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Introduction To The Philosophy of The Human Person: Students' Module
Introduction To The Philosophy of The Human Person: Students' Module
Philosophy of the
Human Person
STUDENTS’ MODULE
1
Philosophy: Doing Philosophy and Methods of Philosophizing
The Process of Doing Philosophy
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
differentiate the meaning of philosophy as a body of knowledge and as an intellectual activity,
distinguish a holistic perspective from a partial point of view,
recognize human activities that emanated from deliberate reflection,
apply a philosophical reflection on a concrete situation from a holistic perspective, and
realize the value of philosophy in obtaining a broad perspective in life.
In a few years, you will gain new experiences in life that you may have never dreamed of. Such
experiences may excite or challenge you, while some can make you rethink your life and decisions.
At your age, you may have already asked yourself important questions about your life that cannot be
directly answered through research or education, such as “What do I want?” or “What will make me
happy?”
If you have already asked yourself those big questions, then you have already engaged in philosophy.
What is Philosophy?
Is it a way of life? Why or why not?
How do you apply it in everyday life?
Find out the answers in this lesson!
Learn about it!
Doing philosophy helps you think many things, including those that leave you confused or without an
acceptable answer. You can do philosophy by yourself, with a partner, or with a group.
The Meaning of Philosophy and Philosophy of the Human Person
Philosophy, meaning "love of wisdom," is a science where reason and logic are used to understand reality
and answer questions of knowledge, morality, and human nature. It can be described as either a body of
knowledge or an intellectual activity.
Philosophy as a body of knowledge provides methodologies and insights on how societal questions, such
as moral dilemmas of euthanasia or same-sex marriage, can be answered.
On the other hand, philosophy as an intellectual activity is an analytic procedure of addressing individual
thought processes such as resolving conflict and confusion, testing positions, and analyzing beliefs. In all
instances, doing philosophy is prescribed by logic, reason, and ethics leading to wisdom.
Philosophy applied to human experience or everyday life denotes the use of philosophy as an intellectual
activity. Also known as philosophy in life, this concept is important because it serves as the guiding
principle on how one ought to live life.
Explore!
Philosophy has opened doors for debates over many concerns such as the purpose of life, the existence of
good and evil, and the way to the truth. Even as a young student, you have already been introduced to
philosophy as a discipline. As you proceed to higher levels of your study, you will encounter more
philosophical issues that are more advanced and complicated to resolve. In your perspective, what other
issues may be dealt with using philosophy?
Try it!
You may already know that philosophy as a discipline has been present in society for centuries. Different
perspectives on various issues rose and were given defense by various philosophers. As a student, think of
a relevant issue faced by society nowadays. Look for at least two philosophical theories that can explain
your chosen topic. After reading on these views, make your decision on which theory to side with based on
the philosophical concepts you have learned from your readings.
Tips
In doing philosophy, a holistic perspective on the subject is always required. Failure to do so or only
using a partial point of view may lead to illogical or incorrect conclusions.
In the process of doing philosophy, it is critical to have a holistic perspective—the perception of
looking at all aspects of a situation first before making a conclusion. This point of view is different
from holistic thinking which is a mental activity of recognizing the interconnectedness of systems
and procedures to form a general picture of an issue.
The process of doing philosophy should not be mistaken for the Filipino activity of pamimilosopo or
pedantry where a person displays useless knowledge or minute observances of small details.
Keypoints
3
Philosophy, meaning "love of wisdom," is a science where reason and logic are used to
understand reality and answer questions of knowledge, morality, and human nature.
Philosophy may be a body of knowledge or an intellectual activity.
A holistic point of view looks at all aspects of the given problem or situation. Meanwhile, a partial
point of view looks at only a limited number of aspects of the given problem or situation.
Philosophical reflection allows a person to look back on previous experiences and evaluate the
meaning or significance of his or her life.
Socratic,
dialectic,
scientific, and
historical.
Explore!
Some students dread it when teachers involve the class in the discussion by asking them to explain a
certain topic or concept. Usually, students do not immediately answer in fear that they might be called upon
to explain their thoughts further—an activity they do not like or are not prepared to do. Still, teachers
continue to do this method despite the minimal responses they get from their students. Before this lesson,
5
have you ever wondered why your teachers do that technique? Do you now understand their goals in doing
so?
Try it!
During a class discussion, try to engage in a Socratic questioning exercise with your teacher. You may be
the one to initiate the process by asking your teacher any relevant topic about the discussion. From there,
you may further ask questions related to your teacher's responses. Continue to clarify your the responses
until you have fully grasped the idea presented. This activity may also be done alternatively, with the
teacher probing you for your answers.
