Dmgt202 Cost and Management Accounting
Dmgt202 Cost and Management Accounting
DMGT202
COST AND MANAGEMENT
ACCOUNTING
Copyright © 2012 M.P. Pandikumar
All rights reserved
Objectives: To familiarise the students with the various cost concepts, elements of cost, methods and techniques of cost control
and also to expose the students to the tools and techniques used in financial statement analysis.
S. No. Description
1. Introduction to Cost Accounting: Meaning & Definition, Scope and use of cost accounting, Relationship between
Financial Accounting and Cost Accounting , Role of Cost accounting in Decision-Making, Cost concepts, Element
of cost, classification of costs, Preparation of cost sheet and unit or output costing.
2. Accounting for Material: Material Control, Pricing of material issues, Labour: labour turnover, methods of wage
payment and incentive plans, Overhead: classification; absorption of Overhead; under and over absorption of
Overhead.
3. Marginal costing & Absorption Costing: CVP Analysis; P/V ratio, break even point, margin of safety
4. Variance Analysis: Meaning & importance, Kinds of variance
5. Budgetary control: Meaning, objectives, Types of budgets
6. Introduction to Management Accounting: Meaning, nature, scope and limitations, Relationship of financial, cost
and management accounting
7. Analysis of financial statements: Tools, Comparative statements, common size statements and trend analysis.
8. Ratio Analysis: liquidity ratios, activity ratios, solvency ratios and profitability ratios
9. Fund Flow Analysis: meaning, preparation of statement of changes in working capital & Fund Flow statement,
Cash Flow analysis (as per AS-3): Cash from operating, investing & financing activities, preparation of cash flow
statement.
10. Introduction to recent development in cost management: Human Resource Accounting, Activity Based Costing,
Social Accounting.
CONTENTS
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
1.1 Meaning and Definition of Cost Accounting
1.2 Scope and Use of Cost Accounting
1.3 Relationship between Financial Accounting and Cost Accounting
1.4 Role of Cost Accounting in Decision Making
1.5 Cost Concepts
1.5.1 Cost Unit
1.5.2 Cost Centre
1.6 Elements of Cost
1.7 Classification of Costs
1.7.1 General Classification
1.7.2 Technical Classification
1.8 Cost Accounting System
1.9 Summary
1.10 Keywords
1.11 Review Questions
1.12 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Explain the meaning and definition of cost accounting
Discuss the scope and uses of cost accounting
Describe the relationship between financial accounting and cost accounting
State the role of cost accounting in decision making
List the elements of cost
Make classification of cost
Describe costing system
Introduction
Cost accounting is a branch of accounting and has been developed due to limitations of financial
accounting. The financial accounting is primarily concerned with record keeping directed
towards the preparation of gross profit account, profit and loss account and balance sheet.
It provides information regarding the gross profit, profit and loss that the business or enterprise
Notes is making and also its financial position on a particular period. The information concerning the
business or enterprise is helpful to the management to control on business.
The management of every business enterprise is interested to know much more than the usual
information supplied to outsiders. In order to carry out its functions of planning, decision-making
and control, it requires additional cost data. The financial accounts fail, to some extent, to provide
required cost data to management and hence a new system of accounting which could provide
internal report to management was conceived of.
!
Caution The cost accounting system is not independent of the financial accounts. It merely
represents an elaboration of the basic financial accounting system.
Cost accounting is concerned with the classification, accumulation, control and assignment of
costs. Cost accountant classifies, costs according to patterns of behaviour, activities or processes
to which they relate products to which they attach and other categories, dependent on the types
of measurement desired costs may be accumulated by accounts, jobs processes products or other
business segments. The cost accounting system is directly concerned with control of inventories,
plant assets and funds expanded on functional activities.
“Costing is the proper allocation of expenditure whereby reliable cost may be ascertained and Notes
suitably presented to affford guidance to the producers in control of their business”.
—Harold James
“Costing is the classifying, recording and appropriate allocation of expenditure for the
determination of the cost of products or services, and for the presentation of suitably arranged
data for purposes of control and guidance of the management. It includes the ascertainment of
the cost of every order, job, contract, process, service, or unit at as may be appropriate. It deals
with the costs of production, selling and distribution”.
—Harold J. Wheldon
“Cost accounting means the application of principles of accounting in such a manner that the
management is always assured of a detailed recording and analysis of expenditures incurred
in connection with the operation of any business so that it is able to measure performance and
control activities”.
—Jeremiah Lock Wood
Self Assessment
Notes 4. Cost Audit: The terminology of ICMA, London, defines cost audit, as “the verification of the
correctness of cost accounts and of the adherence to the cost accounting plan”. Cost audit
has a much wider role to play in an industry or organisation than people could imagine.
The aim of cost audit is to highlight the shortcomings inherent in the cost accounting
system.
5. Budgetary Control: According to Heiser, budgetary control can be defined as “an overall
blue print of a comprehensive plan of operations and actions expressed in financial terms”.
According to him, budgeting process involves the preparation of a budget, comparison of
budgeted and actual expenditure and income, planning and coordinating for control, etc.
Self Assessment
1. Financial accounts deal with all the items of expenses, losses, income and gains in total but
the cost accounts deal with items of cost alone.
2. In financial accounts, items of cost that are dealt with are expressed in totals. Therefore,
such accounts cannot disclose the cost per unit whereas in cost accounts all expenses are
analyzed very carefully and apportioned accordingly. Hence, cost per unit can be very
easily determined.
3. Financial accounts deal with facts alone whereas cost accounts deal with estimates as well
as facts. Therefore, the result of cost accounts does not always tally with financial accounts.
4. Financial accounts cover a long period usually a year, but cost accounts cover comparatively
a short period say a week, fortnight or a month.
5. Cost accounts do not form part of the ordinary process of double entry systems. Whereas
the financial account must be invariably maintained according to double entry system.
6. Financial accounts display results in total profits whereas cost accounts give the results of Notes
each operation.
7. All expenses such as interest on capital, depreciation, etc., are normally charged in
financial accounts, which reveals the true and fair affairs of business in general and cost of
production in particular. In case of cost accounting, where certain expenses are eliminated
or deleted the cost per unit will be generally unfair.
8. Financial accounting will generally present a better picture to the public who can
not understand the intricacies of the maintenance of accounting. Cost accounting, in
particular, is always beneficial from the point of management, rather than from the public
undertaking.
7. Financial accounts deal with all the items of expenses, losses, income and gains in total but
the cost accounts deal with items of cost alone.
9. Cost accounting will generally present a better picture to the public who can not understand
the intricacies of the maintenance of accounting.
The cost accounting plays an important role in the following decisions making:
1. Determination and Analysis of Cost: The main object of cost accountant is to determine
cost per unit or per job or per contract. Thereby the constituents such as prime cost and
overheads that may be fixed, variable, semi-variable can be disclosed, which in turn
evaluate the operating efficiency of each departments.
2. Cost Control and Cost Reduction: Cost control and cost reduction is an important factor
to be considered to know the best result obtained by each department. For this purpose,
the standards are fixed and in case the efficiency of each department is more than the
anticipated standard, the result will be considered as favourable and vice-versa.
3. Planning and Decision-making: This is possible when policies that are framed are properly
implemented. The technique of cost accounting which produces the best result depends
upon the best tools which are in operation by the management, stock holders, consumers
and government.
(a) Profitable and unprofitable activities can be disclosed by taking necessary steps
periodically.
(b) Costing enables a concern to measure the efficiency maintained and prove it.
(c) Costing provides such information upon which estimates and tenders are based.
(f) An efficient check on labour and machines is also possible by providing incentives to
workers.
(i) It furnishes reliable data for comparing costs in different periods for different
volumes of output.
(j) The fixation of price cannot be properly done unless proper figures of costs are
available.
(k) The exact cause of increase or decrease in profit or loss can be detected.
10. Cost control and ...................... is an important factor to be considered to know the best
result obtained by each department.
11. The technique of ...................... which produces the best result depends upon the best tools
which are in operation by the management, stock holders, consumers and government.
Cost unit is defined by the ICMA as “a quantitative unit of product or service in relation to which
costs are ascertained”. A cost unit is a device used for the purpose of splitting total cost into smaller
sub-divisions attributable to products or service. A cost unit simply stated is a unit of finished
product, service of these in relation to which cost is ascertained and expressed. The following are
some of the examples of cost units selected from different industries or organisation:
A cost centre refers to a part of a factory for which costs are accumulated separately. In order
to facilitate charging of costs to cost units, it is necessary to divide the factory or industry into
various parts which can be used to accumulate costs for subsequent distribution. Each such part
of a factory or industry is known as cost centre.
Cost centre has been defined by ICMA as “a location, person or item of equipment or group of
these in respect of which costs may be ascertained and related to cost units”.
Cost Centres
1. Operation and Process Cost Centre: Operation cost centre consist of those machines which
carry out the same operation.
A process cost centre is a cost centre in which a specific process or a continuous process of
operation is carried out.
2. Production and Service Cost Centre: A production cost centre is one where actual
production process is carried out. The manufacturing and non-manufacturing costs are
charged to production cost centre.
A service cost centre is one which provides services to other cost centre. Only
non-manufacturing costs are charged to service cost centre.
3. Personal and Impersonal Cost Centre: Personal cost centre consists of a person or group of
persons. Personal cost centre follows the organisational structure of a factory or organisation.
Under this type of cost centre, costs are analysed and accumulated according to; say, factory
manager, sales manager, store keeper, etc. Impersonal cost centre consists of a location of
equipment. A cost centre relating to location may represent an area of sales, warehouse.
Cost centre relating to an item of equipment could be a machine or group of machines.
Whatever may be the kinds of cost centre, it is determined by taking into consideration the
following factors:
Responsibilities and accountabilities to be identified,
Volume of work to be performed,
Uses of cost centres, and
Cost control activities exercised.
Self Assessment
The correct of interpretation of the term ‘cost’ may also be understood by having knowledge
about basic elements of cost. These elements have been shown in the following figure.
Elements of Cost
Overheads
1. Direct Material: Direct material is material that can be directly identified with each unit
of the product. Direct material can be conveniently measured and directly charged to the
product.
For example, raw cotton in textile manufactures, sugarcane in sugar industry and leather
for shoe-making industry.
The cost of direct material includes the following:
(a) All type of raw materials issued from the store,
(b) Raw materials specifically purchased for the specific job or project,
(c) Raw materials transferred from one cost centre to another cost centre.
(d) Primary packing material, like cartons, cardboard boxes, etc.
2. Indirect Material: They are those materials which do not normally form a part of the
finished product. It has been defined as “materials which cannot be allocated but which
can be apportioned to or absorbed by cost centres or cost units”. These are:
(a) Stores used in maintenance of machinery, buildings, etc., like lubricants, cotton
waste, bricks and cements.
(b) Stores used by the service departments, i.e., non-productive departments like Power
house, Boiler house and Canteen, etc.
(c) Materials which due to their cost being small, are not considered worth while to be
treated as direct materials.
3. Direct Labour: Direct labour is labour that can be identified directly with a unit of finished
product. All the labour charges expended in altering the construction, composition,
confirmation or condition of the product is included in it. It includes the payment of direct
wages made to the following groups of direct labour:
(a) Direct labour engaged on the actual production of the product.
Notes (b) Direct labour engaged in adding this manufacture by way of supervision, maintenance
and tool setting, etc.
(c) Inspectors, analysts, etc. specially required for such production.
4. Indirect Labour: The wages of that labour which cannot be allocated but which can be
apportioned to or absorbed by, cost centres or cost units is known as indirect labour. In
other words, wages paid to labour which are employed other than or production constitute
indirect labour costs. Examples of indirect labour are: charge hands and supervisors,
maintenance workers, labour employed in service departments, material handling and
internal transport, apprentices, trainees and instructors, factory clerical staff and labour
employed in time and security office, etc.
5. Direct or Chargeable Expenses: They include all expenditures other than direct material and
direct labour that are specifically incurred for a particular product or job. Such expenses
are charged directly to the particular cost account concerned as part of the prime cost.
Examples of direct expenses are: excise duty, royalty, surveyor’s fees, cost of rectifying
defective work, travelling expenses to the job, experimental expenses of projects, expenses
of designing or drawings, repairs and maintenance of plant obtained on hire and hire of
special equipment obtained for a contract.
6. Indirect Expenses: Indirect expenses are expenses which can not be allocated but which can
be apportioned to or absorbed by cost centres or cost units as rent, insurance, municipal
taxes, salary of manager, canteen and welfare expenses, power and fuel, cost of training for
new employees, lighting and heating, telephone expenses, etc.
7. Overheads: Overheads may be defined as the cost of indirect materials, indirect labour and
such other expenses including services as cannot conveniently be charged direct to specific
cost units. Thus, overheads are all expenses other than direct expenses. Overheads may be
divided into following categories:
(a) Factory or works overheads cover all indirect expenditure incurred by the
undertaking from the receipt of the order until its completion is ready for dispatch
either to the customer or to the finished goods store. The overheads also include:
depreciation on plant and machinery, buildings and equipments, insurance charges
on fixed assets, repairs and maintenance of fixed assets, electricity charges, coal and
other fuel charges, rent, rates and taxes of works, etc.
(b) Office and administrative overhead consists of all expenses incurred in the direction,
control and administration of a factory. Examples are the expenses in running
the general office e.g., office rent, light, heat, salaries, salary to secretaries and
accountants, general managers, directors, executives, investigations and experiments
and miscellaneous fixed charges.
(c) Selling overheads comprise the cost of products or distributors of soliciting and
recurring orders for the articles of commodities dealt in and of efforts to find and
retain customers.
(d) Distribution overheads comprise all expenditure incurred from the time the product
is completed in the work until it reaches its destination. It includes warehouse rent,
warehouse staff salaries, insurance, expenses on delivery vans and trucks, expenses
on special packing for bulk transport, losses in warehouse stocks and finished goods
damaged in transit and cost of repairing, etc.
15. The wages of that labour which cannot be allocated but which can be apportioned to or
absorbed by, cost centres or cost units is known as direct labour.
16. Overheads may be defined as the cost of indirect materials, indirect labour and such other
expenses including services as cannot conveniently be charged direct to specific cost units.
1. General classification
2. Technical classification
Product costs include all the costs that are involved in acquiring or making product. For a
manufacturer, they would be the direct materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead
used in making its products. Product costs are viewed as “attaching” to units of product as the
goods are purchased or manufactured and they remain attached as the goods go into inventory
awaiting sale. So initially, product costs are assigned to an inventory account on the balance
sheet. When the goods are sold, the costs are released from inventory as expense (typically called
Cost of Goods Sold) and matched against sales revenue.
!
Caution The product costs of direct materials, direct labor, and manufacturing overhead
are also “inventoriable” costs, since these are the necessary costs of manufacturing the
products.
The purpose is to emphasize that product costs are not necessarily treated as expense in the
period in which they are incurred. Rather, as explained above, they are treated as expenses in
the period in which the related products are sold. This means that a product cost such as direct
materials or direct labor might be incurred during one period but not treated as an expense until
a following period when the completed product is sold.
Period costs are not included as part of the cost of either purchased or manufactured goods and
are usually associated with the selling function of the business or its general administration. As a
result, period costs cannot be assigned to the products or to the cost of inventory. These costs are
expensed on the income statement in the period in which they are incurred, using the usual rules
of accrual accounting that we learn in financial accounting.
Notes
Example: 1. Sales commissions and office rent.
The period costs are reported as expenses in the accounting period in which they:
In addition to the selling and general administrative expenses, most interest expense is a period
expense.
Direct costs are those costs that can be traced to specific segments of operations.
Direct cost of the product can be classified into the following categories.
1. Direct Material: Direct material which is especially used as a major ingredient for the
production of a product.
Example: (a) The wood is a basic raw material for the wooden furniture. The cost of the
wood procured for the furniture is known direct material cost.
(b) The cotton is a basic raw material for the production of yarn. The cost of procuring the
cotton is known as direct material for the manufacturing of yarn.
2. Direct Labour: Direct labour is the cost of the labour which is directly involved in the
production of either a product or service.
Example: The cost of an employee who is mainly working for the production of a
product/service at the centre, known as direct labour cost.
3. Direct Expenses: Direct expenses which are incurred by the firm with the production of
either a product or service. The excise duty and octroi duty are known as direct expenses
in connection with the production of articles and so on.
Indirect costs are those costs that can not be identified with particular segments.
4. Indirect Material: The material which is spent cannot be measured for a product is known
as indirect material.
Example: The thread which is used for tailoring the shirt cannot be measured or quantified
in specific length as well as ascertained the cost.
5. Indirect Labour: Indirect labour is the cost of the labour incurred by the firm other than the
direct labour cannot be apportioned.
6. Indirect Expenses: Indirect expenses are the expenses other than that of the direct expenses
in the production of a product. The expenses which are not directly part of the production
process of a product or service known as indirect expenses.
Notes
Example: Rent of the factory, salesmen salary and so on.
Example: Manufacturer of chairs, Segments = Plastic chairs (P) & Wood chairs (W)
Manufacturing costs are product costs consisting of Direct Material (DM), Direct Labor (DL) and
Manufacturing Overhead (MOH, OH)
Non-manufacturing costs are period costs incurred in selling and administrative activities.
1. Indirect materials
3. Other services — utilities, supplies, rent, insurance, depreciation, taxes, etc. used in
production
Apart from this classification the costs are also classified into various categories according to the
purpose and requirements of the firm. Some of the most important classifications are as follows:
2. By functions
4. By variability
5. By controllability
6. By normality
7. By time
The costs are classified into three major categories Materials, Labour, and Expenses.
Notes By Functions
Under this methodology, the costs are classified into various divisions or functions of the
enterprise viz. Production cost, Administration cost, Selling & Distribution cost and so on.
The detailed classification is that total of production cost sub-classified into cost of manufacture,
fabrication or construction.
Example: 1. Costs of manufacture: The cost of materials for packaging, the cost of
electricity and water, the cost of promotion and advertising, etc.
2. Costs of construction: The cost of materials, the cost of equipment, the cost of labour, etc.
(a) Cost of transportation
(b) Cost of management and co-ordination
(c) Depreciation of fixed assets.
And another classification of cost is commercial cost of operations; which is other than the cost of
manufacturing and production.
The major components of commercial costs are known as administrative cost of operations and
selling and distribution cost of operations.
1. Direct cost: This classification of costs are incurred for the manufacture of a product or
service. They can be conveniently and easily identified.
(a) Material cost for the product manufacture: It includes the direct material for
manufacturing.
Example: For garments factory-cloth is the direct material for ready made garments.
(b) Labour cost for production: Labour cost is the cost of the entire labour who is directly
involved in the production of a product as well as attributable to single product
expenses and so on.
2. Indirect cost: The costs which are incurred for and cannot be easily identified for any single
cost centre or cost unit known as indirect cost.
Indirect material cost, Indirect labour cost and Indirect expenses are the three different
components of the indirect expenses.
(a) Indirect material:
Example: Cost of the thread cannot be conveniently measured for single unit of the
product.
(b) Indirect labour:
By Variability Notes
The costs are grouped according to the changes taken place in the level of production or
activity.
Example: The fuel for an airline. The cost for it changes with the number of flights and
how long the trips are.
3. Semi variable cost: It is a cost which is fixed up to certain level of an activity. Later it
fluctuates or varies in line with the level of production. It is known in other words as step
cost.
By Controllability
The costs are classified into two categories in accordance with controllability, as follows:
1. Controllable costs: Cost which can be controlled through some measures known as
controllable costs. All variable cost are considered to be controllable in segment to some
extent.
2. Uncontrollable costs: Costs which cannot be controlled are known as uncontrollable costs.
All fixed costs are very difficult to control or bring down; they rigid or fixed irrespective to
the level of production.
By Normality
Under this methodology, the costs which are normally incurred at a given level of output in the
conditions in which that level of activity normally attained.
1. Normal cost: It is the cost which is normally incurred at a given level of output in the
conditions in which that level of output is normally achieved.
2. Abnormal cost: It is the cost which is not normally incurred at a given level of output in the
conditions in which that level of output is normally attained.
Normal cost for a defined-benefit pension plan generally represents the portion of the economic
cost of the participant’s anticipated pension benefits allocated to the current plan year.
Abnormal cost maybe unexpected costs incurred, as a result of natural calamities or fire or
accident or such other losses.
Notes By Time
According to this classification, the costs are classified into historical costs and predetermined
costs:
1. Historical costs: The costs are accumulated or ascertained only after the incurrence known
as past cost or historical costs.
2. Predetermined costs: These costs are determined or estimated in advance to any activity by
considering the past events which are normally affecting the costs.
The following are the two major classifications, viz. standard cost and budgetary control:
The prepared standards are compared with the actual performance of the firm in studying
the variances in between them. The variances are studied and analysed through an exclusive
analysis.
2. Budget: A budget is detailed plan of operation for some specific future period. It is an
estimate prepared in advance of the period to which it applies. It acts as a business barometer
as it is complete programme of activities of the business for the period covered.
The control is exercised through continuous comparison of actual results with the budgets. The
ultimate aim of comparing with each other is to either to secure individuals’ action towards the
objective or to provide a basis for revision.
Marginal cost is the amount at any given volume of output by which aggregate costs are changed
if the volume of output is decreased or increased by one unit.
Sunk costs are costs that cannot be recovered once they have been incurred.
Example: Marginal Cost: Suppose it costs ` 1000 to produce 100 units and ` 1020 to
produce 101 units. The average cost per unit is ` 10, but the marginal cost of the 101 unit is ` 20.
They can be a barrier to entry. If potential entrants would have to incur similar costs, which
would not be recoverable if the entry failed, they may be scared off.
Task Identify the key statements prepared under financial and cost accounting and
prepare the proforma of all the relevant statements.
18. ...................... are product costs consisting of Direct Material (DM), Direct Labor (DL) and
Manufacturing Overhead.
19. The major components of ...................... are known as administrative cost of operations and
selling and distribution cost of operations.
20. A ...................... is detailed plan of operation for some specific future period. It is an estimate
prepared in advance of the period to which it applies.
The primary goal of cost systems is to provide information for decision-making like pricing
products, managing costs, selecting market segments and distribution channels, evaluating
make-buy and outsourcing decisions, establishing transfer prices, evaluation of plant closing
and making capital investment and abandonment decisions, etc.
Direct costs usually labour and material traced directly to the cost object. Overheads are allocated
to products through a two-stage process.
1. In the first stage, overhead costs are allocated to cost pools (e.g. machines, departments and
so on) using predetermined allocation criteria or cost drivers.
2. In the second stage, costs allocated to cost pools, are again allocated to cost objects (for
example, products) using cost drivers, which are chosen to capture a products consumption
of overheads costs. The two-stage procedure is given in the Figure 1.3.
Allocate
Resources Overhead
Allocate
Overhead
Cost pools
Traditional costing methods had little trouble in tracing direct labour and direct material to cost
objects. But overhead allocation both in the first stage and in the second, have been problematic
leading to very inaccurate measurement of product costs as well as costs associated with other
decisions.
Job-order Production Process: These are suitable for firms that produce many unique products
or batches of products, requiring different amounts of labour, material and overhead. Each job
is costed separately and work is scheduled as orders are received. Job order production is used
in industries as diverse as printing, construction, consulting, auto repair and heavy machinery.
Costs of each job are computed by tracing direct labour and direct material to the job and by
allocating overhead to the job. In actual costing, we trace actual material and labour costs and
allocate overhead. In a standard costing system, we establish standard rates for labour, material
and overhead. In an activity based system, we trace labour and material directly to products and
overheads is allocated to the products by the use of multi-drivers in the first and second stage of
the production process.
Under process production, costs are divided into two categories: materials and conversion. Notes
Conversion costs include labour and overhead costs. The cost systems produced to cost units
complete and units in progress by calculating the cost per equivalent unit completed during
the period. Then it applies the cost per equivalent completed to units complete and to units in
progress. In process production using standard costing system, standard unit costs are developed
for both direct materials and conversion costs. Variances between standard and actual costs are
derived each period for both material and conversion at the departmental level. The variances
can then be analysed to determine their approximate causes.
Mixed Job-order and Process Production: The processes are used when the production process
has attributes of both job order and process. For example, in the manufacture of certain types of
clothing, the items differ in terms of quality of materials used but the other operations are the
same. In this case, direct materials costs are traced to each article of clothing as under job-order
methods but direct labour and overhead costs are allocated as under process methods.
Self Assessment
21. The primary goal of cost systems is to provide information for ......................
23. In a ...................... system, we establish standard rates for labour, material and overhead.
1.9 Summary
In brief, cost is nothing but total of all expenses incurred for manufacturing a product or
attributable to given thing.
All fixed costs are very difficult to control or bring down; they rigid or fixed irrespective to
the level of production.
