Abdulaziz PDF
Abdulaziz PDF
Abdulaziz PDF
COMPUTER SIMULATIONS OF
INDUCED VOLTAGE CALCULATIONS IN
AC ELECTRIC TRACTION
IMTITHAL M ABDULAZIZ
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
NAPIER UNIVERSITY, EDINBURGH
APRIL 2003
MATHEMATICAL MODELLING AND
COMPUTER SIMULATIONS OF INDUCED
VOLTAGE CALCULATIONS IN AC
ELECTRIC TRACTION
April 2003
DEDICATED TO
Abbreviations used:
LM LocoMotives
M Messenger wire
mmf Magneto motive force
MTL Multi-conductor Transmission Line
OCS Overhead Catenary System
OHE OverHead Electrification
Olll. OverHead Line
PEC Perfect Electric Conductor
PUL Per-Unit Length
RF Mutual impedance of Return system against Feed system matrix
RR Self and mutual impedances of Return system matrix
RT Return conductor
TL Transmission Line
TP Touch Potential
3D Three Dimension
111
Symbols used:
a = Cross-section area (m"2)
C Capacitor (F)
c Speed oflight
E Electric field (Vim)
e Electromotive force (V)
f Frequency (Hz)
G Conductance (s)
H Magnetic field (Aim)
I Current (A)
J Current density (Aim)
K Screening factor
Length (m)
L Inductor (H)
P Power (W)
q Charge (coulomb)
Rd Rail conductor
R = Resistor (ohm)
Re Earth resistor (ohm)
V Voltage (V)
X Inductance (ohm/m)
y Admittance (mho/m)
Z Impedance (ohm/m)
Zm Mutual impedance (ohm/m)
Zs Self impedance (ohm/m)
ZO Characteristic impedance (ohm/m)
cr Conductivity of conductor (S/m)
e Angle (rad)
Il Permittivity of conductor
IV
E Permeability of conductor
0 Skin depth
a Attenuation constant
y Propagation constant
ro Angular frequency (rad/s)
List of Figures:
Figure Title Page Number
1.1 A typical 25 kV, ac-single phase power supply system 2
1.2 A typical ac-single phase, electric railway systems 3
1.3 Third rail concept 3
1.4 The pantograph 4
1.5 Circuit diagram for the electronic power for an ac system 6
1.6 Electronic power circuit for dc system 6
1.7 Autotransformer system 8
1.8 Booster transformer with a special return conductor 8
1.9 DC single rail track circuit 11
1.10 AC immune DC single rail track 12
1.11 83 1/3 Hz single track circuit 13
l.12 83 1/3 Hz double track circuit 13
l.13 Screening effect 14
2.16 One track case with 1250 A OCS, cable on normal side 44
List of tables:
6.1 Induced voltage using Carson & FDTD, load at either end 147
6.2 Induced voltage using Carson & FDTD, load at feed-end 147
6.3 Currents in the rail, earth & return, using CAD & FDTD 147
Xl
CONTENTS
NOMENCLATURE
ABSTRACT XVII
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS XVlll
DECLARATION XIX
Conditions 130
APPENDICES
A Al Data Used 161
A1.1 Uncompensated systems 161
A1.2 compensated systems 163
A2 Program sample 164
B Derivations and formulae not included in the thesis 169
B.1 Carson's method 169
B.2 Skin effect and Inductance of OHTL 172
B.3 Transmission line equations from Maxwell's 178
ABSTRACT
This thesis studies the foundation of a new method to calculate the induced voltage into line-side
signalling circuits using numerical modelling technique.
The need for accurate calculations of induction due to the high power overhead line has prompted
the development of such a new approach. Due to the complexity of the railway systems,
measurements are not always possible. An alternative approach, either analytical or numerical
analysis, is required. The analytical method has been developed and applied since the beginning of
electrification. Although this method provided reasonable results, it has certain limitations with
respect to frequency range, and hence accuracy. The development of computers provided us with
a new and exciting analysis, that is, mathematical modelling techniques. This project devised a new
method based on the finite difference time domain to calculate the impedances of the rail track and
overhead line and the longitudinal induced voltage into nearby signalling systems. The method is
simple and has been developed using known software (MATHCAD & APLAC) in order to reduce
any additional cost that may arise.
Calculations have been carried out for uncompensated systems (no booster transformer) and
compensated systems for various overhead catenary configurations relating to one-track and two-
track layouts in open areas. Two different overhead ratings namely 1250 Amps and 760 Amps
have been considered. The signalling cable can be placed at either side of the track(s). Both
positions haven been considered as well as normal and fault conditions.
The position of the signalling cable has greater effect for one-track case than two-track or more.
The level of induction is also greatly related to the number of the track used (i.e. worse induction
for one track than for two, four or more). The design of the booster transformer is very important
in order to reduce any induction, this becomes more evident at short circuit conditions when the
magnetising current effect is more evident.
XV111
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
My thanks first go to Dr Naren Gupta, my supervisor, whose continuous support and feedback on
the work have been invaluable. I am grateful to him for his kind help throughout, including in the
preparation of this thesis and ensuring timely completion of this project.
For one reason or the other, the author would also like to thank Prof. A Almaini, Mr J Sharp,
Prof. S Gair, Dr W Buchanan and Dr T Grassie.
I thank Professor Jorge Kubie, Head of department, and the whole of Napier University for giving
me the opportunity to do this work.
I have always been grateful to my parents who have enriched my life with great values.
Finally, my special thanks go to Osman for his on-going support and encouragement throughout
the project, without him I couldn't have done it.
XIX
DECLARATION
I declare that this thesis was composed and originated entirely by myself: other than those items
acknowledged in the text. The work was completed under a full time supervised program at
Napier University between March 2000 and March 2003.
Imtithal M Abdulaziz
CHAPTER (1)
Introduction
AC single-phase 25 kV, 50 Hz systems are commonly used for electrified railways world-wide.
A major problem with this system is the interference it causes into nearby signalling systems.
This interference can be very severe and endangers personnel and equipment. To constrain any
interference caused, booster transformers have been employed. However, these transformers
can add significantly to the cost of the railway systems. Hence to justify their use, it is essential
to know the level of longitudinal induced voltage into the signalling systems. This thesis relates
to work carried out by my supervisor Dr N K Gupta on models for induced voltage
calculations into line-side signalling cables. Gupta's model uses Carson's method for
impedance calculations, whereas in this thesis impedances have been calculated by FDTD
(finite-different-time-domain method). It also provides a mathematical model, which can be
modified and applied to different systems.
In this chapter, the general concept of interference will be discussed along with an overview of
relevant previous work in this field.
2
1.1.1 Electrification
Electrification means the removal of the prime mover from the train. This provides a technical
strength because it removes items, which can fail and are costly to maintain and hence improve
performance. Although economically, this can be considered as a weakness in the sense that it
provides energy greatly in excess of that previously utilised and hence increases the initial cost,
but the long-term benefits outweigh the initial disadvantages.
The complete electrification of all major lines was carried out in the then British railway (BR)
by 1960, except between England and Scotland, which due to cost implications was completed
in 1967. Since then electric trains have proved to be more reliable and environment friendly
compared to the old fashioned steam or diesel trains.
A typical 25 kV a.c single-phase power supply system and an electric traction system are
shown in Figures 1.1 48 and 1.278.
Supply authcui:ty
132 k:VT point
I
><
c===J ____.L
---c-----~
I
iii -Transformer
R."_y_='y
33 k"V. ET.EC-:T. Board Busbar
~~
- ~'"
~ I ; <h~erheacl lines
~~ Signalling cables
- - - -
~.><..
1 ..-
><
- -1- _,-_L~ ..L'_, __ R..ail~-a.y feeder
I -s~tion '
::=:>t<::: >t< _ ::::.~ ~.::
......L._ _- ' - -_ _
I
Figure 1.2: A typical a.c single-phase, electric railway systems (diagram obtained from
www.trainweb.com 78)
For a train to keep moving, it has to collect electricity on the go, since it cannot possibly store
enough electricity to last the whole journey. This can be achieved in two ways. The first
method many current-collecting shoes fitted next to the wheels on the outside of the bogies.
This is accomplished by using the third rail system (Figure 1.3), where by electricity is supplied
through a thick conductor running along the track. The Locomotive (LM) has a shoe, which
maintains sliding contact with it while the train is in motion to draw currents from it. The third-
rail systems are usually d.c systems at much lower voltages (500 V-750 V rms). This
arrangement is considered less satisfactory due to the technical limitation of the current
collecting shoes and the speed limit of 100 mph. Furthermore, the live line is a hazard to
personnel and animals which can be devastating.
r"l.1r1r1i:r::a.g ra.i.1
The second method uses a retractable pantograph (Figure 1.4) fitted to the top of one or
more of the carriages, the following discussion concentrates mainly on this system.
A traction supply system is very complex compared to the normal power supply. Whereas in
power supply transmission systems the places at which the load is imposed are known and
definite, the load imposed on a traction supply system by individual motive power units' moves
between one point of supply and another as the train moves between one point and another.
Next follows a brief discussion of the components of electric railways.
3. Return conductors, which return the current back to the feeder stations.
The return current passes via the wheels of the vehicle to the running rails and hence to the
supply point through the earthy bar connection. Aerial earth wires act as additional return
conductors.
The locomotive (LM) itself uses a pantograph, a metal structure that can be raised or lowered,
to make contact with the overhead contact cable to draw electricity to power its motors. The
electric current usually passes first through a transformer and not directly to the motors. The
return path for the electricity is through the body of the LM and the wheels to the tracks,
which are electrically grounded. Modern electric LM have some fairly sophisticated electronic
circuitry to control the motors depending on the speed, load, etc., often after first converting
the incoming 25kV AC supply to an internal AC supply with more precisely controlled
frequency and phase characteristics to drive AC motors.
The two types of power supply for the electric traction systems discussed above are:
(a) AC Single system: The overhead catenary is fed electricity at 25kV a.c (single-phase) from
electric sub-stations positioned at frequent intervals (35-50km) along the route. The sub-
stations are spaced closer (10-20km) in areas where there is high load or traffic.
These sub-stations in turn are fed electricity at 750kV a.c or so from the regional grids
operated by state electricity authorities. A Remote Control Centre, usually close to the
divisional traffic control office, has facilities for controlling the power supply to different
78
sections of the catenaries fed by several sub-stations in the area. Figure 1.5 below shows the
electronic power of an a.c system.
6
Battary
*
AC-DC
DCoutput
Rectifier
Axle Brush -'Ie return through wheel and Iunrring rail
Figure 1.5: Circuit diagram for the electronic power for an a.c system
(b) DC System: In d.c systems with overhead catenary, the basic principle is the same, with
the catenary being supplied electricity at I.SkV d.c. Usually the current from the catenary goes
directly to the motors. A d.c LM may however convert the d.c supply to a.c internally using
inverters or a motor-generator combination, which then drives a.c motors.
The a.c system is more expensive as the traction motors aboard a train usually requires a d.c
supply, hence a heavy and expensive transformer-rectifier has to be included in the multiple
unit. If a.c traction motors were used instead, an expensive frequency-alternator would have to
be included so that the traction speed of the motor can be controlled. The electronic power of
the dc system is shown in Figure 1.678 .
DC-AC
\ 2X3-Phae Motors
Motor C:onvertor
~~.~'
Auxiliary
Convertor
Battary
=
=
Axle BlUsh -ve return through '\.Vheel and IUIUling rail
The reason AC is now the preferred option for electrification is because AC substations are
much easier to build, as 25kV AC supply is available directly from the national grid. However,
the AC scheme causes some other troubles. For instance, with the basic system, the 2SkV AC
supply to the energised catenary can cause severe interference in telecommunication and other
7
circuits, which are in close vicinity. The induced voltage can be quite high; in the hundreds of
volts.
To mitigate this problem, a return conductor is provided parallel to the catenary, usually a little
above and to the side of the catenary. There are also booster transformers provided at
intervals. This method usually reduces the induced voltages in telephone and other circuits to
below 60V (although under fault conditions 400V-500V or more of induced voltage is not
unusual). Sometimes the return conductor is also connected to the rails at some points, to
ensure that more of the return current flowing through the rail stays in them rather than going
through the surrounding ground. This can also cause interference and other problems, although
not to the magnitude as that seen in a.c systems without booster transformers (Uncompensated
systems).
(A) Dual system (a.c): In the dual a.c system (or 2 * 25kV a.c system), the supplied
electricity from the substations is actually at 50kV a.c. An autotransformer connected across
the 50kV supply has a centre tap connected to the rails, whereas connections from either end
of the transformer winding go to the catenary and the return conductor, this is shown in Figure
1.7. Thus, there is a 25kV differential between the catenary and the rails as before, but now
there is a 50kV difference between the catenary and the return conductor. (Note, however,
that the centre tap of the autotransformer, and hence the rails, are grounded to avoid hazards
to people or animals walking across the tracks). Also, at points further away from the
substation, the centre tap of the autotransformer can be adjusted so that the voltage between
catenary and rails is always 25kV, even as the total voltage across the catenary and the return
conductor drops due to resistive or impedance losses. So this allows substations to be spaced
further apart (30-50km). Thus far the dual system is only used in about 10% of British
ral'1ways 16 .
8
The dual system corresponds to what is called the 3-wire system (with transmission line) in
other railways. This is a more recent approach compared with the well-known booster
transformer.
\ Cantenary
--1Ui:AU"UU\-:i.--
WI -<
-111t v
2 kV
track [
"")
Feeder
~-----~================~---
(B) Booster Transjormers15 : On lines equipped with a.c overhead wires, special
precautions are taken to reduce interference in communication cables. If a communications
cable is laid alongside rails carrying the return current of the overhead line supply, it can have
unequal voltages induced in it. Over long distances the unequal voltages can represent a safety
hazard. To overcome this problem, booster transformers are provided. These are positioned
on masts at intervals along the route. They are connected to the feeder station by a return
conductor cable hung from the masts so that it is roughly the same distance from the track as
the overhead line. The return conductor is connected to the running rail at intervals parallel to
the return cable and rails, as shown in Figure 1.8.
The effect of this arrangement is to reduce the noise levels in the communications cable and
ensure the voltages remain at a safe level. Booster transformers are the common method used
to reduce interference.
return
conductor L~AJ. l_~J
_ _ _----Jly~Vy ' - - _ - 4 -_ _.....--_ _ _- ' L..----4I---<'--_---l n'1latenary & contact
conductor
rail
The normal arrangement of the conductors (overhead wires and running rails) for the a. c
single-phase system of railway electrification forms an unbalanced circuit. The effect is that by
magnetic induction the traction current causes induced voltages to appear in neighbouring
parallel conductors such as telecommunication cables, the effect varying directly with the
traction currents. The booster transformers are in effect power current transformers with unity
ratio and are used with their primary windings connected in series with overhead line and with
their secondary connected either directly to the running rails or to special return conductor.
The most important effect is the increase in impedance of the power circuit, which because of
its influence on voltage drop on the distribution system requires special attention to ensure that
the performance of the traction equipment is not adversely affected. There is also the effect on
the action on the definite distance impedance protective system fitted to the track feeder
equipment. Although the sensitivity of this equipment is increased to some extent by the
increase in impedance per unit length the step in impedance at the booster transformer itself
causes the location of the fault by the system to be less exact.
With the system with booster transformers connected directly to the running rails the potential
of the rail when several trains are taking current becomes progressively higher in steps until the
feeder station is reached.
It is important when designing the booster transformer insulation that the magnitude of
induced voltages from normal service has to be differentiated from the load due to:
• Auxiliary supplies
• Battery equipment
• Feeder station
• Main transformers.
Booster transformer connected to a special return conductor is the most commonly used
method, and is discussed in detail later in the thesis.
10
Magnetic induction is the main cause of interference and its extent clearly depends upon the
magnitude of the currents in the power circuit. Some of the protective measures l that can be
applied to control interference are:
(a) At the source
(b) In the low current circuits affected and,
( c) By screening.
• Screening by cable sheath
• Induction from power cables
• Screening by rails.
Good grounding and shielding of cables also playa vital role in reducing electromagnetic
interference.
11
Railway signalling system uses track circuits to detect the different positions of the train. A
brief description about the different track circuits available are given in the section below
(1.1. 7)
Track circuits for one-rail traction return systems are called single-track. Both d.c and a.c
single track circuits can be used for one-rail ac traction return systems.
The simplest track circuit, utilising a battery feed as shown in Figure 1.947 below, is not owing
to the false operation, which can be caused by ac potentials across the track.
1
I
DC feed
Track relay
In other words, the relay, which is energised in the absence of a train, might not de-energise
when a train enters into the section. One remedy of this wrong-side failure would be to fit a
choke in series with the relay. Nevertheless, it would still be unsafe, because if the choke
12
became short circuited, the relay would no longer be immune to ac voltages and would readily
pick up due to the effects of ac current, when a train is standing on the track circuit. Almost all
dc track circuits therefore employ track relays, which are especially designed to be immune to
ac voltages. Additionally a choke may however be fitted at the feed-end of this track circuit in
order to reduce the ac current flowing through the track feed battery46,62,63. From above it
follows that a suitable dc track circuit would be as shown in Figure 1.10 below.
