challenges”. Farmlevel challenges
are related
are related to
tothe
thecontext
contextininwhich
whichthethe
farmer operates.
farmer Responses
operates. to thetoquestion
Responses “challenges
the question using
“challenges
farmbook” such as “absent farm records”, “low farmer literacy”, “low farmer IT skills”
using farmbook” such as “absent farm records”, “low farmer literacy”, “low farmer IT skills” were were
categorized as “farmlevel challenges”. Technical challenges include responses such as “software
categorized as “farmlevel challenges”. Technical challenges include responses such as “software
malfunction”, “low Internet connectivity”, and “insufficient technical support”.
malfunction”, “low Internet connectivity”, and “insufficient technical support”.
In mosaic plots, the lone standing bar on the far right shows the aggregate ratio of the (Y)
In mosaic plots, the lone standing bar on the far right shows the aggregate ratio of the (Y)
variable. Thus in Figure 1, about 75% of the research participants reported experiencing more
variable. Thus in Figure 1, about 75% of the research participants reported experiencing more farmlevel
farmlevel challenges than technical challenges. However, when this is disaggregated according to
challenges than technical challenges. However, when this is disaggregated according to the country of
the country of research participants, those from Malawi and Zimbabwe experienced more of
research participants, those from Malawi and Zimbabwe experienced more of farmlevel challenges
farmlevel challenges compared to those from Madagascar and Zambia.
compared to those from Madagascar and Zambia.
3.3. Relationship
3.3. between Farmbook
Relationship between Farmbook Challenges
Challenges and
and Gender
Gender
Women in
Women in our
our dataset
dataset reported
reported facing
facing more
more farmlevel
farmlevel challenges
challenges compared
compared to to their
their male
male
colleagues; conversely women reported lower occurrence of technical challenges
colleagues; conversely women reported lower occurrence of technical challenges to using the Farmbookto using the
Farmbook
ICT ICT application
application compared compared to their
to their male male colleagues
colleagues (Figure 2).(Figure
These2). Theseare
results results are to
similar similar to
several
several studies [21] that show that women tend to have lower levels of education compared
studies [21] that show that women tend to have lower levels of education compared to men, which to men,
whichtheir
limits limits theirparticipation
active active participation in that
in training training
usesthat
a lotuses a lot of
of written writtenand
material material
thus theand thus the
inability to
inability to keep
keep farm records. farm records.
Agriculture 2016, 6, 15 6 of 10
Agriculture 2016, 6, 15 6 of 10
Agriculture 2016, 6, 15 6 of 10
Figure
Figure 3.
3. Challenges
Challenges to
to using
using Farmbook
Farmbook and
and age
age group
group of
of extension
extension agents.
agents.
Figure 3. Challenges to using Farmbook and age group of extension agents.
3.5. Relationship between Farmbook Challenges and Educational Qualification
3.5. Relationship
Figure 4 shows between
thatFarmbook
a higher Challenges and Educational
ratio of Bachelor’s degree Qualification
holders’ reported experiencing technical
challenges
challenges with the use of Farmbook compared to the
Figure 4 shows that a higher ratio of Bachelor’s degree holders’ High
High Schoolreported
School certificate
certificate holders. Those
holders.
experiencing with
technical
professional qualifications experienced much more of farmlevel challenges
challenges with the use of Farmbook compared to the High School certificate holders. Those with than technical challenges
with thetheFarmbook
professional Farmbook
qualificationsapplication.
application.
experienced However,
However,muchnone none
of
more the of the degree
of masters’
farmlevel masters’ degree
holders
challenges than holders
reported
technical reported
experiencing
challenges
experiencing
any technical
with the Farmbookany technical challenges
challengesapplication. with
with using Farmbook. using
However,These Farmbook.
noneresults
of the These
are similar
masters’results
to those are
degree similar
of Strong
holders to those
et al.reportedof
[5], who
Strong et al.educational
found that
experiencing [5],
anywho found
technical that educational
levelschallenges
of extension levelsplayed
officers
with using of extension inofficers
a role These
Farmbook. played
technology
results a similar
role in with
acceptance
are technology
to higher
those of
acceptance
Strong al.with
levels ofeteducation higher
[5], who earned levels
found ofeducational
resulting
that education earned
in an increase resulting
levelsinoftechnology
extensionin use.
an increase in Morris
Dossplayed
officers and technology
a role[22] use. Doss
found
in technologythat
and Morris with
educational
acceptance [22]
levelfound
was one
higher that ofeducational
levels the
ofmost levelearned
was one
commonly
education citedofbinding
the most
resulting commonly
increaseincited
inconstraints
an bindingadoption.
intechnology
technology constraints
use. Doss
in technology
and Morris [22] adoption.
found that educational level was one of the most commonly cited binding constraints
in technology adoption.