A budget is detailed plan of operation for some specific future period. It is an estimate
prepared in advance of the period to which it applies.
Under costing, the role of unit costing is inevitable tool for the industries not only to identify
the volume of costs incurred at every level but also to determine the rational price on the
commodities in order to withstand among the competitors.
Direct labour is the cost of the labour which is directly involved in the production of either
a product or service.
Indirect expenses are the expenses other than that of the direct expenses in the production
of a product.
The expenses which are not directly part of the production process of a product or service
known as indirect expenses.
1. False 2. True
3. True 4. Cost control
5. cost audit 6. Budgeting
7. True 8. False
9. False 10. cost reduction
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
2.4 Summary
2.5 Keywords
Objectives
Introduction
Under costing, the role of unit costing is an inevitable tool for the industries not only to identify
the volume of costs incurred at every level but also to determine the rational price on the
commodities in order to withstand among the competitors. The determination of the selling price
is being done through the process of determining the cost of the product. After having finalized
the cost of the product, the profit margin has to be added in order to derive the final selling price
of the product.
Cost sheet is a statement which is prepared periodically to provide detailed cost of a cost unit or
cost centre. A cost sheet not only shows the total cost but also the various components of the total
cost. Period covered by a cost sheet may be a year, a month or a week, etc. Cost sheet serves the
following purposes:
“It is a statement prepared to depict the output of a particular accounting period alongwith break
up of costs.”
To find the total cost of the product or service, the costs incurred are grouped under various
categories.
Unit or output costing is one of the important objectives of Cost Accounting. For this, it is
essential to classify cost into certain constituents or categories. These are known as elements of
cost. Elements of cost are:
1. Direct Material
2. Direct Labour
4. Factory Overheads
!
Caution To find out the unit cost of the product, the statement of cost plays a pivotal role
in determining the cost of production, cost of goods sold, cost of sales and selling price of
the product at every stage.
During the preliminary stage of preparing the cost statement of the product, there are two
things to be borne in our mind at the moment of classification.
Self Assessment
1. Cost sheet is a statement which is prepared periodically to provide detailed cost of a cost
unit or ...................... .
Under this classification, the direct costs of the product or service are added together to know the
volume of total direct cost. The total volume of direct cost is known as “Prime Cost.”
Prime cost
Direct Material
Direct Labour
Direct Expenses
The next stage in the unit costing to find out the factory cost. The factory cost could be computed
by the combination of the indirect cost classification.
Self Assessment
3. Direct cost is
Among the classification of the overheads, the first and foremost is factory overheads. The factory
overheads and work overheads are synonymously used. The factory overheads are nothing but
the indirect costs incurred at the factory site. The total factory cost or works cost incurred in the
factory could be derived by adding the both direct cost and indirect cost incurred during the
factory process.
Notes
Factory Cost = Prime cost + Factory Overheads
Prime costs include direct labour, materials, bought-outs and sub-contracts, while factory
overheads are nothing but the indirect expenses incurred during the individual process.
Solution:
= ` 2,60,000
= ` 2,98,000
= ` 5,58,000
Factory cost
Electric power
Storekeeper’s wages
Factory rent
Depreciation
The next stage in the process of the unit costing is to find out the cost of the production. The cost
of production is the combination of both the factory cost and administrative overheads.
Cost Production = Factory Cost + Administrative Overheads
Administrative overheads is the indirect expenses incurred during the office administration for
the smooth flow production of finished goods.
Example: In the previous example discussed to measure factory cost, if the following
data is added
`
Office Rent 6,000
Office Lighting 1,250
Office Depreciation 3,500
Director’s Fees 2,500
Manager’s Salary 10,000
Office Stationery 1,000
Telephone Charges 500
Postage and Telegrams 250
Calculate Production Cost.
Solution:
Production Cost = Factory Cost + Administrative Cost
Factory Cost = ` 5,58,000 (from the previous example)
Administrative Cost = Office Rent + Office Lighting + Office Depreciation + Director’s
Fees + Manager’s Salary + Office Stationery + Telephone
Charges + Postage and Telegrams
Figure 2.3
Cost of Production
Office Rent
Repairs-office
Office lighting
Depreciation-office
Manager salary
Telephone charges
Stationery
Immediate next stage to determine in the process of unit costing is the component of cost of sales.
The cost of sales is the blend of both, selling overheads and cost of production.
Whatever the cost involved in the production process in the factory as well in the administrative
proceedings are clubbed with the selling overheads to determine the cost of sales.
Selling overheads are nothing but the indirect expenses incurred by the firm at the moment of
selling products. In brief, whatever the expenses in relevance with the selling and distribution
are known as selling overheads.
Figure 2.4
Cost of Sales
Salesman salary
Carriage outward
Salesmen commission
Travelling expenses
Advertising
Free samples
Warehousing
Delivery charges
The last but most important stage in the unit costing is determining the selling price of the
commodities. The selling price of the commodities is fixed by way of adding both the cost of
sales and profit margin out of the product sales.
Example: In the example continued, if we add the profit that can be earned to be ` 48,900.
Calculate the product sales expected.
Solution:
Sales = Cost of Sales + Margin of Profit
= 5,99,750 (from the previous example) + 48,900
= ` 6,48,650
Under the unit costing, the selling price of the product can be determined through the statement
form.
Example: Calculate the prime cost, factory cost, cost of production cost of sales and profit
form the following particulars:
` ` Notes
Direct materials 2,00,000 Office stationery 1,000
Direct wages 50,000 Telephone charges 250
Direct expenses 10,000 Postage and telegrams 500
Wages of foreman 5,000 Salesmen’s’ salaries 2500
Electric power 1,000 Travelling expenses 1,000
Lighting: Factory 3,000 Repairs and renewal plant 7,000
Office 1,000 Office premises 1,000
Storekeeper’s wages 2,000 Carriage outward 750
Oil and water 1,000 Transfer to reserves 1,000
Rent: Factory 10,000 Discount on shares written off 1000
Office 5,000 Advertising 2,500
Depreciation Plant 1,000 Warehouse charges 1000
Office 2,500 Sales 3,79,000
Consumable store 5,000 Income tax 20,000
Managers’ salary 10,000 Dividend 4,000
Directors’ fees 2,500
Solution:
Cost Statement/Cost Sheet
Particulars ` `
Direct Materials 2,00,000
Direct wages 50,000
Direct expenses 10,000
Prime Cost 2,60,000
Factory Overheads:
Wages of foreman 5,000
Electric power 1,000
Lighting: Factory 3,000
Storekeeper’s wages 2,000
Oil and water 1000
Rent: Factory 10,000
Depreciation Plant 1000
Consumable store 5,000
Repairs and Renewal Plant 7,000 35,000
Factory Cost 2,95,000
Administration Overheads:
Rent Office 5,000
Depreciation office 2,500
Managers’ salary 10,000
Directors’ fees 2,500
Office stationery 1,000
Telephone charges 250
Postage and telegrams 500
Office premises 1,000
Lighting: Office 1,000 23,750
Cost of production 3,18,750
Contd...
The next stage in the preparation of the cost statement is to induct the stock of raw materials,
work in progress and finished goods.
The raw materials stock should be taken into consideration for the preparation of the cost sheet.
The cost of the raw materials is nothing but the direct materials cost of the product. The cost of
the materials is in other words cost of the materials consumed for the production of a product.
Particulars `
Opening stock of raw materials XXXXX
(+) Purchases of raw materials XXXXX
(–) Closing stock of raw materials XXXXX
Cost of materials consumed XXXXX
The treatment of the stock of semi-finished goods is mainly depending upon the two different
approaches, viz.
1. Prime cost basis, and
2. Factory cost basis.
The factory cost basis is considered to be predominant over the early one due to the consideration
of factory overheads at the moment of semi finished goods treatment. The indirect expenses are
the expenses converting the raw materials into semi-finished goods which should be relatively
considered for the treatment of the stock valuation rather than on the basis of prime cost.
Particulars `
Prime cost XXXXXX
(+) Factory overheads incurred XXXXXX
(+) Opening work in progress XXXXXX
(–) Closing work in progress XXXXXX
Factory cost XXXXXX
The treatment of the stock of finished goods should carried over in between the opening stock
and closing stock and adjusted among them before the finding the cost of goods sold.
Particulars `
Notes
Cost of production XXXXX
(+) Opening stock of finished goods XXXXX
(–) Closing stock of finished goods XXXXX
Cost of goods sold XXXXX
Example: The following data has been from the records of Centre corporation for the
period from June 1 to June 30, 2005, Draft the cost sheet.
Solution:
Cost Sheet
Particulars ` `
Opening stock of raw materials 1st June 60,000
(+) Purchase of raw materials 9,00,000
(-) Closing stock of raw materials 30th June 50,000
Raw materials consumed during the month 9,10,000
(+) Wages paid 4,60,000
Prime cost 13,70,000
Factory overheads 1,84,000
(+) Opening stock of semi goods 24,000
(-) Closing stock of semi goods 30,000
Factory overheads 1,78,000
Factory or Works cost 15,48,000
(+) Administration overheads 60,000
Cost of Production 16,08,000
(+) Opening stock of finished goods 1,20,000
(–) Closing stock of finished goods 1,10,000
Cost of goods sold 16,18,000
(+) Selling overheads 40,000
Cost of Sales 16,58,000
Net profit 1,42,000
Sales 18,00,000
Notes
Example: From the following information, extracted from the records of the M/s
Sundaram & Co., prepare cost statement of M/s Sundaram & Co.
The stock position of the firm is:
Particulars ` Particulars `
Indirect labour 1,00,000 Administrative expenses 2,00,000
Oil 20,000 Electricity 60,000
Insurance on fixtures 6,000 Direct labour 6,00,000
Purchase of raw materials 8,00,000 Depreciation on Machinery 1,00,000
Sale commission 1,20,000 Factory rent 1,20,000
Salaries of salesmen 2,00,000 Property tax on building 22,000
Carriage outward 40,000 Sales 24,00,000
Solution:
Cost Sheet
Particulars ` `
Opening stock of raw materials on 1st April, 2000 80,000
(+)Purchase of raw materials 8,00,000
(-)Closing stock of raw materials on 31st March 1,00,000
Raw materials consumed during the year 7,80,000
(+)Direct labour 6,00,000
Prime cost 13,80,000
Factory overheads:
Indirect labour 1,00,000
Oil 20,000
Insurance on fixtures 6,000
Electricity 60,000
Depreciation on machinery 1,00,000
Factory rent 1,20,000
Property tax on factory building 22,000 4,28,000
(+)Opening stock of semi-finished goods 20,000
(-)Closing stock of semi-finished goods 28,000
Factory cost 18,00,000
(+)Administration overheads 2,00,000
Cost of Production 20,00,000
(+)Opening stock of finished goods 2,00,000
(-)Closing stock of finished goods 3,00,000
Contd...
Note: Property tax on the plant is to be included under the factory overheads. The tax is paid by
the firm on the plant which is engaged in the production process.
Self Assessment
5. The factory overheads are nothing but the ...................... incurred at the factory site.
6. The total ...................... incurred in the factory could be derived by adding the both direct
cost and indirect cost incurred during the factory process.
7. The ...................... is the combination of both the factory cost and administrative
overheads.
8. The ...................... is the blend of both, selling overheads and cost of production.
9. The cost of the ...................... is nothing but the direct materials cost of the product.
10. The treatment of the stock of ...................... should carried over in between the opening
stock and closing stock and adjusted among them before the finding the cost of goods
sold.
11. The ...................... are the expenses converting the raw materials into semi-finished goods
which should be relatively considered for the treatment of the stock valuation rather than
on the basis of prime cost.
15. The statement prepared for the computation of a product/service cost is known as
`
Raw materials consumed 30,000
Direct labour charges 18,000
Machine hours worked 1,800
Machine hour rate 10
Administrative overheads 20% on works cost
Selling overheads ` 1 per unit
Units produced 26,400 units
Units sold 25,000 units ` 8 per unit
Draft the cost statement and determine the cost per unit, profit per unit sold and profit
during the period.
2.4 Summary
Cost sheet is a statement which is prepared periodically to provide detailed cost of a cost
unit or cost centre.
A cost sheet not only shows the total cost but also the various components of the total
cost.
During the preliminary stage of preparing the cost statement of the product, there are two
things to be borne in our mind at the moment of classification.
Under this classification, the direct costs of the product or service are added together to
know the volume of total direct cost. The total volume of direct cost is known as “Prime
Cost.”
The total factory cost or works cost incurred in the factory could be derived by adding the Notes
both direct cost and indirect cost incurred during the factory process.
The cost of production is the combination of both the factory cost and administrative
overheads.
The cost of sales is the blend of both, selling overheads and cost of production.
The selling price of the commodities is fixed by way of adding both the cost of sales and
profit margin out of the product sales.
The cost of the raw materials is nothing but the direct materials cost of the product. The
cost of the materials is in other words cost of the materials consumed for the production
of a product.
The indirect expenses are the expenses converting the raw materials into semi-finished
goods which should be relatively considered for the treatment of the stock valuation rather
than on the basis of prime cost.
The treatment of the stock of finished goods should carried over in between the opening
stock and closing stock and adjusted among them before the finding the cost of goods
sold.
2.5 Keywords
Direct Cost: Cost incurred which can be easily ascertained and measured for a product.
Factory Cost: It is the total cost incurred both direct and indirect at the work spot during the
production of an article.
Indirect Cost: Cost incurred cannot be easily ascertained and measured for a product. The
combination of various overheads.
Prime Cost: Combination of all direct costs viz direct materials, direct labour and direct
expenses.
Selling Price or Sales: The summation of cost of sales and profit margin.
1. Define cost unit. Give five examples of cost unit applicable to different industries.
3. What are the components of total cost? Draw a format of cost sheet.
4. Prepare the cost sheet to show the total cost of production and cost per unit of goods
manufactured by a company for the month of Jan. 2005. Also find the cost of sale and
profit.
Particulars ` Particulars `
Local raw materials 20,00,000 Excise duty 4,00,000
Imports of raw materials 2,00,000 Administrative office expenses 4,00,000
Direct labour in works 20,00,000 Salary of the managing director 1,20,000
Indirect labour in works 4,00,000 Salary of the joint managing 80,000
director
Storage of raw materials and 1,00,000 Fees of directors 40,000
spares
Fuel 3,00,000 Expenses on advertising 3,20,000
Tools consumed 40,000 Selling expenses 3,60,000
Depreciation on plant 2,00,000 Sales depots 2,40,000
Salaries of works personnel 2,00,000 Packaging and distribution 2,40,000
6. How would you determine find the cost sheet format of a company and how does it finalise
the product cost?
7. In a cost sheet, should the administration overheads come before or after the adjustments
for the opening and closing stock of finished goods? Support your answer with reason.
8. In a factory, there are two different types of hard disk drives manufactured viz SUMO 160
GB and BRAYON 320 GB models. From the following particulars, prepare the cost sheet
showing all the necessary information of cost as well as profit per USB sold. There is no
opening and closing stock.
Works overhead is charged at 80% on labour and office overhead is taken at 15% on works
cost. The selling price of both hard disk drives amounted to ` 2,000; 156 SUMO 160 GB and
572 BRAYON 320 GB hard disks were sold.
9. From the following information, prepare the balance sheet from the cost records of Aditya Notes
Chemicals Ltd. for 2003.
Particulars `
Finished goods 50,000
Raw material 10,000
Work in progress 14,000
Direct labour 1,60,000
Purchase of raw material 98,000
Indirect labour 40,000
Heat, light and power 20,000
Factory, Insurance and Taxes 5,000
Repairs to plant 3,000
Factory supplies 5,000
Depreciation –factory building 6,000
Depreciation –plant 10,000
Factory cost of goods produced in 2003 2,80,000
Raw material consumed in 2003 95,000
Cost of goods sold in 2003 1,60,000
No office and administration expenses were incurred during the year 2003. Prepare a
statement of cost for the year ending 2003 giving maximum possible information and its
break up.
10. Discuss analytically, direct and indirect costing.
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
3.1 Meaning and Definition of Material Control
3.2 Methods and Techniques of Material Control
3.2.1 Economic Ordering Quantity
3.2.2 ABC Analysis
3.3 Pricing of Material Issues
3.3.1 First in First out (FIFO)
3.3.2 Last in First out (LIFO)
3.3.3 Highest in First out (HIFO)
3.3.4 Method of Average
3.4 Summary
3.5 Keywords
3.6 Review Questions
3.7 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Explain the meaning and definition of material control
Describe the methods and techniques of material control
Illustrate the pricing of material issues
Introduction
Material is a very important factor of production in a manufacturing organization. It is the first
and the most important element of cost. Materials account for nearly 50-60 per cent of the cost
of production. This fact can be inferred from an analysis of the financial statements of a large
number of organizations.
Uninterrupted supply of materials of acceptable quality and in required quantity as and when
required by the production department is a pre-requisite for carrying out production activities
uninterruptedly, because the non-availability of materials will bring the entire production
activities to a standstill. And, the implications of production stoppage are very well known.
Further, the cost of materials forms a major part of total cost of production and sales as it ranges
from 50-60% depending upon the nature of industries. Besides, this element of cost provides
a number of avenues for cost control such as at the time of purchase, during the process of
manufacturing. Hence, greater emphasis is to be laid on the control of material and material cost
as the success of any company depends, to a greater extent, upon the efficient purchase, storage
and usage of materials.
Self Assessment
The ordering of materials is usually tagged with three different components of costs viz:
Acquisition cost of materials
Ordering cost of materials and
Carrying cost of materials
The ordering quantity of materials may be either larger or lesser in volume, which carries its own
advantages and disadvantages.
If the quantity ordered is larger in volume, the following are some of the important advantages: Notes
The bulk purchase order reduces the ordering cost of the materials.
The greater the size of the order leads to reduce the number of the orders in procuring the
materials.
Quantity discounts: The discount can be classified into two categories viz trade discount and
cash discount.
!
Caution What is trade discount?
Trade discount is the discount granted by the supplier to the buyer of materials at the
moment of bulk purchase. This % of discount is greatly possible only during the periods of
greater volume of purchase, which reduces the overall cost of the acquisition.
If the quantity is procured in lesser volume, the following are construed as advantages:
The carrying cost will come down in the case of lesser inventories.
The cost of storage is lesser as far as the lesser quantities of materials.
Loss due to deterioration, obsolescence, wastage will be minimum.
Insurance cost is less due to lesser volume of materials.
Note
2AO
EconomicOrdering Quantity(EOQ) =
I
A = Annual requirement in units
O = Ordering cost
I = Cost of storing per year or cost of carrying the inventory
Example:
Annual requirement = 20,000 units
Ordering cost = ` 100 per order
Cost per unit = ` 4
Carrying cost = 16%
Determine the EOQ of the firm and finally justify the EOQ
2AO
EconomicOrdering Quantity(EOQ) =
I
2× 20, 000×` 100
=
1 6% on ` 4
=2, 500 units
Notes The following table illustrates the justification of the EOQ at the level of 2,500 units.
Average stock value =Average stock 40,000 20,000 10,000 5,000 1,000
× cost per unit `
Carrying cost = Average Stock value 6,400 3,200 1,600 800 160
× 16% `
Ordering cost ` 100 200 400 800 4,000
Total cost ` 6,500 3,500 2,000 1,600 4,160
2 AO
Economic OrderingQuanitity ( EOQ ) =
I
2 × 1600 × ` 50
EOQ = = 200 units
10% on ` 40
2 AO
Economic OrderingQuantity ( EOQ ) =
I
2 × 600 × ` 12
EOQ = = 60 units
20% on ` 20
Task Given the annual consumption of material is 1,800 units, ordering costs are
` 2 per order, price per unit of material is 32 paise and storage costs are 25% per annum of
stock value. Find the economic order quantity.
Normally the materials are classified on the basis of the following covenants viz
Volume and
Value
Based on the following basis, the materials are classified into three categories:
Percentage in volume and Percentage in value are more or less similar – Category C
Group A items are high valued items among the other items of the enterprise,
requiring greater monitoring and controlling.
Group B items are comparatively lesser in value among the three items given next to
the Group A, require less rigid control and monitoring.
Group C items are the major volume of items among the 4000 items of the enterprise
which are least in value, need very little control and monitoring.
Example: The following shows the control of inventory on A, B and C items of the
enterprise:
From the above table, it is obviously seen that the items which have greater percentage (75%) in
the total value require rigid control than any other quantity of materials. The Group C items bear
67% of total consumption amount to 5% of total value of the items procured by the enterprise.
Advantages
1. It guides the management to exercise the control based on the value of goods to the total
composition.
2. Systematic inventory control can be exercised through this analysis on the basis of value of
the materials. The high value materials of Group A are rigidly controlled which finally led
to lesser investments.
3. Scientific system helps to lessen the storage cost of the inventory.
Self Assessment
Task Pennila &Co. is a direct exporter as well as market leader in the domestic market
among acute competition. The firm is expected to have an opening stock of 2000 kg of raw
materials at the rate of ` 4 per kg. The firm should have to price the issue of materials in two
different ways, one for the domestic market and another one for the export order which
was already obtained.
1. Which method of stores ledger is most suitable to the domestic market? How are the
issue prices of materials going to penetrate the perfect competition at the domestic
level?
2. Which method is considered to be most suitable for the export of goods? How will
the issue price of materials help the firm to reap greater profits through the export of
goods?
The material which is first issued from the earliest consignment on hand and priced at the cost at
which that consignment was placed in stores.
The materials which are received at first to be issued first.
This is the method suitable for the trend of falling prices in the market.
The issues of the materials are made at higher prices against the low price of replacement
of materials. The low price of replacement of materials against the issues is possible only
during the trend of falling prices.
Advantages
Notes Disadvantages
There may be the possibility of clerical errors at the moment of maintaining the stock
register due to price fluctuations.
The comparison between the jobs cannot be made possible due to various prices involved.
The materials issued for one job is at earlier prices which do not agree with the materials
issued for another job at later prices. When the price of materials do not agree with each
other, they will not be considered for comparison.
The issue prices do not reflect the market price due to upward price trend. The main reason
is that the issues are only due to earliest consignments.
The most important step is to issue the materials from the available source of materials in the
hands of the firm. If the available source of materials is available in terms of various price
categories, the issues are to be made from the earliest consignments till the requirement of issue
is to be met. If the issue is not met within the single price band, the next price bands are to be
considered for the fulfillment of the requirements of the issue.
The remaining value of the materials at the end of the transaction is known as value of the closing
stock.
Jan 15 Requisition --------------------- 100 8.50 850 150 8.20 1,230 Notes
slip No
Jan 19 Requisition ----------------------- 100 8.20 820 50 8.20 410
slip No
Jan 20 Receipt No 300 9 2,700 -------------------------- 50 8.20 410
300 9 2,700
Jan 25 Receipt No 400 8 3,200 ------------------------------ 50 8.20 410
300 9 2,700
400 8 3,200
Jan 26 Requisition ---------------------- 8.20 410 150 9 1,350
No 200
} 150
50
9 1,350 400 8 3,200
Under this method, the issues are made at the price of latest consignment. The current cost of the
jobs/work orders are denominated only in terms of the price of the latest consignment. During
the rising prices, this is considered to be a most suitable method.
This method helps the management to quote competitive prices on the basis of latest consignments.
This method was considered by all the firms in the US as a predominant one over the others in
fixing the price on the commodities competitively during the post Second World War years.
Advantages
It has greater applicability only when the transactions are very minimal and prices are
steady in the environment.
The recent purchase through the latest consignment reflects the current market prices in
the cost of sales of the firm.
The issue of materials through latest consignments are denominated in terms of higher
prices; led to illustrate lesser profits due to higher charge during the production and lessens
the income tax burden.
Disadvantages
There may be a possibility of either overstating or understating the value of the stock in
the balance sheet.
Example: The early Example’s information has been considered for LIFO.
The first step is to highlight the opening balance under the balance column of the store ledger of
LIFO method.
The next step is to enter the receipts if any receipts are made initially.
Notes The next most important step is to issue the materials out of latest consignments at first. If the
latest consignments do not carry sufficient volume to issue, the next later receipt should be taken
into consideration in addition to the latest consignments.
Finally, whatever the closing balance available at the end of all transactions is known as the value
of the closing stock of the materials.
Stores Ledger Account Last in First out (LIFO)
TOTAL 2,650
The major underlying assumption of this method is to value the closing stock as minimum as
possible at the end of concluding the stores register. The high priced materials are issued one after
the another, among the various consignment of the materials available in the stores. This method
may not only assist the firm to devalue the stock, but also to price the issue exorbitantly. It leads
to a charge through cost plus contracts. It may be possible for the firm during the monopoly
situations to increase the price of materials.