//~ i
I
'<1 /
J'
/
r
I
Iii --+
--I
DC feed
L 1
~I 1
I
AC irrnnune track relay
In a two-rail return traction system, the traction current returning to the sub-station is shared
between the two rails; also the track circuit uses both rails. Ac track circuits are used in such
systems, which by virtue of their use in two-rail traction return systems are called double-rail
ac track circuits.
The frequency for single or double rail ac track circuits must be clear of 50 Hz and its
harmonics. 83113 Hz track circuits have been employed; this frequency may be obtained by
using a motor alternator set in which a synchronous motor having 3 pole pairs is coupled to an
alternator having 5 pole pairs. The motor speed would be 1000 rpm and the output from the
alternator is thus 505/3=83113 HZ 46 ,47,48.
In 831/3 Hz track circuits, a central power supply is employed which provides two phases of
83113 Hz over a signalling area. Figure 1.1147 below shows one arrangement of the 831/3 Hz
single rail track circuits.
For optimum operation the local and control voltages on the relay should be in quadrature;
thus if the two 83113 Hz supply phases are in quadrature, the track circuit equipment should be
13
designed to produce a minimum phase shift. The feed-end equipment consists of a step-down
transformer and track-feed resistor.
At the relay end there is a filter tined to 831/3 Hz and a saturable transformer. The filter will
reject all normal levels of 50Hz. Whilst under fault conditions the saturable transformer will
prevent the relay from operating. This happens even if at the same time there were to be some
infiltrated 50Hz voltage of the correct phase relationship on the local winding of the track
relay, provided this does not exceed the level at which the detection equipment is set to
49
operate .
---1--------••~-----------------------' ~.~~----
."l).~_------+--------//-________
_________ /
c?
:- 83 113 Hz fil er
~XIIO
I:
NXt~~\
~.-
-~~O
1/3 Hz
N~CIIO EX'IIO
c=--r'l saturahIe trans,"ormer cc
~~~ I
track relay
I
BXII0 NXI10
The 83113 double rail track circuits are similar to single track one and are shown in Figure
1.1247
I I oa;,~, /~ I L: I
c '1 ...
-t! ~
1] 1 ) . [
fl'I~ }
r rBX~ll
NXII
0 83 113 Hz
~I/3IIz
NX'l10 BX'lIO
,
filt';;~~
-J,Jo
I~~
rfv.-';:::;;aturahle transformer
JY~L.., BX' 11 0-- -=< i I
~
BXII0
A
NXII0
NX'110 >~~ Itrack relay L
The track-feed resistor may be of a lower voltage type due to reduced out-of-balance 50 Hz
voltages across the track. As the track circuit rail voltages are less for the double rail track
circuit an ac type auto impedance bond is used, designed to saturate at a low rail voltage in
order to prevent high voltages being fed to the track circuit equipment under fault conditions.
Signalling cables unlike telecommunication cables are unscreened, this is due to the fact that
only trained personnel are allowed in those area. However some sort of screening can be still
be achieved from the nearby earthed conductor. This is explained briefly in section 1. 1.8
below.
The voltage induced in the presence of the conductor to which the screening factor refers to,
divided by the voltage that would be induced if the conductor to which the screening factor
refers were absent 52,53,54
CD . 11
13
-:{-')--_.- __13
23
V13 = ZI3*I1
I3=Y13/Z3.. ~) L
12 l
C') . ~
iign-"lli.==-c.=..ca=b=l-Y-2-3-=Z--1 *D "-12-=Z 12 *11 .~--~
23
The current I in the overhead line induces a longitudinal voltage ~2 in the neighbouring
signalling line. The railway and signalling lines can be considered as loop circuits each having
earth return. These two loops have mutual impedance and the induced voltage is directly
proportional to this mutual impedance and to the current following in the railway circuit.
The use of unbalanced circuits for dialling and ringing was a common practice. Due to the
huge cost of altering such work, it was decided to restrict the interference at the source. One
way of doing so is to introduce a return conductor with booster transformers at intervals of
about 2 miles. It is now common practice to use BTs and return conductors to reduce the level
of induced voltage. With the introduction of the EMC directive in 1996, further analysis and
quantification of the problem was required.
The following section provides a brief account of some of the main contributions in this field.
16
The fundamentals of transmission line and its parameters are covered in [Wodelifi, 1978t, and
[Galloway, 1964]10. Electric traction is discussed in [Dover, 1963]1l, and [Partab, 1973]12.
[Electrification, 60]13 by lEE is a most comprehensive reference that contains different papers
on the basic of ac single-phase electrification. [Klewe, 1958] 14 describes interference problem
with respect to telecommunication cables. [Rosen, 1956]15 has the clearest explanation of the
interference problem. Supplemental to these, [Gupta, 1985t7 and [Millet, 1987, 1990] 16,17,18
provide good explanation of induced voltage calculations.
Gupta and Millet have forwarded an approach of the induced voltage analysis using
computational method, influential to this thesis. Gupta has applied his method to signalling
cables, while Millet's work is related to telecommunication cables. Millet also provided the
useful comparison between booster transformers and autotransformers. [CCITT, 1980]19
directive, suggesting the use of computers in these calculations, was also useful source.
[Tierney, 1983]20 contains a broad range of ideas and experiences concerning booster
transformers. Further references are given throughout the thesis.
17
1.4 Summary
This thesis demonstrates that the longitudinal voltage induced into signalling systems can be
computed with respect to any system parameter using mathematical modelling.
In this chapter, the use of booster transformers in reducing the interference and the voltage
level induced was discussed. Also considered was the usefulness of accurate computing of the
parameters involved. The layout of the remainder of the thesis is as follow:
Chapter (2) provides the methodology for calculating the impedances of rail-track and
overhead conductors and the general framework and assumption used for voltages and current
calculations.
Chapter (3) provides calculations and results of induced voltage for uncompensated systems
under normal operation conditions for one and two track layouts, for 1250 A and 760 A
overhead ratings.
Chapter (4) describes calculations and results for uncompensated systems under fault
conditions for the one and two track layouts
Chapter (5) gives the calculations and results of induced voltage for compensated systems
under normal operation for one and two track layouts and the two overhead ratings, as well as
analysis of the booster transformer itself.
Chapter (6) provides calculations and results of induced voltage under short circuit conditions
for compensated systems of one and two track layouts.
Chapter (7) discusses the results obtained, comparison with existing methods, limitation of the
project, suggestions for future work and draws conclusions.
Chapter (8) provides references
Appendix A gives data used in the thesis and sample of program developed.
Appendix B contains some formula derivation that is not included in the text.
Appendix C gives list of publications based on this thesis.
18
CHAPTER (2)
Introduction
In order to calculate the voltage induced into signalling cables, the self and mutual impedances
of all conductors used, are required. It is important that the calculations are as accurate as
possible.
The most commonly used method for the calculation of rail impedance and overhead
parameters with respect to railways is Carson's correction method.
This standard analytical method was first introduced by 1. R. Carson21 in the US and almost
simultaneously by F. Pollaczek22 in Germany. Known as Carson's correction method today, it
provided the first analytical approach that included the earth return effect. Carson's method is
effectively used today and can produce reliable results for the lower range of frequency (load
flow studies). At higher frequencies however, the results converge very quickly and errors are
produced resulting in inaccurate calculations. This is due to the assumption made that the earth
is a semi-infinite series and the correction terms can be tedious and time consuming. With the
improvement in computer systems, it is now possible to use as many correction terms as
needed and hence improve the results. Moreover, developments in computer speed have made
the use of mathematical modelling possible. However the need for higher frequency analysis
has prompted engineers to find alternative approaches.
23
Hill and carpenter provided a complete investigation for the calculation of the rail tack
impedance using Finite Element Method (FEM), which requires the solution of Maxwell's
19
equations. The FEM requires that an appropriate boundary be defined first, and all bodies
(including the air and the ground) included in the boundary are modelled as areas. Each area
has its own geometric shape and physical properties, such as conductivity, permeability, non-
linearly of magnetisation etc. All areas are subdivided into first order triangular finite elements.
The boundary conditions must then be given to allow Maxwell's equations to be solved
correctly according to the nature of the problem. The electromagnetic energy of the system is
then solved and, using energy relation, the impedance of the track is obtained. The FEM is a
powerful tool that is able to consider the skin and proximity effects simultaneously and give
accurate results. The disadvantages of the FEM include the high cost of software and
hardware, long computation times and the need for experience in using the software (training
cost).
This prompted the search for a more simple approach that can give the same as or close
reliability to the FEM. This has been accomplished by the use of Finite Difference Time
Domain method (FDTD). The FDTD method has been growing rapidly in the electromagnetic
calculations, its main advantage is that it is a direct solution of Maxwell's equation. The
method is simple to develop and implement.
In this section the impedance of rail track and overhead line conductors are calculated using
the FDTD approach. Existing software (MATRCAD & APLAC) are used for these
calculations and hence any added cost is reduced. First a brief explanation of the FDTD
method is given in the following section.
received little attention when first introduced due to the high computational cost and speed
required at that time. With the progress in computers achieved, the interest in the FDTD began
to soar. An estimate of the progress in publications is shown in Figure 2.19. The FDTD method
can be applied in many areas where numerical and accurate calculations are required, such as
power and telecommunications engineering. This is particularly useful for complex systems
where practical measurements are not always possible.
2000 ~--------------------------------~
1990U-------------------------~~--b~
1980U---------------~~~
1960
1 5 10 20 40 350 440
V·E=P
6
V·H=O
These four equations express the basic laws of electricity and magnetism. From the above it
can be seen that any change in the electric field (E) with respect to time causes a change in the
magnetic field (H) relative to distance.
t/ /
delta z
/~
Ez
t /'
./delta y
-4-
Ex ----~-.- __
Z delta x
i /1
L_X
Another benefit of the FDTD method is that, since it is a time-domain technique, it can cover a
wide frequency range with a single simulation run. Electromagnetic simulation involves
representing the system required by a mathematical model. The type of model usually depends
on the required accuracy, simulation time and type of results required
The FDTD method belongs to the general class of differential time domain numerical
modelling methods. Maxwell's (differential form) equations are simply modified to central-
difference equations, discretized and implemented in software. The equations are solved in a
leap-frog manner (see Figure 2.3); that is, the electric field is solved at a given instant in time
then the magnetic fields are solved at the next instant in time, and the process is repeated over
and over again25 ,26.
22
H"n+312
Wn+l /2
When Maxwell' s differential equations are examined, it can be seen that the time derivative of
the E field is dependent on the Curl of the H field. This can be simplified to state that the
change in the E field (time derivative) is dependent on the change in the H field across space
(the Curl). This results in the basic FDTD equation in that the new value ofthe E field is
dependent on the old value of the H field on either side of the E field point in space. Naturally
this is a simplified description, which has omitted some details, such as constants, etc. showing
only the overall effect.
The H field is found in the same manner. The new value of the H field is dependent on the old
value of the H field (hence the difference in time), and also depends on the difference in the E
field on either side of the H field point. In order to use FDTD a computational domain must be
established. The computational domain is simply the ' space' where the simulation will be
performed. The E and H fields will be determined at every point within the computational
domain. The material of each cell within the computational domain must be specified.
Typically, the material will be free-space (air), metal (perfect electrical conductors (PEC)), or
dielectric. Any material can be used as long as the permeability, permitivity and conductivity
can be specified27 .
Once the computational domain and the grid material are established, a source is specified. The
source can be an impinging plane wave, a current on a wire, or an electric field between metal
plates (basically a voltage between the two plates) depending on the type of the situation to be
modelled.
23
Since the E and H fields are determined directly, the output ofthe simulation is usually either
the E or H field at a point or a series of points within the computational domain. The sequence
of the FDTD method is better understood from Figure 2.4 below;
. -.--~.---=:1
---T
.--~------
-------,------
~/2
,------- ---,
ca.lcula.~e ~ over entire grid I
Using the central difference approximation on both time and space to provide discrete
approximations:
1 1
.. n+- . n-- ~t
(HX1,},k) 2 = (HX1,j,k) 2 + J1& [(Eyi,j,kr- - (Eyi,j,k -lrJ-
---------(2.4)
~t
~y [(Ezi,j,kr - (Ezi -l,j,krJ
24
The half time-steps indicate that E & H are calculated alternately to obtain central differences
for the time derivatives.
There are six equations similar to (2.4) in total. These define the E & H fields in the x, y, and z
directions and are shown below.
The permittivity (E) and permeability (J.l) values in these cases are set to approximate values
depending on the location of each of the field component.
1 1
.. n+ 2 _ .. /).1
n- .. n
(HYl,},k) - (HYl,},k) 2 +-[(EZl,},k)-
,,!J..x
---------(2.5)
(Ezi,j,k -If] -~[(E-Xi,j,kf - (Exi -I,j,kf]
,,!J..z
n+~ n-~ ~t
(Hzi,j,k) 2 = (Hzi,j,k) - +-[(Exi,j,kf-
,,/).y
1
111 n+--
(Exi,j,k)n=l = (Exi,j,k) 11 +-[(Hzi,j+l,k) 2_
Jll1y
1 1 1
11+- 111 n+- n+-
(Hzi,j,k) 2 ]--[(Hyi,j,k) 2 -(Hyi-I,j,k)
Jl/1z
1
~t n+-
(£yi,j,k)"+1 = (Eyi,j,k)" +-[(Hxi,j,k+l) 2
Jl/1z
1 1 1
n-+- - ~t n+- nt-
1
I1t n+-
(Ezi, j', k) 11 +1 = (Ezi, j, k) 11 + -[(Hyi + I, j, k) 2 _
. Jl/1x
1 1 1
11 +- 111 n+- n+-
(Hyi,j,k-I) 2 ]--[(Hxi,j+l,k) 2 -(Hxi,j,k) 2] ------(2.6)
Jll1y
It is important that the time step is set to a certain limit for the stability criteria requirement,
this given as;
Now that the model and the equations are set, the boundary conditions on the sources and the
conductor model are required to obtain reliable results. It is important that the right boundary
condition should be applied for meaningful results.
The solution is, instead, to terminate the computing region with absorbing boundary
conditions that "eat" the incoming wave or pulse in a way that does not give rise to any
reflections. In the realm of FDTD simulations no perfect absorbing boundaries exist - they all
reflect some part of the incoming wave or pulse. However, these boundaries absorb most of
the wave and therefore open structures can be modelled with sufficient accuracy. Quite often
an absorbing boundary condition is abbreviated to ABC in the FDTD literature 1,28,29,30,31.
From the definition of the FDTD method we proceed to the system considered and calculation
steps.
The steps taken to calculate the induced voltage into signalling systems are as follows;
Step 1: Calculation of rail track impedance
Step 2: Calculation of overhead transmission line parameters (inductance, resistance &
capacitance) .
Step 3: development of the voltage and current equations.
The behaviour of the field components over the problem space gives an essentially complete
characterisation of the behaviour of the structure. It can then be post-processed and
information over a broad frequency range can be obtained in a single run. This algorithm, as
well as giving an understanding of the operations implied by Maxwell's equations, is a powerful
and practical solution method.
Note: certain assumptions have been made in order to simplify the model, these are:
1) All track materials are assumed to be anisotropic,
2) The rails, ballast and sleepers are assumed to be homogeneous,
27
3) The ground is stratified into homogenous horizontal layers that can be assigned different
material properties,
4) The rail fastenings to the sleepers are not modelled.
The impedance of the rail track is solved first and, using the same approach, the overhead
parameters are obtained. The rail track impedance model is shown in Figure 2.5 below;
Rail '\
"
Ground Plane
The equivalent electric circuit for two rail conductor is as shown in Figure 2.6.
o~ ____________________ ~
..
[]
The above rail structure is analysed using APLAC (see Appendix B, for program description);
an electromagnetic software which has built-in components and FDTD analysis facilities. The
required components are set and the program is written in a code similar to C, an example is
shown in Appendix A.
The voltage response and the currents are obtained for the rail-track and hence the impedance
is calculated. The results in Figures 2.7-2.10 are for 50Hz system frequency. The frequency
can be changed according to requirements.
28
Volta
0.50
V
0.00
-0.50
-1.00+-~--~~----~~--~----r-------;
0.000 10.000 20.000 30.000 40.000
position/cells
(h*vect)
-0.50 -0.50
-1.oo+---------~--------~--------~---------+-1.00
0.000 250.000p 500.000p 750.000p 1.000n
tirne/s
Vern ("Rail" I 13 ····""·······Vern ("Rail" I 13
Once the computational domain and the grid material are established, a source is specified. The
source can be an impinging plane wave, a current on a wire, or an electric field between metal
plates (basically a voltage between the two plates) depending on the type of the situation to be
modelled.