Tip
Regardless of how deep the probing process has been, the primary area of focus during the Socratic
method would be the first statement. All succeeding statements are brought about to support or refute the
claim of the initial argument.
Keypoints
A method of philosophizing is a process of determining a truth or conclusion from a statement
through the use of various philosophical methods such as Socratic, dialectic, historical, and
scientific.
Socrates was a Greek philosopher and teacher who laid the groundwork for Western systems of
philosophy and logic.
Socratic questioning is a type of interrogative process that clarifies points through understanding
the deeper meaning of a claim.
The process of deconstructing or questioning statements to come up with the actual truth is called
the Socratic Method.
Opinion is what someone believes or thinks. A fact is firmly planted in the material world,
while truth extends to the spiritual realm.
The Socratic method of philosophizing leads to wisdom and truth.
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
define and explain the dialectic method of philosophizing,
compare the dialectic and Socratic methods of philosophizing;
distinguish an opinion from truth by analyzing the given situations, and
justify the validity of the statement "The dialectic method leads to wisdom and truth.”
While waiting for your teacher, you overhear your two classmates debating on which part of the day is
better for studying for an exam. One of them said that she prefers to study at night because it is quiet, while
the other stated that he likes to study in the morning because it is when he feels most active. After an
exchange of factual knowledge about their study habits, your classmates both agreed that studying during
the morning is better than studying at night.
Review!
Methods of Philosophizing
A method of philosophizing is a process of determining the truth or drawing conclusions from a statement
using various philosophical methods, such as:
Socratic,
dialectic,
scientific, and
historical.
Now, how do you compare and contrast the dialectic method and Socratic method as methods of
philosophizing?
Statement A is an opinion since there is no proof or evidence that the president is indeed the most
intelligent person in the country.
Statement B is a truth because the president is the head of the state and the chief officer of the country.
Thus, he is the most powerful leader of the country.
Explore!
In recent years, technology has played a significant role in education. Electronic resources such as e-books
have begun to replace actual books as primary learning resources. Some academicians are arguing
against the reliability of this tool as an appropriate medium of instruction, while some are promoting it for
practicality issues. Both sides have valid points, but if you were to observe your fellow students, what type
of resources would they prefer? What other points did you realize that made you choose that decision?
Try it!
7
Engage your friend in a non-aggressive discussion about any topic that you disagree on. Before the start of
your conversation, explain to your friend the activity’s purpose and premises. Make sure that throughout the
discussion, both of you share logical points about your chosen topic. As you go through the discussion, you
may try to categorize all your statements as opinion or truth. In coming up with your conclusion, see to it
that all points are taken into consideration. You may do this activity for some time with different people.
Tips
The dialectic method deals largely with logical ideas. Opinionated points are allowed as long as they
are logical and they help in coming up with the truth; however, the endpoint should always be the
truth.
Dialectics, as a philosophical method, should not be mistaken for dialectical materialism. Although
both concepts fall under philosophy, dialectical materialism is a Marxian topic that caters to a more
liberal readership.
Keypoints
Dialectics is a method of coming up with a true conclusion based on contradicting logical ideas.
The dialectic method may involve both opinions and facts as long as they are logical and lead to
the truth.
An opinion is an expression of a person’s feelings based on facts, emotions, and beliefs, while
the truth is something that has actual and proven existence scientifically and historically regardless
of one’s opinion and beliefs.
Hegel, Aristotle, and Socrates were so convinced in the validity of the dialectic method that they
postulated their own versions and explanations of the whole process.
The dialectic method of philosophizing leads to wisdom and truth.
Review!
Methods of Philosophizing
A method of philosophizing is a process of determining the truth or drawing conclusions from a statement
using various philosophical methods, such as:
Socratic,
dialectic,
scientific, and
historical.
9
Explore!
Throughout the years, the scientific method has been used by professionals and amateurs alike to come up
with conclusions about their topics of interest. Many studies have been done to facilitate a scientific method
in exploring a certain phenomenon. One such notable experiment is Louis Pasteur’s, whose discovery of
the process of pasteurization greatly boosted the food and health industry. As a student, how can you apply
the scientific method to answer your questions?
Try it!
Observe the environment around you. Do you have any question about how things work? Do you have your
hypothesis about it? Try to devise your own experiment to generate an answer to your question. You may
also use your observational skills to further define the problem at hand. If you are unable to devise your
own experiment, you can visit some websites that can show you videos or lessons about your topic of
interest. Remember to observe the process presented to you.