Notes
Example: The stock of material M/s Murugan & Co. as on January 2004 is 1000 units at
` 2 per unit. The following purchases and issues of this item were made subsequently:
Date Receipts Qty. Units Rate per unit ` Issue Qty Units
Jan 6 400
Jan 10 800 2.20
Jan 15 600 2.40.
Jan 20 1000
Jan 21 400
Jan 24 1000 2.60
Jan 25 600
Jan 28 400
The closing stock is priced at ` 2 per Kg which leads to a minimum value of ` 1,200.
In practice, the issue of materials cannot be made from any singular lot purchases. Normally
speaking, the materials are grouped together in categories on the basis of similar characteristics
but not on the basis of purchase price. If the materials are grouped together irrespective of
purchase price, the issues should be done appropriately on the basis of average cost method.
The average cost method is bifurcated as follows:
Simple Average Method
Weighted Average Method
Base Stock Method
Under the simple average method, the issues are made only on the basis of simple average price.
Definition: “Simple Average Price”
“A price which is calculated by dividing the total of the prices of materials in the stock from
which the material to be priced could be drawn by the number of prices used in that total”
The following example will help to understand:
Example: A pillow manufacturer purchases raw cotton from three different quantities at
three different prices.
Quantity Kg ` per Kg
10,000 20
20,000 30
30,000 40
As a manufacturer of pillows, he should find out the cost of the raw cotton material at the moment
of issuance to the production centre. The issue price should be computed as follows:
P1 + P2 + P3 ...................Pn
Simple Average Price =
N
P1 = Price of the material purchased at the first instance, P2, P3 and so on.
N = Number of prices involved
` 20 + ` 30 + ` 40
Simple average price = = ` 30/-
3
The following transactions took place in respect of a material:
Illustration 1:
The next method is weighted average method to issue the materials from the stores. Why is the Notes
weighted average method considered to be a superior method over the simple average method?
This simple average method does not facilitate the recovery of the cost price of the materials
through the issue price of the material calculated.
From the above cited example, first the cost of the materials is to be computed.
Cost of the materials = (10,000 Kg × ` 20 +20,000 Kg × ` 30 + 30,000 Kg × ` 40)
= ` 2,00,000+ ` 6,00,000 + ` 12,00,000
= ` 20,00,000/-
Recovery through issue under simple average method = 60,000 Kg × ` 30 per Kg = ` 18,00,000
If the issue is made through the simple average method, the cost of materials cannot be recovered
i.e. under recovery
= Cost of the materials- issue price of the material
= ` 20,00,000 – ` 18,00,000 = ` 2,00,000 (Under recovery)
It means that the total issue price is less than that of the cost of the materials by ` 2,00,000.
In order to overcome the above bottleneck which is associated, the method of weighted average
is introduced to replace the early method.
Under the weighted average method, the issue price is found out through the appropriate
assignment of weights considered for the determination of weighted average price.
“Weighted average price which is calculated by dividing the total cost of materials in the stock from
which the materials to be priced could be drawn by the total quantity of materials in that stock.”
Q1 P1 + Q2 P2 + Q3 P3 ............Qn Pn
Weighted average price =
Q1 + Q2 + Q3 ......Qn
Q = Quantity of materials
P = Price of the materials
Q = Assigned as weights i.e. volume of the quantities are used weights
The above example is taken for the computation weighted average price
(10,000 Kg × ` 20 + 20,000 Kg × ` 30 + 30,000 Kg × ` 40)
=
10,000 + 20,000 + 30,000
= ` 33.33 per Kg
Illustration 2:
Stores Ledger Account in Weighted Average Method
Notes
* ⎛ 800 + 1,140 ⎞ ** ⎛ 1120 + 1, 300 ⎞
⎜ ⎟ = ` 4.48 ⎜ ⎟ = ` 4.84
⎝ 200 + 300 ⎠ ⎝ 250 + 250 ⎠
Advantages
This method is a most rational method in finding out the issue price of the materials.
It never takes into consideration the price fluctuations either during the trend of rising or
falling.
Issue prices mainly depend upon the number of purchases.
Under this method, the issue price is able to recover the cost of the materials.
The issue price reflects or resembles the market price.
Disadvantages
Under this method, the minimum or safety stock of materials is to be stored from the initial lot
of purchase by the enterprise. The ultimate purpose of maintaining the stock in order to meet the
emergency whenever arises. Once the base stock is created out of the first lot of purchase, should
be considered as a fixed volume forwarded from one point of time to another.
It is the only method having the prime objective of issuing the materials to the tune of current
prices. This method normally carries out its operations either with FIFO or LIFO. While applying
the FIFO or LIFO method in the applications of the base stock method it bears the advantages and
disadvantages of the fundamental procedures of earlier two methods.
The basic objective of the method could be met out only with the conjunction of LIFO method.
Illustration 3:
The stock of material Z as on Jan 2004 is 500 units at ` 2 per unit. The following purchases and
issues of this item were made subsequently:
Date Receipts Qty. Units Rate per unit ` Issue Qty Units
Jan 6 200
Jan 10 400 2.20
Jan 15 300 2.40.
Jan 20 500
Jan 21 200
Jan 24 500 2.60
Jan 25 300
Jan 28 200
Prepare a store ledger account showing how the value of the above issues should be arrived at Notes
under the base stock method when it operates in conjunction with LIFO. Base stock is 200 units.
Stores Ledger Base Stock Method (Last In First Out Model)
Self Assessment
10. Under the weighted average method, the ...................... is found out through the appropriate
assignment of weights considered for the determination of weighted average price.
11. Under ......................, the minimum or safety stock of materials is to be stored from the initial
lot of purchase by the enterprise.
12. This ...................... method does not facilitate the recovery of the cost price of the materials
through the issue price of the material calculated.
13. The major underlying assumption of ...................... method is to value the closing stock as
minimum as possible at the end of concluding the stores register.
14. If the materials are grouped together irrespective of purchase price, the issues should be
done appropriately on the basis of ...................... method.
15. The ...................... of replacement of materials against the issues is possible only during the
trend of falling prices.
3.5 Keywords
ABC Analysis: Analysis of exercising the control on the inventory on the basis of value. Always
Better Control Analysis; A- High control for high value goods; B- Moderate control for lesser
value goods and C- Little control on the least value goods.
Carrying Cost: Cost incurred for carrying the materials from the place of purchase to place of
production centre/profit centre.
E.O.Q: Economic Order Quantity of materials to be ordered/procured.
Inventory: Stock of Raw materials, Stock of Work in Progress, Stock of Finished Goods and Stock
of Spares, but not Stock of Loose tools.
Ordering Cost: Cost incurred at the moment of placing the order of goods or materials,
administration costs, cost of communication and so on.
3. Which method is most suitable for precious metals? Why? Explain the reasons. Notes
4. Why does the firm need to install inventory control? Explain the conflicting objectives
among the heterogeneous departments in maintaining the inventory.
5. You are required to suggest an inventory control mechanism for the following:
(a) Stores department of the Ball-bearing Manufacturing Company Ltd.
(b) Retail Medical Stores
(c) Wholesale Automobile Showroom
6. Explain the meaning and applications of the various tools of inventory level under the
inventory management.
7. Critically evaluate the roles of carrying costs and ordering costs on the economic order
quantity.
8. The stock in hand of a material as on 1-9-2002 was 500 units at ` 1 per unit. The following
purchases and issues were subsequently made. Prepare the stores ledger account showing
how the value of the issues would be recorded under (a) FIFO and (b) LIFO method.
Purchased Issued
6-9-2002 100 units @ ` 1.20 9-9-2002 500 units
20-9-2002 700 units @ ` 1.20 22-9-2002 500 units
27-9-2002 400 units @ ` 1.30 30-9-2002 500 units
13-10-2002 1,000 units @ ` 1.40 15-10-2002 500 units
20-10-2002 500 units @ ` 1.50 22-10-2002 500 units
17-11-2002 400 units @ ` 1.60 11-11-2002 500 units
9. A manufacturer buys certain essential spares from outside suppliers at ` 40 per set. Total
annual requirements are 45,000 sets. The annual cost of investment in inventory is 10% and
costs like rent, stationery, insurance, taxes, etc. per unit per year work to ` 1. Cost of placing
an order is ` 5. Calculate the Economic Order Quantity.
10. Find out the Economic order quantity from the following information’s:
Annual usage : 3,000 units; Cost of material per unit: ` 10; Cost of placing and receiving one
order ` 60; and Annual carrying cost per unit: 10% of inventory value.
11. From the following transactions, prepare separately the stores ledger account, using the
FIFO and LIFO methods of pricing:
12. Select a manufacturing concern and outline a system of materials control for it. Give
specimen of various forms you will require.
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
4.1 Labour Turnover
4.1.1 Causes of Labour Turnover
4.1.2 Effects of Labour Turnover
4.2 Idle Time
4.3 Methods of Wages, Payments and Incentive Plans
4.4 Summary
4.5 Keywords
4.6 Review Questions
4.7 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Compute labour turnover
Illustrate the methods of wages payment and incentive plans
Introduction
Labour is the most sensitive element in any manufacturing activity. The performance of labour
has a direct bearing on all other elements of cost too.
Labour may be classified as direct when (a) there is a direct relationship of the labour to a particular
production unit or process, (b) the labour cost is measurable in terms of such production unit or
process, and (c) the labour cost is sufficiently significant in amount and easily identifiable with
particular production unit or process. Indirect labour costs are those costs which are necessary for
production purposes but are not identifiable with a particular production unit. Such costs consist
of (a) labour costs in service departments, such as, purchasing, engineering, time-keeping, etc.
(b) labour cost of certain works of production departments, viz, salaries of foremen, helpers,
clerical assistants, and (c) labour costs connected with general factory services, viz, salaries of
works manager, chief inspector, factory office staff, etc.
Note The classification of indirect labour depends upon the manufacturing methods
and pattern of the organisation and there cannot be any universally acceptable set of
classification for indirect labour.
Notes environments or they are forced to leave an employment. Such mobility is quite normal and
known as labour turnover.
Cost of labour turnover is treated as an overhead expense and should not be charged direct to
any work order.
1. Labour turnover according to separation method
= Number of employees left during a period/Average number of employees during a
period × 100
2. Labour turnover according to flux method
= Number of addition + seperations during a period/Average number of employees
during a period × 100.
A study into the causes of labour turnover helps the management in proper planning and action
for reducing this rate. The reasons may be divided into two categories:
(a) Avoidable Causes, and
(b) Unavoidable Causes.
(a) Avoidable Causes of Labour Turnover: The various avoidable causes are:
(i) Lower wages being paid in the organisation,
(ii) Lack of planning of higher management,
(iii) Unsatisfactory working conditions in the factory,
(iv) Lack of job satisfaction,
(v) Lack of medical and transport facilities,
(vi) Discrimination between one worker and another worker,
(vii) Bad relationship with supervisors and management,
(viii) Lack of proper adjustment with workers,
(ix) Unauthorized long absence from duty,
(x) Migratory character of Indian industrial workers, and
(xi) Lack of safety measures.
(b) Unavoidable Causes of Labour Turnover: The various unavoidable causes responsible for
labour turnover are:
(i) Death, retirement disablement of the worker,
(ii) Domestic disputes of the workers,
(iii) Illness or accidents making the worker permanently handicapped,
(iv) Discharge due to unsuitability,
(v) Marriage and pregnancy in case of female workers,
(vi) Inefficiency of the workers,
(vii) Other reasons such as lack of housing and transport facilities, and
(viii) Immoral character of worker.
Notes
4.1.2 Effects of Labour Turnover
This represents the time wastage that cannot be avoided and, therefore, the employer must bear
the labour cost of this time. Following are some examples of normal idle time:
1. The time taken in going from the factory gate to the department in which the worker is to
work, and then again the time coming from the department to the factory gate at the end of
the day.
2. The time taken in packing up the work for the day.
3. The time which elapses between the completion of the job and the commencement of the
next job.
4. The time taken for personal needs and tea breaks.
5. The time lost when production is interrupted for machine maintenance.
As it is unavoidable cost and as such should be included in cost of production.
It is that time wastage which can be avoided if proper precautions are taken. Examples of
abnormal idle time can be cited as below:
1. The time wasted due to breakdown of machinery on account of the inefficiency of the work
engineers.
2. Time wasted on account of the failure of the power supply.
3. The time wasted due to strike or lockouts in the factory.
!
Caution It is a principle of costing that all abnormal expenses and losses should not be
included in costs and as such wages paid for abnormal idle time should not form part of
the cost of production. The wages paid for abnormal idle time should be debited to costing
Profit & Loss Account.
Self Assessment
Remuneration and incentive systems, according to their characteristics, fall under the following
broad categories:
1. Time rates
2. Piece rates
3. Bonus system
4. Indirect monetary incentives and
5. Non-monetary incentives
Payment is made at a rate on attendance by hour, day, week or a month regardless of output.
Time Rates at High Wages Levels: Under this system, wages are paid at an appreciably higher
rate than the normal wage for the industry and return a much higher stand of performance and
output from the workers are expected.
Graduated Time Rates: This takes the form of wage rate which varies with changes in the local
cost of living index.
Straight Piece Rates: This is a payment of a fixed sum per fixed unit produced without regard
to time taken.
Piece Rates
Under such scheme, earnings vary at different stages in the range of output, sometimes
proportionally more, sometimes less, or sometimes in proportion to output, designed to
reward efficient workers with the further object of encouraging less efficient workers or a
trainee to improve.
The object of a premium plan is to increase the production by giving an inducement to the
workers in the form of higher wages for less time worked.
Some of the important premium plans are as follows:
Under this method, standard time for doing each job or operation is fixed and the worker is given
wages for the actual time to be taken to complete the job or operation at the agreed rate per hour,
1
plus a bonus equal to one half of the time saved. In practice, the bonus may vary from 33 % to
2 3
62 % of the wages of the time saved. Total earnings of the worker will be
3
TT × HR + ½ × TS × HR
TT = Time Taken
HR = Hourly Rate
TS = Time Saved
Time saved is the difference between Time Allowed (Standard Time) and Time Taken. Normal
wages may be ascertained and bonus may be added to arrive at total earnings.
Rowan Plan
Under this method, the worker is again guaranteed wages at the ordinary rate for the time taken
by him to complete the job or operation. The difference between Halsey plan and Rowan plan is
only in the calculation of the bonus. Bonus under this system will be calculated as:
TS/TA × Time Taken × Hourly Rate
The total earnings will be
TT × HR + [ (TA – TT) / TA] × TT × HR
TT = Time Taken
HR = Hourly Rate
TA = Time Allowed
Alternatively:
Normal wages + Bonus will be total earnings.
Therefore, Normal wages = Time Taken × Hourly Rate
Bonus = (Time Saved / Time allowed) × Normal Wages
Example: From the following particulars, workout the earnings of a worker under:
1. Halsey premium system and
2. Rowan system
Standard time 10 hours
Standard Rate ` 2 per hour
Time Taken 8 hours
Solution:
Halsey Premium System:
Normal wages = Time taken × Hourly Rate
= 8 × 2 = ` 16.00
Bonus 50% of time saved.
1/2 × Time saved × Hourly Rate
Notes
Example:
Time Allowed 20 hours
Time Saved 4 hours
Hourly Rate ` 5 per hour
Calculate total earnings under:
1. Halsey and
2. Rowan Plan
Solution:
Time taken is not given. Hence, it is to be ascertained.
Example: From the following particulars, work out the earnings for the week of a worker
under:
1. Straight Piece Rate
2. Differential Piece Rate
3. Halsey Premium System
4. Rowan System
Number of working hours per week - 48
Wages per hour - ` 3.75
Normal time per piece - 20 minutes
Normal output per week - 120 Pieces
Actual output for the week - 150 Pieces
Differential piece rate - 80% of piece rate
When output is below standard and 12% when above standard.
Solution:
Weekly wages 48 × 3.75 = ` 180.00
Rate per unit = 180/120 = ` 1.50
Notes Note:
One unit is produced in 10 minutes
300 unit is produced in 300 × 10 = 3,000 minutes
i.e., 50 hours
+ 20% increase 10 hours
Time Allowed 60 hours
Time taken 48 hours
Time Saved 12 hours
Example: A worker takes 9 hours to complete a job on daily wages and 6 hours on a
scheme of payment by results. His day rate is 0.75 paise an hour. The cost of material is ` 4.00,
overhead is 150 percent of total direct wages.
Compute the factory cost under: (a) Piece rate, (b) Halsey scheme, and (c) Rowan scheme.
Solution:
Direct wages:
1. Piece rate 75 paise × 6 hours 4.50
2. Halsey
Normal wages (NW) 4.50
Bonus 1/2 × 3 × 0.75 1-12 5.62
3. Rowan
Normal wages 4.50
Bonus -TS/TA × NW 3/9 × 4.50 1.50 6.00
Computation of Factory Cost
Task The standard time for a job is 60 hours. The hourly rate of guaranteed wages is
` 0.75. Because of the saving in time, a worker gets an hourly wage of ` 0.90 under Rowan
premium bonus system. For the same saving in time, calculate the hourly rate of wages. A
worker will get under Halsey premium bonus system (assuming 40 percent to worker.)
8. Guaranteed Time Rates is a payment of a fixed sum per fixed unit produced without regard
to time taken.
9. Time saved is the difference between Time Allowed (Standard Time) and Time Taken.
10. Normal wages may be ascertained and bonus may be added to arrive at total earnings.
11. The difference between Halsey plan and Rowan plan is only in the calculation of the
bonus.
12. Straight Piece Rates takes the form of wage rate which varies with changes in the local cost
of living index.
13. Bonus under ........................ will be calculated as: TS/TA × Time Taken × Hourly Rate
4.4 Summary
Labour may be classified as direct when (a) there is a direct relationship of the labour to
a particular production unit or process (b) the labour cost is measurable in terms of such
production unit or process and (c) the labour cost is sufficiently significant in amount and
easily identifiable with particular production unit or process.
Indirect labour costs are those costs which are necessary for production purposes but are
not identifiable with a particular production unit.
Indirect labour costs consist of (a) labour costs in service departments, such as, purchasing,
engineering, time-keeping, etc. (b) labour cost of certain works of production departments,
viz, salaries of foremen, helpers, clerical assistants, and (c) labour costs connected with general
factory services, viz, salaries of works manager, chief inspector, factory office staff, etc.
Labour turnover denotes the percentage change in the labour force of an organisation. It is
a common occurrence that the workers do change their jobs.
Idle time is that time for which the employer pays, but from which he obtains no production.
Idle time is of two types:
Remuneration and incentive systems, according to their characteristics, fall under the
following broad categories:
Time rates
Piece rates
Bonus system
Non-monetary incentives
Notes Under Differential Piece Rate scheme, earnings vary at different stages in the range of
output, sometimes proportionally more, sometimes less, or sometimes in proportion to
output, designed to reward efficient workers with the further objective of encouraging less
efficient workers or a trainee to improve.
The object of a premium plan is to increase the production by providing an inducement to
the workers in the form of higher wages for less time worked.
4.5 Keywords
Abnormal Idle Time: It is that time wastage which can be avoided if proper precautions are
taken.
Differential Piece Rate: Under this scheme earnings vary at different stages in the range of
output, sometimes proportionally more, sometimes less, or sometimes in proportion to output,
designed to reward efficient workers with the further object of encouraging less efficient workers
or a trainee to improve.
Idle time: Idle time is that time for which the employer pays, but from which he obtains no
production.
Labour Turnover: It denotes the percentage change in the labour force of an organisation.
Normal Idle Time: This represents the time wastage that cannot be avoided and, therefore, the
employer must bear the labour cost of this time.
6. Critically evaluate the rate system and bonus system of wages payment. Notes
7. Under Time Rate method payment is made at a rate on attendance by hour, day, week or
a month regardless of output. What are the key significance and drawbacks of time rate
method?
8. Do you think idle time can be reduced by implementing some effective strategies?
Discuss.
9. What factors would you take into consideration in introducing an incentive scheme?
10. Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of the piece rate method of payment of wages.
Do you consider that workers remunerated by reference to this method should be required
to maintain time records?
11. Standard time is 24 hours. The hourly rate of guaranteed wage is ` 3. Because of time saved,
a worker Mr. Rajesh gets an effective hourly wage rate of ` 3.75 under Rowan Premium
Plan. For the same saving in time, calculate the effective hourly rate of wages for a worker
Mr. Rajesh under Halsey System.
12. Two workers A and B were given an identical job. The labour cost was estimated at ` 15 per
hour for 32 hours. Overhead are recovered at ` 45 per labour-hour. Material used by both
the workers is valued at ` 1,200 each.
The works cost of production came to ` 2,700 and ` 2,910 respectively for two jobs with
Halsey Plan (50%). Find the time taken by A and B.
Books Arora M. N., Cost and Management Accounting, Himalaya Publishing House, 2010
Pandey, IM, Management Accounting, Excel Book, New Delhi, 2007
Richard G. Schroeder, Myrtle W. Clark, Myrtle W. Clark, Jack M. Cathey, Financial
Accounting Theory and Analysis: Text Readings and Cases, John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Shah Paresh, Management Accounting, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2009
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
5.4 Summary
5.5 Keywords
Objectives
Introduction
Overhead has been defined by the Institute of Cost and Work Accountants, London as “the
aggregate of indirect material cost, indirect wages and indirect expenses”. By indirect, it means
one “which cannot be allocated, but which can be apportioned to or absorbed by cost centre or
cost unit”. Overheads are those indirect costs which cannot be directly related to any product, job
or process, because they cannot be directly attached to production activities. A major part of the
total cost is overheads. The total cost is divided into: Prime Cost, Factory Cost and Administrative
Cost. Overhead comprises of indirect material, indirect labour and indirect expenses.
Blocker has defined the overhead costs as “Operating of a business enterprise which cannot be
traced directly to a particular unit of output”. Overheads are the indirect costs which cannot be
directly allocated to any particular job and production activity or process as they are not capable
of being specifically identified to any particular activity.
The method to be adopted for classification of overhead depends upon the type and size of the
business, nature of product or service rendered and policy of the management. Overhead costs may
be classified according to: (1) Functions, (2) Elements, and (3) Behaviour-wise classification.
This classification is done on the basis of major function of a concern. It, therefore, includes
production overhead, administration overhead and selling and distribution overhead.
Element-wise Classification
This classification is done according to the expenditure and follows the definition of overhead.
Under this method, overhead is broken down into indirect material, indirect labour and indirect
expense.
Behaviour-wise Classification
This classification is done on the basis of variability in relation to production. Based on this
behaviour, the overhead expenses may be classified into three groups:
1. Fixed expenses, that is, expenses that are not affected by changes in output or sales such as
rent, salaries, etc.
2. Variable expenses, that is, expenses that change in the same proportion in which output
(or sales) changes for example, power consumed, indirect materials, insurance in transit,
carriage outwards, etc.
3. Semi-variable expenses, that is, expenses that change in the same proportion to which
output (or sales) changes but not in the same ratio. Depreciation is not doubled if output is
doubled it may be 50% more. Semi-variable expenses are partly fixed and partly variable.
Self Assessment
1. Adequacy: The overhead should be such that overheads should be equally apportioned
to the cost centres or cost units. The amount of overhead recovered should also be
equivalent to the amount of overheads incurred.
Contd...
2. Convenience: The overhead rate should be simple to calculate and easy to understand. Notes
It should be convenient in application. It should not require unnecessary or additional
clerical work.
3. Time Factor: Overhead rate should have some relation to the time taken by various
jobs for completion. Thus, if a job takes twice as much another job, the first job should
be charged twice the amount charged to the second job. It is because of this reason
that direct wages percentage rate is preferred over direct material cost percentage
rate.
4. Manual or Machine Work: The work done by manual labour is to be distinguished
from work done by machines and different overhead rates should be applied for
manual and machine work.
5. Different Overhead Rates: Different overhead rates should be ascertained for
different departments where the nature of work done by one department is different
from the work done by other department or departments.
6. Information: The selection of most appropriate overhead rate depends on the extent
of information available or recorded.
Material ` 54,000
For an order executed by the department during the period, the relevant information was as
under:
Calculate the overhead charges chargeable to the job by the following methods: (a) Direct
materials cost percentage rate, (b) Labour hour rate, and (c) Machine hour rate.
Solution:
36,000 Notes
= × 100 = 66.67%
54,000
Overhead charges @ 66.67% chargeable to the job for which materials used accounted for
` 6,000.
36,000
= =`1
36,000
Overhead for the job @ ` 1 for 3,200 hours
= ` 3,200
= ` 2,880
Example: The following annual expenses are incurred in respect of a machine where
annual labour is almost zero and where the work is done by means of five machines of exactly
similar type and specifications.