29
(h*vect)
Aplac 7.70 User: Napier University Nov 12 2002
0.30~----------------------------------,
V
0.22
0.15
0.07
V
0.15 .
0.10
0.05
O.OO~~'"~'----~--~-'~-r--~----~~~~~
0.000 155.925G 311.850G 467.775G 623.700G
Hz
DFT
The rail impedance results over the frequency range of 50Hz-IMHz are given for three
different methods; Carson's correction term, FEM and FDTD. The results are shown in Table
2.1.
30
18
-+-Carson (ohm/km)
16
FE (ohm/km)
14 FDTD (ohm/km)
E
.c 12
o
-; 10
CJ
; 8
"C
GI
C. 6
.E 4
50 100 1k 5k 8k 10k 30k 60k 80k 100k 200k 400k 600k 800k 1M
Frequency (Hz)
Figure 2.11 shows the results of the rail-track impedance using three different methods. From
the figure we can see that the FE and FDTD methods provide better results for the calculations
of conductor above ground impedance. Although all three methods provide almost exactly the
same results for frequency up to 80K Hz, it is clearly obvious that Carson's method
overestimates the value of the impedance, this is due to the assumption used (earth is semi-
infinite series). The FDTD provides reliable results and is in agreement with the FE method,
this is due to the fact these methods take into account the material properties of the conductors
and the ground in the from of the conductivity, permeability and permittivity.
For a short power line only the series impedance has an effect on its behaviour, the capacitance
effect can be considered as negligible. The line impedance consists of two parameters;
resistance of the conductor and the reactance which is caused by magnetic flux surrounding the
conductors and passing between them. Those two parameters can be measured or calculated
33
using the line dimensions and certain other factors as will be described .
F or the line shunt admittance, only the line capacitive susceptance can be considered since
conductance currents to ground and between conductors are negligible for overhead lines. The
capacitive shunt reactance can also be calculated from line dimensions.
The types of conductors used in overhead power transmission lines are stranded hollow
conductors of different constructions. Solid conductors are also used to a certain extent. Some
typical overhead line support structures with the conductors are shown in Figure 2.12.
32
/ \
>--------C>-- -~ ff=~--.~
(~
_.-1i / '---'
6 6
(:S 6
6 6
/ \
,----..
The conductor materials which are in general use for OHL are; hard-drawn-high conductivity
copper, hard-drawn aluminium, aluminium alloy and steel-cored aluminium. Data relating to
these materials and to stranded conductors made from these materials are given in Table
(2.2)34.
33
Table 2.2: + Data given for new contact wire-for impedance and current rating
calculations, 25% reduction in area due to wear is allowed
* Diameter of equivalent conductor, having circular cross-section.
The most important property of an OHL conductor material is high tensile strength (high
breaking load), so that longer spans can be achieved with the smallest possible sag. This
provides a reduction in the number and height of the towers (or poles) and the number of
insulators required. It is also important that the conductors have low resistance to reduce
power loss and voltage drop 35,36.
For the development of overhead line parameter calculations, many simplifying assumptions
have been made and calculations were carried out for single track and double track at system
frequency (50 Hz). Generally the parameter calculations are based on conductor configuration
for every system. The bonding of the rails are neglected throughout the study.
34
In steady state (SS) the resistance of an overhead TL determines the energy loss and therefore
the current carrying capacity of the line. The series reactance controls directly the maximum
power flow capability of the line and to some extent the system fault level. The shunt
susceptance determines the VAR generation and affects the system voltage profile.
where;
p= resistivity of conductor material
L = length
A = cross-section area.
Or
a = conductor radius
The dc resistance of stranded conductors is greater than that computed above due to spiralling
of the strands which makes them longer than conductor length. The increased resistance due to
spiralling was estimated as 2%37 for concentrically stranded conductors.
35
Analytical and approximated methods have been developed to estimate the resistance ratio
(Rae / R dc ) and the internal inductance ratio (L; ac / L; de)' These approximated methods are
The inductance of an overhead line on the other hand is a combination of internal (due to
internal flux linkages) and external (due to external flux linkages) inductance (derivations are
given in Appendix B) and is given as;
L = L. + L ext
mt --------(2 . 10)
f.1 1 D
L = -(- + In( -)------(2.12)
2JT 4 r
For a multi-conductor line, the inductance and capacitance matrices are shown below;
For L matrix, the inductance is obtained from the relationship of the total magnetic flux in the
i-th circuit, to all the line currents producing it as;
[ ¥F ] = [L ][1]
expanding; --------( 2. 13)
¥FI II! 112 lIn II
¥F2 112 122 I... 12n 12
=
¥Fn lIn 12n Inn In
If we interpret the above relations in a manner similar to the n-port parameters, we obtain the
following relations for the entries in L:
Thus the inductance can be computed by placing a current on one conductor and setting the
current on all other conductors to zero. The definition of the i-th circuit is critically important
in obtaining the correct value and sign of these elements.
Now the capacitance matrix entries are considered. C relates the total charge on the i-th
conductor PUL to all of the line voltages producing it as;
n
LC Ik - C12 - c1n
q1 k=l
n
~
q2 - C12 - C 2n V2
= LCU
k=l
------(2.16)
n Vn
qn
1n
- c2n LCnk
k=l
Applying the same approach above, the c matrices can be obtained as;
[V]=[P][Q]-----(2.18)
And [C]=[PY'-1.-----(2.19)
Using the method of images as described below, the inductance and capacitance of an "n" wire
above ground can be obtained form the Figure 2.13.
Ii Ij~O
/~~
( (~ )
~~,/
/
hj
hi
hj
~.
( . )
~
Ii
In the above figure, the infinite plane for conductors "i" and ')" above ground is replaced with
an equal but negative conductor below ground. This is known as the method of images. The
same can be applied by replacing the plane with the image currents and using the fundamental
result derived above;
II'. I /I h /I 2h /I 2h
I II = -""-'
Ii h ~ ... =1;_1 ~1;+1 = ... =ln~O 27[ r. ) + -r""-ln(-'
= -r""-ln(-' 27[ h, ) = -r""-ln(-'
27[ r wi
)
wi
Vi I
1 = - 1 ______
J1 S* J1 S J1
=-In(-)+-ln(-)=-ln(
~S~ + 4hi hj )----(2.20)
lj I.
1 1
J
1 - .•• -1fi-l- j+l-···- n -0 27[ S
lj
27[ S * 27[ S
Ij
/I 4hh
I =_r"" In(I+-'_J)
Ij 47[ S2
lj
Li. These elements typically are constant at low frequencies and decrease as Jl at higher
frequencies. Thus their inductive reactance Li increases with .J7, and external reactance Le
increases as f
39
The current density and the electric and magnetic fields in good conductors are governed by
the diffusion equation. Ampere's law relates the magnetic field to the sum of conduction
current and displacement current as:
VxH
- = aE- + jOJ&E---------(2.22)
In a good conductor, the conduction current greatly exceeds the displacement current which is
satisfied for most metallic conductors and frequencies of reasonable interest.
Thus the above equation can be approximated as:
V xH - = jaE- -----(2.23)
V xE
- = - jOJ/lH- -----(2.24)
V· &oE = 0 -------(2.26)
Gives;
2 - . -
V .E = jOJ/laE ----(2.27) (since j = crE)
V2 •j = jOJ/l(Jj -----(2.28)
~( 2rws)' 1
where
Rs = uo1 = ~7if,ll
~ -----(2.30)
\
<" ---
< ------
«
/1
..
"
(J ,f.!,£
Figure 2.14: Diffusion of current and fields into semi-infinite conductor half-space
Assuming that electric field (E) and associated conductor current density are directed in the z
direction, diffusion equation term of z directed E field becomes:
2 ~
d F; z = jclJ,lIUE z --------(2.3 1)
dx
0= ~(Skin-dePth)
JTjf.1u
The surface impedance can be defined as the ratio of the z-directed E field to surface and total
current density;
Eo
Zs = -. ------(2.33)
it
Z s= Rs + jOJL; ------(2.35)
Rs = uo J
JTjf.1 -----(2.36)
1 = ----;;-
Zs = J;; -----(2.37)
F or a circular cylindrical conductor (wire) and perfect conducting, the current flows on the
surface of the conductor. Rand L j result from the current and magnetic flux internal to the
imperfect conductors in a fashion similar to that of the surface impedance ofa plane conductor.
L results from magnetic flux internal to the conductor that links the current.
j
F or a wire, assuming current is symmetric about the axis of the wire, the radius is r w ;
42
Using the above information the inductance and resistance can be obtained from the FDTD
analysis. From the FDTD figure for transmission line the flux integral would be performed on
the surface S with the direction ofthe surface vector DS as shown in Figure 2.15. The current
integral would be performed along the contour C.
reter~e condu.ctor C
~ ~-
Figure 2.15: Inductance calculated from flux through S and current on the transmission
line
L =- =
¢ fB.ds = fJ1l! .ds ------(2.39)
I fH.d! fH.d!
In the FDTD grid these integral translate into sums as given by;
f.1LH.~.~
L = -------(2.40)
LH.~
Thus, an inductance per unit length can be calculated by taking the ratio of the sum of the H
field values over the surface S, and the sum of the H fields in the direction of dL divided by the
length along the transmission line that the surface extends over.
43
The capacitance is defined as the ratio of the charge in an enclosed surface to the
electromagnetic potential of the surface region.
Q f D .ds f&E.d~
C =- = =
V fE.dl fE.dl -----(2.41)
In the FDTD grid, these integrals translate into sums as given by:
&LE.11.11
c= -----(2.42)
LE.11
For the calculations of the self and mutual impedances of the conductor i and j at system
frequency (50Hz), the equations are as follow;
EWI
~/
~ l~YI -"~R2
o
!
"~
",,-
x
Figure 2.16: One-track case with 1250 Amps OCS configuration, cable on normal side
E"W2c>--_
Figure 2.17: One-track case with 1250 Amps oes configuration, cable on the other side
EWI
i-I
-JL_-
//
I~~I'
~
Bl Cable
Figure 2.18: One-track case with 760 Amps oes configuration, cable on normal side
46
Figure 2.19: One-track case with 760 Amps oes configuration, cable on the other side
'W
R2
x
cable co-ordinates - (2.7rn-O.6m)
RTI .~
~
I
- / )--_++.-,,).11
~--+-.
cl)C'Nl
R3$--
=+~
X
cable co-ordinates (4.39164rn O.6rn)
47
The other data used for the above calculations are shown in Table 2.9 .
The self and mutual impedance were calculated using the above information for
uncompensated systems (no booster transformer), using Mathcad and Aplac the results
obtained, at 50Hz frequency, were as follow:
Z12 Z13 Z14 Z15 0.134t- 2.208i 0.0951- 0.877i 0.0951- 0.718i 0.0951- 0.554i 0.0951- 0.621'
Z21 Z22 Z23 Z24 Z25 0.0951- 0.877i 134+ 2.208i 0.0951- 0.718i 0.0951- 0.599i 0.0951- 0.621'
RR:= Z31 Z32 Z33 Z34 Z35 RR= 0.0951-0.718iO.0951-0.718i 0.546t-1.34li -0.098- 0.047iO.0951-0.439·
Z41 Z42 Z43 Z44 Z45 0.0951- 0.554i 0.0951- 0.599i -0.098- 0.047i 0.44t- 1.783i 0.0951- 0.865"
Z51 Z52 Z53 Z54 Z55 0.0951- 0.627i 0.0951- 0.627i 0.0951- 0.439i 0.0951- 0.865i 0.44+ 1.783i
ZI7 ZI8 0.095+ 0.453i 0.095+ 0.488i 0.095+ 0.60li
Z26 Z27 Z28 0.095+ 0.453i 0.095+ 0.488i 0.095+ 0.62li
Rr':= Z36 Z37 Z38 RF = 0.095+ 0.572i 0.095+ 0.593i 0.095+ 0.285i
Z46 Z47 Z48 0.095+ 0.8i 0.095+ 0.784i 0.095+ 0.903i
Z56 Z57 Z58 0.095+ 0.78i 0.095+ 0.782i 0.095+ 0.934i
Results at higher frequencies can be obtained by changing the frequency accordingly in the
program.
0.133+ 2.212i 0.095+ 0.88li 0.095+ 0.723i 0.095+ 0.603i 0.095+ 0.645i
0.095+ 0.88li 0.0133+ 2.212i 0.095+ 0.723i 0.095+ 0.603i 0.095+ 0.645i
RR= 0.095+0.88Ii 0.095+0.723i 0.623+ 1.43li 0.095+0.052i 0.095+0.523i
0.095+ 0.603i 0.095+ 0.678i 0.095+ 0.052i 0.439+ 1.792i 0.095+ 0.90Ii
0.095+ 0.645i 0.095+ 0.645i 0.095+ 0.456i 0.095+ 0.90 Ii 0.439+ 1.792i
0.133+ 2.202i 0.095+ 0.873i 0.095+ 0.669i 0.095+ 0.543i 0.095+ 0.623i
0.095+ 0.872i 0.133+ 2.202i 0.095+ 0.669i 0.095+ 0.598i 0.095+ 0.623i
RR.= 0.095+ 0.872li 0.095+ 0.669i 0.523+ l.311i 0.095+ 0.042i 0.095+ 0.423i
0.095+ 0.598i 0.095+ 0.678i 0.095+ 0.042i 0.439+ 1.782i 0.095+ 0.84li
0.095+ 0.623i 0.095+ 0.623i 0.095+ 0.439i O.l)95+ 0.84li 0.439+ 1.782i
0.133+ 2.205i 0.095+ 0.877i 0.095+ 0.71li 0.095+ 0.543i 0.095+ 0.623i
0.095+ 0.872i 0.133+ 2.202i 0.095+ 0.71li 0.095+ 0.598i 0.095+ 0.623i
RR= 0.095+ 0.877li 0.095+ O.77li 0.523+ l.31li 0.095+ 0.042i 0.095+ 0.423i
0.095+ 0.598i 0.095+ 0.678i 0.095+ 0.042i 0.439+ 1.782i 0.095+ 0.84li
0.095+ 0.623i 0.095+ 0.623i 0.095+ 0.439i 0.095+ 0.84li 0.439+ 1.782i
Now the compensated (system with booster transformers) are considered, using the same
approach as above. The same overhead ratings and track as above are analysed.
51
R1 R2 Rt
Zll Z12 Z131
RR= Z21 Z22 Z23
R1 [Zrl Zrlr2 Zrtr1 [
R2 RR:= Zrlr2 Zrl Zrtr Z31 Z32 Z33
Rt Zrtr Zrtr Zrt
Rt CW F
Zrt Zrtew
Rt
Zrtf
CW RF:= Zrtew Zew Ze"f 1 Z44 Z45 Z461
RF= Z54 Z55 Z56
F [ [
Zrtf Zewf Zfw Z64 Z65 Z66
CW F
CW FF :=[zew ZeWf] FF- Z55 Z56]
[ Z65 Z66
F Zewf Zfw
FF=
O.37+ 0.62li 0.079+ 0.63i 1
f0.079+ 0.63i 0.762+ 0.63li
0.131+ 0.9i 0.079+ 0.358i 0.079+ 0.287i] 0.254+ 0.62i 0.079+ 0.437i 0.079+ 0.448ij
RR= 0.079+ 0.358i 0.133+ 0.90h 0.079+ 0.287i RF= 0.079+ 0.437i 0.37+ 0.62li 0.079+ 0.63i
r0.079+ 0.287i 0.079+ 0.288i 0.264+ 0.617i
r0.079+ 0.448i 0.079+ 0.63i 0.762+ 0.62li
O.37 + 0.62li 0.079+ O.63il
FF=
f0.079+0.63i O.762+0.62li
The last approach is used in this thesis for its simplicity. A derivation form Maxwell's
equations are also shown in Appendix B.
For an n line above ground shown in Figure 2.22:
53
,r '\
\) n (I
- - - - - - -------~
rdz 1&
----ID---~JjL/~~--.--
lJ -. l cdz cdz
.4-------~&~----~ dz
The current is broken into small dz length sub-sections. "I" represents the magnetic flux
passing between the conductors due to current in them. "c" is the displacement current
between the two conductors, and "g" represents the transverse conduction current flowing
between two conductors.