Agriculture 2016, 6, 15 7 of 10
Agriculture 2016, 6, 15 7 of 10
Agriculture 2016, 6, 15 7 of 10
Figure
Figure 4.
4. Challenges
Challenges to
to using
using Farmbook
Farmbook and
and educational
educational qualification.
qualification.
Figure 4. Challenges to using Farmbook and educational qualification.
The results suggest that the highly educated extension agents, those with Master’s degrees,
The results
resultssuggest
suggestthat
thatthe highly
the educated
highly educatedextension agents,
extension thosethose
agents, with with
Master’s degrees,
Master’s could
degrees,
could be trained on the more sophisticated aspects of the Farmbook technology so that they can fulfil
be trained
could on theon
be trained more sophisticated
the more aspects
sophisticated of theofFarmbook
aspects technology
the Farmbook so that
technology theythey
so that can can
fulfil the
fulfil
the role of providing technical support to the others.
rolerole
the of providing technical
of providing support
technical to the
support to others.
the others.
3.6.
3.6. Relationship
Relationship between
between Farmbook
Farmbook Challenges
Challenges and
and Ability
Ability to
to Use
Use the
the Internet
Internet
3.6. Relationship between Farmbook Challenges and Ability to Use the Internet
Figure 5 reveals
Figure 55 reveals that
reveals that the
that the more
the more comfortable extension agents
agents are
are with
with using
using the
the Internet
Internet the
the less
Figure more comfortable extension agents
comfortable extension are with using the Internet the less
less
the
the ratio
ratio that
that reported
reported experiencing
experiencing technical
technical challenges
challenges with
with Farmbook.
Farmbook. Extension
Extension agents
agents who
who were
were
the ratio that reported experiencing technical challenges with Farmbook. Extension agents who were
excellent
excellent atat using
using the
the Internet
Internet were
were most
most comfortable
comfortable with
with Farmbook
Farmbook technology
technology and
and those
those least
least able
able
excellent at using the Internet were most comfortable with Farmbook technology and those least able
to
to use
use the
the Internet
Internet were
were most
most uncomfortable.
uncomfortable.
to use the Internet were most uncomfortable.
Figure
Figure 6.
6. Challenges
Challenges to
to using
using Farmbook
Farmbook and
and Internet
Internet access
access in
in the
the field.
field.
4.
4. Conclusions
Conclusions
Farmbook
Farmbook is an an innovation
innovationthat thatcan
canbebe used
used to to substitute
substitute thethe traditional
traditional manual,
manual, costly,
costly, and
and time
time consuming
consuming business business
planning planning
methods methods
currently currently
used byused by extension
extension agents inagents in developing
developing countries.
countries.
FarmbookFarmbook
allows extensionallows agents
extension agents people
to register to registerintopeople into households,
households, register
register farmers intofarmers
farmer
into farmer
groups, groups,
enables farmersenables
to runfarmers to run
profitability profitability
analyses analyses
for specific for specific
products, enablesproducts,
farmer groupsenables to
farmer
developgroups
business to plans,
develop business
supports cropplans, supports
production crop production
scheduling and allows scheduling
field agentsand to allows field
record farm
agents to recordand
visits, training farm visits,
assets training and assets transferred.
transferred.
In
In addition,
addition, the theapplication
applicationprovides
providesfarmers
farmerswith withaccess
accesstotoa abusiness
business planning
planning software
software that is
that
focused on improving their product and market opportunity, and
is focused on improving their product and market opportunity, and helping them access credits. helping them access credits. It
provides
It provides customized
customized business
businessplansplansthat
thatcan
canhelp
helpindividual
individualfarmers
farmersanalyze
analyzefarmfarm preparation
preparation costs,
type
type and cost of investment loans, sales, revenues and profits.