Rent and rates (Proportioned to the floor space occupied for the shop) 4,830
Depreciation on each machine 500
Power (as per metre) @ ` 1 per 16 units consumed for the shop 3,750
Attendant: There are two attendants for the five machines and they are each
paid ` 60 per month
Supervision: There is one supervisor for the five machines whose salary
are ` 250 per month
Sundry supplies, such as lubricants, jute and cotton waste, etc., for the shop 494
Notes Solution:
Computation of Machine Hour Rate
Working notes:
But, these 60,000 units are for all the five machines.
= 1,200 hours.
= ` 3,750 ÷ 5 = ` 750.
Notes
Example: From the data given below calculate the machine hour rate:
Rent of the department (Space occupied by the Machine /5th of the department) 780
Lighting (number of the men in the department 12, two men are engaged
on this machine) 288
Salary of foreman (1/4th of the foreman’s time is occupied by this machine) 6,000
The cost of the machine is ` 9,200 and it has an estimated scrap value of ` 200
after 10 years
that the machine will work for ` 1,800 hours per annum.
that it consumes 5 units of power per hour at the cost of 16 paise per unit.
Solution:
Depreciation 0.50(1)
Repairs and Maintenance 0.06(2)
Task Marathi Motors manufactures jeeps and trucks. They have furnished the following
particulars for the quarter ended March 31, 2007.
`
Material 2,98,000
Direct wages 42,000
Stores expenses 20,000
Machinery maintenance 4,600
Depreciation 22,300
Staff welfare 12,000
General expenses 30,000
Administration and selling expenses 27,000
Additional information provided by them:
Jeep Truck
1. Production (Numbers) 300 400
2. Materials cost ratio per vehicle 1 2
3. Direct labour ratio 2 3
4. Machine hour ratio 1 2
Calculate the cost per crankshaft, of each vehicle, indicating the basis of apportionment
adopted by you.
Self Assessment
Predetermined overhead rates are those which are established well in advance before
commencement of production. Predetermined overhead rate is computed by dividing the
budgeted overhead expenses by the budgeted base. Predetermination of overhead rates is
of practical use in regard to managerial control over costs. On the basis of predetermined
overhead rates, prompt preparation of cost estimate and quotations as well as fixation of
sales prices is possible. Adoption of predetermined overhead absorption rates is practically
useful in organizations following a budgetary control system.
Estimated factory overhead for the budgeted period
= × 100
Estimated direct material cost of production
Actual overhead rate is determined by dividing the overhead expenses incurred during
the accounting period by the actual quantum of the base selected, such as unit of products,
direct wages, direct material cost, labour hours, or machine hours. The basic principle in
costing is that the recovery of overhead should be made on actual basis, as for as possible,
so that overheads may be directly charged to jobs, processes, operations, or products.
Actual overhead expenses incurred during a period
Actual Rate =
Actual quantity or value of the base for the period
Under absorption of Overheads = Incurred overhead – Absorbed overhead
Example:
Dr. Cr.
Date Particular J/F Amount (`) Date Particular J/F Amount (`)
01. To SLCA a/c 210000 01. By WIP a/c 390000
02. To WLCA a/c 135000 By closing P/L a/c 20000
03. To GLA a/c 65000
410000 410000
Notes
!
Caution The adjustment of under absorbed overhead would result in a loss in the form
of increase in cost where the under absorption is normal and in the form of abnormal loss
where it is abnormal.
The overheads are over absorbed if the actual overheads incurred are less than the overheads
absorbed.
Over-absorbed overhead = Absorbed overhead – Incurred overhead
Example:
Dr. Cr.
Date Particular J/F Amount (`) Date Particular J/F Amount (`)
01. To SLCA a/c 200000 01. By WIP a/c 460000
02. To WLCA a/c 145000 By closing P/L a/c 10000
03. To GLA a/c 65000
04. To Closing P/L 50000
a/c
470000 470000
!
Caution The adjustment of over absorbed overhead would result in a gain in the form of
reduction in cost where the over absorption is normal and in the form of abnormal profit
where it is abnormal.
Self Assessment
5.4 Summary
Cost pertaining to a cost centre or cost unit may be broadly, divided into two portions,
direct and indirect.
The indirect portion of the total cost constitutes “the overhead cost which is the aggregate
of indirect material cost, indirect wages and indirect expenses”. Broadly speaking, any
expenditure over and above prime cost is known as ‘overhead.’
Overhead costs may be classified according to: (1) Functions, (2) Elements, and Notes
(3) Behaviour-wise classification.
The fixed overhead rate serves as a measure of utilisation of the facilities while the extent
of idle capacity is indicated by under absorption.
The overheads are under absorbed if the actual overheads incurred are more than the
overheads absorbed.
The overheads are over absorbed if the actual overheads incurred are less than the
overheads absorbed.
5.5 Keywords
Fixed Expenses: Expenses that are not affected by changes in output or sales such as rent, salaries,
etc.
Over Absorption of Overheads: The overheads are over absorbed if the actual overheads incurred
are less than the overheads absorbed.
Overheads: Overheads are those indirect costs which cannot be directly related to any product,
job or process, because they cannot be directly attached to production activities.
Semi-variable Expenses: Expenses that change in the same proportion to which output (or sales)
changes but not in the same ratio. Depreciation is not doubled if output is doubled it may be 50%
more. Semi-variable expenses are partly fixed and partly variable.
Under Absorption of Overheads: The overheads are under absorbed if the actual overheads
incurred are more than the overheads absorbed.
Variable Expenses: Expenses that change in the same proportion in which output (or sales) changes
for example, power consumed, indirect materials, insurance in transit, carriage outwards etc.
1. What are overheads? How are they classified? Discuss in detail with a chart.
3. Name the different methods of ‘absorption of factory overheads’ and explain any two of
them giving the merits and demerits of each.
4. What is Machine Hour Rate method? Explain and describe its areas of application.
5. Calculate Machine-hour Rate for Machine No. 5 which is one of five machines in operation
in a department of a factory.
Books Richard G. Schroeder, Myrtle W. Clark, Myrtle W. Clark, Jack M. Cathey, Financial
Accounting Theory and Analysis: Text Readings and Cases, John Wiley & Sons Inc
Arora M. N., Cost and Management Accounting, Himalaya Publishing House, 2010
Pandey, IM, Management Accounting, Excel Book, New Delhi, 2007
Shah Paresh, Management Accounting, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 2009
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
6.1 Meaning and Definition of Marginal Costing
6.2 Contribution
6.2.1 Method of Difference
6.2.2 Method of Coverages
6.3 Absorption Costing
6.3.1 Income Determination under Marginal and Absorption Costing
6.3.2 Absorption Costing and Marginal Costing Compared
6.4 Cost-Volume-Profit (CVP) Analysis
6.5 Profit-Volume (P/V) Ratio
6.6 Break Even Point
6.6.1 Uses of Break-even Analysis
6.6.2 Assumptions of Break-even Analysis
6.6.3 Advantages of Break-even Analysis
6.6.4 Drawbacks of Break-even Analysis (BEA)
6.7 Methods Decisions Involving Alternative Choices
6.7.1 Break Even Chart
6.7.2 Algebraic Method
6.8 Margin of Safety
6.9 Application of Marginal Costing
6.9.1 Determination of Sales Mix
6.9.2 Make or Buy Decisions
6.9.3 Own or Hire
6.9.4 Shut Down or Continue
6.10 Summary
6.11 Keywords
6.12 Review Questions
6.13 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Define marginal and absorption costing
Construct CVP analysis
Compute P/V ratio and Break Even Point (BEP)
Calculate the margin of safety
Illustrate the applications of marginal costing
Introduction Notes
It is one of the premier tools of management not only to take decisions but also to fix an appropriate
price and to assess the level of profitability of the products/services. This is a only costing tool
demarcates the fixed cost from the variable cost of the product/service in order to guide the
firm to know the minimal point of sales to equate the cost of production. It is a tool of analysis
highlighting the relationship in between the cost, volume of sales and profitability of the firm.
According to ICMA, London “Marginal cost is the amount at any given volume of output, by which
aggregate costs are charged, if the volume of output is increased or decreased by one unit.”
Example: The firm XYZ Ltd. incurs ` 1000 for the production of 100 units at one level of
operation. By increasing only one unit of product i.e. 101 units, the firm’s total cost of production
amounted ` 1010.
Total cost of production at first instance (C’) = ` 1000
Total cost of production at second instance (C”) = ` 1010
Total number of units during the first instance (U’) = 100
Total number of units during the second instance (U”) = 101
Increase in the level of production and Cost of production:
Change in the level of production in units = U”-U’= U
Change in the total cost of production = C”– C’= C
Marginal Cost =
If the same firm reduces the total volume from 100 units to 99 units, the total cost of production
` 990/-
Decrease in the level of production and cost of production:
Marginal Cost = = ` 10
From the above example, it is obviously understood that marginal cost is nothing but a
cost which incorporates the incremental changes in the cost of production due to either an
increase or decrease in the level of production by one unit, meant as incremental cost.
From the following classifications of cost, the inter twined relationship in between the variable
cost and marginal cost is explained as below:
Notes Table 6.1: Statement of Fixed, Variable and Total Costs and Per Unit
S.No. Units Fixed Fixed Cost Variable Variable Cost Marginal Cost Total
Cost (`) per unit (`) Cost (`) per unit (`) (`) ΔC/ΔU Cost (`)
1. 1 500 500 10 10 10 510
2. 50 500 100 500 10 10 1000
3. 100 500 5 1000 10 10 1500
4. 150 500 3.333 1500 10 10 2000
Figure 6.1
Y’
X’
Figure 6.2
Variable Cost
Self Assessment
6.2 Contribution
The costs are classified into two categories viz. fixed and variable cost. Variable cost per unit is
considered as marginal cost of the product. Fixed costs are charged against contribution of the
transaction. Selling price of the product = marginal cost + contribution.
Figure 6.3
Contribution
Notes
Example: Sales ` 100,000, variable cost ` 25,000/- and fixed cost ` 20,000 find out the
contribution and profit.
Sales 1,00,000
Contribution 50,000
Profit 30,000
Under this method, the contribution can be computed through finding the differences in between
Sales and Variable Cost i.e. Contribution = Sales – Variable Cost = ` 1,00,000 – 50,000 = ` 50,000
In this method, the contribution is equated with the summation of Fixed cost and Profit i.e.
Contribution = Fixed Cost + Profit = ` 20000 + 30000 = ` 50,000.
Figure 6.4
Marginal Costing(MC)
Absorption costing technique is also known by other names as “Full costing” or “Traditional
costing”. According to this technique, all costs are recognised or identified with the products
manufactured. Both fixed and variable costs of each product manufactured are taken into account
to ascertain the total cost.
The absorption costing tells as to how much fixed cost is absorbed besides the variable cost by
each product manufactured. According to this technique, while the variable costs are directly
charged to each unit of the goods produced, the fixed costs are distributed to each category of
product manufactured by the same firm. In absorption costing, “Fixed cost” will also be taken
into account in ascertaining the profit on sale.
Notes
!
Caution This technique is called traditional costing, as this system of costing emerged from
the beginning of the factory stage. In this technique, “fixed cost” refers to the closing stock of
material held by the firm. These are charged against the sales later, as a part of the goods sold.
Under marginal costing, only factory overheads costs that tend to vary with volume are charged
to product cost in addition to prime cost. While evaluating inventory only direct materials, direct
labour and variable factory overheads are included and are considered as product costs. Fixed
factory overheads under direct or marginal costing are not included in inventory. It is treated as
a period cost and charged against revenue when incurred. Under absorption costing, sometimes
called full or conventional costing, all manufacturing costs, both fixed and variable are charged
to product costs. Thus, absorption costing is “a principle whereby fixed as well as variable costs
are allotted to cost units”. It means a system under which cost per unit includes fixed expenses,
especially fixed production overheads in addition to the variable cost.
The following format gives an idea as to how income is arrived at in marginal costing techniques.
PBT PBT
Less: Tax Provision Less: Tax Provision ...
Net Income Net Income
Notes
Example: The following figures are extracted from the books of KSBS Ltd. Find out profit
by using marginal costing and absorption costing. Is there any variations in the results obtained
under the two methods is given below?
The basic production data are:
Normal volume of production = 19,500 units per period
Sale price – ` 4 per unit
Variable cost – ` 2 per unit
Fixed cost – ` 1 per unit
Total fixed cost = ` 19,500 (` 1 × 19,500 units, normal)
Selling and distribution costs have been omitted. The opening and closing stocks consist of both
finished gods and equivalent units of work-in-progress.
Other Information
Solution: Notes
Self Assessment
Of all these, volume is perhaps the largest single factor which influences costs which can basically
be divided into fixed costs and variable costs. Volume changes in a business are a frequent
occurrence, often necessitated by outside factors over which management has no control and as
costs do not always vary in proportion to changes in levels of output, management control of the
factors of volume presents a peculiar problem.
As profits are affected by the interplay of costs and volume, the management must have, at
its disposal, an analysis that can allow for a reasonably accurate presentation of the effect of
a change in any of these factors which would have no profit performance. Cost-volume-profit
analysis furnishes a picture of the profit at various levels of activity. This enables management
to distinguish between the effect of sales volume fluctuations and the results of price or cost
changes upon profits. This analysis helps in understanding the behaviour of profits in relation to
output and sales.
Fixed costs would be the same for any designated period regardless of the volume of output
accomplished during the period (provided the output is within the present limits of capacity).
These costs are prescribed by contract or are incurred in order to ensure the existence of an
operating organisation. Their inflexibility is maintained within the framework of a given
combination of resources and within each capacity stage such costs remain fixed regardless of
the changes in the volume of actual production. As fixed costs do not change with production,
the amount per unit declines as output rises.
Absorption or full costing system seeks to allocate fixed costs to products. It creates the problem
of apportionment and allocation of such costs to various products. By their very nature, fixed
costs have little relation to the volume of production.
Variable costs are related to the activity itself. The amount per unit remains the same. These costs
expand or contract as the activity rises or falls. Within a given time span, distinction has to be
drawn between costs that are free of ups and downs of production and those that vary directly
with these changes.
Study of behaviour of costs and CVP relationship needs proper definition of volume or activity.
Volume is usually expressed in terms of sales capacity expressed as a percentage of maximum
sales, volume of sales, unit of sales, etc. Production capacity is expressed as a percentage of
maximum production, production in revenue of physical terms, direct labour hours or machine
hours.
1. Volume of sales
2. Selling price
The relationship between two or more of these factors may be (a) presented in the form of reports
and statements, (b) shown in charts or graphs, or (c) established in the form of mathematical
deduction.
Notes
!
Caution All the above formulae mean the same thing.
A comparison for P/V ratios of different products can be made to find out which product is more
profitable. Higher the P/V ratio more will be the profit and lower the P/V ratio, lesser will be the
profit. P/V ratio can be improved by:
1. Increasing the selling price per unit.
2. Reducing direct and variable costs by effectively utilising men, machines and materials.
3. Switching the product to more profitable terms by showing a higher P/V ratio.
Fixed Costs
BEP =
Selling price – Variable costs per unit
` 10,000
Therefore, BEP = = 5,000 units.
5–3
Break even analysis is a very generalised approach for dealing with a wide variety of questions
associated with profit planning and forecasting. Some of the important practical applications of
break even analysis are:
1. What happens to overall profitability when a new product is introduced?
2. What level of sales is needed to cover all costs and earn, say, ` 1,00,000 profit or a 12% rate
of return?
3. What happens to revenues and costs if the price of one of a company’s product is hanged?
4. What happens to overall profitability if a company purchases new capital equipment or
incurs higher or lower fixed or variable costs?
5. Between two alternative investments, which one offers the greater margin of profit
(safety)?
6. What are the revenue and cost implications of changing the process of production? Notes
7. Should one make, buy or lease capital equipment?
The main advantages of using break even analysis in managerial decision making can be the
following:
1. It helps in determining the optimum level of output below which it would not be profitable
for a firm to produce.
2. It helps in determining the target capacity for a firm to get the benefit of minimum unit cost
of production.
3. With the help of the break even analysis, the firm can determine minimum cost for a given
level of output.
4. It helps the firms in deciding which products are to be produced and which are to be
bought by the firm.
5. Plant expansion or contraction decisions are often based on the break even analysis of the
perceived situation.
6. Impact of changes in prices and costs on profits of the firm can also be analysed with the
help of break even technique.
7. Sometimes a management has to take decisions regarding dropping or adding a product to
the product line. The break even analysis comes very handy in such situations.
8. It evaluates the percentage financial yield from a project and thereby helps in the choice
between various alternative projects.
9. The break even analysis can be used in finding the selling price which would prove most
profitable for the firm.
10. By finding out the break even point, the break even analysis helps in establishing the point
wherefrom the firm can start payment of dividend to its shareholders.
This analysis will be useful only in situations relatively stable and slow moving rather than
volatile and erratic ones. In conditions when proper managerial accounting techniques and
procedures are maintained, the BEA will be useful. In a particular period costs are affected not
by the output of that period but due to past output or a preparation for future output. As such
the BEA cannot pin down that cost is the result of output of a particular period. It is difficult
to deal with selling costs under the framework of BEA because changes in selling costs are a
cause to bring out changes in output and not the result of output sales. In the real world, perfect
Notes competition is very rare and as such it is necessary to make calculations at different time periods.
The relationship between cost, revenue and volume (output) is realistic only over narrow ranges
of output and for long ranges. If too many products and too many plants are grouped together
in a productive process, the BEA cannot identify which is good or which is bad, since all are
grouped together. The BEA assumes that profits are the result of output but ignores that other
factors like technological changes, improved management and variations in the proportions of
fixed factors are also possible for profits. In spite of these, BEA is an important tool in decision
making.
Example: From the following information relating to quick standards Ltd., you are
required to find out (i) PV ratio, (ii) break even point, (iii) calculate the volume of sales to earn
profit of ` 6,000/-
Total Fixed Costs ` 4,500
Total Variable Cost ` 7,500
Total Sales ` 15,000
Solution:
First step to find out the Contribution volume
Sales ` 15,000
Variable Cost ` 7,500
Contribution ` 7,500
Fixed Cost ` 4,500
Profit ` 3,000
1. Second step to determine the PV ratio
Contribution 7, 500
PV ratio = × 100 = × 100 = 50%
Sales 15,000
Third step to find out the Break even sales
Fixed cost 4, 500
2. Break even sales = = = 9,000
PV ratio 50%
3. Margin of safety can be found out in two ways
(a) Margin of Safety = Actual sales – Break even sales
= ` 15,000 – ` 9,000 = ` 6,000
Profit ` 3, 000
(b) Margin of Safety = = = ` 6,000
PV ratio 50%
4. Sales required to earn profit = ` 6,000/-
To determine the sales volume to earn desired level of profit.
Self Assessment
Notes
6.7 Methods Decisions Involving Alternative Choices
The break even analysis can be performed by the following two methods:
1. Break Even Charts
2. Algebraic Method.
The difference between Price and Average Variable Cost (P – AVC) is defined as ‘profit
contribution’. That is, revenue on the sale of a unit of output after variable costs are covered
represents a contribution toward profit. At low rates of output, the firm may be losing money
because fixed costs have not yet been covered by the profit contribution. Thus, at these low rates
of output, profit contribution is used to cover fixed costs. After fixed costs are covered, the firm
will be earning a profit.
A manager may want to know the output rate necessary to cover all fixed costs and to earn a
“required” profit of R. Assume that both price and variable cost per unit of output (AVC) are
constant. Profit is equal to total revenue (P.Q.) less the sum of Total Variable Costs (Q.TVC) and
fixed costs. Thus
ΠR = PQ – [(Q. AVC) + FC]
ΠR = TR – TC
The break even chart shows the extent of profit or loss to the firm at different levels of activity.
A break even chart may be defined as an analysis in graphic form of the relationship of production
and sales to profit. The Break even analysis utilises a break even chart in which the Total Revenue
(TR) and the Total Cost (TC) curves are represented by straight lines, as in Figure 6.5.
Figure 6.5
In the figure total revenues and total costs are plotted on the vertical axis whereas output or sales
per time period are plotted on the horizontal axis. The slope of the TR curve refers to the constant
price at which the firm can sell its output. The TC curve indicates Total Fixed Costs (TFC) (The
vertical intercept) and a constant average variable cost (the slope of the TC curve). This is often
the case for many firms for small changes in output or sales. The firm breaks even (with TR=TC)
at Q1 (point B in the figure) and incurs losses at smaller outputs while earnings profits at higher
levels of output.
Both the Total Cost (TC) and Total Revenue (TR) curves are shown as linear. TR curve is linear as
it is assumed that the price is given, irrespective of the output level. Linearity of TC curve results
from the assumption of constant variable costs.
Notes If the assumptions of constant price and average variable cost are relaxed, break even analysis
can still be applied, although the key relationship (total revenue and total cost) will not be linear
functions of output. Non-linear total revenue and cost functions are shown in Figure 6.6. The
cost function is conventional in the sense that at first costs increase but less than in proportion to
output and then increase more than in proportion to output. There are two break even points – L
and M. Note that profit which is the vertical distance between the total revenue and total cost
functions, is maximised at output rate Q*.
Of the two break even points, only the first, corresponding to output rate Q1 is relevant. When a
firm begins production, management usually expects to incur losses. But it is important to know
at what output rate the firm will go from a loss to a profit situation. In Figure 6.6 the firm would
want to get to the break even output rate Q1 as soon as possible and then of course, move to the
profit maximising rate Q*. However, the firm would not expand production beyond Q* because
this would result in a reduction of profit.
Figure 6.6
TC
D Total revenue
Profit
Loss M
Revenue
TFC
Cost
0 Q1 Q* Q2 Rate of
Output(Q)
Contribution Margin
In the short run, where many of the firms costs are fixed, businessmen are often interested in
determining the contribution additional sales make towards fixed costs and profits. Contribution
analysis provides this information. Total contribution profit is defined as the difference between
total revenues and total variable costs, which equals price less average variable cost on a per unit
basis. Figure 6.7 highlights the meaning of contribution profit. Total contribution profit, it can be
seen, is also equal to total net profit plus total fixed costs.
Figure 6.7
D TR
Profit
Variable cost
0 Q* Output(Q)
Contribution profit analysis provides a useful format for examining a variety of price and output Notes
decisions.
As it is clear from Figure 6.7 Total Contribution Profit (TCP) = Total Revenue (TR) – Total Variable
Cost (TVC)
= Total Net Profit (TNP) + Total Fixed Cost (TFC)
Therefore, if TNP = 0 then, TCP = TFC. This occurs at break even point. From the above equation
it is also clear that
TR = TCP + TVC
= (TNP + TFC) + TVC
Total Contribution Profit (TCP)
= TR – TVC
= Net Profit + Fixed Cost
Example: From the following figures, ascertain the break-even sales and also show the
computation by means of a graph.
`
Sales 20,00,000
Fixed Costs 5,00,000
Variable costs 12,00,000
Solution:
Total Contribution: `
Sales 20,00,000
Variable Cost 12,00,000
Contribution 8,00,000
Total costs equal sales; hence there is neither profit nor loss.
Points plotted:
Break-even Chart
Notes S2
Y
15 Total C2
Sales Profit
Total
Cost
10 BEP
Cost ( ` in lakhs)
C1
Loss
5
S1
0 X
5 10 12.5 15 20 25
Sales (` in lakhs)
Profit-Volume Chart: (At zero sale loss is ` 5 lakh: at ` 20,00,000 sales, profits is ` 3 lakh (P2). Draw
a line to join there two points. The break-even sale is at the point where it meets the X-axis).
Y
10
Profit ( ` in lakhs)
P2
5
BEP
0 X
5 10 12.5 15 20
Loss (` in lakhs)
Sales (` in lakhs)
5
P1
10
Break even analysis can also be performed algebraically, as follows. Total revenue is equal to the
selling price (P) per unit times the quantity of output or sales (Q). That is
TR = (P). (Q)
Total costs equal total fixed costs plus Total Variable Costs (TVC). Since TVC is equal to the
Average (per unit) Variable Cost (AVC) times the quantity of output or sales, we have
TC = TFC + TVC
or, TC = TFC + (AVC). (Q)
Setting total revenue equal to total costs and substituting QB (the break even output) for Q, we
have
TR = TC
(P). (QB) = TFC + (AVC). (QB)
Or, TFC = P. (QB) – (AVC) (QB)
TFC TFC
OB (the break even output ) = = ACM
(P – AVC)
The denominator in the above equation (i.e., P – AVC) is called the contribution margin per unit
(ACM) because it represents the portion of the selling price that can be applied to cover the fixed
costs of the firm and to provide for profits.
Self Assessment
Notes It is important that there should be reasonable margin of safety, otherwise, a reduced level of
activity may prove disastrous. The soundness of a business is gauged by the size of the margin of
safety. A low margin of safety usually indicates high fixed overheads so that profits are not made
until there is a high level of activity to absorb fixed costs.
!