Tips
The scientific method should always be concluded with supporting evidence. However, ideas to be
tested may or may not be derived from existing facts.
The use of observation in the scientific method is a critical aspect of supporting empirical
conclusions. Be sure that all your senses are actively engaged to observe during experimentation.
Keypoints
A method of philosophizing is a process of determining the truth or a conclusion of a statement
through the use of various philosophical methods such as Socratic, dialectic, historical, and
scientific.
The scientific method or empirical method is a process of determining truth or knowledge
through experimentation, inductive and deductive reasoning, and hypothesis or theory testing.
An opinion is a personal view formed about a particular matter, while the truth is something that
has actual and proven existence regardless of one’s opinion.
The scientific method of philosophizing leads to wisdom and truth.
Socratic,
dialectic,
scientific, and
historical.
History is repetitive. Only technology and political systems change. Everything revolves around war for
conquest, whatever the specific reasons. Greed is the brace no matter what the system may be.
Explore!
As a student, you are exposed to doing assignments on almost every subject you are taking. In some
classes, English for example, your primary project would be a position paper on the literary work you have
been asked to read. In putting content into your project, how do you go about writing it? Do you review
other sources first before proceeding to write your final position?
Try it!
Choose a random object in your house. On a piece of paper, write a hypothesis of where you think that
object originated from. You may also include your ideas on how you think that object was used in the past.
After listing your thoughts, find some relevant information on the internet that may tell you more about your
chosen object. You may also search for answers at the library if you want. Once you find valid information,
compare your work to the real origins of the object to see how you fared.
What do you think?
Can the use of the historical approach predict the future? Why? Why not?
Tips
The historical method does not accept logic as the primary source of the truth. Instead, it relies on
factual information or evidence-based conclusions to confirm a present idea as the truth.
The historical method, as a method of philosophizing, should not be mistaken for historical
materialism. Although both concepts fall under philosophy, historical materialism is a Marxian topic
that caters to a more liberal readership.
History, as a discipline, should be considered a separate topic from the historical method. While
both concepts focus on past events as significant, the latter only uses history to produce its main
goal which is the truth.
Keypoints
A method of philosophizing is a process of determining truths or conclusions from a statement
through the use of various philosophical methods such as Socratic, dialectics, historical, and
scientific.
The historical method deals with examining the past to come up with present truths.
An opinion is a personal view formed about a particular matter, while the truth is something that
has actual and proven existence regardless of one’s opinion.
The historical method of philosophizing leads to wisdom and truth.
13
Many people admire Jason for being the youngest director of the biggest conglomerate in the Philippines.
He is also one of the richest bachelors under 30 years old. Little do people know that he was once a poor
boy who dreamed big and worked hard to attain his current status. When asked about his successes,
Jason said that he considers seeing his family happy, imparting his knowledge to others, and being able to
serve others as the successes he is most proud of.
Like Jason, all people have lifelong goals that they want to fulfill. If you were finally able to meet
your life goal, how would you feel?
Do you think your perspective in life will change?
Find out the answers in this lesson!
Learn about it!
The previous example talks about transcendence or a state of "existence above and beyond the limits of
material experience." Transcendence originated from the words trans, meaning "go beyond," and scandare,
meaning "climb."
In the example, fulfilling a goal entails transcendence because it opens a state of thinking and feeling that
there is something more in life than just physical and material things. Much like Abraham Maslow's self-
actualization concept, transcendence is a state of being intrinsically satisfied with life regardless of physical
and tangible factors.
The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit
In totality, a man is a physical body, a living soul (the inner self; mortal), and a spirit (the life-force;
immortal).
The spirit takes form through the mortal, physical body to represent its qualities in the conscious, physical
world. Each body part has its worldly function that is communicated in an expressive and understandable
form.
For Aristotle, a human person is a personal being that possesses its intellectual nature in a natural unity
with a material body. This unity is called: "man as a rational animal."
For St. Thomas, the total vision of man would be the "embodied spirit."
Explore!
The world continues to change rapidly. Nowadays, the generation gap can easily be seen in everyday life
because of new technological advances being introduced at a fast pace.
In your personal experience, does technological advancement limit or improve the possibility for
transcendence? Why? Why not?
Try it!
Look around you. Observe the environment and identify possible factors that may limit transcendence. You
may also put yourself in the position of those who experience such limitations. Identify ways on how you
may overcome those challenges.
Keypoints
Transcendence is a state of being or existence that is above and beyond physical needs and
realities.
From a biological and physical standpoint, it can be recognized that the human body, although it
can perform many functions, also has limitations and possibilities.