To account for loss, the resistance "r" is included.
af(z,t)
V(z + dZ,t) - V(z,t) = -rdzf(z,t) -Idz------'-a-t---'---
--------(2.44 )
aV(z,t)
f(z + dZ,t) - f(z,t) = -gdzV(z + dZ,t) - cdz at
Dividing the above equations by dz and taking the limit dz = 0, we obtain the voltage and
current TL equations;
Ie = IlE
gl = all
For the second order of the TL equations above, we differentiate with respect to z and t
respectively;
For MTL equations, consider the circuit shown in Figure 2.24 below;
hl(z+dz,t~
•
•
Ij (z t)
=--
Ij (z+dz" t) . •
1
'\
Vj (z,t) J.\ 1"
1J dz gijdzl
T
"d
CIJz
Vj (z+dz,t)
. . ridz I~ '~~
".,-/ Ii (z+dz,t)
r
--c=--- hi dz )
Ii (z,t)
gii dz cii dz
gjj dz cjj dz Vi (z+dz,t)
Vi (z,t)
.. rO dz
From the circuit using Kirchhoff's voltage law around the i-th circuit consisting of the i-th
conductor and the reference conductor yields;
Dividing both sides by delta.z and taking the limit as deltaz=O, once again yields the first TL
equation given above, with the collection for all "I" given in matrix form. Similarly the second
transmission line equation can be obtained by applying K- current law from the above circuit;
- l.(z + Ilz, t) + l.(z, t) = -glllz(V - VI) - ... -g ..Ilz(V - V) - ... - g .. Ilz(V - V) - ...
I I I I ~ I } /I I n -----(2.48)
_ Ilz 0(11; -V;) _ _ Ilz.w; _ _ Ilz OUi -V;,)
Cil it ... Cii it ... Cin or
Dividing both sides by delta z and taking the limit =0 and collecting terms once again yields the
second MTL equation.
O[V](z,t) __ [ ][ ] _ IJJ(z,t)
&- - R J (z,t) L it
------(2.49)
O[J](z,t) [][] [ ] O[V](z,t)
&- =- G V (z,t) - C iJt
The above equation are a set of 2n, coupled, first order differential equations. They can be put
in a more compact form as;
For perfect conductors; R=O and if the surrounding medium is loss-less (segma=O), G=O, the
above equation reduces to;
56
~[(V)(Z,t)] = _[
& (I)(z,t)
° (L)]
(C) ° O[(V)(Z,t)]
t (I)(z,t)
_____ 2,51
( )
The analysis is carried out at system frequency where the capacitance and conductance effect
can be neglected, Hence the parameters of the overhead line are based on the resistance
(power loss) and inductance, which can be written as Z,
F or self impedance;
Z 11
= R + J'wi-----(2 52)
11 11 •
From the parameters of the conductors above, the voltage and current of the TL can be
obtained using FDTD method as described below,
L
"I
+
Rc
V(z,t) RL
u
z=O z=L
For the above, the source generates a voltage pulse Vs at z = 0, that changes from zero volts
to some value for a specified length of time and then switches back to zero,
When the source voltage transitions to the "on" state at time t =0, a voltage propagates down
the TL.
57
The propagation speed of this voltage disturbance and the reflection from the load and some
ends of the TL are determined at any time.
In this work, the voltage on the TL is solved in a different fashion. Here a numerical method is
used to compute the voltage at a discrete set of points along the TL and at a discrete set of
times. This is accomplished by using the FDTD method.
As mentioned earlier, in the FDTD method, the TL is divided into nz segments as shown below
(Figure 2.26)1,2,3,4.
I~
+ 1 + 2 !lZ+
Vnz+l
u
z=o z= L
The voltage will be computed at the nz+l "nodes" and at a discrete number of "nt" time
instances. Each of these times is separated by an equal amount dt that is computed later. The
FDTD solution is accomplished by applying the central difference approximation for the
derivatives in space and time that appear in the equations for the voltages and current below.
Where "I" and c are the per-unit-Iength inductance and capacitance of the TL respectively, and
V (z,t ), I (z,t) are the line voltage and current along the TL respectively.
The FDTD technique seeks to approximate the derivatives in (2.49) with regard to the discrete
solution points defined by spatial and temporal cells.
58
According to this notation, the finite difference representation of the spatial and temporal
derivative of a function f (z,t ) is written as:
vkn =V((k-1)·&,n·/1t)
---------(2.57)
I; =]((k-1I2)·&,n·/1t)
V(O,t) = Vs - Rs * I(O,t)
-----------(2. 59)
V(L,t) = VL + RL * I(L,t)
59
Where VS, VL are the lumped voltage sources at the near-and far-end of the TL.
Incorporating the latter equations in (2.53), the final FDTD code is obtained. For each time
1
step "n" the voltage at the near-and far-end of the TL are evaluated byTaflove :
117 n+l _
1 -
V 11+1
1..70t+1
Also, the voltage and current at each intermediate spatial segment is evaluated by equations
(2.58). This procedure goes on for each time cell until final solution time is reached.
20.0
L. ... _1._
1.1 COO ,----~-,--~---,~~--,-~----,-~------,
0.0
·70 a
4('1.0 ~'2
__
-:: O.SElDa
-60.0 t>J
~ 0.4400
-80.0 co
>
-100.0
1,1000
20,0
190
"
f0-
"
~
w
'"
08800
0.6£00 : I
in
I-
e:>
~
"'-
150 --
110 -
I
<! n 44[10 w
f-
'"
« -',0
"
>
02200 ...j
I-
a> 3.0
O.ODOO
00
I
27.0 54.0 a1.0 108.0
I
133,0
-1,0
0.0 133.U
TIME (PICOSECONDS)
2.6 Summary
The method used for the calculations of the self and mutual impedances of rail track and
overhead line conductors have been developed as well as the calculations of the voltage and
currents in the overhead lines (feed systems) and the return systems. The results obtained have
also been presented. The self and mutual impedance have been calculated using finite
difference time domain (FDTD) method which is a mathematical modelling technique based on
solving Maxwell's equations. The results obtained have been compared with existing standard
approach. The method provides better and more accurate results for these calculations. Using
the impedance results obtained here, further analysis and calculations of the induced voltage
for the uncompensated and compensated systems under normal and short circuits conditions
are given in chapters (3), (4), (5), & (6).
61
CHAPTER (3)
Introduction
In the previous chapter the self and mutual impedances of feed and return conductors have
been calculated and generalised formulae for the line voltage and current have been developed.
Using this information we now proceed to calculate the induced voltage into line-side
signalling cables. In this section uncompensated (no booster transformers) systems of one and
two track layouts in an open area have been considered. Calculations and results given in this
section are for normal operation condition.
rails
The equivalent electric circuit for Figure (3.1) is shown in Figure 3.2.
II
U1
U2
12
Figure 3.2: Current, potential and impedance for a railway section with feeding station
& load
It is important to consider not just the induction effects from the railway system on signalling
circuits in the neighbourhood of the track, but also the voltages between the rails and the earth
especially from the point of view of danger.
From Figure 3.2, the current at P2 that is fed into the rail system is divided in two current
components, one has the direction to the feeding station and thus flows in the opposite
direction to the current in the contact conductor (-II)' while the other one is directed from the
feeding station. The currents in the rail system outside the feeding section (to the left of P 1 and
right of P2) are attenuated in a manner that is determined by the longitudinal impedance of the
rail system and the leakance. Usually it can be assumed that the sections outside PI & P2 are
so long that their properties can be represented by the characteristic impedance of the circuit
established by the rails and the earth48,49.
F or the assumption that the properties of the system conductors do not vary along the line, the
following differential equations are valid.
63
dU I
---=Z2 .1 2 +Z12 .11
dx ------(3. 1)
where;
where;
Z, = ;, = ~ ;: (Characteristic impedance)
For the system considered in this thesis, the overhead conductor system (or feed system)
consists of contact wire (CW), feed wire (F), and messenger wire (M) and the return
conductor system consists of two rails (Rl and R2), earth wire (EW) and buried earth wire
47
(Bl), Figure 3.3 . The self and mutual impedances of these return and feed conductors have
been determined as shown chapter (2).
64
H Z6 --I-- 16 /(;6
\~
I
~-~t'··r-
I
I '\
- Z7
'"
N 00
r-
~
I
I
"
eed
conJductors
~
N
(es"
H Z8
TR
'.~./
00 00 00
..,.
00 00
or;
N r-
N
N r- '"N r-
N
..,.
r-
N
r-
N "N or,
'" '" '"
N <'1 N '" N '" N '"
or;
~I1 J Zl
N '"
N "
N N
~31 '\
c-(:': 12 N ~ J Z2
~e3 13
N
~l Z3 -I I return
cf:>:nductors
J~l
.~
"
N "N
N
r~~
c_ Z4
----1
or;
N
,..,or;
N
or;
'"
N ~\r
or,
;-
N
)
~!I5 J Z5
~ 1 krn --
Figure 3.3: Mutual interaction among conductors (return & feed systems) for 1 km long
mesh
Assume that the overhead catenary system (OeS) has a current ofl Amps. First the current is
considered as equally divided among feed conductors. Hence from the Figure 3.3, 16 , 17 and
18 (messenger, contact wire and feeder wire currents respectively) will be 113 I Amps.
Induced voltage calculation were carried out using the method described below47 :
The current in the feed conductors will induce voltages e1 , e 2 , e 3 , e4 , and e 5 in the return
e1 = e61 + e 71 + e 81
e2 = e62 + en + e 82
e3 = e63 + e 73 + e 83 -------(3.4)
e 4 = e 64 +e 74 +e 84
e5 = e 65 + e 75 + e 85
where,
65
hence,
eJ = ZI6 *16 + Z17* 17 + ZIS * Is -----(3.6)
For the current 1= 1 Amps, then 16 = 17 = Is = 1/3 Amps
Hence,
or -------(3.7)
where;
n = Number of feed conductors in the system
ZIT = Sum of element in the 1st row ofRF-matrix
and --------(3.8)
-I
II ZII Z\2 Z)3 ZI4 Z15 el
12 Z21 Z22 Z23 Z24 Z25 e2
13 Z31 Z32 Z33 Z34 Z35 e3
14 Z41 Z42 Z43 Z44 Z45 e4
15 Z51 Z52 Z53 Z54 Z55 e5
Following the same approach used for return current calculations, the current in the feed
conductors can be calculated;
66
The currents in the return conductors induce voltages e6 , e7 , and e 8 in the feed conductors,
such the;
e 6 =Z16 .11 +Z26 .1 2 +Z36 .1 3 +Z46 .14 +Z% ·15-----(3.9)
Similar approach is applied for e7 and e 8 , and the total equation can be written in a matrix
from as;
II
Z26 Z36 Z46 12
lellZ"
e7
e8
ZI7
ZI8
Z27
Z28
Z37
Z38
Z47
Z48
Z"J
Z57 . 13 ---------(3.10)
Z58 14
15
following relationship;
le, j= lZ~
e7 Z76
Z67
Z77 Zoo jf' j
Z78 17
e8 Z86 Z87 Z88 18
nlZ~
or ----------(3.11 )
Z67
17
18
= Z76 Z77 Z78
Z86 Z87
Z'lfj
Z88
e7
e8
The above method was developed based on the assumption that the OCS is divided equally
between the feed systems. However this may not be true in real life, therefore consideration for
inequality is required. This is achieved by applying simple correction method as shown below.
Consider the incorrect currents I6i' I7i ,I8i (not add up to 1 Amps), and I Ti = I6i + I7i + I8i IS
the total incorrect current, then the corresponding corrected currents I6c,!7c,!8care;
67
I = I6i
6c I
Ti
Using the above method the return and feed currents were recalculated as;
ZI7
Z27
Z37
Z47
Z57
r
elc
e 2c
l
r
e5c J
Z41
l Z51
Z42
Z52
'7
L43
Z53
Z44
Z54
Z::
Z55
II
JlI 5<
and ---------(3.14 )
IIlc
I 2c
13c
I 4c
I~ l~:: Z
Z21
"
Z12
'7
L22
Z32
Z42
ZI3
Z23
Z33
Z43
ZI4
'7
L24
Z34
Z44
ZI5
Z25
Z35
Z45
-I
etc
e 2c
e 3c
e4c
15c J Z51 Z52 Z53 Z54 Z55J e 5c
Next the characteristic impedance and propagation coefficient of the return system can be
determined as;
From the corrected return current and voltages the impedance of each conductor can be
obtained using ohm's law;
fl
~Ic
ZIe = -1 -----(1
,-. 15)
Ie
68
r = ~ -----(3.17)
vR:
where, Re = resistance to earth
and
Z 0 = Characteristic impedance
With very small distance, the total current will flow back directly from the loading to the
feeding end.
Consider a length of exposure as d (distance between load and sub-station) as shown in Figure
3.447 .
69
d
I---"-"~-"-"---"--
1-"-"-
I
-"--x- "-~-
L
..
dl2
.. ..
-d/2
..
Figure 3.4: Distance between load (L) and substation (s) for a length of exposure d
Where, 0 is the centre of exposure, such that x is the distance measured from the centre
towards the load and -x towards the sub-station;
OL = +d/2
OS=-d/2
If inductive coupling between the primary (inducing) and the secondary (induced) circuits is
not considered, then the conduction current is given by;
d
- x 5 - "2 (outside sub-station)
d
Ie = I· e-r(x) . sinh(y("2»--------(3.19)
d
-x~--
2
or (between load and sub-station)
d
xs-
2
-r(~)
led = I· e 2. cosh(y(x» ------(3.20)
d .
X ~"2 (outsIde the load)
The above equations express the complete dc effect. For an ac effect a further current induced
in the rails is superposed on the return current flowing in the rails and the earth. If the rails are
perfectly earthed, then induced current lid is;
70
I· jwM ps
ld =- -------(3.22)
I Rs + jwLs
The current outside exposure in this case is negligible. However, if the rails are not perfectly
earthed, the value of - Eid / Zs will be attained only in the middle ofa long section. Near the
ends, the induced current lid decreases, but now flows outside the exposure.
lid =- i d
s
. (e-r(X) ,sinh(r(~))-------(3.24)
-X2 -d/2
or x::; d / 2 (between load and sub-station)
lid =- is
d
. (e-r(X) . Sinh(r(~)) ---------(3 .26)
From the above it can be noted that, induction current has two expression for outside the
exposure; one for outside load and the other for outside the sub-satiation, as in conduction
current.
71
Such that,
It = I In + l2n + l3n + l4n + l5n
where -------(3.27)
1';c
lIn =yolr
c
To determine the voltage induced into the cable the voltage induced in B1 may be determined,
to which should then be added the voltage induced from the BEW (B 1).This can be done since
the cable is very close to B 1 (about 0.05 m apart), hence the total voltage induced into the
cable from the return conductors will be given by;
(e3 in section)
The total voltage induced will be the vector resultant of the return induced voltage e r plus the
e = e r + ef ------ (3 .30)
~ ~ ~
72
e f is fixed in magnitude and direction for a given oes configuration and does not vary with
If there is a third parallel conductor in the vicinity connected to earth at both ends, it will carry
a current 13 due to the induced voltage from the railway line. It should be noted that the
current 13 due to the induced voltage 11;3 tends to flow in the direction opposite to the traction
current I]. 13 therefore induces a voltage V23 in the signalling line, which is in the opposite
direction of 11;2 . This opposing action gives rise to screening and this additional third
smce;
e r is the induced return voltage, e f is the induced feed voltage and e is the total induction
K = ef = ef -------(3.34)
e e r + ef
In the case that there are more than one train, considerations for these effects have to be taken
into account for worst-case scenarios. Hence a concentrated load of two trains should be
taken.
73
Using the above steps, the total voltage induced el and e 2 (30 km & 22 km exposure), into a
cable, situated inside or outside the two exposures or inside one exposure (outside the other),
may be determined for 1A of OCS current and 1 km length of cable.
If the load currents at 30 km and 22km are Ixl and Ix 2 , and if the length of the cable is L, then
In the case of dc relay circuit, line sectionlisation will necessitate the use of a repeater relay for
each circuit at each isolation point, together with an isolated power supply. The use of
screened cable would increase the permitted distance between isolation points. But the
relatively higher cost of screened cable to eliminate any consequential risk to maintenance
technicians is a matter to be weighted against the respective economic/ technical
consideration54,55,56.
74
For FDM system, the case to be considered is much simpler. In such a system, a single pair of
wires may be used to carry analogue commands by a number of channels of different
frequencies. Line sectionlisation for each FDM system may be achieved by means of either an
active line amplifier or a line isolation transformer. The standard configuration adopted for
cables in ac electrified areas is one of interposing transformer and amplifier from section to
section, at suitable separation distance in accordance with the signalling and traction
conditions 57,58,59.
Using the same system configurations in chapter 2 and the method described in the above
sections (3.1.1-3.1.4) the induced voltage can now be calculated.
The data used in the calculations for induced voltage (e.g. resistance to earth, length of cable
etc) are given in Appendix A.
Note: Load and fault current values depend on the distance of the load or fault from the sub-
station, this is because the impedance of the system changes with distance.