Caution A high margin of safety shows that break-even point is much below the actual
sales, so that even if there is a fall in sales, there will still be a point. A low margin of
safety is accompanied by high fixed costs, so action is called for reducing the fixed costs or
increasing sales volume.
The margin of safety may be improved by taking the following steps:
1. Lowering fixed costs.
2. Lowering variable costs so as to improve marginal contribution.
3. Increasing volume of sales, if there is unused capacity.
4. Increasing the selling price, if market conditions permit.
5. Changing the product mix as to improve contribution.
(`)
Production (units) Present 10,000 Proposed 10,000
Selling price p.u. 50 40
Variable cost p.u. 30 30
Fixed cost p.a. 60,000 60,000
Interpretation: The reduction in selling price from ` 50 to ` 40 per unit maintaining the same level
of production, variable cost and fixed cost results in the following:
1. The reduction selling price has reduced the contribution per unit and since the P.V. ratio is
the function of contribution to sales, it also has decreased from 40% to 25%.
2. The break-even units have increased from 3,000 to 6,000 units due to lower contribution
per unit available to meet the total fixed costs.
3. The higher the break-even point means the lower the margin of safety and lower
profitability.
Thus, the lowering of selling price has resulted in increase of break-even point and lowering the
margin of safety and P/V ratio. The fixed cost, variable cost and selling price have a direct impact
on profit. Change in any of these variables means a change in profit.
Notes
Example: From the following data, calculate:
1. Number of units to be sold to earn a profit, ` 2,40,000
2. Sales to earn a profit, ` 2,40,000
Selling price per unit ` 80
Variable selling cost per unit ` 6
Variable manufacturing cost per unit ` 44
Fixed factory overheads ` 3,20,000
Fixed Selling cost ` 40,000
3. To find out the number of units to be sold to earn a profit of ` 2,40,000
Solution:
Before preparing the statement of profit, the following should be computed:
1. Total Variable cost per unit = Variable selling cost per unit
+
Variable manufacturing cost per unit
= ` 6 + ` 44 = ` 50
2. Total fixed cost = Fixed factory overhead
+
Fixed selling cost
= ` 3,20,000 + ` 40,000
= ` 3,60,000
Profit Statement
Sales ` 80
Variable Cost ` 50
Contribution ` 30
Fixed cost ` 3,60,000
Contribution per unit of ` 30 should be equated to summation of fixed cost ` 3,60,000 and desired
level of profit ` 2,40,000.
The contribution can be found among the early classification method of coverage/meeting i.e.
Fixed cost + Desired level of profit.
Total Contribution at the desired level of profit ` 2,40,000
= ` 3,60,000 + ` 2,40,000 = ` 6,00,000
The next step is to find out the number of units to earn the desired level of profit.
` 6,00,000
= = 20,000 units
` 30
According to the method of coverage, in finding out the total volume of contribution at the
desired level of profit
The next step is to find out the volume of sales in rupees at the desired level of profit.
Contribution Margin
= × 100
Sales
` 30
= × 100 = 37.5%
` 80
` 6,00,000
= = ` 16,00,000
37.5%
Self Assessment
16. Margin of safety is the difference between the actual sales and sales at .................. .
Marginal cost helps management to make decision involving consideration of cost and revenue.
Basically, marginal costing furnishes information regarding additional costs to be incurred if an
additional activity is to be taken up or the saving in costs which may be expected if an activity is
given up. This can be compared with the benefit expected from the proposed course of action and
thus the management will be able to take the appropriate decision.
Following are the important areas of decision-making or applications of marginal costing: Notes
1. Fixation of Price,
2. Decision to Make or Buy,
3. Selection of a Profitable Product Mix,
4. Decision to Accept a Bulk Order,
5. Closure of a Department or Discontinuing a Product,
6. Maintaining a Desired Level of Profit, and
7. Evaluation of Performance.
In the market, dealership is offered by the various companies to the individual intermediaries
in promoting the sale of products. Before reaching an agreement with the company to act as
a dealer, normally every individual considers the profitability of the product mix offered by
the firm. For example, There are two different companies brought forth their advertisements in
offering the dealership to the individual trading firms viz. HCL and IBM.
The profitability under the dealership banner should be appropriately considered prior to take
decision. To take rational decision, the firm should compare the profitability of both different
dealerships of two different giant industrial brands. The greater the share of the profitability in
volume will be selected and vice-versa.
Example: From the following information has been extracted of EXCEL Rubber Products
Ltd:
Direct materials A ` 16
Direct Materials B ` 12
Direct wages A 24 Hrs at 50 paise per hour
Direct wages B 16 Hrs at 50 paise per hour
Variable overheads 150% of wages
Fixed overheads ` 1,500
Selling price A ` 50
Selling price B ` 40
The directors want to be acquainted with the desirability of adopting any one of the following
alternative sales mixes in the budget for the next period:
1. 250 units of A and 250 units of B
2. 400 units of B only
3. 400 units of A and 100 units of B
4. 150 units of A and 350 units of B
State which of the alternative sales mixes you would recommend to the management?
Solution:
The first step is to determine the contribution margin per unit of A and B
The determination of the contribution of product A and B are through the preparation of Marginal
costing statement.
Mix A B C D
Contribution ` 1,500 1,700 900 1,900
The profit level among the given various mixes, the mix (d) is able to generate highest volume of
profit over the others.
Determining optimum level of operations: Under this method, the level has to be found out Notes
which is having lesser selling price, cost of operations and greater profits known as optimum
level of operations
Did u know? Why don’t they manufacture in spite of buying them from the NTTF?
Example: The management of a company finds that while the cost of making a component
part is ` 20, the same is available in the market at ` 18 with an assurance of continuous supply.
Give a suggestion whether to make or buy this part. Give also your views in case the supplier
reduces the price from ` 18 to ` 16.
The cost information is as follows:
`
Material 7.00
Direct Labour 8.00
Other variable expenses 2.00
Fixed expenses 3.00
Total ` 20.00
The first point to be found out that the contribution of the transaction. The cost of manufacturing
should be compared with the price of the product which is available in the market.
To find out the worth of the transactions, first the cost of manufacturing should be found out
`
Material 7.00
Direct Labour 8.00
Other variable expenses 2.00
Total 17.00
The cost of manufacturing a component is ` 17.00. While calculating the cost of manufacturing a
component, the fixed expenses was not considered. The fixed expenses were not considered for
computation. Why?
The costs will be incurred irrespective of the production status of the firm; for which the expenses
should not be added.
Notes If the company manufactures the product/component at ` 17 which will facilitate to book profit
` 1 from the price of ` 18 which is available from the market.
The next stage is decision criteria.
Worth of Production: Cost of the production < Price of the product available in the market
The firm is better advised to take the course of production rather than purchase of the product.
Worth of Purchase: Cost of the production > Price of the product available in the market
The product available in the market is dame cheaper than the manufacturing of a product. The
firm is better advised to buy the product rather than the manufacturing of a product. If the
product price comes down to the price of ` 16 facilitates the firm to save ` 1 from the cost of
manufacturing.
Marginal costing helps in taking the decisions regarding the capital investment. Marginal costing
helps to take the decisions for owning the capital asset or hire the asset.
Example: If company X needs a machinery for a specific project and after that project
there is no use of the machinery then company can decide to hire the machinery for that project.
A company has its own trucks for transporting raw materials and finished products from one
place to another. It seeks to replace these trucks by keeping public carriers. In making this
decision, of course, the depreciation of the trucks is not to be considered but the management
should take into account the present expenditure on fuel, salary to drive and maintenance.
As discussed earlier, marginal costing technique helps in deciding the profitability of a product.
It provides the information in a manner that tells us how much each product contributes towards
fixed cost and profit; the product or department that gives least contribution should be discarded
except for a short period. If the management is to choose some product out of the given ones,
then the products giving the highest contribution should be chosen and those giving the least
should be discontinued.
On the basis of above information, we understand that the company management is thinking Notes
to discontinue with the production of product Z which has shown loss. The management seeks
your expert opinion on the issue before they take a final decision. You are required to comment
on the relative profitability of the products.
Solution:
The information contained in the budget may be rearranged in the form of a marginal cost
statement as shown below:
Marginal Cost Statement
Self Assessment
6.11 Keywords
BEP (Units): It is the level of units at which the firm neither incurs a loss nor earns profit.
BEP (Volume): It is the level of sales in Rupees at which the firm neither incurs a loss nor earns
profit.
Contribution: It is an amount of balance available after the deduction of variable cost from the
sales.
Fixed Cost: It is a cost which is fixed or remains the same for irrespective level of production.
Marginal Cost: Change occurred in the cost of operations due to change in the level of
production.
PV Ratio: Profit volume ration which is nothing but the ratio in between the contribution and
sales.
Variable Cost: It varies along with the level of production.
Assuming that there is no change in prices and variable costs that the fixed expenses are
incurred equally in the two half year periods calculate for the year 1979.
Calculate:
(a) PV ration
(b) Fixed expenses
Books B.M. Lall Nigam and I.C. Jain, Cost Accounting, Prentice-Hall of India (P) Ltd.
Hilton, Maher and Selto, Cost Management, 2nd Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Ltd.
M.N. Arora, Cost and Management Accounting, 8th Edition, Vikas Publishing House
(P) Ltd.
M.P. Pandikumar, Management Accounting, Excel Books.
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
7.1 Meaning and Importance of Variance Analysis
7.2 Kinds of Variances
7.2.1 Material Variances
7.2.2 Labour Variances
7.2.3 Overhead Variances
7.2.4 Sales Variances
7.3 Summary
7.4 Keywords
7.5 Review Questions
7.6 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Explain the meaning and importance of variance analysis
Illustrate the kinds of variances
Introduction
In standard costing, variance means the difference between the standard cost and the actual cost.
Variances of different cost items provide the key to cost control. They indicate whether and to what
extent standards set have been achieved. This enables management to correct adverse tendencies.
The terminology of ICMA London, defines variance as, “Difference between a standard cost and
the comparable actual cost incurred during a period.” Variance for each element of cost should
be ascertained regularly. If the actual cost is less than the standard cost, it is termed as ‘favourable
variance. On the other hand, if the actual cost is more than the standard cost, it is known as
‘adverse’ or ‘unfavourable variance.’
1. Computation of individual variances, and
2. Determination of the cause(s) of each variance.
The variance can be classified into two categories, based on controllability viz. controllable and
uncontrollable variance.
The purpose of standard costing is to correct the variance, which is in between standard cost and
actual cost.
Self Assessment
1. If the actual cost is more than the standard cost, it is known as ..................... variance.
2. If the actual cost is less than the standard cost, it is termed as ..................... .
3. The purpose of ..................... is to correct the variance, which is in between standard cost
and actual cost.
4. Variance means the difference between the ..................... and the actual cost.
There are two types of variances viz. cost variance and revenue variance.
Cost Variance: Cost variance can be further classified into three categories:
3. Overhead Variance
Revenue Variance:
1. Sales Variance: Apart from the above classified types, there is a general way of studying
variances. Let us discuss every variance in detail in the remaining units.
The name of the variance is self-explanatory, means that the difference in between the standard
cost of materials and Actual cost of materials. The material cost variance is in between the
standard material cost for actual production in units and actual cost.
1. Direct Method: It is a method simply studies the deviation in between the two different cost
of materials without giving any emphasis for other factors of influence viz. the quantity of
materials and price of a material. Under the direct method, the comparison is in between
the standard cost of materials which is the planned cost of materials before commencement,
scientifically developed by considering the all other factors of influence and the actual cost
of materials, which is actually incurred during the production.
Did u know? Why standard cost is to be tuned to the level of actual cost?
The main aim of computing the standard cost for actual output is that the standard cost
developed is not to the tune of actual production in units, instead it is available in terms of
per unit of a product/for overall production e.g. for a year. To have leveled comparison in
between the standard cost has to be designed to the tune of Actual cost.
Material cost variance = Standard cost of materials for actual output — Actual cost of raw
materials
2. Indirect Method: It is a method which computes the material cost variance by considering
two important variances viz. material price variance and material usage variance. Under
this method material cost variance is calculated through the summation of the variances
viz. price and usage of materials.
Material Cost Variance = Material Price Variance (MPV) + Material Usage Variance
Solution: Notes
First step is to find out the standard quantity for actual output
Standard quantity of raw materials = 2 Kg
Actual Production = 400 units
To have leveled comparison, the Standard quantity of materials for actual output to computed;
then only the variance intend to encircle will be meaningful or vice versa.
The computation of SQAO should be computed at first:
For the production of one unit of product 2 Kg of raw material was planned and finalized prior
to the commencement of production process. The actual production of the firm during the cycle
is 400 units. What would be the requirement of the firm in manufacturing 400 units to the tune of
planned quantity of materials per unit 2 Kg? This is the standard quantity of materials for actual
output computed for an effective comparison with the actual quantity of materials consumed by
the firm in manufacturing the 400 units.
SQAO = 400 × 2Kg = 800 Kg
SP = Standard Price = ` 2 per Kg
AQ = Actual Quantity = 850 Kgs
AP = Actual Price = ` 1.80
Material cost variance = (SQAO × SP) – (AQ × AP)
= (800 Kg × ` 2) – (850 Kg × ` 1.8)
= ` 1600 – ` 1530
= ` 70 (F)
The material cost variance of the above problem is favourable due to lesser actual cost over the
standard cost of materials.
It is very simple to understand that the name of the variance is self-explanatory in explaining
the meaning of the variance. It is a variance in between two different prices viz. the standard
price and actual price of raw materials. The difference should be expressed only in terms of the
actual usage of materials. The ultimate of aim of expressing this variance in the lights of actual
usage of materials is to identify the deviation of the price changes in line with the purchase of
raw materials.
Material Price Variance = (SP – AP) AQ
From the earlier illustration, the material price variance is as follows
Standard price = ` 2 per unit
Actual price = ` 1.80 per unit
Actual quantity of materials consumed = 850 Kg
Material price variance = 850 Kg (2.00 – 1.80)
Material price variance = `170 (F)
Decision Criterion: If the resultant is positive, it means that the planned price which was
scientifically developed is more than the actual price. In precise terms, the price fluctuations in
the market are well with in the planned price. If it is within the standard, quantified as favourable
Notes for a firm. If not, otherwise, the excessive/exorbitant cost of purchase of raw material more than
the standard is unfavourable/adverse for the firm, the reason is the firm has paid more on the
cost towards the purchase of materials than the planned one.
The variance/deviation is in between the standard quantity of materials and the actual quantity of
materials consumed. The found variance in Kg of raw materials should be expressed in monetary
values i.e in terms of Rupees, through the multiplication with the standard price. The ultimate
aim of expressing the variance in terms of standard price is the price, which is totally free from
market fluctuations i.e. supply and demand factors of the market.
Materials Usage Variance = Standard Price × (Standard quantity of materials for actual output –
Actual quantity of materials used)
Standard quantity of raw materials required to produce one unit of X was 10 kgs @ ` 6 per Kg.
Actual units produced during that period was 500 units. Actual quantity of materials was 5500
Kgs @ ` 5.5 Kg. Calculate the material cost, price and usage variance.
Solution:
From the above problem, it came to understand that the actual production of a firm is more than
a unit i.e. 500 units.
Standard quantity of raw materials for actual output has to be computed to the tune of actual
production 500 units
Standard quantity of raw materials foe actual output = Standard Quantity of Materials × Acutal
Production
For One unit of out put the standard quantity of raw material is 10 Kg
For 500 units of actual production, how much would be the standard quantity of raw materials?
SQAO = 10 Kg × 500 Units = 5000 Kg, Standard Price = ` 6 Kg
AQ = 5500 Kgs, Actual Price = ` 5.5 Kg
Material Cost Variance = SQAO × SP – AQ × AP
= (5000 Kg × ` 6) – (5500 Kg × ` 5.5)
= ( ` 30000) – ( ` 30250) = (` 250) )(A)
Material Price Variance = (SP – AP) × AQ
= (` 6 – ` 5.5) × 5500 = ` 2750(F)
Material Usage Variance = (SQAO – AQ) × SP
= (5000 – 5500)× ` 6 = ` 3000 (A)
Verification: The indirect method of computing the material cost variance facilitates to verify the
answer computed under the material variances.
MCV = MPV + MUV
` 250 (A) = ` 2750 (F) + ` 3000 (A)
L.H.S = R.H.S
Notes
Task If the closing stock of raw materials is given, how the material variance can be
computed?
Standard quantity of materials = 5000 Kgs @ ` 5 per Kg
Actual quantity of materials purchased = 5500 Kgs @ ` 6 per Kg
Closing stock of raw materials = 300 Kgs
This kind of variance arises only due to the mixture of various raw materials to produce and to
get an output. Normally, the process of production involves more than two materials to get the
output. For example the firm mixes the raw materials of A& B at the ratio of 3:2. The mixture is
called Material Mix.
The above mentioned ratio is being changed by the firm for actual production in producing a unit
of product as 4:1.
The change in the material mix due to various reasons, those are following:
1. In adequate supply of raw materials
2. Price factor of a material
3. Introduction of a new system of production due to expansion
4. Substitution of a material due better quality and cheaper price than the existing material in
current system of procurement.
This material mix variance is highly applicable in the following industries that chemicals,
fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, consumables, etc.
The variance should be computed in between two different materials viz. Standard quantity of
materials and Actual quantity of materials.
Actual quantity of materials is the volume of materials registered the change in the usage of raw
materials mixture but the standard quantity of raw materials is totally free from the change of
mixture in the raw materials.
While studying the variance, the factors of comparison should be weighed equally with each
other. For instance, the standard quantity of material should not be a rational factor of comparison
with actual.
!
Caution Why must the standard quantity of raw material be revised?
In order to have an appropriate comparison, the standard has to be revised.
The early estimated standard is the measure not considered the reality during the production
process due to changes occurred in the procurement of raw materials. While comparing the
standard with actual, the earlier is not at par with later in terms of realities. To incorporate
the realities, the standards are tuned towards the actual; makes the comparison meaningful
in studying the variance among the both.
When the total standard quantity of materials is equivalent to Actual quantity of materials: From
the below example, the ultimate aim of revising the standard is explained as follows:
Notes
Example: Before the commencement of production process, the standard mix of materials
for the production of one unit of output included two different mixture of quantities of material
viz. A&B amounted 70 tons and 30 tons respectively; which formed the 70% and 30% in the
production of a unit of out put with the current system of material procurement.
Due to shortage of material A, the firm is required to redesign the material procurement system
to have an uninterrupted flow of production of one unit of product. In order to meet out the
shortage of raw material A, the firm should replace the shortage only against the adequate supply
of material B from the market. The firm should restructure the procurement system of material
as follows i.e. 60% of material A and 40% material B. The restructurisation is done only on the
actual but not on the standard. While studying the variance analysis in between the quantity of
materials, standard of 70% of A and 30% of B should be tuned towards the actual 60% of A and
40% of B procured during the process.
From the above, if the total quantity of standard materials is equivalent to actual quantity
of materials, the revised quantity of materials will be as same as the standard quantity of
materials.
When the total standard quantity of materials is not equivalent to total actual quantity of materials
consumed: If the Standard quantity of materials of X and Y are 60 tons and 40 tons respectively.
The actual quantity of materials 90 tons and 60 tons. The total standard quantity of materials and
actual quantity of materials amounted 100 tons and 150 tons respectively.
The revised standard mix of materials of X and Y are as follows:
60
X= × 150 = 90 tons
100
40
Y= × 150 = 60 tons
100
Material Mix Variance = Standard Price (Revised Standard Quantity – Actual Quantity)
From the early discussions, it is clearly understood that the revised standard mix of materials will
be the same only during the moment at which the total actual and standard quantity of materials
are equivalent to each other and vice versa.
Example: From the following information, calculate the materials mix variance
Due to shortage of material, it was decided to reduce the consumption of A by 15% and increase Notes
that of material B by 30%.
The above problem does not have any difference in between the total actual quantity and standard
quantity of materials. In both the cases the total quantity of materials are equivalent to 300 units.
If both are equivalent to each other, the standard mix would be the revised standard mix of the
materials.
Solution:
Revised Standard Mix:
200
Material A = × 300 Units = 200 units
300
100
Material B = × 300 Units = 100 units
300
After finding out the revised standard mix of the materials, the changes on the consumption should
be incorporated due to the shortage of materials to the tune of actual quantity of materials.
For material A, there is reduction in the actual consumption in the quantity of materials amounted
15%.
For material B, there is spurt increase in the consumption of material B due to fill up the shortage
of material A i.e 30% increase on material B.
Final Revised standard Mix of Material A : 200 units – 15% of 200 units = 170 units
B : 100 units + 30% of 100 units = 130 units
Material Mix Variance
Material Mix Variance = Standard Price (Revised Standard Quantity – Actual Quantity)
MMV Material A = ` 12 (170 units – 160 units) = ` 120 Favourable
MMV Material B = ` 10 (130 units – 140 units) = ` 100 Adverse
Total Material Mix Variance = ` 20 Favourable
Notes
The material mix variance is one of the components of material usage variance.
This is the variance in between standard quantity and revised standard quantity of materials
denominated in terms of standard price. The purpose of studying the difference in between
these two is to analyse the amount of deviation of the standard against the revised standard in
line with the actual fluctuation in the quantity of materials consumption during the production
process. It is the only variance highlights the difference in between the early set standard and the
redesigned standard in terms of actual quantity of materials for meaningful comparison.
Material Sub-usage Variance = Standard Cost per unit (Standard Quantity – Revised Standard
Quantity).
If the total actual quantity of materials consumption in units is equivalent to the total standard
quantity of materials, nullifies the material sub-usage variance in between the standard quantity
of materials and revised standard quantity of materials. It means that the standard quantity of
Notes materials of the mix will be the revised standard quantity of materials. If both are equivalent to
each other, the variance is equivalent to zero in terms of standard price/cost per unit.
Example: Find out the material sub-usage variance from the following:
Solution:
Revised Standard quantity of Materials:
60 kgs
A: × 120 Kgs = 72 Kgs
100 kgs
40 kgs
B: × 120 Kgs = 48 Kgs
100 kgs
Material Sub-usage Variance = Standard Price/Cost per unit (Standard Production for Actual
Output – Revised Standard Quantity)
Material A = ` 10 (60 Kgs – 72 Kgs) = ` 120 (Adverse)
Material B = ` 12 (40 Kgs – 48 Kgs) = ` 96 (Adverse)
Material Sub-usage Variance = ` 216 (Adverse)
From the above example, it is obviously understood that the early set standard is less than the
revised standard quantity of materials due to change in the materials mix consumption i.e.
unexpectedly to replace one material with the another due to shortage any one of the materials in
the mix. The greater the revised standard quantity of materials means that greater the volatility
in the actual consumption of materials. If the variance is adverse, means that the standard which
was initially set for comparison has not incorporated the fluctuations in the actual; being less
than the revised standard which is an index of actual.
This material sub-usage variance is one of the components of the materials usage variance.
Material Usage Variance = Material Sub-usage Variance + Material Mix Variance
It is one of the components of the material usage variance which arises only due to the deviation
in between the standard yield determined and the actual yield accrued. This variance highlights
either the abnormal loss of materials or saving of materials. This variance plays most important
role in the process industries, to assess the loss/wastage of materials. If the actual loss of
materials is different from the standard loss of materials will result the variance in two different
situations.
When the standard and actual do not differ from each other:
In this case, the yield variance is calculated as follows:
Yield Variance = Standard Rate/Cost per unit (Actual Yield – Standard Yield)
Standard Rate has to be calculated from the following:
When the actual mix differs from the standard mix: In the second case, standard mix has to Notes
be tuned to the requirement of actual mix, which is revised standard mix, realistic in sense for
meaningful comparison, to highlight the deviation in between two different yields viz. actual
yield and revised standard yield. The standard rate has to be calculated only for the revised
standard mix of materials.
Revised standard output has to be computed. In this problem, the total mixes are equivalent
to each other, but, the normal loss is a loss 10% expected on the normal output. Though, this
problem does not have the difference between the mixes, the revised standard mix should have
to be computed to register the expected loss (normal loss) on the standard output.
= ` 37.55 (Adverse)
Labour Variance is known in other words as Labour Cost Variance. The cost of the labour is usually
denominated by the wages paid/incurred during the production. Labour Variance Analysis, is
studying the deviation in between the actual cost of the labour incurred and standard/budgeted
cost of the labour. This is another most important cost variance, next to material cost variance,
which considers the rate of the wage per hour for the computation of the total standard cost of
labour and actual cost of labour like price of the materials per kg.
Labour cost variance is the tool studies the deviation in between the total standard cost of the
labour and actual cost of labour. The actual labour cost may vary due to many reasons from the
planned i.e standard.
Causes for the Variance:
1. The hourly rate of the labour may vary due to demand and supply of the labour force.
2. The hourly rate of the labour may vary due to nature of the labour required i.e. Skilled/
Semi-Skilled/Unskilled. The rate differs from one category to another due to efficiency of
the labours.