In aiming for transcendence, it is important to consider the feasibility of your goals, the work you
would need to put in it, the challenges you will face, and other factors that may come in play.
15
These virtues or values should not just be applied in a personal setting. The environment is also in critical
need of these so that it can function efficiently and productively. People have the responsibility to exercise
prudence and frugality not just within themselves, but also in taking care of the environment.
The word FRUGALITY is oftentimes used in money; a thriftiness or a quality of being economical with
money. If this term is applied in the environment, this simply means that you have to CONSERVE as well
as PROTECT the environment. And frugality coupled with the word PRUDENCE which simply means
intelligent, creates a better world in our environment. You will act, use and harness all available resources
possible in our environment conservatively and intelligently, and of course, with all due respect to the
society and human life as well.
Frugality is environmentalism
Saving oneself a load of cash is somehow less daunting than striving for
environmental virtuousness, but the end result is the same.
Frugality is a popular topic on TreeHugger, not only because our readers like to save money, but
also because it connects well to the eco-friendly lifestyle we encourage. Frugality is all about
buying less, buying better, and standing up to mindless consumption. Shopping becomes a rare
and strategic event, not a hobby. While frugality stems from a desire to conserve money, it has the
enormous added benefit of helping the planet.
In an article called, “You Can’t Buy Your Way to Green,” financial independence blogger Mrs.
Frugalwoods explains how her family’s journey toward frugality has made her a more
environmentally conscious person. She writes: “I’ve always respected natural resources, been a fan
of Mother Nature, and loved the outdoors, but it wasn’t until I became a frugal weirdo that I began
living a holistically environmental life.”
She goes on to explain in detail the many ways in which trying to save money has translated directly into a
decreased carbon footprint and less waste. For example, in an effort to slash electricity and water bills, she
and her husband have cut their utility usage significantly. They dry laundry on a clothes rack year-round
and buy efficient appliances, but only when they need to be replaced:
“We test the energy consumption of our appliances with an energy use monitor. The beauty
of this gadget is that it averages energy usage over time and thus isn’t merely measuring
what the appliance utilizes in a given moment… The monitor translates this usage into
cold, hard cash –you type in how much you pay per kilowatt hour and it displays how many
dollars per month, kilowatt hours, and pounds of CO2 the device in question
consumes/emits.”
The Frugalwoods family sticks to a tight food budget, which means that very little gets wasted and
they try to grow as much as possible. Cooking from scratch helps. Clothing and furniture are
repaired whenever possible, and purchased second-hand if needed. Mrs. Frugalwoods has crossed
the “final frontier of frugality” by letting her husband cut her hair, and she has stopped dyeing it,
painting her nails, and wearing makeup on a regular basis – cost-saving efforts that result in fewer
chemicals in her body and the waste stream.
I appreciated her discussion of home heating and cooling. Similar to the Frugalwoods family, my
husband and I do not use air conditioning, preferring to open windows in the early morning and
evening, then close them to keep the coolness inside. In winter the thermostat stays at 63 F during
the day; it goes down to 53 F at night. Visitors are often cool, which sometimes takes me a while to
notice because I’m so used to wearing a sweater, warm socks, and slippers around the house.
No doubt all of these actions will sound familiar to TreeHugger readers, but it’s intriguing to look
at them through the lens of saving money. Somehow frugality makes these household practices
easier to implement. When the focus shifts away from environmental virtuousness toward saving
oneself a load of cash, it becomes less daunting to do them.
“Frugality is an environmental statement that’s far more powerful than empty words or
bumper stickers. Ultimately, environmentalism stems from acts of doing less: less
consumption, less commuting, less carbon emissions, less wastefulness, less carelessness.”
I would add that embracing frugality also protects oneself from being duped by the notion that
buying 'green' products somehow makes it OK to continue consuming at the same rate. As climate
scientist Peter Kalmus writes in his soon-to-be-published book, Being the Change:
"Buying green stuff promotes the status quo consumer mindset. Green allows us to feel like
we're responding to our predicament without needing to change. Green precludes
meaningful action, and in this way does more harm than good."
17
Noticing disorder in the environment is relatively straightforward. People are required to employ observation
to determine whether an environment is organized or not.
However, there may be signs that may easily point to environmental disorganization, such as:
Lack of resources: The environment is both a producer and consumer for all species. The
unavailability of a particular local byproduct may imply excessive disturbance that is not at par with
its reproduction.
Things are not in place: The environment exhibits a sense of chaos or confusion. It does not
create a place of comfort and warmth.