Table 3.1: Load and fault currents for 1250 A oes configuration
76
Distance from SS (km) (x) Load current (A) DeS fault current
13 2100 4546
12* 2200 4818
11* 2300 5000
10* 2400 5273
9* 2500 5646
8* 2650 5910
7* 2800 6270
6* 2950 6546
5* 3150 7091
4* 3350 7728
3* 3360 8182
2* 3950 8910
1* 4350 9819
Table 3.2: Load and fault currents for 1250 A oes configuration
The induced voltage and screening factor results for one-track case are shown in Table 3.5
below;
78
OCS rating (A) Track-layout Cable position Induced voltage (V) Screening factor
1250 One-track Normal 63 0.057
open area
1250 One-track Other side 60 0.053
open area
760 One-track Normal 54 0.076
open area
760 One-track Other side 57 0.079
open area
Table 3.5: Induced voltage and screening factor for two different oes ratings and cable
position
The induced voltage was also determined at the centre of30km exposure and at 12 km and 2
km exposures for two-track return systems, 1250 and 760 A OCS and for two different
positions of the cable, the results are shown in Figures 3.5-3.16 below;
Figure 3.5: Induced voltage at 30 km exposure (1250 A) open track, normal cable
position
79
180
160
140
120
Induced voltage 100
(V) 80
60
40
20
O~~~~~,--~~~~~~~,-~~~~~~~,~~-,
181614 1210 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8
x (km) exposure
x(km) 4 2 302
Figure 3.7: induced voltage for 2k exposure (1250 A) normal cable position
The Figures (3.8-3.10) below gives the highest voltage induced for the same exposures as
above, but different position of the cable.
80
90
80
~ 70
~ 60
~ 50
g 40
-g
(J
30
-5 20
.E 10
o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~--~
36 34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
x(km)
Figure 3.8: Induced voltage at 30 km exposure (1250 A) other side cable position
180
160
~ 140
~ 120
~ 100
g 80
B 60
-5
.E
40
20
j
0~1~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8
x(km)
Figure 3.9: Induced voltage at 12 km exposure (1250 A) other side cable position
Figure 3.10: Induced voltage for 2k exposure (1250 A) other side cable position
81
3634 32 30 2826242220181614 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 2 4 6 8 10
x (km)
Figure 3.14: Induced voltage at 30 km exposure (760 A) cable on the other side position
Figure 3.15: Induced voltage at 12 km exposure (760 A) other side cable position
~. 4 230 2
x(km)
Figure 3.16: Induced voltage for 2k exposure (760 A) other side cable position
83
The following section deals with calculations and results for one-rail return systems.
Elimination of rails:
Using matrix elimination approach, RI is eliminated from the complete impedance matrix,
shown below.
RI R2 BI EW,I EW2 M CW F
BI Z31
E~ Z41
EW2 Z51
M Z61
CW Z71
F Z81
R2 B j E~ EW2 M CW F
R2 Z~2 Z;3 Z~4 Z~5 Z~6 Z;7 Z;8
BJ Z~2 Z;3
E~ Z;2
EW2 Z~2
M Z~2
CW Z;2
F Z:2
R2 BJ E~ EW2
Z;2 Z;3 Z;4 Z;5 R2
Z~2 Z;3 Z~4 Z~5 BJ
RR=
Z;2 Z;3 Z'44 Z;5 E~
Z~2 Z;3 Z;4 Z;5 EW2
CW M F
CW M F
[Z~
FF = Z;6
Z~7
Z;7 Z;8 z:'rw M
Z~6 Z:7 Z'88 F
FF matrix for one-rail traction return system (feed conductors impedance)
85
The above results also represent a broken rail situation for two-rail return system, where one
of the two rails is broken and the other carries the traction return current.
In order to consider the effect of a broken rail, elimination of each rail has been carried out one
by one. The case of two broken rails has also been considered, even though this situation has
an unlikely occurrence.
In all cases 2 km exposure gives the highest voltage induced inside the exposure, and 12 km
exposure gives the highest voltage induced outside the exposure.
Results obtained are shown in Figures 3. 17-3.24 below.
86
70 1
60
50
Induced voltage
IV) 40
30
100
80
Induced voltage 60
IV)
40
20
o
x (km)
I 90 l
80
70
60
Induced voHage 50
(V) 40
30 -
20
10
90
I 80
70
60
Induced voltage 50
(V) 40
30
20
10
O+-~~~-r~~~~~~-r~'-~~~-'~~'-~~
C') LO r- (J) ~ C') LO
-- x(km,--
x(km)
80
70
60
I 50
induced voltage
II (V) 40
30
20
10
O+-.-~~~~~-,-.~,-,-.-~~~~~-,-.~,-,-~
LO (J) ~ M LO r- (J)
..-- ..--
x (km)
20
10
O+~~~~~~~;~~~~~~~~,-,~~~~
x(km) ~~
------------------------------------
80
I 70
I 60
50
Induced voltage
(V) 40
30
20
10
o
3.4 Summary
The induced voltages for uncompensated systems under normal operation conditions have been
calculated for one and two track layouts and two different overhead ratings (1250, & 760
Amps). The induced voltages have been analysed for inside exposure where the return
induction is more dominant and outside exposure where the feed conductor effect is more
obvious. The position of the signalling cable, whether it is on the normal or other side of the
track has also been considered.
89
47
Induced voltage curves of this chapter follow the established trend ; however, the calculated
values for the curves are different. This is because the impedance values used are different and
have been calculated by FDTD method, described earlier in this thesis.
90
CHAPTER (4)
Introduction
The previous chapter dealt with the calculation of induced voltage for uncompensated systems
under normal operation conditions. In order to establish a complete analysis of the system, it is
important to understand the behaviour of the system under fault conditions, namely touch
potential fault. In this section the induced voltage under fault conditions is analysed and
calculations are given for one and two track layouts.
If a cable fault develops due to contact between a conductor and the return system, the
signalling equipment will be subjected to the sum of potentials set up in the conductive loop
formed. This is known as the touch potential voltage in respect to danger to personnel and is
also known as stress voltage in respect to equipment, it is therefore very important to know its
level (Figure 4. 1) 47.
91
OCS 11
earth surface
1 km 1 km 1 km 1 km deep earth
Figure 4.1: Signaling system in contact with ERS (Touch potential effect)
-yl~1
It = --tE - -t)e
s
E
(1-
s
2
1 1, cosh(yx-) ------(4.1) (for inside exposure)
/t =('/ - _I)e
E, -ylxl 'SIll
Zs
I I 'h'ldl)2
(r - . ) ('fior outSl'de exposure)
------ (42'
From the formula above, it can be interpreted that; in entering the rails the primary current 1
splits up into the induced rail current - Ei / Zs and the return rail current -(1- E; / ZJ
The induced rail current flows only between feeding and loading points with constant intensity,
as if the rails were perfectly earthed. Also it does not produce any voltage between rails and
ground. The return rail current divides equally inside and outside and produces a potential drop
in the rails as well as a potential between the rails and the ground, which is known as rising
earth potential and is given by;
92
Referring to Figure 4.1 above, if the Bend of the cable comes into contact with the return
system at C, the resultant potential set up due to the conductive fault loop, identified by points
ABC and D, will be given by the vectorial sum of potentials V;, V2 and e (VI' V2 are the
rising earth potentials at the two ends and e is the total induced voltage in the cable). V; & V1 ,
when drawn with respect to deep earth as origin, may be regarded to be in the 1st quadrant as
shown in Figure 4.2.
On the other hand vector e may lie in any of the quadrants 1, 2,Of 3, but its origin has to be
shifted to coincide with the end of vector V2 because the cable comes into contact with return
/
'I
I eT=CA'~V\'-(V2'+<')
I
The touch potential in all cases, is the same and is given by;
eT = VI - (Vz + e) --------(4.5)
93
X2 --____....
.. Xl
The sum of conduction and induction current It at any distance x inside the exposure is given
by equation;
It
E -
= --' E ' )e- r Id/l2 cosh}'X
(1- -
Zs Zs ---------(4.6)
or -------(4.7)
E (
ItAB = - - ' Xl -X 2
) -- E) e -rldl2j ( sm
1 (1-_' . h }'Xl-sm
. h }'X2 )
Zs r Zs
Calculations for current in section 3.1.1, may now be repeated by substituting It by It4B .
Note: ercalculated in this case, will be for the full length of the cable and not for its unit
length, as in section 3. I since the integration is carried out over the entire length.
Voltage induced from the feed system ef in this case will be ef of step lOin section 3. 1
multiplied by the length of the cable (Xl - X 2 ) . Hence, resultant voltage e induced in a length
Knowing e, ~ and V2 , the touch potential eTP for an OCS current of 1 A, may now be
determine by;
eTP =~~ -(V2 +e)--------(4.9)
MUltiplying equation 4.9 above by the total OCS current gives the total touch potential.
TP for a cable situated outside the exposure, as shown in the above figure is exactly the same.
The only difference lies in that It, the total current (conduction + induction) and rising earth
potentials vI and v2 are all to be used as for the outside exposure (see Figure 4.4).
X2
.. Xl
It = ](1- ~i
X2 s
). e-r1xl . sinh(rld /21· dx -------(4.10)
hence
therefore;
95
4.1.3 Results
On the basis of results obtained for one track and two track, it has been established that the
touch potential maintains the same profile irrespective of the exposure and the OCS
configuration or track layout.
Touch potential inside the exposure (Figure 4.5 & Table 4.1» is minimum at the centre of
exposure. It rises gradually on moving away from the centre on either side to a maximum value
at the load or sub-station. Outside exposure (Table 4.2), touch potential decays rapidly from a
maximum value at load or sub-station to almost nothing at about 10 km away from load or
sub-station.
2.15 2 142 13 19
2.16 2 139 13 21
2.17 2 131 12 16
2.18 2 135 12 16
so
60
Touch potential 40
(V)
20
O+-~~-.-.~.-.-.-~~-.~.-~~~~-.-.~.-.
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
x(km)
From Figure 4.5 above; with the contraction of exposure, the touch potential curve inside the
exposure rises higher. For the range of exposure considered 2 -30 km, the shortest exposure
i.e. 2 km gives the highest touch potential. While Figure 4.6 shows touch potential at different
exposures for inside exposure and Table 4.3 for outside exposure.
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
x(km)
4 36 4 28 6 20
6 34 6 26 7 18
8 32 10 24 14 16
10 30 14 22 19 14
V4 (V) x (km)
V5 (V) x (km)
7 12
6 4
9 10
7 2
15 8
10 0
17 6
_______ ~ __ ~ _________ ~_~ __________ ~ ____ J
Table 4.3: TP outside exposure, cable on normal side for V1, V2, V3, V4, & V5
Outside the exposure, the touch potential is maximum in the mid exposure range (e.g. 13 km),
its value decreases with the increase or decrease of exposure, beyond this range so that with
the increasing exposure, it is minimum for 30 km exposure and with decreasing exposure, it is
minimum for 2 km exposure.
4.2.1 Results
As it would be expected the profiles of the touch potential curves, whether for inside or
outside the exposure, remain the same as those in a two-rail return system. The maximum
touch potential values inside and outside, however are greater than the corresponding values in
a two-rail system. Results are shown in tables 4.4-4.7 and Figures 4.7 & 4.8 below.
98
2.15 2 192 12 43
2.16 2 183 12 43
2.17 2 178 12 39
2.18 2 178 13 36
Table 4.4: maximum TP (Rl eliminated)
2.15 2 186 12 43
2.16 2 191 12 48
2,17 2 174 13 36
2.18 2 185 12 41
Table 4.5: Maximum TP (R2) eliminated
200
V1 (30km)
150
V2 (24km)
Touch potential (V)
100 V3 (18km)
V4 (12km)
50
I· V5 (4km)
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
x(km)
150 V1 (30km)
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
x (km)
CHAPTER (5)
Introduction
The level of induced voltage due to the ac-single-phase, 25 kv, 50 Hz, should not exceed
certain limits. The European Directive (CCITT)19 for the protection of signalling and
telecommunication lines sets these limits against harmful effects from the overhead power lines
and are as given below:
1. 60 V rms under normal conditions (100 V rms for signalling cables)
2. 430 V rms under power systems fault conditions
To fulfil these requirements further suppression of any induction is needed. This is achieved by
using booster transformers (BTs) connected to the contact wire and either directly to the rail
or via a special return conductor. BTs were first introduced to suppress any interference
caused to the post office lines (unbalanced lines), due to their effectiveness it was decided that
they should be used in all major railway lines. Booster transformer suppression is now one of
the most commonly used methods to constrain the level of induced voltage to the required
limits.
The BTs are in effect current transformers with a 1: 1 ratio. Their function is to force the return
current to flow along a special return or rail to which the secondary of the transformer is
connected.
102
As mentioned before their connection can be achieved in two different ways, either directly to
the rail (Rail connected BT), where almost all of the return current is confined to the rails
(Figure 5.1) small part flows through earth. In Britain the distance between two such
transformers is 1 mile. It is apparent that this system is not effective, due to the difference
between the distances of two current carrying conductors (catenary and rail) from the cable is
very large and hence the residual resultant induced voltage in the cable is high. Also the
impedance of the rails rises with frequency and causes a greater loss. For these reason
suppression using the rail connected booster transformers has proved unreliable.
The second connection can be achieved by connecting the BT to a special return conductor.
This type of connection provided better suppression when tested at the beginning of
electrification and it is now widely used in the UK and Overseas. In this thesis only the latter is
investigated.
catenary &
contact IL;J~AJ!
.... l.J\.p~~) L~~
conductor (Y'--V 1"\" Y"V~ ~'~C'Y]
,Ir
J~ [ J
..... ( \
) ( )
rall
return conductor I
b~r-------~~----'~~~A
I
rail
The connection of the rails to the return conductor is midway between consecutive BTs. The
return path of the magnetising current is via the rails. This magnetising current is very small
under normal condition. For the short circuit faults, saturation occurs in the transformer core
and higher magnetising currents results.
The effect of the magnetising current under fault condition can be very severe hence further
precautions are required. This is established by providing insulated overlaps across BT primary
sides in the overhead line.
The magnitude of the BT magnetising current affects its size. Employing high magnetising
current can reduce the size of the BT, but this could affect the current balance between primary
and secondary, which in effect will contribute towards magnetic induction.
The series connection of the BTs with the supply system, can cause some voltage drop in the
overhead line, this is due to leakage impednaces. The impedance of the simple feeding circuit is
less by about 30% than that of this system70 .
return BI BI
conductor L~)r-------4----'----'
rails
return
conductor L~A_A_' uJ
catenary & ry"y, ~YY1,--- ______
contact conductor '---_ _-._~_-,---l
Load
L'
r il
uncompensate
section
The BT has also an effect on the increase of the impedance of the power circuit. The
impedance of a single track system employing BT and return conductor is about 505% more
than that of the non-boostered system (simple feeding systemfl This increase of the system
impedance results in the need for closer ac substations.
Another effect is the size of the return conductor, since the secondary voltage ofBT varies
with the impedance of the return conductor and consequently the capacity of the transformer
varies with the size of the conductor.
105
j~ I' 1
Nl: N2
And the simplified circuit below (Figure 5.6) for impedance calculations.
1:1 Z2
f-
Vil
l[ " Vs
!
~
tV2
1
Figure 5.6: BT system for impedance calculations
From the above circuit, the impedance of the BT can be calculated as;
where,
II = Ie (contact/catenary current)
12 =I rt (return conductor current)
106
For the railway system with booster transformers and a special return conductor, the
components involved are the catenary (C), return conductor (re) and rail conductor (R), the
equivalent circuit for the calculation of the admittance and current of the BT in shown in
Figure 5.7 below.
Ie
Ire
~-F-
---'i""-C_~._ _ _ _ _.~
ll_ _••-----~ir~"~.~
V~ =~Vo ---(5.3)
n)
112 2
ZI = (-) (ZO +ZI)---(5.4)
n)
II =-~Ic ---(5.5)
nl
Ie + Ire =0---(5.7)
Ve - v,'e = Z2 * Ire + Vs - - - (5.8)
V,e - Vc = Z 2 * Ire - Vs - - - (5.9)
or
vs=O - Ie * Z 1 -
V' r - - (5 . 12)
and;
Ve - v'e = V~ + Ie * Z; + Ie * Z2 - - - (5.13)
Vre - Ve = -V'0 + I re * Z'I + I re * Z 2 - - - (5.14)
Vc -V,e = V~ +Ie(Z; +Z2)---(5.15)
Vre - Vc=O
-V' + l + Z 2 ) - - - (5 . 16)
rI e(Z'
In matrix form;
U sing matrix manipulation the above can be rearranged to the required formula, and hence the
admittance of the circuit can be obtained as:
108
For the ac single-phase 25 kV, 50 Hz system with booster transformers connected to a return
conductor, the above calculations are carried out using Mathcad and some of the results
obtained are given below (Figure 5.8-5.11).
Figure 5.8: Current in the return conductor for BT spacing 3.2 km, train position at 18
km
250
200
g 150 / \
1: 100
~
:;
u 50
+-----~-------/ \
0 / \
-50 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
x (km) exposure
10
8
g
6 ~-~-
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
x (km) exposure
----~~--~-~~
~~I
Rail voltage (BT) at 18 kmexposure
20
~ 15
CII
CI 10
.s
g 5
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
x (km) exposure
Figure 5.11: Rail voltage with BT system with rail return (train position at 18 km)
The above section shows the calculation for the booster transformer it self The calculations of
the induced voltage in the nearby signalling cables for one and two track layouts under normal
operation conditions are given in the following section (5.5,5.6 & 5.8).