3. The Labour cost variance is in relevance with the time component of the job. The time
required to complete the job may vary due to too many reasons; more specifically time
wastage results in the production.
The following is the structure of the labour cost variance, which will illustrate the various
components of the labour variance.
Labour Mix Variance Labour Idle Time Variance Labour Yield Variance
Labour Cost Variance = Standard Cost of the Labour* – Actual Cost of Labour**
*Standard Cost of the Labour = Standard Hours for Actual Output × Standard Hour Wage Rate
**Actual Cost of the Labour = Actual Hours taken for production × Actual Hour Wage Rate
This is the variance, resultant, due to the change in the wage rate. The Labour rate variance
is the difference between standard wage rate, which already determined and the actual wage
rate incurred during the production. The variance should be denominated in terms of the actual
hours of production.
The actual hours taken is into consideration only for reality, that is the time moments
consumed by the production process. This expression facilitates to understand the
excessive/lesser amount spent on the labour, which depicts, how much was over/under
spent by the firm for the payment of wages than the planned during the production.
The causes of labour wage rate or pay variance:
1. It is due to changes occurred in the structure of basic wages.
2. The ratio of the labour mix is varied due to the nature of the order. Undertaken by the
firm to meet the needs of the consumers. The special order from the buyer may require
the goldsmith to take more special care in the design of an ornament than the regular or Notes
routine design. This leads to involvement of more amount of skilled labour, which finally
escalates/increases the cost of the labour.
3. To fulfill the immediate and excessive orders of the consumers which are to be supplied to
their requirements leads to greater payment of wages through over time charges; which is
normally greater than the regular wage rate.
4. This variance mainly occurs in the industry, which is connected with seasonal business.
This variance mainly plays pivotal role in the industries of soft drinks, fans, refrigerator,
fertilizer, crackers and so on.
The Labour Rate Variance (LRV) = Actual hours taken (Standard Rate – Actual Rate)
The efficiency of the labour is denominated only in actual hours for actual output, which should
be less than the standard hours expected to perform during the job. The labour efficiency variance
is the deviation in between two standard hours for actual output and actual hours taken for
actual output. The expression of variance in terms of hours should be expressed in terms of wage
rate, i.e. standard wage rate.
The aim of expressing Efficiency variance in terms of standard wage is to express them in
monetary units and should be free from the demand and supply forces of the labour force which
directly has an impact on the basic labour wage rate
Labour Efficiency Variance = Standard Rate (Standard Hours for Actual Output – Actual Hours
for Actual Output)
1. Due to poor working conditions, the efficiency of the working force to complete the job is
coming down.
2. Quality of maintenance of the machinery is facilitating the working force to maintain the
efficiency.
3. Frequent change in the quality of materials may lead change in the hours required to
complete the work.
4. Poor personnel relations of the workers.
The wages which are paid for unproductive hours to the labourers are known as idle time.
The idle time may be classified into two categories:
1. Normal idle time
2. Abnormal idle time
This idle time is known as authorised idle time, which can be understood in other words as
unavoidable idle time. Normally the worker is paid for that time during which he does not
produce anything.
This is known as avoidable idle time; during which the workers are paid for nil production. This
type of idle time could be slashed down or downsized through an effective planning. This idle
time is the resultant of too many ineffective schedules, e.g. inadequate supply of raw materials,
power shortage/failure, breakdown of machinery and so on. The aforementioned could be
easily sorted out through proper planning and scheduling; which will automatically reduce the
unproductive time of labour force. Whatever the payment of wages to the working force during
the idle time are to be considered as adverse. It means that the firm makes the payment of wages
to the labourers/working force without any production/productivity.
Idle Time Variance = Idle hours × Standard Rate (Always “A”)
This variance arises due to deviations in between the actual mixture of labour force for the job
and standard mixture of labour force planned to complete the job. The mixture of work force
is considered to be most important for completion. Normally, the mixture is in tri colours viz.
Skilled, Semi-Skilled and Unskilled. The standards are prepared by considering the requirements
of the job to be completed. For completing the job, 5 skilled, 3 semi-skilled and 2 unskilled
employees are required. Due to non-availability of skilled labour force, the firm is required to
carry out the operations without any lacuna through the induction of more semi-skilled labour
force. The actual composition of the labour force is 2 skilled, 6 semi-skilled and 2 unskilled which
finally led to labour mix variance.
Reasons for the labour mix variance:
1. Absenteeism
2. Labour turnover
3. Non-availability of required labour force from the business environment.
The above critical factors directly influence the efficiency of the labour force.
Labour Mix Variance = Standard Rate (Revised Standard Hours – Actual Hours)
Standard hours for the job were determined for the Standard mixture of labour force but these
hours are not denominated to the tune of actual hours taken by the actual mixture of labours
force. To study the variance in between them, the standard hours should be in line with the
actual. The standard hours which are converted to the tune of actual hours is known as Revised
standard hours considered to be level platform for an effective comparison.
Labour Mix Variance = Standard Rate (Revised Standard Hours – Actual Hours)
Example: The standard and actual data of a manufacturing concern are given:
Standard time 2,000 Hrs
Standard rate per hour `2
Actual time taken 1,900 Hrs
Actual wages paid per hour ` 2.50
Calculate labour variances.
Solution:
First step is to compute the labour cost variance
= (Standard Hrs for Actual Output × Standard Rate) – (Actual Hours × Actual Rate)
= (2,000 Hrs × ` 2) – (1,900 Hrs × ` 2.50)
= ` 4,000 – ` 4,750
= ` 750 (Adverse)
The next step is to find out the labour rate variance
= Actual Hours (Standard Rate – Actual Rate)
= 1,900 Hours (2 – 2.50) = ` 950 (Adverse)
The next variance is to be found out the labour efficiency variance
= Standard Rate (Standard Hours for Actual Output – Acutal Hours)
= ` 2.00 (2,000 – 1,900) = ` 200 (Favourable)
Verification
Overhead Variance
In general, the overhead variance is defined is as the variance in between standard cost of
overhead estimated for the actual output and actual cost of overhead really incurred.
With reference to absorption overheads, the variance occurs only during either over or under
absorption of overheads.
Under absorption of overheads means that the standard cost of the overhead is more than that of
the incurred actual overhead. In brief, it is a favourable situation as far as the firm concerned and
vice versa in the case of over absorption of overheads.
1. Variable overhead cost variance: It is the variance or deviation in between the standard
variable overhead for actual production of units and Actual overhead incurred
= Standard variable overhead rate per unit × Actual output – Actual variable
overheads incurred
2. Variable overhead expenditure variance: This is the variance in between the two different
rates of variable overheads viz. standard rate and actual rate; denominated in terms of
Actual hours taken consumed by the firm.
= Actual Hours (Standard Rate – Actual Rate)
3. Variable overhead efficiency variance: It is another variance which is in between the
standard hours for actual output and actual hours consumed during the production;
denominated in terms of standard rate.
= Standard Rate (Standard Hours for Actual Output – Actual Hours)
4. Fixed overhead cost variance: The most important variance is overhead cost variance
= Standard Overhead Cost for Actual Output – Actual Overheads
The second important variance is Budgeted or Expenditure variance
= Budgeted Overheads – Actual Overheads
What is the difference in between the budgeted figures and standards?
Budgeted figures are not adjusted to the actual but the standards could be adjusted or
tuned towards the actual.
The next important variance is overhead volume variance:
(a) If the standard overhead rate per unit is given
= Standard Rate per Unit (Actual Production – Budgeted Production)
Notes The next step is to find out the standard hours for actual output
= Standard Hours × Actual Output = 6 hours per unit × 100 Units = 600 Hours
= ` 4 (600 Hours – 640 Hours) = ` 160 (Adverse)
` 2,700
= = .3 paise
180 × 50
The next one is to find out the overhead cost
= 9,200 units × .30 paise = ` 2,760
Overhead Cost Variance = ` 2,760 – ` 2,800 = ` 40 (Adverse)
Overhead Budget Variance = Budgeted Overhead – Actual Overhead
= ` 2,700 – ` 2,800 = ` 100 (Adverse)
Overhead Volume Variance = Standard Overhead – Budgeted Overhead
= ` 2,760 – ` 2,700 = ` 60 (Favourable)
The overhead efficiency variance could be calculated in two different ways.
The efficiency is expressed in terms of hours and units. If the firm is able to produce the goods
or articles in lesser hours of duration, known as more efficient in time management than the
standard.
Likewise, the efficiency could be denominated in terms of units of production. If the actual
production is more than that of the standard production in units, the firm is favourable in position
in producing the articles than the standard.
Overhead Efficiency Variance = (Actual Production in Units – Standard Production in
Units) × Standard Rate
= (9,200 units – 8,750 units) .30 = 450 units .30 = 135 (Favourable)
Sales variances is the only component accompanied the profit volume variance of the business
transaction. The sales variances are computed and analysed in order to study the effect of sales
value and facilitates the sales manager to easily understand the various sales efforts taken by the
team.
The sales variance can be classified into various categories. They are as follows:
Sales Variance
Sales Value Sales Price Sales Volume Sales Mix Variance Sales Sub -usage
Variance Variance Variance Variance
The name of the variance is self explanatory in explaining the meaning of the variance, that is
difference in between the actual value of sales and standard value of sales.
The causes/influences of sales value variance are many more and some of them highlighted for
easy understanding about overall picture.
1. The fluctuation in the selling price may lead to variance with the standard selling price —
Selling Price Variance.
2. The fluctuation in the actual volume of sales may be due to various factors, mainly the
preference of the buyers over the standard/budgeted volume of sales — Sales Volume
Variance.
3. Actual mix of various varieties may differ from the standard mix, which leads — Sales mix
variance
4. Revised standard sales quantity may be varied from the budgeted sales quantity — Sales
quantity/Sub-usage variance
Sales Value Variance = Actual Value of Sales – Standard Value of Sales
The decision criterion is that more the actual sales volume leads to greater and better the position
of the firm than the budgeted sales volume, which leads to favourable position for the firm and
vice versa.
It is one of the components as well as influences of the sales variances. It is the variance in between
two different prices viz. actual price and standard price of the products.
The variance can be computed as follows:
Sales Price Variance = Actual Quantity sold (Actual Price – Standard Price)
The price variance should be finally expressed in terms of the actual number of goods sold. The
main aim of expressing them in actual quantity of goods sold is to express the variance in terms
of actual performance in units.
It is one of the elements of sales variance, which is in between the actual sales quantity and
budgeted sales quantity. The variance is normally expressed in terms of price i.e. standard price.
The purpose of expressing the variance in terms of standard price is that price which is free from
market forces.
Sales Volume Variance = Standard Price (Actual Quantity of Sale – Standard Quantity of Sales)
The sales volume variance can be divided into two different streams that sales mix variance and
sales quantity variance/sub-usage variance.
It is the difference in between the actual sales and standard sales mix. This variance will arise
only due to change in the proportion of goods sold. This is a most important variance usually
computed/calculated, at the moment, the firm which deals more than one commodity.
If both, the standard and actual mixes are equivalent to each other, there will not be any mix
variance in between the above mentioned.
If the mixes are totally different from each other, the sales mix variance is to be computed, through
the development of revised standard mix of quantities with reference to actual quantities sold,
then only the comparison will be meaningful to study the variances occurred in between above
mentioned. The sales mix variance is expressed in between two different quantities and finally
should be denominated in terms of standard price. The reason for the expression in terms of
standard price is the price which is totally free from the demand and supply forces of the market.
Sales Mix Variance = Standard Price (Actual Quantity – Revised Standard Quantity)
It is another component of usage variance, which expresses the deviation in between the revised
standard quantity to the tune of actual quantities sold and the early set standard quantities
expected to sell.
This variance also elucidates the differences of the above mentioned only in terms of standard
price, which is the ideal indicator free from the market forces i.e free from fluctuation.
Sales Sub-usage Variance = Standard Price (Revised Standard Quantity – Standard Quantity).
Example:
Solution: Notes
Sales Value Variance:
Sales value variance = Actual Sales – Standard Sales
First step is to find out the Actual Sales
Actual Sales = Actual Quantity × Actual Price
Actual Sales (A) = 500 × ` 31= ` 15,500
Actual Sales (B) = 100 × ` 24 = ` 2,400
Next step is to find out the standard quantity of sales
Standard Quantity of Sales = Standard Quantity × Standard Sales
Standard Sales (A) = 400 × ` 30 = ` 12,000
Standard Sales (B) = 200 × ` 25 = ` 5,000
Sales Value Variance (A) = ` 15,500 – ` 12,000 = ` 3,500 (Favourable)
Sales Value Variance (B) = ` 2,400 – ` 5,000 = ` 2,600 (Adverse)
= ` 400 (Favourable)
= ` 500 (Favourable)
= ` 500 (Favourable)
Self Assessment
There are two type of variances viz. cost variance and revenue variance.
Cost variance can be further classified into three categories: (a) Material Cost Variance,
(b) Labour Cost Variance, (c) Overhead Variance.
The material cost variance is in between the standard material cost for actual production
in units and actual cost.
Material price variance is a variance in between two different prices viz. the standard price
and actual price of raw materials.
Materials Usage Variance = Standard Price × (Standard quantity of materials for actual
output – Actual quantity of materials used)
Material Sub-usage Variance = Standard Cost per unit (Standard Quantity – Revised
Standard Quantity).
Material yield variance is one of the components of the material usage variance which
arises only due to the deviation in between the standard yield determined and the actual
yield accrued.
Labour Variance Analysis, is studying the deviation in between the actual cost of the labour
incurred and standard/budgeted cost of the labour.
The overhead variance is defined is as the variance in between standard cost of overhead
estimated for the actual output and actual cost of overhead really incurred.
Sales variances is the only component accompanied the profit volume variance of the
business transaction. The sales variances are computed and analysed in order to study the
effect of sales value and facilitates the sales manager to easily understand the various sales
efforts taken by the team.
7.4 Keywords
Cost variance: Identifying the deviations in between the actual cost and standard cost which was
already determined.
Favourable Cost Variance: It is due to greater standard cost over the actual cost.
Favourable Revenue Variance: It is due to greater actual revenue than the standards.
Revenue Variance: Identifying the deviations in between the actual revenue and early determined
standard revenue.
Unfavourable Cost Variance: It is due to greater actual cost than the determined standard cost.
Unfavourable Revenue Variance: It is an outcome due to greater standard sales than the actual
sales.
Variance: It is tool of standard costing in determining the deviations of the enterprise from the
early estimates.
Standard loss allowed is 10% of input and standard rate of scrap realization is ` 6 per unit.
Actual output is 440 units.
6. Find out the various labour variances from the following data:
Standard hours per unit = 20 Hours
Standard rate per unit = ` 5
Actual Production = 1000 units
Actual time taken = 20,400 Hours
Actual Rate paid = ` 4.80
7. From the following information calculate the labour variances:
Standard Actual
Number of men employed 100 90
Output in units 2,500 2,400
Number of working days in a month 20 18
Average wages per man per month ` 200 ` 198
8. A gang of workers normally consists of 30 men, 15 women and 10 boys. They are paid at
standard hourly rates as under:
Men ` 80
Women ` 60
Boys ` 40
Notes In a normal working week of 40 hours, the gang is expected to produce 2,000 units of
output.
During the week ended 31st Dec. 2004, the gang consisted of 40 men 10 women and 5 boys.
The actual wages paid were @ ` 70, ` 65 and ` 30 respectively 4 hours were lost due to
abnormal idle time and 1,600 were produced.
Calculate: (a) Labour cost variance (b) Wage variance (c) Labour efficiency variance
(d) Gang composition variance (e) Labour idle time variance.
9. Calculate various overhead variances.
10. Maris Ltd. has furnished the following information for the month of July 1979.
Budget Actual
Output (Units) 30,000 32,500
Hours 30,000 33,000
Fixed overheads ` 45,000 ` 50,000
Variable overheads ` 60,000 ` 68,000
Working days 25 26
Books B.M. Lall Nigam and I.C. Jain, Cost Accounting, Prentice-Hall of India (P) Ltd.
Hilton, Maher and Selto, Cost Management, 2nd Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Ltd.
M.N. Arora, Cost and Management Accounting, 8th Edition, Vikas Publishing House
(P) Ltd.
M.P. Pandikumar, Management Accounting, Excel Books.
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
8.1 Meaning of Budgetary Control
8.2 Objectives of Budgetary Control
8.3 Types of Budgets
8.3.1 Production Budget
8.3.2 Materials/Purchase Budget
8.3.3 Sales Budget
8.3.4 Sales Overhead Budget
8.3.5 Cash Budget
8.4 Classification of the Budget in accordance with the Flexibility
8.4.1 Fixed Budget
8.4.2 Flexible Budget
8.5 Zero-base Budgeting (ZBB)
8.5.1 Steps involved Zero-base Budgeting
8.5.2 Benefits of Zero-base Budgeting
8.5.3 Criticism of Zero-based Budgeting
8.6 Summary
8.7 Keywords
8.8 Review Questions
8.9 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Explain the meaning of budgetary control
Describe the objectives of budgetary control
Construct the different types of budgets
Introduction
Budget is an estimate prepared for definite future period either in terms of financial or
non-financial terms. Budget is prepared for any course of action or business or state or Nation, as
a whole. The budget is usually expressed in terms of total volume.
According to ICMA, England, a budget is as follows “a financial and or quantitative statement
prepared and approved prior to a defined period of time, of the policy to be pursed during the
period for the purpose of attaining a given objective.”
It is in other words as “detailed plan of action of the business for a definite period of time.” It is Notes
a statement of financial affairs/quantitative terms of an activity for a defined period, to achieve
the enlisted objectives.
Budgets
Labour Budget
Cash budget
The preparation of the production budget is mainly dependent on the sales budget. The
production budget is a statement of goods, how much should be produced. It may be in terms of
quantities, Kilograms in monetary terms and so on.
The ultimate aim of the production budget is to find out the volume of production to be
made during the year based on the sale volume. The production and sales volume should
go hand-in-hand with each other, otherwise the firm would require to face the acute
problem on holding unnecessary excessive stock or inadequate stock to meet the needs of
the buyers in time; which will disrepute in the supply of goods in time to them as already
agreed upon.
Resultant: No closing stock and opening stock for the subsequent years. This situation may not
be possible at always
Why it is not possible at always?
The production volume is connected to the internal environment of the firm, which can be
maintained through a systematic approach, but the sales cannot be easily administered by the
firm which is being highly influenced by the demand and supply factors of the goods.
If the current year production is not equivalent to the current year sales
Example: Prepare a production budget for three months ending March 31, 2006 for a
factory manufacturing four different articles on the basis of the following information:
Type of the Product Estimated Stock on Estimated sales during Desired Closing Stock on
Jan 1, 2006 Units Jan-Mar, 2006 Units Mar 31, 2006 Units
AA 2000 10,000 5,000
BB 3000 15,000 4,000
CC 4000 13,000 3,000
DD 5000 12,000 2,000
Solution:
Production Budget for three months ending March 31, 2006
Particulars AA BB CC DD
Units Units Units Units
Estimated Sales 10,000 15,000 13,000 12,000
Add: Desired closing stock 5,000 4,000 3,000 2,000
15,000 19,000 16,000 14,000
Less: Opening Stock 2,000 3,000 4,000 5,000
Estimated Production 13,000 16,000 12,000 9,000
Task Mr. X Co. Ltd. manufactures two different products X and Y. X forecast of the
number of units to be sold in first seven months of the year is given below:
It is expected that (a) there will be no work in progress at the end of every month,
(b) finished units equal to half the sales for the next month will be in stock at the end of each
month (including the previous December).
Contd...
Budgeted production and production costs for the whole year are as follows: Notes
This budget takes place only after identifying the number of finished products expected to
produce to the tune of production budget, in meeting the needs and demands of the customers
and consumers during the season.
In order to produce to the tune of production budget to meet the market demands, the raw
materials for the production should be maintained sufficient to supply them without any
interruption. To have uninterrupted flow of production, the firm should go for the immediate
procurement of raw materials through the multiplication of raw material required to produce for
a single product with number of units expected to produce.
!
Caution Why the stock of raw materials is deducted from the expected volume of
materials procured for production to the tune of production budget?
If there is any existing stock of raw materials, i.e. opening stock of raw materials available
from the yester seasons or years should be deducted from the volume of materials required
for production to be ordered and placed. The remaining volume should be the volume to
be ordered for production.
Example: The sales manager of the MR Ltd. reports that next year he anticipates to sell
50,000 units of a particular product.
The production manager consults the storekeeper and casts his figures as follows:
Two kinds of raw materials A and B are required for manufacturing the product. Each unit
of the product requires 2 units of A and 3 units of B. The estimated opening balances at the
commencement of the next year are:
Finished product : 10,000 units
Raw Materials A : 12,000 units Raw Materials B : 15,000 units
The desirable closing balances at the end of the next year are
Finished products : 14,000 units
Raw materials A : 13,000 units Raw materials B : 1,000 units
Prepare production budget and materials purchase budget for the next year:
Solution:
The first step is to prepare the production budget. To identify the volume of materials required
for production by considering the production budget and the closing stock of materials of A and
B respectively.
Why the closing stock of raw materials has to be added with estimated consumption? The
purpose of adding the closing stock of raw materials is to anticipate the future demand of them,
Notes due to market influence; which warrants the firm to go for placement of order not only taking
into consideration of expected consumption of raw materials but also the closing stock of raw
materials to be maintained at the end of the season, in order to facilitate to have uninterrupted
flow of production.
The opening stock of raw materials, which is available in the firm, should be considered for the
placement of order of raw materials. The materials to be ordered should be other than that of the
materials available in the firm.
Material A Material B
Estimated Consumption
For A 2 units × 54,000 1,08,000
For B 3 units × 54,000 1,62,000
Add: Closing Stock 13,000 16,000
1,21,000 1,78,000
Less: Opening Stock 12,000 15,000
Estimated Purchases 1,09,000 1,63,000
2. Estimates of the salesmen who is frequently operating in the market, known much greater
than any body in the market
4. Funds availability
5. Availability of raw materials to the tune of demand in the respective time period
Notes
Example: Reynolds Pvt. Ltd. manufactures two brands of pen Light & Elite. The sales
department of the company has three departments in different regions of the country.
The sales budgets for the year ending 31st Dec, 2006 Light department I=3,00,000; department
II=5,62,500; department III=1,80,000: Elite–department I=4,00,000; department II=6,00,000;
department III=20,000.
Sales prices are ` 3 and ` 1.20 in all departments. It is estimated that by forced sales promotion
the sales of Elite in department I will increase by 1,75,000. It is also expected that by increasing
production and arranging extensive advertisement, department III will be enabled to increase the
sale of Elite by 50,000.
It is recognized that the estimated sales by department II represent and unsatisfactory target. It is
agreed to increase both estimates by 20%.
Prepare a sales budget for the year 2006.
Solution:
Sales budget should be prepared to the tune of various influences of forthcoming seasons’ sales.
The expected increase or decrease in the sales volume should be incorporated at the time of
preparing the sales budget from the yester periods sale figures.
1. There is no change in the volume of existing sales of the department of I Light; the existing
sales of the department I of the Light should be retained as it is for the computation of the
budgeted figures, but there is a change expected to occur in the existing volume of sales
of the department I of the Elite. The change expected amounted to increase 1,75,000 units
in addition to the volume of existing sales i.e. the total volume of sales is equivalent to
4,00,000 units of existing volume of sales + 1,75,000 units expectation of increase= 5,75,000
units for Elite Department I.
2. In the II department of both Light & Elite expected to have an increase on the volume of
existing sales amounted is 20% i.e. 20% increase on the Department II of Light 5,62,500
units amounted 6,75,000 units and similarly in the case of Department II of Elite 6,00,000
units amounted 7,20,000 units.
3. In the III department of Light does not have any change in the volume of existing sales,
it means that 1,80,000 units has to be retained as it is in the computation of the budgeted
figure but in the case of Elite, department III expected to have an increase in the volume of
sales which amounted 20,000 units i.e. 70,000 units.
Sales Budget for the Year 2006
It is one of the important subfunctional budgets, prepared by the sales manager who is
responsible for the sales volume of the enterprise to increase through various devices/tools of
sales promotion.
Notes The sales overhead can be classified into two categories viz fixed sales overhead and variable
sales overhead.
Fixed sales overhead is the expenses incurred for promoting the sales, which remains the
same or fixed irrespective of the volume of the sales.