In times of disorganization, it is essential to fix aesthetics to make the environment more conducive. Such
ways include re-potting and rearranging plants or using a variety of flowers. By the end of the day, it is
important to remember that there is no specific way of improving the environment aesthetically, and that it
will all come down to your perception of what is aesthetically acceptable.
Learn about it!
The Importance of Caring for the Environment
The environment contributes to health and well-being.
Some plants have medicinal properties that may aid in the removal of pathogens in the body.
Fruits and vegetables are good sources of numerous vitamins and minerals.
The aesthetic properties of the environment make an excellent venue for various exercises and
activities.
The environment contributes to sustainable development.
The environment is the primary source of raw resources used to make all types of food and
materials.
With appropriate techniques, the environment can reproduce and regenerate resources that have
been harvested or lost.
The environment produces oxygen and carbon dioxide which are necessary factors in the
continuation of life systems.
Keypoints
Prudence is the ability to have good judgment that allows avoidance of dangers and risks.
Frugality is the act of using money or other resources wisely and practically.
Disorder in the environment may be evidenced by lack of resources or displacement of things.
It is important to care for the environment because it promotes health, well-being, and sustainable
development.
An environment may be any external setting that people live in.
19
Learn about it!
Demonstrating Prudence in All Choices
Prudence is an act of making good judgment that allows a person to avoid risks. It is important to be
prudent at all times to prevent any harm that a decision may cause.
In making a decision, it is critical to determine the adverse effects beforehand to avoid greater risks.
Exercising prudence in choice implies that one has already criticized all available options, and a well-
thought-of choice has been made.
How will you demonstrate prudence in the following scenarios?
You do not have many friends in school, but one fraternity—known for their hazardous activities—is
recruiting you to be part of their brotherhood.
A trusted colleague is inviting you to invest in her restaurant business.
Tips
Apart from the freedom to choose, it is also relevant to know that freedom does not stop at making a
choice. There are also several areas where freedom may be exercised (e.g. free speech or freedom
of information).
Religious and cultural practices may limit one's freedom of choice. Even though a person is given
the right by the state to choose for himself, he may not be able to do so because of the religion or
culture that he belongs to (e.g. arranged marriage).
Keypoints
Freedom is the power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants without hindrance or restraint.
The ability to exercise one’s freedom in any manner is called freedom of choice.
The freedom to choose stops when there is risk or harm that may be inflicted on the self or other
people.
Prudence is an act of making a good judgment that allows a person to avoid risks.
All forms of action are brought about by a person’s decision to accomplish them.
Religious and cultural practices may limit one’s freedom of choice.
Intersubjectivity
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
define and explain the meaning and the process of intersubjectivity,
discuss the application and importance of intersubjectivity to society,
prove that authentic dialogue means accepting others even if they are different from you, and
demonstrate an appreciation for the talents of persons with disabilities and those from the
underprivileged sectors of society.
Whenever an unfortunate event occurs, you feel sad or anxious, but how do you assure yourself that those
feelings are real?
Find out the answer in this lesson!
Learn about it!
In looking at the example, it is easy to say that interacting with others can confirm the validity of emotions a
person may have towards the environment. In this interaction, intersubjectivity takes place.
The Meaning and Process of Intersubjectivity
Each person has a subjective experience of the world. However, because of this subjective experience,
one cannot know which events occur in reality or which are products of self-perception.
Social interactions among individuals through comparison, agreement, and confirmation of each others'
perceptions make it easier to determine real events occurring in society. This concept is
called intersubjectivity−−the shared perception of reality between or among two or more individuals.
A main principle of intersubjectivity is communarization, a social process wherein the community of other
people are seen as embedded within the self. This process initially occurs with the idea that other
individuals are extensions of the self and serve as the “alter-ego” of a person’s being. The self and others
are therefore seen as a pair that shares each other’s lived experiences. This is much like the concept of
empathy or “being in the shoes” of others.
Explore!
21
Many people all over the world have attested to the idea that spiritual entities, such as the ghost of a
departed loved one, are just lurking the earth with living human beings. Some people, however, are
hesitant to believe this phenomenon because there is still not enough proof that the supernatural exists.
In your perception, can the concept of intersubjectivity be used to confirm the validity of this phenomenon?
Try it!
Look around you and list down your observations. Have a friend do the same thing on the same
environment. Compare your observations once both of you are finished. Identify common observations you
had and discuss any dissimilar remarks you have each made.
What do you think?
Are intersubjective concepts always considered real occurrences? Why? Why not?
Tips
Intersubjectivity is not a process, but rather a concept. The process incorporated within the concept
is communarization.