110
1. To connect booster transformers with their primary windings connected in series with
overhead line and their secondary windings connected either directly to the running rails or
connect to a special return conductor as shown above.
2. To provide heavy magnetic and electric shielding on signalling and telecommunication
cables which parallel the track.
3. To design signal and telecommunication circuits, which would be immune from the effects
of, induced voltage and thus save cost of providing series booster transformers and special
shielding of the cables.
4. To sectionalise the cable with the use of a device such as an isolating transformer, which
may be provided in the cable circuits to act as barrier to the induced voltage. The device at
most allows a small fraction of this voltage to reach the terminal apparatus or personnel
working on the termination of the circuit.
All of the methods mentioned above have been tried in different lines at the beginning of
electrification project in Britain. The most effective method was found to be booster
transformers connected to a special return conductor. Shielding and good grounding have also
been used to provide further suppression. With the introduction of electromagnetic
compatibility EMC Directive (January 1996) it is now required by law that all new electric and
electronic equipment should be immune from the effect of interference as well as having little
interference produced by them. Unfortunately, many of the old equipment are still in use now a
3
da/ .
The European directive concerning the protection of telecommunication lines against harmful
effects from power lines, specify that cables which are not terminated by suitably constructed
transformers should not be subject to longitudinally induced voltage in excess of the limits
mentioned earlier. Where transformers of suitable construction are employed to terminate the
19
cable circuit, the CCITT directive recommend that under fault conditions, the maximum
III
possible longitudinally induced voltage may be increased to 60% of the cable conductor
sheath-test voltage.
If the calculated values of induced voltage exceed the limit set by the CCITT, one of the
options of remedial measure mentioned above has to be considered. It is desirable first to see if
the induction can be reduced to the safe limits by sectionlisation of the cable. In such an event
the cost is likely to be significantly less than incurred using BT, if they are to be employed.
However, this may be true for cases where only a reasonable number of sections are necessary.
In other cases, it may very well be possible that the findings show a balance in favour of the
use ofBT on the grounds of economy.
Since the booster transformer suppression is commonly used in the UK, this project
concentrated on the analysis of such system.
The aim therefore, is to pass the return current through a special return conductor, running
parallel and as close as possible to the OHL, thereby reducing the leakage current to a
minimum, which returns to the sub-station via earth or the running rails. This is achieved by
having BT in the circuit as shown in Figure 5.2. In Britain the distance between two BT with
return conductor is 2 miles. The return current flows in the rail up to the nearest point at which
the return conductor is bonded to the rails. From there it flows through the return conductor
back to the feeder point (Figures 5.3 & 5.4).
Two limitations of suppression at source using BT with return conductor may be mentioned
here;
Considering a single-track line with BT return, the field produced by the current in the return
conductor is 1800 out of phase with the field produced by the current in the catenary system.
112
If the whole of the return current flowed in the return conductor and if there were no other
parallel conductors to carry induced currents, the field produced respectively by the catenary
current and the return current would sum to zero at all points that were equi-distant from the
two conductors. These points would lie on a neutral plane that passed mid-way between the
catenary and the return conductor and was as right angles to the line joining them. For any
point in this plane there is a perfect suppression at source.
• The first limitation of suppression at source occurs when there is more than one track. The
induced field at any given point is the vector sum of the fields produced by all the catenary
systems to several tracks, as well as by all the return conductors and other current-carrying
conductors. For such a system a neutral plane is no longer relevant.
• The second limitation is set by the fact that the return current after leaving the wheels of
the electric vehicle does not reach the return conductor until the nearest point at which this
conductor is bonded to the rails (the return conductor is connected to the rails at every
mid-point between two transformers).
Hence between the load and the nearest mid-point connection or in a train section as it is
commonly referred to, the return current is confided mainly to the rails (a small part flows
through earth). Although the currents in the two current-carrying conductors (catenary & rail,
return conductor & rail) are equal in magnitude and phase but opposite in direction (assuming
no current flowing into earth), the level of induced voltage is very high in a train section. This
is because of a large difference in the distance between the two current carrying conductors
and the cable, which subsequently causes a large difference in two opposing mutual induction.
The longest train section therefore, gives the worst-case scenarios and the shortest is the best
case. With a distance of 2 miles between two BTs, the maximum length of a train section is 1
mile.
This condition is achieved when the train is at the BT and is commonly known as I-mile effect.
On the other hand the shortest train section length is fulfilled when the train is at the mid-point
connection. Hence the nearer the train is to the BT, the less perfect is the compensation.
113
1. The difference between the distances of the two current-carrying conductors (OR catenary
and rail) from the cable is very large. Thus residual resultant induced voltage in the cable is
very high.
2. The impedance of the rails rises with frequency and causes a greater loss of current from the
track
3. Between BT locations, the return traction current tends to find its own low impedance path
down all the running rails. This means that the return traction current tends to leave a
single-rail track circuit and join a double rail track because of its lower impedance. The
result of these transverse current is to raise the potential difference between the rails on
double-rail track circuit.
4. There is also the effect on rail potential to earth. The potential of the rail when several trains
are taking current steps progressively higher until the feeder station is reached.
In the following sections, the calculation of induced voltage under normal for compensated
return conductor only, has been considered, since this system is the most widely used due to
efficiency compared to BT running rail. Fault conditions in the form of short circuit faults for
compensated systems are given in the next chapter (6).
As in an uncompensated system the starting point in the calculation is the determination of self
and mutual impedance values for track layouts and oes configurations considered.
connected. In other words, in such systems, as a general rule, it can be said that the currents in
feed conductors are always in one direction and those in return conductors in the other.
This general rule however, does not apply for compensated systems, because as it will be seen
later, the current distribution pattern in these systems is different for different number of tracks
considered.
As a result in contrast to uncompensated systems, where the method of calculation has been
explained by taking one case (i.e. one-track as an example), here in compensated systems each
track case will have to be considered separately.
In this section the method of calculation for one-track and two-track cases for the track layout
and oes configuration in given in chapter 2 (Figures 2.11,2.12) are considered receptively.
In the calculations of this and next chapter, it has been assumed that the currents in the rails
remain confided to the rails (no flow to earth). This assumption is valid since in normal
operation the magnetising current of the BT is very small and can be neglected. In short circuit
conditions, however, as well be seen later, magnetising current is very important factor of
consideration and cannot be ignored. In both norma110ad and sic calculations the impedance of
the transformer has to be taken into account. If this impedance is to be included, then it's value
per km is to be added to the impedance values per km of the conductors, to which the
windings of these transformers are connected.
llS
It is some times convenient if two or more conductors, which are in effect sic by zero
impedance, are bundled together. This also has the advantage of reducing the number of
conductors to be dealt with.
Using standard method of bundling, the conductors from RR, RF and FF matrices may be
bundled as shown below.
RI R2 RT RCAB
ZII Z12 RI
Z13 Zl4
Z21 Z22 Z23 Z24 R2
RR= -------( 5. 19)
Z31 Z32 Z33 Z34 RT
Z41 Z42 Z43 Z44 RCAB
= rails
= return conductor
= cable
CW F
ZI5 ZI6 RI
Z25 Z26 R2 ------( 5.20)
RF=
Z35 Z36 RT
Z45 Z46 RCAB
CW = contact wire
F = feeder wire
CW F
Combing the above matrices (5. 19-5.21) to form one large symmetrical matrix (M r ) as:
(RFr) (RF)]
[ (RR) Z31 Z32 Z33 Z34 Z35 Z36
--------(5.22)
Mr = (FF) - Z41 Z42 Z43 Z44 Z45 Z46
Z51 Z52 Z53 Z54 Z55 Z56
Hence any two conductors can easily be bundled at a time, using standard method.
I OCS
Load
I
rail
------------------~~
Zone 1 Zone 2 (up to feeder station)
Figure 5.12: One-track case for load at the feed end of the BT
It may be noted that only the current-carrying conductors are shown in each zone.
From the computed self and mutual impedance of all conductors using their co-ordinates, the
matrices of the RR, RF, FF are formed in the same manner as uncompensated system. For
117
easiness of the calculation the cable eAB is considered to be one of the return conductors,
hence as are all other conductors, it is to be included in the RR and RF matrices.
R} & R2 in the RR matrix can be bundled together and represented by a single conductor R.
similarly contact wire and feeder wires in FF matrix can be bundled together and represented
by a single conductor oes. The resulting matrix is;
Z;4]
Z;4 -------(5.24)
Z"44
For a current 1 in the oes, the rail current =-1 (opposite direction of the oes current, the
function of the BT)
From the matrix above, the mutual impedance between the cable and oes = Z;8 and the
Z;4J
Z:8 --------(5.2 7)
Z'"44
ocs
I --Y"~Y--,
return conductor
r----------r--~~ i
Load
I
fa
...
Zone 1
Zone 2 (up to feeder station)
5.6.2.1 Zone 1
oes current =0, hence when it is eliminated form the total matrix (5.23) the following is
obtained;
119
M"'=
Z;7
Z'73
Z;7
Z'"33
Z;4J
Z~ -------(5.29)
T
[
Z;4 Z;; Z'"44
5.6.2.2 Zone 2
The calculations and results are the same as in the case of load at the feed end of the
transformer.
12 ,..11 OCSI
RT2
~·~--------------~·~--~Z~o~n~e'l----~~~ ~
Zone 3 (up to end of feeder section Zone 2 (up to feeder station)
Figure 5.14: Two-track case, load at the feed end of the BT.
120
Note: only current carrying conductors are shown in the above figure.
The RR, FF, RF can be composed from the computed self and mutual impedance from chapter
(2),
RR= Z41 Z42 Z43 Z44 Z45 Z46 Z47 R4 ---------( 5.3 1)
Z51 Z52 Z53 Z54 Z55 Z56 Z57 RTJ
R Rn RT2 RCAB
Z12,13 ZI2,14
Z5.13 Z5,14
RF" = -------( 5.35)
Z6,13 Z614
Z713 Z7,14
The new RF' matrix consist of the bundled feed against return conductors impedance.
Where, Z 13 = The result of the bundled feed conductors e~ & F;
The new FF' matrix consists of the bundled feed conductors impedance.
Where, Z13 = The result of the bundled feed conductors e~ & F;
Z' & Z" are the new values resulting from eliminating the rail (first raw & column) from the
matrix in (5.37).
e
.
C4B
=_~.Z' _~.Z' _~.Z" +~.Z"
2 7.13 2 7,14 2 75 2 76
or -------( 5.40) (VIkm)
eC"B
"'
=~.Z' _~.Z' _~.Z" +~.Z"
2 7,13 2 7,14 2 75 2 76
or ---------( 5.41) (VIkm)
I
... 11 OCSI
~,
... 12 RTI
·11 OCS2
RT2
~2
fa
... 1...·1
Zone 3 (up to end of feeder section Zone 1
•
Zone 2 (up to feeder station)
5.7.2.1 Zone 1
The mutual impedance are obtained from the original matrix (5.37) for;
Cable & DeS1 = Z713
eCAB = £(Z713
2"
- Z7 14 + Z;5 + Z;6 - 2Z712 )
.
5.7.2.2 Zone 2
Calculations are the same as for load at the feed-end.
5.7.2.3 Zone 3
The same also follows as for load at the feed-end.
125
5.7.3 Results
It is only within a train section (between load and the nearest mid-point rail to return conductor
connection) that the rails carry current. Rails being much closer to the cable induce a much
higher voltage, which pre-dominates the induction from the other conductors.
The current in the rails, reverses in direction as the load moves from one position to another,
i.e. from the feed-end to the far-end side of the transformer and vice versa. Therefore, the
resultant voltages have opposite signs in the two load positions.
Outside the section, the induction is much lower than inside, this is because the rails do not
carry current and the induction due to OCS is to a great extent cancelled by the induction from
the return conductors, the two induction's being opposite in direction.
The induction outside a train section on the feed-end side of the transformer, are same for both
load positions. Similarly the induction outside on the far end side of the transformer are
independent of the side of the transformer on which the load is. Results obtained are shown in
tables 5.1 and 5.2 below.
5.8.1 Results
Eliminated rails Induced voltage (V)
Two track One track
CNS COS
R3 0.00415+0.01264i
R4 0.00391+0.02195i
R1 & R3 0.00455+0.01012i
R2 & R4 0.00357+0.02343i
Table 5.3: Induced voltages inside when load at the feed end of the BT
R3 -0.00535-0.0079i
R4 -0.005l6-0.01551i
R1& R3 -0.00554-0.0018i
R2 & R4 -0.00451-0.01382i
Table 5.4: Induced voltages inside when load at the far end of the BT
127
R3 -0.00056+0.00375i
R4 -0.00056+00375i
R1 & R3 -0.00056+0.00374i
R z & R4 -0.00056+0.00375i
Table 5.5: Induced voltages outside at the feed end with load at either end
R1 0.00014+0.00728i
Rz 0.00012+0.00728i
R3 0.00013+0.00729i
R4 0.00013+0.00728i
R1 & R3 0.00013+0.00728i
R z & R4 -0.00012+0.00729i
Table 5.6: Induced voltages outside at the far end with load at either end
The above results are for one rail return systems and broken rail situations.
There is no induction outside a train section at the far end because there are no current
carrying conductors in this zone. Outside a train section at the feed end, the results are
unaffected and remain the same as in a two rail return system, since the rails do not carry any
current irrespective of which rail is eliminated.
maximum when R1 is eliminated. This is true irrespective of whether the load is at the feed-end
or far end. However the corresponding values are higher when the load is at the feed end
position.
In a one rail return system, either rails R z and R4 or rails R1 and R 3, will carry the traction
return current. In the first case, rails R1 and R3 will have to be eliminated and in the second
Induced voltage with R z and R3 eliminated is considerably less than that with R z and R4
eliminated, this is true for both load positions. However as seen in the case of a broken rail
situation, the corresponding values are higher when the load is at the feed end than those when
it is at the far end.
As in one track case, the induced voltage outside a train section is the same irrespective of
whether it is a two rail or a one rail return system, or a broken rail situation, because the rails
outside a train section do not carry any current. However, on contrast to a one-track case, in a
two-track case there is induction on the feed end as well as the far end. This is because the
oes and return conductors overhead have currents flowing in them. The level of induction is
greater outside at the far end than at the feed end.
129
5.9 Summary
The induced voltage in compensated systems (with BTs) under normal operation conditions for
one and two track layouts have been calculated in this chapter. For two-rail return system, the
highest induction occur within a train section (train in-section), since the rails carry current in
this section. The direction of the rail current changes as the load moves from one position to
another (feed-end to the far-end side of the BT and vice versa), hence the voltage have
different sign for the two load positions. For outside section (out-section of the train) induction
is much lower than that of in-section (no current in the rail). Induction for out-section is the
same for the both load positions.
One-rail return systems, the highest induction is the same as two-rail. There is no induction in
the out-section of the train for load at the far-end of the booster transformers, while for the
load at the feed-end the results are the same as for two-rail systems. The level of induced
voltage is at its highest when the rail farthest from the cable is eliminated. It can be concluded
that induction in compensated systems under normal operation conditions is dependent on the
position of the load with respect to the booster transformer. Calculations under short circuit
fault conditions are discussed in the following chapter (6).
130
CHAPTER (6)
Introduction
The effect of the inducing current in a booster transformer with return conductor is divided
47
into three parts :
1. A compensated component, in which equal and opposite currents flow in the catenary and
return conductor between the supply transformer and the load.
2. An uncompensated component due to the magnetising current in the BT, which flows in the
catenary between the same points and returns via rails and earth.
3. An uncompensated component due to current which flows in the catenary or return
conductor between the load point and the nearest mid-point strap and returns via rails and
earth.
In normal conditions, the magnetising current effect is small and can be neglected, whereas for
short circuit conditions, the magnetising current is of such importance that, from a first
approximation, the compensated component can be neglected. In short circuit conditions
therefore, a booster transformer does not give perfect results because the magnetising current
of the BT returns via the running rails and earth. This gives rise to problems because of the
rather severe interference in the nearby conductor under BT saturation conditions, when the
magnetising current becomes very high. Thus knowledge of the magnetising current taken by
BT with heavy load is essential for a pre-determination of the effect of short circuit76 .
131
To a certain extent, the magnetising components will depend on the type, make and rating of
the transformer. The transformer used by BR is an oil-immersed current transformer, with 1: 1
ratio. The current ratings of the BR are shown below (BR, B. spec AC 7/4, 1972)63
The continuos' rating is the rms current, which the transformer can withstand continuously.
The peak current rating is the maximum rms current that the transformer can withstand for a
time of 15 minutes.
The primary side of the transformer is insulated for 44 kV, 50 Hz and the secondary side for
3.3 kV (encountered under fault condition), thus meeting the requirements ofBS 233 63 .