Example: The following expenses were extracted from the books of M/s Sudhir & Sons,
to prepare the sales overhead budget for the year 2006:
`
Advertisement on
Radio 2,000
Television 12,000
Salary to
Sales Administrative Staff 20,000
Sales force 15,000
Expenses of the sales department
Rent of the building 5,000
Carriage outward 5% on sales
Commission at sales 2%
Agents’ commission 6.5%
The sales during the period were estimated as follows:
` 80,000 including Agents Sales ` 8,000
` 1,00,000 including Agents Sales ` 10,500
Solution:
The most important step is to find out the variable portion of the sales overhead of M/s Sudhir
& Sons.
1. The calculation of salesmen’s commission is on the basis of the sales volume generated Notes
by the salesmen force. The total sales volume consists of two different parts viz. Sales
contributed by the sales force and another one is contribution of the agents. To find out the
sales volume of the sales man, the portion of the agents’ sales volume should be deducted
from the total sales volume.
Sales Force’s/Men’s Volume = Total Sales Volume – Agent’s Sales Volume
Similarly, the agents’ sales volume can be computed.
2. From the early step, the amount of commission is to be computed from the volume of
sales.
3. Carriage outward should be computed on the volume of sales.
Sales Overhead Budget for the Year 2006
Cash Receipt
Other Incomes
Cash Payments
Example: From the estimates of income and expenditure, prepare cash budget for the
months from April to June.
1. Plant worth ` 20,000 purchase in June 25% payable immediately and the remaining in two
equal instalments in the subsequent months.
2. Advance payment of tax payable in Jan. and April ` 6,000
3. Period of credit allowed:
(a) By suppliers 2 months
(b) To customers 1 month
4. Dividend payable ` 10,000 in the month of June.
5. Delay in payment of wages and office expenses 1 month and selling expenses ½ month.
Expected cash balance on 1st April is ` 40,000.
Solution:
1. Plant worth ` 20,000 purchased, payable immediately is 25% i.e. ` 5,000 should be paid
in the month of June. The remaining cost of the machine has to be paid in the subsequent
months, after June. The payments whatever are expected to make after June is not relevant
as far as the budget preparation concerned.
2. Delay in the payment of wages and office expenses is only one month. It means wages and Notes
office expenses of Feb. month are paid in the next month, March.
Selling expenses from the above coloured boxes, it is obviously understood that during
the months of April, May and June; the following will be stream of payment of selling
expenses.
April = ` 2,000 of Mar. (Previous Month) and ` 2,200 of April (Current month) = ` 4,200
May = ` 2,200 of April (Previous Month) and ` 2,100 of May (Current month) = ` 4,300
June = ` 2,100 of May (Previous Month) and ` 1,900 of June (Current month) = ` 4,000
3. Selling expenses is having the delay of ½ month, which means 50% of the selling expenses
is paid only in the current month and the remaining 50% is paid in the next
Every month 50% of the selling expenses of the current month and 50% of the previous
month selling expenses are paid together; the above coloured boxes depict the payment of
50% of the current selling expenses along with 50% expenses of previous month.
Cash Budget for the Periods (April and June)
Self Assessment
Notes 9. ........................ Budget is one of the important sub functional budgets, prepared by the sales
manager.
10. Cost control contains two different processes one is the ........................ of the budget and
another one is the ........................ of the prepared budget.
11. ........................ overhead is the expense incurred for the promotion of the sales.
It is a budget known as constant budget, never registers the changes in the preparation of a
budget, being prepared for irrespective level of output or production. This budget is mainly
meant for the fixed overheads of the firm which are constant in volume irrespective level of
production. The ultimate utility of the budget is to control the cost as a cost controlling measure,
but the fixed budget is meaningless in having comparison with the actual performance.
Flexible budget is prepared for any level of production as an estimate of statement of all expenses
i.e. the expenses are classified into three categories viz. variable, semi-variable and fixed expenses.
The structure of the budget for any output is only to the tune of the actual performance achieved.
This is the budget facilitates not only to have comparison in between various levels of production
but also to identify the level of lowest production cost.
Example: Draft a flexible budget for overhead expenses on the basis of following
information and determine the overhead rates at 70%, 80% and 90% plant capacity.
Master Budget
Immediately after the completion of functional or departmental level budgets, the major
responsibility of the budget officer is to consolidate the various budgets together, which is
detailed report of all operations of the firm for a definite period.
Self Assessment
Notes Peter A Pyher “A planning and budgeting process which requires each manager to justify his
entire budget request in detail from scratch (Hence zero base) and shifts the burden of proof
to each manger to justify why he should spend money at all. The approach requires that all
activities be analysed in “decision packages” which are evaluated by systematic analysis and
ranked in order of importance.”
This type of budgeting requires the manager to reason out the aim of spending, but in the case
of traditional budgeting is unlike, which are never emphasize the reasons of spending in terms
of expenses.
1. The very first step is to prepare the Zero-base Budgeting is to enlist the objectives.
2. The extent of application should be decided in the next phase of the ZBB.
3. The next important stage is to prioritize the activities.
4. The Most important step involved in the process of ABB is cost benefit analysis.
5. The final step is to select, approve the decision packages and finalise the budget.
1. It acts as guide for the management to allocate the resources more accurately depends
upon the priority for an effective implementation.
2. It enhances capability of the managers who prepares the budget for future action.
3. It paves way for optimum utilization of resources available.
4. It is a technique of utilitarian of the resources with reference to the activity involved.
5. It is dome shaped only towards the achievement of organizational goals.
1. Non-financial matters cannot be considered for the cost and benefit analysis.
2. Difficulties involved in the process of ranking of the decision packages.
3. It needs more time span for preparation and cost of operations is more and more.
15. The ..................... considers the current year as a new year for the preparation of the
budget.
16. The very first step is to prepare the Zero-base Budgeting is to enlist the ..................... .
8.6 Summary
Budget is an estimate prepared for definite future period either in terms of financial or
non-financial terms.
Cost control contains two different processes one is the preparation of the budget and
another one is the control of the prepared budget.
The ultimate aim of the production budget is to find out the volume of production to be
made during the year based on the sale volume.
The expected increase or decrease in the sales volume should be incorporated at the time
of preparing the sales budget from the yester periods sale figures.
Cash budget is nothing but an estimation of cash receipts and cash payments for specified
period. It is prepared by the head of the accounts department, i.e. Chief Accounts Officer.
Constant budget is mainly meant for the fixed overheads of the firm, which are constant in
volume irrespective level of production.
Zero-base budgeting is one of the renowned managerial tools, developed in the year 1962
in America by the Former President Jimmy Carter.
The Zero-base budgeting considers the current year as a new year for the preparation of the
budget but the yester period is not considered for consideration.
The future activities are forecasted through the zero base budgeting in accordance with the
future activities.
8.7 Keywords
Budget: A financial statement prepared for specified activity for future periods.
Cash Budget: It is a statement prepared by the organization to identify the future needs and
receipts of cash from the yester activities.
Flexible Budget: It is a financial statement prepared on the basis of principle of flexibility to identify
the cost of the unknown level of production from the existing level of operational capacity.
Particulars A B C D E F
Estimated stock on Jan. 1 16,000 6,000 24,000 2,000 14,000 28,000
Estimated stock on Jan. 31 20,000 8,000 28,000 4,000 16,000 32,000
Estimated consumption 1,20,000 44,000 1,32,000 36,000 88,000 1,72,000
Standard price per unit 25 p .10p .50p .30p .40p .50p
2. Sankaran Bros sell two products A and B, which are manufactured in one plant. During the
year 2006, the firm plans to sell the following quantities of each product.
Each of these two products is sold on a seasonal basis Sankaran Bros, plan to sell product
A through out the year at price of ` 10 a unit and product B at a price of ` 20 per unit.
A study of the past experiences reveals that Sankaran bros has lost about 3% of its billed
revenue each year because of returns (constituting 2% of loss if revenue allowances and
bad debts 1% loss).
Prepare a sales budget incorporating the above information.
3. Gopi & Co. Ltd. produces two products, Alpha and Beta. There are two sales divisions viz.
North and South. Budgeted sales of the year ended 31st December 2004 were as follows.
On the basis of assessments of the salesmen the following are the observations of sales
division for the year ending 31st December 2005:
North Alpha budgeted increase of 40% on 2004 budget
Beta budgeted increase of 10% on 2004 budget
South Alpha budgeted increase of 12% on 2004 budget
Beta budgeted increase of 15% on 2004 budget
It was further decided that because of the increased sales campaign in North an additional
sales of 5,000 units of product will result.
Prepare the sales budget for 2005 (a) zonewise (b) productwise.
4. From the following information prepare a cash budget for the months of June and July. Notes
Additional Information:
(a) Advance tax of ` 4,000 payable in June and in December 2004.
(b) Credit period allowed to debtors is two months.
(c) Credit period allowed by the vendors or suppliers.
(d) Delay in the payment of other expenses one month.
(e) Opening balance of cash on 1st June is estimated as ` 20,000.
5. The expenses for budgeted production of 10,000 units in a factory are furnished below:
Books B.M. Lall Nigam and I.C. Jain, Cost Accounting, Prentice-Hall of India (P) Ltd.
Hilton, Maher and Selto, Cost Management, 2nd Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Ltd.
M.N. Arora, Cost and Management Accounting, 8th Edition, Vikas Publishing House
(P) Ltd.
M.P. Pandikumar, Management Accounting, Excel Books.
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
9.1 Meaning of Management Accounting
9.2 Nature and Scope of Management Accounting
9.3 Limitations of Management Accounting
9.4 Relationship of Financial, Cost and Management Accounting
9.5 Summary
9.6 Keywords
9.7 Review Questions
9.8 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Explain the meaning of management accounting
Describe the nature and scope of management accounting
State the limitations of management accounting
Discuss the relationship of financial, cost and management accounting
Introduction
Management accounting as a new branch of accounting is of recent origin. Financial accounting
recorded business transactions on double-entry basis and helped ascertainment of profit or loss
for the given period and valuation of stock of assets and liabilities on a given date. Financial
accounting enabled the concern with the liabilities and safeguard the assets entrusted and therefore
was also known as custodial or stewardship accounting. Basically meant for consumption of
owners, creditors, statutory authorities, the reporting was for a concern as a whole.
Management accounting is the accounting system for making decisions of the business enterprise.
Management accounting furnishes the necessary information to assist the business enterprise to
make rational decisions through the development of policies and procedures in order to meet the
day to day commitments of the enterprise.
Definitions Notes
!
Caution The accountants generate the information for the use of management.
Self Assessment
Management Accounting
Information system Communication of Results
1. It is based on the past or yesteryear information of cost accounting and financial accounting
which influences the effectiveness of the entire management accounting.
3. It is nascent in stage, which leads to a lot of confusion among the decision makers while
interpreting the information.
4. The installation of a system leads to opposition among the working people due to different
rules, regulations, procedures and so on.
Self Assessment
6. The two major dominant forces of management accounting are financial accounting and
........................ .
Though some number of differences can be identified between cost accounting and management
accounting, the line of difference is very thin. Because, cost accounting, at present, comprises of
some of the advanced techniques and systems of costing such as budgetary control, marginal
costing, standard costing, etc. and therefore, it tends to conform to management accounting.
Consequently, not much difference can be found between the two. The main differences between
cost accounting and management accounting are given as under:
The cost accounting is very closely-related to financial accounting. Few authorities of accounting
consider cost accounting to be the branch of financial accounting. But it may be said that cost
accounting is complementary to financial accounting. Financial accounting and cost accounting
are both similar in various ways. The main relationship between financial accounting and cost
accounting are given as under:
1. The fundamental principles of double entry system are applicable in financial accounting
as well as cost accounting.
2. The results of business or organisation are revealed by both the systems of accounts.
3. The determination of future business activities and policy is guided by both accounting
systems.
4. A basis for comparison of expenditures is being provided by both the accounting systems.
5. The invoices and vouchers constitute the common basis for recording transactions under
both the systems of accounting.
6. The causes for losses and wastages of a business or industry are provided by financial and
cost accounting.
The main differences between financial accounting and cost accounting are given as under:
5. Accuracy of results It has to ensure the accuracy It need not, instead it is mainly Notes
forever. for internal use depends upon
approximation.
6. Legal responsibility Compulsory for joint stock It is not compulsory but
companies – Accounting period optional.
concept.
7. Limitation on It provides room only for the It considers both monetary and
transactions monetary transactions. non- monetary transactions at
a time together—Qualitative
changes are considered.
8. Exercise the path of Being the contributory of past It is able to highlight the
control information; not able to monitor deviations of the actual from
the plans properly. the plans and earmark the
reasons for the deviations.
Task Prepare the proforma of key financial statements prepared under financial
accounting and cost accounting.
Self Assessment
9.5 Summary
Management accounting today is a branch of accounting.
The two major dominant forces of management accounting are financial accounting and
cost accounting.
Financial accounting was found efficient for management decision-making because it
reported the state of affairs of the company as a whole posthumously.
This was all right for the owners and other outsiders. But when management got
divested from ownership and the survival of management depended on their competitive
performance, financial accounting was found inadequate.
Notes Cost accounting became closer to management needs. As time passed by, cost
accounting absorbed many decision-making techniques from other branches and became
comprehensive.
Cost finding became one of the many functions. This led to a separate branch called
management accounting.
Management accounting is based on the past or yesteryear information of cost accounting
and financial accounting which influences the effectiveness of the entire management
accounting.
The cost accounting is very closely-related to financial accounting.
Few authorities of accounting consider cost accounting to be the branch of financial
accounting.
The fundamental principles of double entry system are applicable in financial accounting
as well as cost accounting.
9.6 Keywords
Cost Accounting: This helps management to conduct performance appraisal and also facilitates
in formulating price policies.
Financial Accounting: Financial accounting is a traditional method of accounting that supplies
historical information about the firm during the past.
Management Accounting: Management accounting provides necessary information to assist the
management in the creation of policy and in the day-to-day operations.
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
10.1 Meaning and Concept of Financial Statement Analysis
10.2 Tools for Analysis and Interpretation of Financial Statement
10.3 Comparative Statements
10.3.1 Comparative Balance Sheet
10.3.2 Comparative (Income) Financial Statement Analysis
10.4 Common-size Statements
10.5 Trend Analysis
10.6 Summary
10.7 Keywords
10.8 Review Questions
10.9 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Describe the tools of financial statement analysis
Prepare comparative financial statements
Construct common size statements
Illustrate trend analysis
Introduction
Financial statement analysis is the process of examining relationships among financial statement
elements and making comparisons with relevant information. It is a valuable tool used by
investors and creditors, financial analysts, and others in their decision-making processes related
to stocks, bonds, and other financial instruments. The goal in analyzing financial statements is to
assess past performance and current financial position and to make predictions about the future
performance of a company. Investors who buy stock are primarily interested in a company’s
profitability and their prospects for earning a return on their investment by receiving dividends
and/or increasing the market value of their stock holdings. Creditors and investors who buy debt
securities, such as bonds, are more interested in liquidity and solvency: the company’s short-
and long-run ability to pay its debts. Financial analysts, who frequently specialize in following
certain industries, routinely assess the profitability, liquidity, and solvency of companies in order
to make recommendations about the purchase or sale of securities, such as stocks and bonds.
industry. Three primary types of financial statement analysis are commonly known as horizontal Notes
analysis, vertical analysis, and ratio analysis.
Horizontal Analysis
When an analyst compares financial information for two or more years for a single company,
the process is referred to as horizontal analysis, since the analyst is reading across the page to
compare any single line item, such as sales revenues.
Vertical Analysis
When using vertical analysis, the analyst calculates each item on a single financial statement as
a percentage of a total. The term vertical analysis applies because each year’s figures are listed
vertically on a financial statement. The total used by the analyst on the income statement is net
sales revenue, while on the balance sheet it is total assets.
Ratio Analysis
Ratio analysis enables the analyst to compare items on a single financial statement or to examine
the relationships between items on two financial statements. After calculating ratios for each
year’s financial data, the analyst can then examine trends for the company across years. Since
ratios adjust for size, using this analytical tool facilitates inter-company as well as intra-company
comparisons.
Notes The entire financial statement analysis can be classified into various categories:
Self Assessment
Notes current liabilities or between its accounts receivable and its annual sales. The basic sources for
these ratios are the company’s financial statements that contain figures on assets, liabilities,
profits, or losses. Financial ratios are only meaningful when compared with other information.
Since they are most often compared with industry data, ratios help an individual understand a
company’s performance relative to that of competitors; they are often used to trace performance
over time.
Ratio analysis can reveal much about a company and its operations. However, there are several
points to keep in mind about ratios. First, financial statement ratios are “flags” indicating areas of
strength or weakness. One or even several ratios might be misleading, but when combined with
other knowledge of a company’s management and economic circumstances, ratio analysis can
tell much about a corporation. Second, there is no single correct value for a ratio. The observation
that the value of a particular ratio is too high, too low, or just right depends on the perspective of
the analyst and on the company’s competitive strategy. Third, a ratio is meaningful only when
it is compared with some standard, such as an industry trend, ratio trend, a ratio trend for the
specific company being analyzed, or a stated management objective.
In trend analysis, financial ratios are compared over time, typically years. Year-to-year
comparisons can highlight trends, pointing to the need for action. Trend analysis works best
with five years of data.
The second type of ratio analysis, cross-sectional analysis, compares the ratios of two or more
companies in similar lines of business. One of the most popular forms of cross-sectional analysis
compares a company’s financial ratios to industry ratio averages.
Your report containing the analysis of the financial statements is broken down into the various
ratio categories:
1. Predictor Ratios indicate the potential for growth or failure.
2. Profitability Ratios which use margin analysis and show the return on sales and capital
employed.
3. Asset Management Ratios which use turnover measures to show how efficient a company
is in its operations and use of assets.
4. Liquidity Ratios which give a picture of a company’s short-term financial situation or
solvency.
5. Debt Management Ratios which show the extent that debt is used in a company’s capital
structure.
Notes 1. Tools employed in the horizontal analysis are Comparative statements and
Trend percentages.
2. Tools employed in the vertical analysis are Common-size financial statements and
financial ratios.
Self Assessment
Comparative statements are the financial statements which follow a consistent format but which
cover different periods of time. Comparative statements are very useful for spotting trends.
1. Changes taken place in the financial performance are taken into consideration for further
analysis.
2. To reveal qualitative information about the firm in terms of solvency, liquidity profitability
and so on are extracted from the analysis of financial statements.
3. With reference to yester financial data of the enterprise, the firm is facilitated to undergo
for the preparation of forecasting and planning.
The major part of financial statement analysis is mainly focused on the comparative analysis.
The first and foremost important step is to have the following information and should take
preparatory steps:
1. While preparing the comparative statement of balance sheet, the particulars for the financial
factors are required.
2. The second most important for the preparation of the comparative balance sheet is yester
financial data extracted from the balance sheet or balance sheets.
3. The next most important requirement to have an effective comparison with the yester
financial data is current year information extracted from the balance sheet or balance sheet
of the firms.
4. After having been procured the financial data pertaining to various time periods are ready
for comparison; to determine or identify the level of increase or decrease taken place in the
financial position of the firms.
5. To determine the level of increase or decrease in financial position, the percentage analysis
to carried out in between them.
Example: From the following information, prepare comparative Balance Sheet of X Ltd.
Solution:
As the first step, we have to segregate the available information into two different categories, viz.
Assets and Liabilities.
This analysis is being carried out in between the income statements of the various accounting
durations of the firm, with other firms in the industry and with the industrial average.
This will facilitate the firm to know about the stature of itself regarding the financial performance.
It facilitates to understand about the changes pertaining to various financial data which closely
relevantly connected with the financial performance:
1. Change in the gross sales
2. Change in the net sales
3. Change in gross profit and net profit
4. Change in operating profit
5. Change in operating expenses
6. Change in the volume of non-operating income
7. Change in the non operating expenses.
The ultimate purpose of the comparative (income) financial statement analysis is as follows:
1. To study the income earning and expenditure spending pattern of the firm for two or more
years.
2. To identify the changing pattern of the income and expenditure of the firms.
3. The preparatory steps for the preparation of the comparative financial statement (income) Notes
analysis
The first and foremost important step is to have the following information and should take
preparatory steps:
1. While preparing the comparative statement of Profit & Loss Account, the particulars for
the financial factors are required.
2. The second most important for the preparation of the comparative Profit & Loss account is
yester financial data extracted from the Profit and Loss A/c or Profit and Loss Accounts.
3. The next most important requirement to have an effective comparison with the yester
financial data is current year information extracted from the balance sheet of the firm or of
the other firms.
4. After having been procured the financial data pertaining to various time periods are ready
for comparison; to determine or identify the level of increase or decrease taken place in the
operating financial performance of the firms.
5. To determine the level of increase or decrease in financial performance, the percentage
analysis to be carried out in between them.
Solution:
Self Assessment
!
Caution For Balance sheet, total volume of assets and liabilities are taken into consideration
for the computation of a share of each financial factor available under the heading of assets
and liabilities.
Example: Prepare the common size statement analysis for the firm ABC Ltd.
Liabilities 2000 (`) 2001 (`) Assets 2000 (`) 2001 (`)
Share capital 2,00,000 3,00,000 Fixed assets 2,25,000 4,00,000
Reserves and surpluses 1,00,000 2,00,000 Stock 1,29,000 2,00,000
Bank overdraft 60,000 2,00,000 Quick assets 46,000 2,00,000
Quick liabilities 40,000 1,00,000
4,00,000 8,00,000 4,00,000 8,00,000
Solution:
Common size statement analysis of the Balance sheet of the firm ABC Ltd.
Notes
Particulars Amount % of Balance sheet total
Assets 2000 (`) 2001 (`) 2000 2001
Fixed assets 2,25,000 4,00,000 56.25 50
Stock 1,29,000 2,00,000 32.25 25
Quick assets 46,000 2,00,000 11.5 25
4,00,000 8,00,000 100 100
Liabilities
Share capital 2,00,000 3,00,000 50 37.5
Reserves and surpluses 1,00,000 2,00,000 25 25
Bank overdraft 60,000 2,00,000 15 25
Quick liabilities 40,000 1,00,000 10 12.5
4,00,000 8,00,000 100 100
The above illustration highlights the share of every component in the balance sheet out of the
total volume of assets and liabilities.
This will certainly facilitate the firm to easily understand not only the share of every component
but also facilitates to have a meaningful and relevant comparison with various time horizons.
Self Assessment
Example: If I want to see the trend of a company’s revenues, net income, and number of
clients during the years 2001 through 2007, trend analysis will present 2001 as the base year and
the 2001 amounts will be restated to be 100. The amounts for the years 2002 through 2007 will be
presented as the percentages of the 2001 amounts.
In other words, each year’s amounts will be divided by the 2001 amounts and the resulting
percentage will be presented. If revenues for the years 2001 through 2007 might have been
Example: In the following example, 2005 has been taken as a base year for the calculation
of the sales trend. According to the trend shown below, determine whether the company has
made an overall growth or not.
Trend Percentages
Solution:
We have to remember that the base year trend percentage is always 100.0%. A trend percentage
of less than 100.0% means the balance has decreased below the base year level in that particular
year. A trend percentage greater than 100.0% means the balance in that year has increased over
the base year. A negative trend percentage represents a negative number.
Also, if the base year is zero or negative, the trend percentage calculated will not be meaningful.
In this example, the sales have increased 59.3% over the five-year period while the cost of goods
sold has increased only 55.9% and the operating expenses have increased only 57.5%. The trends
look different if evaluated after four years. At the end of 2008, the sales had increased almost 20%,
but the cost of goods sold had increased 31%, and the operating expenses had increased almost
41%. These 2008 trend percentages reflect an unfavorable impact on net income because costs
increased at a faster rate than sales. On an overall basis, the trend percentages for net income
appear to be higher because the base year amount is much smaller than the other balances.
Using the restated amounts from trend analysis makes it much easier to see how effective and
efficient the company has been during the recent years. Trends may be categorized as:
Self Assessment
Task In financial statement analysis, what is the basic objective of observing trends in
data and ratios? Suggest some other standards of comparison.
T
he success of Ford Motor Company, as well as other corporations, can be measured
by analyzing the two most important goals of management, maintaining adequate
liquidity and achieving satisfactory profitability. Liquidity can be defined as having
enough money on hand to pay bills when they are due and to take care of unexpected
needs for cash, while profitability refers to the ability of business to earn a satisfactory
income. To enable investors and creditors to analyze these goals, Ford Motor Company
distributes annual financial statements. With these financial statements, liquidity of Ford
Motor Company is measured by analyzing factors such as working capitol, current ratio,
quick ratio, receivable turnover, average days’ sales uncollected, inventory turnover and
average days’ inventory on hand; whereas profitability analyzes the profit margin, asset
turnover, return on assets, debt to equity, and return on equity factors.
Contd...