Authentic dialogue is a technique that requires, at least, two people in a conversation with each
other. This is a variety of a simple dialogue.
Keypoints
Intersubjectivity is a concept where social interactions among individuals through comparison,
agreement, and confirmation of each other's perceptions make it easier to determine real events
occurring in society.
Communarization is a social process wherein the community of other people are seen as
embedded within the self.
An authentic dialogue is a form of interpersonal communication wherein individuals acknowledge
that they are part of a greater whole and that they resonate with others within the whole.
Intersubjectivity is important because it validates authentic subjective experiences, facilitates
interactions, and promotes a sense of unity and community among individuals.
Do you think that you will change as a person once you live somewhere else?
What can influence you to change your beliefs and attitudes?
Find out the answers in this lesson!
Learn about it!
People and society have a reciprocal and complementary relationship. People’s personalities and culture
depend upon the processes and events occurring in society. Similarly, society takes its changes from how
people act, perceive, and shape it.
Living in another community, as shown by the previous example, constitutes an entirely different social
environment that may be different from one's beliefs and culture. Immersing oneself in a new society,
therefore, exhibits a change in both the community and the person.
Social Influence and Transformation
Individuals are the building blocks of society. They take on various social roles to ensure the smooth flow of
social processes that regularly occur within the community. However, it is the collective action of individuals
that mainly influence how society is formed and structured.
Example:
If many people of one community perceive catcalling as offensive and derogatory, then society will have an
unwritten norm that such an act is unacceptable. With the repetition of this process, a community can form
and develop its culture and character.
Learn about it!
Social Influence and Transformation
Reciprocally, society also transforms individuals into social and cultural beings. As a part of society,
individuals experience enculturation or the process by which people acquire the knowledge, skills,
attitudes, and culture embedded in society. These social and cultural qualities vary across cultures since
they are also created and influenced by human action. As such, you may notice that different communities
have unique cultures, traditions, and norms.
Examples:
The openness of Thai people to gender differences has made their country diverse in terms of
social partnerships and preferences.
In the Philippines, making slurping sounds while eating noodles is a sign of disrespect. However, in
Japan, doing the same act is a positive way of expressing satisfaction with the food.
Tips
It is important to understand that the process of enculturation is different from acculturation. While
the first deals with acquiring one's culture, beliefs, and norms, the latter focuses on obtaining the
same constructs from another society.
Social constructs, belief systems, interactions, culture, and structure vary across countries. This is
the reason why countries are different from each other despite some similar cultural traditions and
beliefs.
Keypoints
Individuals are the building blocks of society. They take on various social roles to ensure the
smooth flow of social processes that regularly occur within the community.
Enculturation is the process by which people acquire the knowledge, skills, attitudes, and culture
embedded in their society.
A social system is the structure of society consisting of individuals who interact and relate in a
shared cultural and symbolic environment.
Social institutions include religion, education, government, economy, and family.
23
Human relations make up patterned interactive relationships which are the most important unit of
the social system.
Objectives
At the end of this lesson, you should be able to:
compare different types or forms of societies and individuals, and
discuss the interaction between individuals and societies in the social system.
In the Philippines, life in the province is certainly different from life in the city. While structures, technology,
and transportation continue to boom in the cities, provinces remain to be less industrialized, but rich in local
produce and resources. As such, individuals who grew up in cities develop as persons differently from
those born in the provinces.
How do these differing societies influence individuals?
Find out the answer in this lesson!
Learn about it!
Socioeconomic, technological, and environmental differences in societies may dictate cultural differences
among individuals. Because different types of societies exist, it is also expected that there are various
societal differences among individuals as well.
Individuals and Societal Transformations
Individuals are social animals who need society for food, protection, education, and other forms of
support. Meanwhile, a society is a collection of individuals shaped by social relations and interactions. As
such, individuals and society need each other to function properly. They have a complementary relationship
that is improved and influenced by culture and social institutions. In effect, societies and individuals all
around the world develop varying cultures and practices.
Examples:
Many Filipino children still live with their parents even during adulthood.
Paris is known as the center of fashion due to numerous designers that focused their works in the
city.
Explore!
As society continuously rebuilt itself, vast changes occurred within the last 10 years. The Philippines used
to be an industrialized society, but with the sudden availability of resources and opportunities, it was able to
shift to a post-industrial social model. Alongside this, many middle class workers emerged since new
professional positions were developed. Looking at these advancements, what societal changes do you
think will occur within the next ten years?
Try it!