The
The null
null hypothesis
hypothesis that that guided
guided this
this study
study was was that socio-economic
socio-economic factors factors have
have nono impact
impact on on
the
the challenges
challenges facedfaced by extension agents using Farmbook. Our Our results
results havehave however
however shown
shown thatthat
socio-economic
socio-economic factors factorsincluding
includinggender,
gender,age, age,educational
educational qualification
qualification andandInternet access
Internet accesshave an
have
impact
an impact on challenges
on challenges faced by extension
faced by extension agents using
agents Farmbook.
using Farmbook. TheseTheseresultsresults
correspond with
correspond
Mwombe
with Mwombe et al.’s et[9]al.’s
findings that socio-economic
[9] findings factors like
that socio-economic age, gender,
factors like age,income gender,andincome
acreageand of
bananas planted had an influence on the intensity of use of ICT
acreage of bananas planted had an influence on the intensity of use of ICT tools as a source oftools as a source of agricultural
information
agricultural for smallholder
information banana farmers
for smallholder in Gatanga
banana farmersdistrict,
in GatangaKenya. The results
district, Kenya.also
Thesupport the
results also
conclusion
support thethat social and
conclusion that economic
social and factors are important
economic factors are variables
important in the diffusion
variables of agricultural
in the diffusion of
innovation.
agricultural innovation.
Our
Our finding
finding show
show thatthat extension
extension officers with advanced degrees faced less technical challenges challenges
using Farmbookthan
using Farmbook thantheirtheir less-educated
less-educated colleagues.
colleagues. This finding
This finding underscores underscores
the need for theprofessional
need for
professional
developmentdevelopment
and capacityand capacity
building building
of officers of officers
lacking lacking
advanced advanced
degrees. degrees. Government
Government role should
role should
include raisinginclude raisinglevels
educational educational levels
of staff and of staff opportunities
increasing and increasing opportunities
to pursue advanced to degrees
pursue
advanced degrees for both men and women extension staff. This emphasizes
for both men and women extension staff. This emphasizes the need for in-service and on the job the need for in-service
and on the
training andjob training
capacity and capacity
building building
in the use of ICTsinforthe use of ICTs
extension for extension
officers. The highlyofficers.
educated The highly
extension
educated
staff couldextension
be trainedstaff on the could
morebe trained on aspects
sophisticated the more sophisticated
of the aspects of so
Farmbook technology the Farmbook
that they can
technology
fulfil the role soofthat they cantechnical
providing fulfil thesupport
role of to providing
the others. technical
This wouldsupport have to the
thelong-term
others. This would
benefit of
have the long-term
ensuring benefit ofbecomes
that the technology ensuringlocally
that the technology
owned, becomessustainability
thus enhancing locally owned, of thus enhancing
this agricultural
sustainability
extension approach.of this agricultural extension approach.
A
A second
second finding from our analyses worth flagging up is that survey participants with Internet
access
access inin the
the field and who were proficient at using the Internet experienced fewer challenges using using
Farmbook
Farmbook compared to their colleagues who had no Internet access in the field and who were not
compared to their colleagues who had no Internet access in the field and who were not
proficient in intheir
theiruse useofofthethe Internet.
Internet. Government
Government policies
policies towardstowards
improvedimproved infrastructure
infrastructure and
and access
access to Internet and other mobile communication technologies for rural people would improve the
overall use of Farmbook and other ICTs [23].
Agriculture 2016, 6, 15 9 of 10
to Internet and other mobile communication technologies for rural people would improve the overall
use of Farmbook and other ICTs [23].
Another role of government and the international community should be to increase awareness
of ICTs including Farmbook and integrate such technologies for use within government extension
programs. In addition, both the public and private sectors should work together to support further
ICT development and applications like Farmbook.
No innovation is without drawbacks—thus some of the limitations of the technology are as follows:
both extension agents and farmers need to be included in further improvement of the technology and
developing content for Farmbook. Farmers will find it more beneficial in some cases if it is in their
local languages. There is also a need to have a team on the ground to resolve technical problems as
soon as they arise rather than out-sourcing problem solving to experts based abroad. Lastly, there is
also a need to empower in-country nationals to own the technology.
Acknowledgments: This work was supported by the United States Agency for International Development
(USAID) (grant No. AID-OAA-L-10-00003) through the Modernizing Extension and Advisory Services (MEAS)
program at the University of Illinois Urbana Champaign, USA. The authors wish to thank Emmanuel Nuesiri for
reviewing earlier draft of the paper. We also wish to thank Shaun Ferris, Rupert Best and Geoffrey Heinrich of
Catholic Relief Services for their help during field work and data collection. Finally we are very grateful to the
blind reviewers for reviewing the article.
Author Contributions: Joyous S. Tata and Paul E. McNamara conceived the outline and wrote the paper.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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© 2016 by the authors; licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. This article is an open access
article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons Attribution
(CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).