The overhead system is designed for spark-less current collection at all speeds, but under
abnormal conditions a degree of sparking may occur and the equipment should be capable of
withstanding the resultant transient effect. Finally the transformer should be capable of
operating throughout the temperature range -25°C to 55°C in a polluted atmosphere.
From the current transformer theory, the main components are the magnetising and leakage
impedance. The magnetising impedance appears due to the core properties of the transformer.
Consider the ideal transformer with no load connected across the secondary as shown in Figure
5.5. If a voltage is applied at the primary side, a current known as the exciting current flows in
the circuit. Part of this current form the magnetising current, which produces magnetic flux in
the core. For a load to be connected across the secondary windings, the exciting current will
combine with the secondary current to give the total primary current.
132
and an inductance Lm' The resistance represent the core losses (hystresis and eddy current).
The inductance produces magnetic field inside the core that links the primary with the
secondary winding. Both components are affected by the frequency. Rm is proportional to
frequency while Lm is inversely. If the applied voltage exceeds a certain value the saturation of
the transformer starts. This causes a sudden drop in the value of Lm and as a result the exciting
The windings of the transformer are also not perfect due to the winding resistance and
leakance flux. A component of the magnetic flux in the core will always link one winding
without linking the other.
Under load conditions therefore the windings develop an electromotive force (emf), which acts
in opposition to the applied voltage, producing voltage regulation.
The leakance flux can be represented by impedance Zl connected in series with the equivalent
circuit of the transformer. This impedance is made up of RJ and L J . RJ represents the winding
resistance (dc resistance) and the eddy current losses developed in the windings when the
transformer is in operation. L J is the opposing emf as mentioned.
In the event of short circuit (sic) fault on the OHL, a high current several times the value ofthe
normal operating current, will flow in the primary of the B T. this will cause saturation of the
BT, its exciting impedance will be reduced suddenly and the BT efficiency will decrease
dramatically. The magnetising current is very high and since this returns via the rails and earth
only part of the total sic current flows through the return conductor or in other words, is
compensated. The current flowing in the return conductor or through the secondary of the
transformer will be the total short circuit current less the magnet ising current.
The system under these conditions behaves like a composite system, since it is partly
compensated and partly uncompensated.
133
For the following calculations an sic current of 6000 A has been assumed for the calculations.
A typical value of the magnetising current for this value of sic current will be 668 A, as given
by one of the transformer manufacturer.
Lv~.AJ ! 4
Isle
LAJI-_"J
4
oes
_____---111'---_----"( I \~_ _ _ _--.-__JOoL-rt"-JrYYYl~:_ _---;~~r--=-e-'-turn-c-o-n~duetor
Isle sub-station
Irt
1m
~
Rail
Figure 6.1: Compensated systems (with BT and return conductor) under sic current
668 A, the current through the return conductor is obtained from the following relation;
or --------( 6. 1)
Hence, I rt = 5332 A
ocs
______~F~==+----·-------:;::::~~--~·-.r-e~-'~-on-ductor Irt
I
sub-station
Irt
Irt
Irt Rail
..
1m
l_A_A..AJ
ocs
_ _ _ _ _ _---J~ L -_ _ t--_ _ _ _ _ _- - - J ' ' Y.•,._j return conductor
sub-station
1m
Rail
~
1m
From the figure (6.3) the magnetising current 1m on entering the rails splits into I ml on the left
and I mr on the right. I ml reaches the sub-station via the rails and earth, and so eventually does
Calculations for compensated component can be carried out using the method described in
chapter 5, and those for the uncompensated component by method in chapter 3.
The compensated and compensated may then be summed up to solve for short circuit situation.
are already known from the earlier study of compensated systems (chapter (5)). On the other
hand if the entire sic current was to be the magnetising current, then the induced curves of
47
Figures 6.11, 6.12 are nothing but familiar results for an uncompensated systems .
If the compensated and magnetising currents are each assumed to constitute 50% of the total
fault current, i.e. if compensated current = uncompensated current = 3000A for a fault current
of6000A, then the summation of the compensated and uncompensated will be as in Figures
6.7 and 6.8 and for the fault at the feed end and far end respectively.
For an assumed value of the magnetising current of668 A, the induced voltage values are as
shown in Figures 6.9 and 6. 10.
It would appear from Figures 6.4,6.5,6.11 and 6.12, that the highest level of induced voltage
is obtained either in a fully compensated system or in a fully uncompensated system and not in
a composite system.
Using the same approach as in previous chapters and the computer programs that have been
developed, the maximum induced voltage when a fault occurs can be calculated for inside and
outside exposure for fault at the feed end and far end of the transformer, results obtained are
shown in Figures 6.4-6.12.
6.1.4 Results
The results for one track and two tracks are given below. It can be seen that the induced
voltage level decreases as the number of tracks increases.
The maximum voltage outside exposure is obtained when exposure = 16 km and the system is
fully uncompensated.
Induced voltage (IV) for fully compensated current (1m =0), fault at
feed-end of BT
800
700
600
Induced voltage 500
(V) 400
300
200
10~t-~__~~~~~~==~~==~~==~~~ ~~ ~~
34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8
__ __
6 4 3 2
x (km) exposure (distance from sub-station)
Figure 6.4: Induced voltage fault at feed-end, compensated I =6000A, 1m =0, one-track
700 I<mm«««m««;
600
&Xl
Induced voltage 400
(V) 300
200
100
0+--.-.--.--.-.--.--.-.--.--.-.,-.--.-.,-.--.-.
34 32 30 28 26 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 3 2
x(km) exposure
Figure 6.5: Induced voltage fault at far-end, compensated I =6000A, J m =0, one-track
800
700
600
500
Induced voltage
(V) 400
300
200
100
1
O+-'--r~-.--~'--.~-.--~'--.~~--r-'-~~~~
40 33 32 29 28 26 25 23 22 20 18 16 13 12 10 9 7 4 3 2 0
x (km) exposure
Figure 6.6: Induced voltage fault at either side, compensated I =0, J m =6000A, one track
400
3s)
300
2s)
Induced voltage
(V) 200
1s)
100
S)
O+-.-.-.-,,-r-.-.-.-.--.-.-.-.-.-,,-.-r-.-.-.
40 33 32 29 28 26 25 23 22 20 18 16 13 12 10 9 7 4 3 2 0
x (km) exposure
Figure 6.7: Induced voltage for fault at feed-end compensated I =3000A, 1m =3000A,
800
700
600
500
Induced voltage
(V) 400
300
200
100
40 33 32 29 28 26 25 23 22 20 18 16 13 12 10 9 7 4 3 2 0
x (km) exposure
Figure 6.8: Induced voltage for fault at far-end compensated I =3000A, 1m =3000A, one
600
500
200
100
40 33 32 29 28 26 25 23 22 20 18 16 13 12 10 9 7 4 3 2 0
x (km) exposure
Figure 6.9: Induced voltage for fault at feed-end compensated I =5332A, 1m =668A, one
700
600
500
200
100
oI .
40 33 32 29 28 26 25 23 22 20 18 16 13 12 10 9 7 4 3 2 0
x (km) exposure
Figure 6.10: Induced voltage for fault at feed-end compensated I =5332A, 1m =668A,
&0.-----------------------------------------------.
&X)
400
InducEd wItage D
(V) 3X)
100
O+-~~~_T~--~~~~_r~~--~~~~_r~~--~
40 33 32 29 28 Z6 25 23 22 20 18 16 13 12 10
-100 .1.:..-....:.::...-==--=-=o-==-==--==-=--=-=---..:.:::........:.=--.:=--==-....:..::...-=---=--------'------'~=_______:r
X (km) eJCpOSLI'e
Figure 6.11: Induced voltage for fault at feed-end two-track for both inside exposure
(compensated I =6000, 1m =0), and outside exposure (compensated I =0, 1m = 6000A)
600
500
400
Induced voltage
(V) 300
200
100
O+-~~~~~_r_r~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
X 40 33 32 29 28 26 25 23 22 20 18 16 13 12 10 9 7 4 3 2 0
x (km) exposure
Figure 6.12: Induced voltage for fault at far-end, two-track, for inside exposure (1=
6000A, 1m =0), and outside exposure (1=0, 1m =6000A)
141
To consider a broken rail effect, they have to be eliminated, and all current carrying conductors
are the bumbled.
6.2.1 Results
Induced \Oltage for fully uncompens ated current (lm=6000A), fault at either end
ofthe BT, Rl eliminated (32 & 16 km exposure)
800
700
600
500
btduced voltage
(V) 400
300
200
100
O+-'-~,,-'~~~~~'-~~-'-r~~~'-~
~ ~ ~ ~ m ~ ~
T"""
~
~
~
T"""
m ~
N
x (km) exposure
Figure 6.13: induced voltage fault at either end, compensated I =0, 1m = 6000A, one
Induced voltage fOl' fully uncompensated cunent, fault at either end of the
BT, R2 eliminated (32 & 16 km exposm'e)
800
700
·IV(32 km)
600
IV (16 kID) I
500 ~~~
x (kIn) exposure
Figure 6.14: Induced voltage fault at either end, compensated I =0, 1m = 6000A, one
~1(xx)
8,8X>
~600 IV(3a<m)
~400 -IV(16km)
~200
:::I
~ O+-"-r-..-,,~-r'-,,,,-.~.-,,-r-..-ro
x(lun)
Figure 6.15: Induced voltage fault at feed-end, compensated I =0, 1m =6000A, one track,
The highest induced voltage is always obtained in a totally uncompensated system with the
exception of one case.
This occurs in the event of a fault at the far end and on elimination of rail R 1, when the
maximum induced voltage outside exposure will be obtained if the system was totally
compensated, Figure (6.16).
the fault (feed or far) with R1 eliminated the curve for maximum induced voltage within the
exposure for fault at the feed end is different from that at the far end.
The highest induced voltage is obtained when R1 is eliminated (which is lower than the
The highest induced voltage when R1 and R3 (Figure 6.18) are eliminated is greater than that
when R2 andR4 (Figure 6.19) are eliminated (lower than that obtained when R1 is eliminated).
900
800
700
. .··_·_·IV (32 km)
600
·· . . ·······IV (16 km)
Induced voltage 500
(V) 400
300
200
100
o+-~~-.~.-~~~-.~.-~~~~~~
~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ ~
x (km) exposure
Figure 6.16: Induced voltage fault at far-end, one track, cable on the other side, R1
eliminated
144
900
800
700 IV(32km)
600 IV(16km)
Induced voltage !i)()
(V) 400
300
200
100
0+-.-.-.-,,-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-.-..-.-.-.-.
x (km) exposure
Figure 6.17: Induced voltage for fault at either end, 1=0, 1m =6000A, one track, cable on
450
400
350 IV (32km)
300 IV (16 km)
Induced voltage 250
(V) 200
150
100
50
O+-.-.-"ro-.-.-.-r-r~~.-.-.-.-~ro-.-.
x (km) exposure
Figure 6.18: Induced voltage for fault at either end, I compensated = 0, 1m =6000A, two
450
400
350
300
Induced voltage250 -IV (32 km)
(V) 200 IV (16 km)
150
100
50
O+-~ro-.-.~.-.-~,,~-r-..-~.-,,~-'
x (km) exposure
Figure 6.19: Induced voltage for fault at either end, I compensated = 0, 1m =6000A, two
To validate the FDTD method, calculations are carried out for the induced voltage in
uncompensated and compensated systems under normal operation conditions for one-rail and
two-rail return systems using the standard analytical approach (Carson's correction term). The
results obtained are shown in Figures 6.20,6.21 and Tables 6.1,6.2 below.
100
90 I '. ww Induced voltage (V).
80 FOlD
Induced voltage
70
60 l Induced voltage (V).
Carson
(V) 50
40
30 /l:,l'
20''/.;
10 f
Or,~~~~~~~~~~~~~
x (km) exposure
Figure 6.20: Induced voltage for two-rail return system in an open area
(uncompensated, 1250 Amps ratings, 30 km exposure) using Carson's & FDTD methods
100,
90 ~
L
Induced voltage (V).
80 1
FOlD
70 '" Induced voltage (V).
Carson
60 ---
Induced voltage
(V) 50·
40
30
20
10
o~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
o N
~ N
x (km) exposure
Figure 6.21: Induced voltage for one-rail return system in an open area
(uncompensated,1250 A, 30 km exposure) using Carson's and FDTD methods
147
R) 0.00289+0.04883i 0.00539+0.0393i
Table 6.2: Induced voltages inside when load at the feed-end of the BT, for one-rail
return system using Carson & FDTD methods
Comparison have also been made between the rail, earth and return current of the compensated
systems obtained in (section 5.1.4) with published data23 , the results obtained are as follows:
It is always desirable to obtain measurements, however due to the complexity of the railway
system this was not possible. Hence comparison can be achieved from published work, which
in this case is slightly difficult since many of the publications deals with telecommunication
(screened) cables rather than the unscreened signalling cables.
148
Models for induced voltage calculations for un screened signalling cables were obtained and
published for the first time by Gupta47 His work, however, uses Carson's method for
impedance calculations. For the work in this thesis impedances were calculated by FDTD
method. The shape of the induced voltage curves in this thesis are identical to those obtained
by Gupta. Since the results obtained by two different approaches are identical it can be
established that FDTD is a valid method. Moreover, it has been already shown that the method
is more accurate than Carson's method. FDTD method has a wide scope for novel applications
in EMC analysis in railway systems.
6.4 Summary
The induced voltages have been calculated for compensated systems under short circuit
conditions. Two different track layouts have been investigated as well as the position of the
cable. The results obtained showed that the induced voltage depends very much on the position
of the fault where it is at the feed end or far end of the booster transformer. Results obtained
here are based on the assumption that the short circuit current is 6000A. A different fault
current can be tried easily by replacing the fault current in the program.
149
CHAPTER (7)
Conclusion
The aim of this project was to develop a mathematical tool for studying the interference
problem caused due to the ac-single-phase, 25 kV, 50 Hz systems into line-side signalling
systems. Knowing the magnitude of this induction is essential in understanding the behaviour
of the systems to provide protection measures accordingly. Due to the complexity and the
many components involved for such a system it has been difficult to provide a complete and
reliable analysis of the longitudinal induced voltage. In particular, the primary objective has
been to develop a mathematical model based on the finite difference time domain to provide
reliable calculations of the self and mutual impedance of the conductors used, namely the rail
track conductor (return) and feed conductor (overhead line).
Until recently, these parameters have been analysed using Carson's21 correction term
developed over seventy years ago. The method provides the only analytical calculation that
includes the earth return effect and has been proved to be very reliable for calculations at the
low frequency range (e.g. load flow studies, voltage drop, etc.). However, at a higher
frequency range, >10kHz (section 2.2.1), the method converges very quickly with a high
calculation error due to the assumption that the earth is semi-infinite.
For this reason it was very important to find an alternative approach especially for
electromagnetic compatibility. The development in computer system speed has prompted
engineers to find an alternative approach~ mathematical modelling techniques. Another reason
for the popularity of mathematical modelling is that it is not always possible to obtain results
from direct measurement techniques. This is due the interaction problems that arise from the
150
An alternative approach, which has the same or close enough reliability as the FEM but
requires less training and software cost, is now needed. This has been achieved in this project
by using finite difference time domain method. The method is a direct solution of Maxwell's
equations, hence it is easy to implement and understand. Furthermore, since it is a time domain
method it covers a wide rang of frequencies with one simulation. The rail tack and overhead
line impedance has been calculated using existing software therefore cost is greatly reduced.
The software has built-in FDTD facilities and enables program writing according to required
specifications. From Maxwell' equations the electric and magnetic field are solved for the
required boundary conditions and the impedance of the conductor was extracted using
Ampere's law.
The self and mutual impedance results were almost exactly the same as those obtained by FEM
and Carson's up to 10 kHz, and the same as the FEM at frequencies >10 kHz (section 2.2.3).
151
Although the results obtained were very comparable to that published by other researchers,
great care should be taken when applying the boundary conditions as incorrect application can
result in great errors and increased simulation time. It is hoped that this can be overcome by
trial and error through experience.
As mentioned before, the main objective was to find the level of induced voltage into signalling
systems. The induced voltage was calculated for both compensated and uncompensated
systems under normal and short circuit conditions for the two different track layouts and
overhead rating. The position of the cable was also investigated.
For outside exposure, the induced voltage is always maximal at the load or the sub-station but
decreases later. The induction from the return conductor is more dominant in this case.
For fault condition when there is contact between the cable and the conductor, the induction is
minimum at the centre with maximum values at the load or sub-station (Figure 4.2).
The induced voltage depends on many different effects, the maximum voltage induced for
uncompensated systems was found to be 67 V rms. The induced voltage level depends on the
position of the exposure (inside or outside), making its level maximal at the centre for outside
exposure and minimal for inside exposure. Under fault conditions, namely touch potential; the
induced voltage attained a maximum value at the load and sub-station. The value of the
induced voltage varied between 470-500 V rms.