Assess yourself and your society. In a sheet of paper, list down the socioeconomic characteristics of your
family, including the work of your parents, siblings, or extended family members who live with you. Next,
briefly list down the characteristics of your current environment and living conditions. Using your learning
from this lesson, try to determine which social class you and your family belong to, as well as the type of
society you live in.
What do you think?
Is it possible for a nation not to have all types of societies and individuals within the social system? Why?
Why not?
Tips
Individuals from different social classes may interact with one another; however, interaction does
not change a person’s social class. An individual’s social group changes only when his
socioeconomic capabilities change.
All individuals may fall under only one social class at any single point in time. Meanwhile, people
may encounter and live in different types of societies at the same time (e.g. having two houses in
different parts of the country).
All types of societies and individuals fall under a social system. It is important to remember that a
social system goes beyond the individual and society. It also includes culture, institutions, and the
interaction among these factors.
Keypoints
Individuals are social animals who need society for food, protection, education, and other forms of
support.
Society is a collection of individuals shaped by social relations and interactions.
The types of societies evident at present are agrarian, industrial, and virtual. Meanwhile, societies
such as pastoral, hunting and gathering, and feudal are not existing anymore.
Individuals fall under any one of the four social classes,
namely: lower, working, middle, and upper.
Tips
Although many people desire for adventure in living life, bucket lists may involve any activity that
may not necessarily invoke adventure.
The ability to find meaning in life is not limited to people who have a high quality of life. All persons,
regardless of sociodemographic and personal factors, are capable of discovering the meaning of life
on their own.
Keypoints
Evolutionists believe that everything in the cosmos, including life, can be explained in terms of the
interaction of matter.
Creationists believe that life was brought about by a supreme being or a god.
The meaning of life is incredibly significant because it is believed to balance the good-evil
relationship within the self. It is established as a collective defense against psychological problems
like aggression and divisiveness.
Theorists and philosophers specified that life must be embedded
in communication, understanding, and service.
Research shows that one out of five people are convinced that they are living their lives to the
fullest and that majority of all people who want to live life to its fullest are longing for excitement.
A bucket list is a list of all goals, dreams, and achievements one intends to attain before death.
Physical death is a state that all humans will encounter at the end of conscious life. Many people
are afraid of dying because it is the final, irreversible state of reality that leads to another path or
journey.
What is Philosophy?
Philosophy is the systematic and critical study of fundamental questions that arise both in everyday life and
through the practice of other disciplines. Some of these questions concern the nature of reality: Is there an
external world? What is the relationship between the physical and the mental? Does God exist? Others concern
our nature as rational, purposive, and social beings: Do we act freely? Where do our moral obligations come
from? How do we construct just political states? Others concern the nature and extent of our knowledge: What is
it to know something rather than merely believe it? Does all of our knowledge come from sensory experience?
Are there limits to our knowledge? And still others concern the foundations and implications of other disciplines:
What is a scientific explanation? What sort of knowledge of the world does science provide? Do scientific
theories, such as evolutionary theory, or quantum mechanics, compel us to modify our basic philosophical
understanding of, and approach to, reality? What makes an object a work of art? Are aesthetic value judgments
objective? And so on.
The aim in Philosophy is not to master a body of facts, so much as think clearly and sharply through any set of
facts. Towards that end, philosophy students are trained to read critically, analyze and assess arguments, discern
hidden assumptions, construct logically tight arguments, and express themselves clearly and precisely in both
speech and writing.
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Epistemology
Epistemology studies questions about knowledge and rational belief. Traditional questions include the
following: How can we know that the ordinary physical objects around us are real (as opposed to dreamed, or
hallucinated, as in the Matrix)? What are the factors that determine whether a belief is rational or irrational?
What is the difference between knowing something and just believing it? (Part of the answer is that you can have
false beliefs, but you can only know things that are true. But that’s not the whole answer—after all, you might
believe something true on the basis of a lucky guess, and that wouldn’t be knowledge!) Some other questions
that have recently been the subject of lively debate in epistemology include: Can two people with exactly the
same evidence be completely rational in holding opposite beliefs? Does whether I know something depend on
how much practical risk I would face if I believed falsely? Can I rationally maintain confident beliefs about
matters on which I know that others, who are seemingly every bit as intelligent, well-informed, unbiased and
diligent as I am, have come to opposite conclusions?
Metaphysics
Metaphysics is the study of what the world is like—or (some would say) what reality consists in. Metaphysical
questions can take several forms. They can be questions about what exists (questions of ontology); they can be
questions what is fundamental (as opposed to derivative); and they can be questions about what is an objective
feature of the world (as opposed to a mere consequence the way in which creatures like us happen to interact
with that world). Questions that are central to the study of metaphysics include questions about the nature of
objects, persons, time, space, causation, laws of nature, and modality. The rigorous study of these questions has
often led metaphysicians to make surprising claims. Plato thought that alongside the observable, concrete world
there was a realm of eternal, unchanging abstract entities like Goodness, Beauty, and Justice. Gottfried Wilhelm
Leibniz claimed that the world was composed of tiny indivisible souls, called monads. Even today contemporary
metaphysicians have been known to doubt the existence of ordinary objects, to deny the possibility of free will,
and to argue that our world is just one of a plurality of worlds.
Logic
Logic is the study of the validity of patterns of inference. Logic is not a branch of psychology: It does not concern
how people actually reason or which kinds of reasoning they find intuitively compelling. Rather, logic concerns
the question of when a claim is conclusively supported by other claims. For instance, the inference from the
claims “it is raining” and “if it is raining then the streets are wet” to the claim “the streets are wet” is logically
valid – the premises conclusively support the conclusion. The validity of this specific inference, and of other
inferences of the same form, is tied to the nature of the concept “if … then”. More generally, the notion of logical
validity is closely connected to the nature of concepts such as “and”, “or”, “not”, “if … then”, “all”, and “some”. In
studying the notion of logical validity, logicians have developed symbolic languages. These enable us to state
claims clearly and precisely, and to investigate the exact structure of an argument. These languages have turned
out to be useful within philosophy and other disciplines, including mathematics and computer science. Some of
the questions about logic studied by members of the philosophy department include: Given that logic is not an
empirical science, how can we have knowledge of basic logical truths? What is the connection between logic and
rationality? Can mathematics be reduced to logic? Should we revise logic to accommodate vague or imprecise
language? Should we revise logic to answer the liar paradox and other paradoxes concerning truth?
Political Philosophy
Political philosophy is the philosophical study of concepts and values associated with political matters. For one
example, is there any moral obligation to do what the law says just because the law says so, and if so on what
grounds? Many have said we consent to obey. Did you consent to obey the laws? Can one consent without
realizing it? Are there other grounds for an obligation to obey the law? Another central question is what would
count as a just distribution of all the wealth and opportunity that is made possible by living in a political
community? Is inequality in wealth or income unjust? Much existing economic inequality is a result of different
talents, different childhood opportunities, different gender, or just different geographical location. What might
justify inequalities that are owed simply to bad luck? Some say that inequality can provide incentives to produce
or innovate more, which might benefit everyone. Others say that many goods belong to individuals before the law
enters in, and that people may exchange them as they please even if this results in some having more than
others. So (a third question), what does it mean for something to be yours, and what makes it yours?
Philosophy of Language
The Philosophy of Language is devoted to the study of questions concerned with meaning and communication.
Such questions range from ones that interact closely with linguistic theory to questions that are more akin to
those raised in the study of literature. Very large questions include: What is linguistic meaning? How is the
meaning of linguistic performances similar to and different from the meanings of, say, gestures or signals? What
is the relationship between language and thought? Is thought more fundamental than language? Or is there
some sense in which only creatures that can speak can think? To what extent does the social environment affect
the meaning and use of language? Other questions focus on the communicative aspect of language, such as:
What is it to understand what someone else has said? What is it to assert something? How is assertion related to
knowledge and belief? And how is it that we can gain knowledge from others through language? Yet other
questions focus on specific features of the langauges we speak, for example: What is it a name to be a name of a
particular thing? What's the relationship between the meanings of words and the meanings of sentences? Is
there an important difference between literal and figurative uses of language? What is metaphor? And how does
it work?
Moral Philosophy
Aesthetics
[forthcoming]
History of Philosophy
The History of Philosophy plays a special role in the study of philosophy. Like every other intellectual discipline,
philosophy has of course a history. However, in the case of philosophy an understanding of its history - from its
ancient and medieval beginnings through the early modern period (the 17th and 18th centuries) and into more
recent times - forms a vital part of the very enterprise of philosophy, whether in metaphysics and epistemology
or in ethics, aesthetics, and political philosophy. To study the great philosophical works of the past is to learn
about the origins and presuppositions of many of the problems that occupy philosophy today. It is also to
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discover and to come to appreciate different ways of dealing with these problems, different conceptions of what
the fundamental problems of philosophy are, and indeed different ways of doing philosophy altogether. And it is
also the study of works—from Plato and Aristotle, through Kant and Mill and more recent writers—that have
shaped much of Western culture far beyond academic philosophy. Many of the most creative philosophers
working today have also written on various topics in the history of philosophy and have found their inspiration in
great figures of the past.