152
Induced voltage outside at the sub-station end is zero. For one track at the load end, the
voltage induced outside the sub-station is zero, while a small value is found for two track
layouts.
For short circuit conditions the effect of the magnetising current of the booster is evident. Two
different situations occur, the level of the induced voltage varies depending on the magnetising
153
current level and the compensated current. If the magnetising current is higher the worst
induction occurs. On the other hand if the compensated current is greater the results are the
same as above. It is therefore very important when designing the booster transformer that the
no load current is made small to avoid any interference.
Although not much research has gone into signalling systems, a valid comparison can,
arguably, be made between the studies for induction into telecommunication systems that can
l5
be found in Kewle , Rosenl 6 , Mellitt l7 , and Pickford33 . It is not an easy task to carry out
interference tests in a complex and busy railway network of today, due to the limits imposed
on the amount of time available for extermination due to traffic and demands. Some of the
results obtained, however, have been compared to similar test carried out in a German railway
line and Hong Kong.
Another area of future work will be the investigation of increasing the voltage level of the
booster transformers for high-speed trains using power electronic techniques.
The effect of harmonics on the system behaviour and for compensated and uncompensated
system is an area ofa whole research in itself. Finally, the application of the method developed
in this thesis to an autotransformer compensated systems would also be useful.
7.5 Summary
A mathematical modelling technique method that is different from the conventional standard
method of calculating the induced voltage into line-side signalling cables has been developed
and examined. The rail track impedance and overhead transmission line parameters have been
calculated using finite difference time domain method over a frequency of 50Hz - 1MHz. The
self and mutual impedance of the rail-track at system frequency (50 Hz), were, 0.67 and 0.87,
respectively. The method used had an accuracy of±O.5% in the determination of rail track
impedance, and ±0.6% for over-head parameters compared to finite element approach and
O. 1%-0 .2%, compared to Carson standard approach. This in effect provided more accurate
results for the calculations of induced voltage. The induced voltage has been calculated for one
and two tracks in an open area, and for two different overhead ratings 1250 and 760 Amps. All
calculations have been carried out for uncompensated (no Booster) and compensated systems
under both normal and short circuit. The results obtained in this thesis provide a more detailed
analysis of induced voltage calculations and provide improved calculations compared to the
published work in this field.
155
CHAPTER (8)
References
28. Mur G, "Absorbing Boundary Condition for the Finite-Difference Approximation of the
Time-Domain Electromagnetic Field Equations," IEEE Transactions on Electromagnetic
Compatibility, pp. 377-382, November 1981.
29. Silvester P P, Ferrari R L, "Finite Elements for Electrical Engineers" (CUP, Cambridge
UK,1983).
30. Ruehli A E, "Circuit Oriented Electromagnetic Solutions in the Time and Frequency
Domain", IEICE Trans. Commun., Vol. E80-B, No. 11, Nov. 1997.
31. Nonweiler T R F, "Computational Mathematics: An Introduction to Numerical
Approximation", Ellis Horwood Ltd, 1984.
32. Abdulaziz I M and Gupta N K, ''FDTD Method in Calculating Induced Voltage in
Railways", lJEEE Journal, Submitted.
33. Bickford J P, "Transient in Power Systems: The Calculation of Transmission Line
Constants", UMIST, 1983.
34. Alias Q M, "Calculation of Overhead Line Parameters with Particular Reference to
Railway Systems", Msc Dissertation, UMIST, 1977.
35. Deri A, Teva G, Semlyen A and Castanheira A, "The Complex Ground Return Plane; A
simplified Model for Homogenous and Multi-Layer Earth Return", IEEE Trans. Power
Appa. Syst, 1981, 100 (8), pp. 3686-3693.
36. Agrawal A K, Price H J and Gurbaxani S H, "Transient Response of Multi-conductor
Transmission Lines Excited by a Non-uniform Electromagnetic Field", IEEE Trans. EMC,
Vol. 22, No.2, pp. 119-129, 1980.
37. Trueblood H M and Waschek G, "Investigation of Rail Impedances", AlEE Trans, 1934,
53, pp. 1771-1780.
38. Butterworth S, Electrical Characteristics of Overhead Lines, Report, 1954.
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FDTD Methods, lEE Proc. Elect. Power Applic., Under Review.
40. Macentee J A, Railway Track as a short Transmission Line, Msc Dissertation, University
of Birmingham, 1972.
41. Siemens W A, "Will 50kv Become A World Standard?", Railway Gazette International,
April 1978, pages: 201-204.
42. R J Hill and I H Cevik, "On-line Simulation of Voltage Regulation in Autotransformer-Fed
AC Electric Railroad Traction Networks", IEEE Trans. Vehicular Technology, Vol.42,
No.3, August 1993.
158
58. Hill RJ, Carpenter DJ, "Rail Track Transmission Line Distributed Impedance and
Admittance Theoretical Modelling and Experimental Results", IEEE Trans, Veh.
Technology, 1993, 42, (2), pp.225-241.
59. Abdulaziz I M and Gupta N K, "Booster Transformers in Railways", UPEC, University of
Staffordshire, UK, September 2002.
60. Littler G E, "Harmonic Performance of an Autotransformer Type High Voltage AC
Railway Electrification System", lEE Proc. Elect Energy Conference, pp.85-90, Australia,
1986.
61. Holtz J and Klein H J, "The Propagation of Harmonic Currents Generated by Inverter-Fed
Locomotive in the Distributed Overhead Supply System, IEEE Trans. Power Electronics",
Vol.4 APR, pp.168-174, 1989.
62. Pettersson G A and Svensson S, "Compensation from Rails, Return Conductor and
Booster Transformers oflnduction Caused By Electrified Railways, TELE, Pt.2, pp96-
128, 1961.
63. Turner DR, "Interference from Power Lines and Traction Circuits", Proc. IRSE, 1953.
64. Efthymiadis A E, "Wave Propagation in Transmission Lines Over Lossy Ground", PhD
Thesis, UMIST, 1977.
65. Helmer 0, Petterson G A, and Swederborg, "The Induction Effects of Swedish Electrified
Railways on Parallel Telecommunication Lines", Tele. English Edition, 1955.
66. Wilcox D J, "Implementation of non-homogenous Theory in Transient Analysis of Cross
Bonded Cable Systems", Proc. lEE, Vol. 125, 1978.
67. Klewe H R, "The Interference Problem", Paper 9, BR Electrification Conference, London,
1960.
68. Webb W J, "The Power Supply", Paper 5, BR Electrification Conference, London 1960.
69. Cobbe D W, "Effect on Post Office Circuits", paper 37, BR Electrification Conference,
London 1960.
70. Woodbridge A W, "Signalling and Telecommunication", Paper 10, BRElectrification
Conference, London 1960.
71. Allen C E, and Goldring A G, "Overhead Equipment: The Catenary System", paper 33,
BR Electrification Conference, London 1960.
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160
73. KOSTIS A G, "Booster Transformers in British Rail Traction Systems", Msc Dissertation,
UMIST, 1976.
74. Abdulaziz I M and Gupta N K, "Compensated Systems in Electrified Railways and the use
of Booster Transformers", SAIEE Proceedings, Under Review.
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78. www.trainweb.com
161
APPENDIX
A.2 For Rail track impedance calculations using APLAC software (section 2.2),
sample of written program:
#define freq 1kHz "frequency setting"
#define DX "cell size defined"
#define DY
#define DZ
#define EPSR 1 "permittivity"
Declare APLACV AR TT NL ZO h W ereff
Declare VECTOR zaxis REAL 41
Declare VECTOR vect REAL 41
Call h = 3 *DZ "hieght of the cell"
Call W = 4*DX "cell wedth"
Call ereff= Mlin_epse«w/h),O,lOO,EPSR)
Call ZO = Mlin_Z01«w/h), 0, 100, EPSR)/sqrt(erefl) "characteristic impedance"
ElectroMagnetics Rail "perform electromagnetic calculations"
+ HARMONIC freq
+ TIMESTEP MARGIN 99.9% (time-step dt)
+ DIV 264012
+ CELL SIZE DX DY DZ
+ SIMTIME LOOPS 1200
+ ABCTYPE ZHA03 "Absorbing boundary condition"
165
B.2.2 Similar approach is applied for overhead conductor (Conductor above ground)
$ define cell sizes
#define DX
#define DY
#define DZ
$ define the conductor permittivity
#define EPSR 1
$ define output axis vector
Call h = 3*DZ
$ length of the conductor
Call L = 4*DX
$ epsilonJ _eff.
Call ereff= Mlin_epse((w/h), 0, 80, EPSR)
167
$ charac.imp.ofT.line
- The S-parameters are always stored to a file, they can not be used directly in APLAC.
However, they can be read with an Nport to an ordinary circuit related APLAC simulation.
- the EMPorts are directed so that the plus node of the port is in the +Z direction
- Span of e.g. the first port is from 0 to 3 at X = 13, Y = 8.
- The internal resistance is ZO (defined elsewhere, often 41.6 Ohms).
- The time domain voltages and currents are stored to two datafiles.
Finally (very important):
EndElectroMagnetics
NOTE: Avoid placing small instances very close to and ABC plane (ABCs might get unstable).
A small instance is anything that is to the direction of the ABC plane normal, thinner than the
degree of the ABC in terms of cells, and smaller than the plane itself in the tangential
directions.
The Sweep that runs the simulation is
Sweep "OH voltage"
+ LOOP NL TIME LIN 0 TT
+ WINDOW 0
+ X "position" "cells" 040
+ Y "voltage" "V" -1 1
+ WINDOW 1
+ X "time" "s" 0 1.92ns
+ Y "input voltage" "V" -1 1
+ Y2 "output voltage" "V" -1 1
Call Ev("OH", 13,0,2, 13,40,2, Z, yaxis, ezfields)
Show WINDOW 0
+ VECTOR 41 XY yaxis (h*ezfields) ERASE
Show WINDOW 1
+ Y Vem("OH", 13, 8, 0, 13, 8,3) PEN 1
Show WINDOW 1
+ Y2 Vem("OH", 13,32,0,13,32,3) PEN 3
NOTE: These two functions should be added in front of the Sweep statement:
Call TT = EMSimTime("OH")
Call NL = EMSirnLoops("OH")
169
APPENDIX
Self impedance includes three components: the reactance of the loop inductance Lii assuming
that the line and the earth are perfect conductors, the internal impedance of line Zc, and the
impedance of the ground Zg. The impedance of conductor i can then be written as
Z 11 = JL + Z + Z g ------(B . 1)
11 C
110 2h
Lil = - I n ( -j) ---------(B.2)
21C ri
where Rd = 1/[ ps (r 2/\-q 2 )] is the DC resistance of the conductor, q and r are the inner and
outer radii of the conductor, S = q/r is the ratio of the inner to the outer radius, which is zero
170
for a solid line, m =. !lOS is a variable related to the frequency is the radian frequency, s is the
conductivity and !l0 is the permeability ofthe conductor. The variable fin Equation (B.3) is
given by
where ber, bei, ker and kei are Kelvin's functions which belong to the Bessel function family,
and ber', bei', ker' and kei' are their derivatives, respectively (Andrews, 1992). Kelvin's
functions are often defined as
Zg = R g +}:x g ---------(B . 7)
where Dij is the distance between conductors i and j, and D ij is the distance between
I
conductor i and the image of conductor j. The impedance of the earth return path Zgm is;
Z gm = R gm +JX gm -------jB
\ , . 10'/
1
Carson's correction terms for the self and mutual impedances due to the earth path impedances
Zg and Zgm are given by (Carson, 1926; Meliopoulos, 1988).
Rgm = 4m .10- 7 { ; - hJkm cos8 + h Z [(C 2 -In k m )k m2 cos28 + (km 2 sin 28]
4
+ h3 k m3 cos38 -d4k m cos48 - ... } - - - (B.14)
-7 1 2 3
X gm =4m*10 {2(O.6159315-1nkm)+hJkmcos8-d2km cos28+h3km cos38
4
- h4 [(C4 - In k m )km 4 cos 48 + Ok m sin 48] + ... } - - - (B. 15)
where;
172
J2
bl =----(B.16)
6
1
b = - - - - (E. 17)
2 16
b =b sign - - - (B.I8)
1 1-2 i(i + 2)
C
1
=C 1-2
+!+-1----(B.19)
i i +2
C 2 = 1.3659315 - - - (B.20)
7[
d =-b
41
---(B.21) 1
where f refers to the frequency and p to the resistivity of the ground. The angle 9 is the angle
between I-I' and I-j " and is expressed by
Rae Jo(jfFmor)
=---=---
Rde J I (j.fJ m r)
0 0
where --------(B.25)
m~t~tu
173
For stranded conductors, because of the spiralling the increase of resistance, and the decrease
in internal inductance caused by skin effect is appreciated and approximate calculation methods
have been developed 54 for high frequencies. For low frequency «2 kHz) and low number of
strands in the conductor, the ratios can be acceptably calculated the same way as for solid
round conductor of the same dc resistance.
For stranded conductor with steel core, the ratio formulas for a tubular conductor can be used
at higher frequencies as an approximate method with small error. For large size solid
conductors or at high frequencies an approximate method is adopted. This method uses an
effective depth of penetration of current 56 . By which it is assumed that the effective ac
resistance is the same as the dc offered by a hollow conductor of the same external dimension
and thickness equal to;
50330JP
--=.[!j==="if- ------(B. 26)
Another approximate method given by Butterworth 57 using a semi-empirical formulae for (,1.R)
which is;
M A? 6720+47A?
Rdc = 180[ 448 + 33//? ]
------(B .27)
A = 0.0010111
Rdc
,1.R = increase in resistance due to skin effect (ohm/mile).
For iron and steel conductors the resistance and internal inductance ratios can be obtained by
assuming an effective average value for the permeability to be constant through the conductor
since both permeability and resistivity vary within wide limits according to the frequency, size
of conductor and current flowing. When these conductors are carrying alternating currents, the
174
increase in their effective resistance is due principally to skin effect, but also to some extent to
hysteresis.
Butterworth's formula are used for the calculations of ac resistance for all conductors in a
traction system except for the rails. The method provide reliable results for frequencies up to
12kHz. For higher frequencies, Bessel's function as described in equation (2.10).
For internal inductance;
TL inductive reactance
When a magnetic flux links any electrical circuit, and e.m.f. proportional to the rate of change
of the flux linkages is induced in the circuit. It is convenient to divide the current flow into
elements, each of which are linked with some flux and then summing to find the total flux
linkages.
Integrating around the circular path concentric with the conductor x distance from the centre
gIves;
Bx = f.1ll x = 2nr2
pI t ------(B .32)
d¢ = JlJt dx------(B.33)
2nr2
now the flux linkage per unit length (PUL) of the fraction of current linked is;
integrating from the centre of the conductor to radius r to find total flux linkages inside the
conductor gives;
176
J1l
If/int = 8JZ"
hence ---------(B. 3 5)
f.1
Lint = 8JZ"
Note: the above analysis assumes non-magnetic homogeneous conductor.
The inductance of the conductor due to flux linkages surrounding the conductor up to a
distance D from the centre is proved following the same principle as above.
Hence from the above equations;
177
H =~
x 27lX
and
d¢=~dx
27lX
so ------(B.36)
jJl D
1f/12 = -2 In(- )
7r r
and
fl D
L =-In(-)
12 27r r
J
Figure B.3 : Two conductor line
For a solid, round conductors shown above, the inductive reactance formula for one conductor
I DI2
XII = Xii + 0.0020223· f .In(-;=-) + 0.0020223· f 'In(-l-) -----(2.22) (ohm/mile)
h i
I
/ / //.~//
"// /7
r /7 /////
/
h
j
Q
Figure B.4: -Q is the image of +Q. the same can be done for currents.
1 I
I • n I • .
III 1(',1) )1
g delta z "Ul I ~I·c delta z V(z,t) g delta z III ~ delta z
L, I V(z+delta z,t)
V~+&,t)-V(z,t)~-r&Az,t)L~I(. I I •
a" -------(B. 3 7)
f(z4- t..z,t) I(z~~az gt..zV(z + t..z,t~cAz ~V(z; Azdf~az
z z+delta z
Figure B.5: The per-unit-Iength model for use in deriving the IL equations
2
J(z+&,t)-J(z,t) =_g Vi( z,t )_ c aV(z,t) +~
A_[ grII'(z,t ) + (I
g +rc)aJ(z,t) + lc a (z,t)]_(B
2 .
38)
& at at at
Ampere's law
gives; ------(BAO)
J
H=-
t 21Y'
Gusses's law
States that there are no (known) isolated sources of the magnetic field. Thus the total magnetic
flux through a closed surface must be zero;
Jil
f-· dr
R2
Jil R2
'lfm = &-In(-)
2:rr RJ
Faraday's law
VxE
- = - j OJf.iH- ------(B A 3)
180
APPENDIX