Notes Liquidity
Working Capital
Ford Motor Company’s working capital fluctuated significantly in the years 1991-1995. This
phenomenon is directly attributable to the fact that Financial Services current assets and
current liabilities are not included in the total company current asset and current liability
accounts. For example, the fluctuation from 1994 ($1.4 billion) to 1995 (-$1.5 billion) of
$2.5 billion would suggest that Ford would be unable to pay liabilities during the current
period. However, examination of the Financial Services side of the business reveals that
surpluses of $13.6 billion existed in both 1994 and 1995, convincingly mitigating the figures
indicating negative working capital.
Current Ratio & Quick Ratio
The current ratio in the years 1991-1995 has remained stable, fluctuating between 0.9
and 1.1. The quick ratio has also remained stable, fluctuating between 0.5 and 0.6. The
larger fluctuation in the current ratio versus the quick ratio is caused by inventories being
included in the asset side of the equation. Although inventories were significantly higher in
both 1994 and 1995, current liabilities were also higher. In addition, marketable securities
decreased substantially in 1994 and 1995. These factors resulted in the stability of both the
current ratio and quick ratio.
Receivable Turnover & Average Days’ Sales Uncollected
An examination of trends in Ford Motor Company’s receivable turnover and average days’
sales uncollected ratios reveal positive indicators of Ford’s liquidity position. The receivable
turnover, a function of net sales and average accounts receivable, has nearly doubled in the
years 1993-1995 versus 1991-1992. This trend indicates an extensive increase of net sales in
relation to accounts receivable. Receivables were relatively higher in 1994 than in any other
of the five years, affecting the ratio for both 1994 and 1995. However, net sales increased
30% in 1994 and 34% in 1995 over the average net sales of 1991-1993. The average days’
sales uncollected ratio has decreased significantly over the same period, from 16.9 days in
1991 to 9.7 days in 1995. The substantial decrease in average days’ sales uncollected ratio
coupled with the near doubling of the receivable turnover ratio is a reflection of Ford’s
strong sales and effective credit policies in years 1993-1995.
Inventory Turnover & Average Days’ Inventory on Hand
An examination of trends in the inventory turnover and average days’ inventory on hand
ratios also reveal positive indicators of Ford’s liquidity position. Inventory turnover, a
function of cost of goods sold and inventories, has remained stable between 14.0 and 16.0
times from 1992-1995. The average ratio over these four years (15.1 times) is 40% higher than
that of 1991. The average days’ inventory on hand, a derivative of the inventory turnover,
has conversely decreased to stable level fluctuating between 23.5 and 26.0 days in the years
1992-1995. The operating cycle of Ford Motor Company has decreased significantly as the
table below indicates.
1991 1992 1993 1994 1995
Days: 50.8 29.0 33.8 31.1 34.3
Profitability
Profit Margin
Profit margin, which is net income divided by net sales, is a measure of how many dollars
of net income is produced by each dollar of sales. Ford Motor Company had a substantial 4
year rise in profit margin. Using horizontal analysis, the profit margin increased 98% from
Contd...
1991 to 1992, 566% from 1992 to 1993 and then 79% from 1993 to 1994. Although the profit Notes
margin from 1994 to 1995 decreased 26%, that is more than acceptable when you look at
the substantial increases in the past few years. In the first year, Ford had a profit margin
of -3.1%. That means for every dollar of sales, Ford lost $3.10. This is obviously not a good
position to be in. During 1991 and then carried over into 1992, it cost Ford more money to
make sales than it did when it recorded the income for those sales. They realized at this
time it was important for them to keep things such as selling and administrative expenses
lower, as well as the cost of sales, which included their production, manufacturing, and
warehousing costs. By following a plan more complex than I can describe here, Ford
steadily increased it’s sales while it lowered it’s expenses and it’s cost of sales. This directly
increased Ford’s profit margin at a substantial rate within the next three years.
Asset Turnover
Asset turnover involves Ford’s net sales divided by their average total assets. This ratio
demonstrates the efficiency of assets used in producing sales. A company like Ford Motor
Company has an enormous amount of assets. Computers to heavy equipment to buildings.
All of those assets, plus many more, are all taken into consideration when figuring asset
turnover. For example, Ford would like to know that if it decides to purchase 20 new
computer-aided engineering stations for a cost of about $2,400,000, they would like to see a
higher asset turnover to give them the proof that the investment is being used at maximum
efficiency. Ford’s asset turnover steadily increased in incremental amounts between the
years of 1991-1995, but on average it was about .43 for the entire 5 year period. Using trend
analysis to understand this ratio would give you a pretty good idea that the asset turnover
of Ford Motor Company is stable. Trend analysis would give you an index number for
1992 of 100, while the index number for 1995 would be 112. These index numbers would
result in a slightly positive but relatively straight line across the page. As a prospective
investor this would probably cause you to investigate more deeply as to why Ford can’t
more efficiently use their assets to produce sales. As a current stockholder, this trend
over the past five years may give you some comfort because of the incremental increases
(at least it isn’t going down).
Return on Assets
Return on assets is a very good profitability ratio. It is comprehensive when compared
to profit margin and asset turnover. Return on assets overcomes the deficiency of profit
margin by relating the assets necessary to produce income and it overcomes the deficiency
of asset turnover by taking into account the amount of income produced. Mathematically,
return on assets is equal to net income divided by average total assets, or more simply put,
profit margin times asset turnover. Ford can improve it’s overall profitability by increasing
it’s profit margin, the asset turnover, or both. Looking at the numbers, it was actually
Ford’s increase in profit margin that really gave it the boost it needed to raise the return on
assets from the black to the red. A steady increase in return on assets from -1.3% in 1991 to
an acceptable 2.2% in 1994 is a good sign to investors. This steady climb of 169% resulted
in an overall increase in the earning power of Ford Motor Company. Ford’s increase in
profitability shows satisfactory earning power which results in investors continuing to
provide capital to it.
Debt to Equity
The debt to equity ratio shows the portion of the company financed by creditors in
comparison to that financed by the stockholders. It is total liabilities divided by stockholder’s
equity. Ford’s debt to equity ratio is relatively high. When measuring profitability, a high
debt to equity ratio means the company has high debt and must earn more profit to protect
the payment of interest to it’s creditors. This high debt to equity ratio would also interest
Contd...
Notes stockholders because it shows what part of the business is financed through borrowing or
in other words, is debt financed. Of the five years we analyzed, the lowest debt to equity
ratio was during 1991 (6.65) and the highest was in 1993 (11.71). In comparison to return
on assets, a higher creditor financed year such as 1991 did not have an positive effect on
profitability. It seemed that through increased borrowing in 1993, a higher debt to equity
ratio was produced, but overall profitability also went up. Debt to equity is only one part
in a full profitability analysis. The only real information that the debt to equity ratio can
produce is it can show how much expansion is possible through the borrowing of long-
term funds; basically it show’s a company’s long-term solvency. A higher debt to equity
ratio essentially means that the company will be able to borrow less money. The company
must rely more on stockholder investment. Ford was able to lower it’s borrowing of funds
from 1993 through 1994 and into 1995, while still effectively increasing it’s profit margin
and return on assets. This means Ford was able to use stockholder’s investments to increase
it’s profitability rather than borrow the funds to do it.
Return on Equity
Return on equity is the ratio of net income divided by the average stockholder’s equity. This
ratio is of great interest to stockholders because it shows how much they have earned on
their investment in the business. In the years of 1991 and 1992, stockholders lost money on
their investment in Ford Motor Company. No one likes to lose money, even if it is a couple
of cents on the dollar. A major stockholder could incur quite a loss because of this. In the
next three years, return on equity was on the positive side, the peak being in 1994 when
stockholders earned about 28% on every dollar invested. Quite a good return considering
some investors are happy with a steady 8% return. Considering the previous years, the
return on equity for Ford seems to be positive. Common knowledge dictates that most
companies experience a downturn every now and then. Ford’s investors are able to remain
invested in the company because it’s overall 5 year return on equity is high enough to give
investors the high returns they seek. A return on equity consistently above 16% with a few
negative years mixed in is certainly lucrative enough to maintain a strong profitability
measurement and project a positive image to the investors of Ford Motor Company.
Conclusion
Although Ford Motor Company is one of the largest companies in the world, we can
still attribute accounting trends to some of the key events in Ford’s history. In 1990, Ford
acquired Jaguar Cars, Ltd. Jaguar was a company suffering terrible loses due to poor
quality, and lack of sales. Jaguar has been in the black since Ford purchased them until
1994. It is important to note that Ford’s net income trend from 1991 to 1995 illustrates this.
In 1992, the Ford Taurus became the number one selling car in the United States, which
helped increase 1992 net earnings, and in 1994 the Ford Falcon was the top selling car in
Australia, helping maintain the trend of increasing net income. It is important to note that
Ford’s net income has increased from 1991 to 1994, and then decreased in 1995. There are
several possible causes for this change in the trend. In 1995, Ford acquired 20% equity in a
major Chinese truck manufacturer, and launched several new vehicles; including the Ford
Contour, Ford Mondeo, Mercury Mystique, Ford F-150, and Ford Taurus. These additional
investments and expenses help explain the decrease in net income in 1995. Overall, the
company has done well, and with reorganization in 1996 to decrease spending and increase
efficiency, Ford is striving for future periods of growth.
Questions
1. What do you see as the main cause behind the result of trend analysis at Ford?
2. “Ford was able to use stockholder’s investments to increase it’s profitability rather
than borrow the funds to do it”. Justify the statement on the basis of the case.
Source: www.ghostpapers.com
10.7 Keywords
Assets: Assets are economic resources owned by business or company.
Balance Sheet: A balance sheet or statement of financial position is a summary of a person’s or
organization’s balances.
Comparative Statements: Comparative statements are the financial statements which follow a
consistent format but which cover different periods of time. Comparative statements are very
useful for spotting trends.
Financial Statement: A written report which quantitatively describes the financial health of a
company.
Trend Analysis: In trend analysis, financial ratios are compared over time, typically years.
Notes 2. From the following table, prepare the common size statement analysis:
3. A company has owner’s equity of ` 1,00,000. It has supplied the following accounting
ratios:
Current Debt to Total Debt = 0.40
Total Debt to Owner’s Equity = 0.60
Fixed Assets to Owner’s Equity = 0.60
Total Assets Turnover = 2 times
Inventory Turnover = 8 times
With the information given above, you are required to prepare a summarised Balance
Sheet of the company.
4. How is an available-for-sale investment recorded on the financial statements?
5. Comment on the following statements:
(a) An increase in money sales should always be viewed favorably.
(b) The influence of price-level changes cannot be detected by using a comparative
statement.
(c) An expansion of plant, property, and equipment should be financed by sales of
capital stock.
(d) Intangible assets should be eliminated when the balance sheet is reconstructed for
analytical purposes.
(e) An increase in liabilities should be viewed with alarm.
6. Is the trend of total liabilities of significance in analyzing the financial condition of a
business? If so, what other trends should be used in connection therewith?
7. Write a report in which you list and discuss favorable and unfavorable financial and
operating tendencies
8. Analysis shows that Zodiac Corporation incurred the following five-year gross margin and
cost histories in serving customer number 128.
Prepare a trend analysis (in terms of percentage of gross margin) for these two customer Notes
relate costs.
9. What different conclusions might the management draw about the behavior of the two
costs in question 8?
10. Which is the better analysis horizontal or vertical and why? Which is better between vertical
or horizontal ratio and why?
11. The comparative balance sheet of Oak and Tile Flooring Co. for June 30, 2008 and 2007, is
as follows:
The following additional information was taken from the records of Oak and Tile Flooring
Co:
(a) Equipment and land were acquired for cash.
(b) There were no disposals of equipment during the year.
(c) The investments were sold for $45,000 cash.
(d) The common stock was issued for cash.
(e) There was a $65,900 credit to retain earnings for net income.
(f) There was a $50,000 debit to Retained Earnings for cash dividends declared.
Prepare a statement of cash flow, using the indirect method of presenting cash flows from
operating activates.
12. Where is a contract with a customer reported on the balance sheet and why?
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
11.1 Definition
11.2 Classification of Ratios
11.2.1 On the basis of Financial Statements
11.2.2 On the basis of Functions
11.3 Liquidity Ratios
11.3.1 Current Assets Ratio
11.3.2 Acid Test Ratio
11.3.3 Super Quick Assets Ratio
11.4 Turnover Ratios
11.4.1 Stock Turnover Ratio
11.4.2 Debtors Turnover Ratio
11.4.3 Creditors Turnover Ratio
11.5 Solvency Ratios
11.5.1 Debt-equity Ratio
11.5.2 Proprietary Ratio
11.5.3 Fixed Assets Ratio
11.5.4 Coverage Ratios
11.6 Profitability Ratios
11.6.1 Gross Profit Ratio
11.6.2 Net Profit Ratio
11.6.3 Operating Profit Ratio
11.6.4 Return on Assets Ratio
11.6.5 Return on Capital Employed
11.7 Summary
11.8 Keywords
11.9 Review Questions
11.10 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Define Ration analysis
Make classification of ratios
Compute the key ratios on the basis of liquidity, activity, solvency and profitability
Notes
Introduction
The ratio analysis is one of the important tools of financial statement analysis to study the financial
stature of the business fleeces, corporate houses and so on.
According to J. Batty, “The term accounting ratio is used to describe significant relationships
which exist between figures shown in a balance sheet, in a profit and loss account, in a budgetary
control system or in any other part of the accounting organization”.
Financial statements contain substantial information (figures) relating to profit or loss and financial
position of the business. If these items in financial statements are considered independently it
may or may not be of much use. To make a meaningful reading of financial statements, these
items found in financial statements have to be compared with one another. Ratio analysis, as
a technique or analysis of financial statement uses this method of comparing the various items
found in financial statements.
11.1 Definition
According to J. Betty, “The term accounting is used to describe relationships significantly which
exist in between figures shown in a balance sheet, Profit & Loss A/c, Trading A/c, Budgetary
control system or in any part of the accounting organization.”
According to Myers “Study of relationship among the various financial factors of the
enterprise”.
3. To interpret the profitability of the firm — Profit earning capacity of the firm Notes
1. Income Statement Ratios: These ratios are computed from the statements of Trading, Profit
& Loss account of the enterprise. Some of the major ratios are as following GP ratio, NP
ratio, Expenses Ratio and so on.
2. Balance Sheet or Positional Statement Ratios: These types of ratios are calculated from the
balance sheet of the enterprise which normally reveals the financial status of the position
i.e. short-term, long-term financial position, share of the owners on the total assets of the
enterprise and so on.
3. Inter Statement or Composite Mixture of Ratios: Theses ratios are calculated by extracting
the accounting information from the both financial statements, in order to identify stock
turnover ration, debtor turnover ratio, return on capital employed and so on.
1. On the basis of solvency position of the firms: Short-term and long-term solvency position
of the firms.
2. On the basis of profitability of the firms: The profitability of the firms are studied on the
basis of the total capital employed, total asset employed and so on.
3. On the basis of effectiveness of the firms: The effectiveness is studied through the turnover
ratios — Stock turnover ratio, Debtor turnover ratio and so on.
4. Capital structure ratios: The capital structure position are analysed through leverage
ratios as well as coverage ratios.
Self Assessment
1. Ratio analysis, as a technique or analysis of ..................... uses this method of comparing the
various items found in financial statements.
2. The accounting ratios are applied to study the relationship in between the .....................
information available and to take decision on the financial performance of the firm.
3. The ..................... position are analysed through leverage ratios as well as coverage ratios.
4. The ..................... of the firms are studied on the basis of the total capital employed, total
asset employed and so on.
Example: Company XYZ has current assets worth of ` 5 lac, while the liabilities amount
to ` 3 lac. What is the current ratio of the firm?
Solution:
Current Assets
Current Ratio =
Current Liabilities
Current Ratio = 5/3 = 1.666 (approx)
Trade Creditors
Bank Overdraft
Bills Payable
Notes
!
Caution Standard norm of the current ratio:
The ideal norm is 2:1; which means that every one rupee of current liability is appropriately
covered by two rupees of current assets.
High ratio leads to greater the volume of current assets more than the specified norm denotes
that the firm possesses excessive current assets than the requirement portrays idle funds invested
in the current assets.
A big limitation of current ratio is that under this ratio, the current assets are equally weighed
against each other to match the current liabilities. One rupee of cash is equally weighed at par with
the one rupee of closing stock, but the closing stock and prepaid expenses cannot be immediately
realized like cash and marketable securities.
Example: A company has a closing stock of ` 30,000 while its prepaid expenses are
` 5000. What will be its quick assets ratio if the current assets are worth ` 50000 while current
liabilities are worth ` 15000?
Solution:
Liquid Asset = Current Assets – (Closing Stock + Prepaid Expenses)
= 50000 – (30000 + 5000)
= 15000
Liquid Assets
Quick Assets Ratio =
Current Liabilities
= 15000/15000 = 1:1
Current Liabilities
Trade Creditors
Bank Overdraft
Notes
!
Caution Standard norm of the ratio:
The ideal norm is 1:1 which means that one rupee of current liabilities is matched with one
rupee of quick assets.
It is the ratio which establishes the relationship in between the super quick assets and quick
liabilities of the firm.
The super quick assets are nothing but the current assets which can be more easily converted into
cash to meet out the quick liabilities.
The super quick liabilities are the current liabilities should have to be met out at faster pace
within shorter span in duration.
!
Caution Standard norm of the ratio:
Higher the ratio, better is the position of the firm.
(`)
Current Assets:
Stock 2,40,000
Current Liabilities:
Solution:
Self Assessment
5. Current assets ratio establishes the relationship in between the ...................... and current
liabilities.
The ratio expresses the speed of converting the stock into sales. In other words, how fast the
stock is being converted into sales in a year. The greater the ratio of conversion leads to lesser the
number of days/weeks/months required to convert the stock into sales.
Cost of Goods Sold Sales
Stock Turnover Ratio = or
Average Stock Closing Stock
!
Caution Standard norm of the ratio:
Higher the ratio is better the firm in converting the stock into sales and vice versa.
The next step is to find out the number of days or weeks or months taken or consumed by
the firm to convert the stock into sales volume.
!
Caution Standard norm of the ratio:
Lower the duration is better the position of the firm in converting the stock into sales and
vice versa.
Example: The cost of goods sold is ` 500,000. The opening stock is ` 40,000 and the
closing stock is ` 60,000 (at cost). Calculate inventory turnover ratio.
Solution:
This ratio exhibits the speed of the collection process of the firm in collecting the overdues amount
from the debtors and against Bills receivables. The speediness is being computed through debtors
velocity from the ratio of Debtors Turnover Ratio.
Notes
!
Caution Standard norm of the ratio:
Higher the ratio is better the position of the firm in collecting the overdue means the
effectiveness of the collection department and vice versa.
Debtors velocity: This is an extension of the earlier ratio to denote the effectiveness of the
collection department in terms of duration.
!
Caution Standard norm of the ratio:
Lesser the duration shows greater the effectiveness in collecting the dues which means that
the collection department takes only minimum period for collection and vice versa.
Example: Sundaram & Co. Sells goods on cash as well as credit basis. The following
particulars are extracted from the books of accounts for the calendar 2005:
Particulars `
Total Gross sales 2,00,000
Cash Sales (included in above) 40,000
Sales Returns 14,000
Total Debtors 18,000
Bills Receivable 4,000
Provision for Doubtful Debts 2,000
Total Creditors 20,000
1,46,000
Debtor Turnover Ratio = = 6.64 times
4,000 + 18,000
It shows effectiveness of the firm in making use of credit period allowed by the creditors during
the moment of credit purchase.
Notes
!
Caution Standard norm of the ratio:
Lesser the ratio is better the position of the firm in liquidity management means enjoying
the more credit period from the creditors and vice versa.
!
Caution Standard norm of the ratio:
Greater the duration is better the liquidity management of the firm in availing the credit
period of the creditors and vice versa.
365 days
Creditors Turnover Ratio = = 5 times
73 days
The next step is to substitute the found value in the equation of creditors turnover ratio
` 1,00,000
16,000+ Sundry creditors =
5
Sundry Creditors = 20,000 – 16,000 = 4,000
Notes
Task From the following particulars, prepare Trading, Profit & Loss account and a
balance sheet.
Current ratio -3
Liquid ratio -1.8
Bank overdraft - ` 20,000
Working capital - ` 2,40,000
Debtors velocity -1 month; Gross profit ratio -20%
Proprietary ratio (Fixed assets/shareholders’ fund) -.9
Reserves and surpluses -.25 of share capital
Opening stock - ` 1,20,000; 8% Debentures -` 3,60,000
Long term investments -` 2,00,000
Stock turnover ratio -10 times
Creditors velocity -1/2 month
Net profit to share capital -20%
Self Assessment
It is the ratio expresses the relationship between the ownership funds and the outsiders’ funds.
It is more specifically highlighted that an expression of relationship in between the debt and
shareholders’ funds. The debt-equity ratio can be obviously understood into two different
forms:
1. Long-term debt-equity ratio
2. Total debt-equity ratio
Let us understand each of them one by one.
It is a ratio expressing the relationship in between the outsiders’ contribution through debt
financial resource and shareholders’ contribution through equity share capital, preference share
capital and past accumulated profits. It reveals the cover or cushion enjoyed by the firm due to
the owners’ contribution over the outsiders’ contribution.
Debt (Long-term Debt = Debentures/Term Loans)
Debt-equity Ratio =
Net Worth/Equity (Shareholders' Fund)
Example: The long-term debt of company ABC is ` 3 crores and the networth of the
company is ` 5 crores. What is the long-term debt-equity ratio of ABC?
Solution:
Debt
Long-term debt-equity Ratio = = 3/5 = .6
Net Worth
Higher ratio indicates the riskier financial status of the firm which means that the firm has been
financed by the greater outsiders’ fund rather than that of the owners’ fund contribution and
vice versa.
!
Caution Standard norm of the Debt-Equity Ratio:
The ideal norm is 1:2 which means that every one rupee of debt finance is covered by two
rupees of shareholders’ fund.
The firm should have a minimum of 50% margin of safety in meeting the long-term financial
commitments. If the ratio exceeds the specification, the interest of the firm will be ruined by the
outsiders’ during the moment at when they are unable to make the payment of interest in time as
per the terms of agreement reached earlier. During the moment of liquidation, the greater ratio
may facilitate the creditors to recover the amount due lesser holding held by the owners.
The ultimate purpose of the ratio is to express the relationship total volume of debt irrespective
of nature and shareholders’ funds. If the owners’ contribution is lesser in volume in general
irrespective of its nature leads to worse situation in recovering the amount of outsiders’
contribution during the moment of liquidation.
Example: The long-term debt of company ABC is ` 3 crores and the networth of the
company is ` 5 crores. If the company has a short term debt of ` 1 crore, what is the total debt-
equity ratio of ABC?
Solution:
Short-term Debt + Long-term Debt 1+3
Total Debt-equity Ratio = = = 4:5
Equity(Shareholders' Fund) 5
The ratio illustrates the relationship in between the owners’ contribution and the total volume of
assets. In simple words, how much funds are contributed by the owners in financing the assets
Notes of the firm. Greater the ratio means that greater contribution made by the owners’ in financing
the assets.
!
Caution Standard Norm of the ratio:
Higher the ratio, better is the position
Higher ratio is better position for the firm as well as safety to the creditors.
Example: The net worth of company ABC is ` 30 crores and the total assets are worth
` 10 crores. What is the proprietary ratio of the firm?
Solution:
Owners' Funds or Equity or Shareholders' Funds 30
Proprietary Ratio = = = 3:1
Total assets 10
The ratio shows that the firm is in quite a good financial position.
The ratio establishes the relationship in between the fixed assets and long-term source of funds.
Whatever the source of long-term funds raised should be used for the acquisition of long-term
assets; it means that the total volume of fixed assets should be equivalent to the volume of long-
term funds, i.e. the ratio should be equal to 1.
!
Caution Standard norm of the ratio:
The ideal norm of the ratio is 1:1, which means that the long-term funds raised are utilised
for the acquisition of long-term assets of the enterprise.
It facilitates to understand obviously about the over capitalization or under capitalization of the
assets of the enterprise.
Example: The networth of company ABC is ` 30 crores and the net fixed assets are worth
` 100 crores. If the outsider’s funds are worth ` 70 crores, what is the fixed assets ratio of the
firm?
Solution:
Shareholders' Funds + Outsiders' Funds 30 + 70 100
Fixed Assets Ratio = = = = 1:1
Net Fixed Assets 100 100
Since the ratio is 1:1, it shows that the firm raises the long term funds utilises them only for the
acquisition of long term assets of the enterprise.
These ratios are computed to know the solvency of the firm in making the periodical payment
of interest and preference dividends. The interest and preference dividends are to be paid
irrespective of the earnings available in the hands of the firm. In other words, these are known as
fixed commitment charge of the firm.
The firms are expected to make the payment of interest on the amount of borrowings without
fail. This ratio facilitates the prospective lender to study the strength of the enterprise in making
the payment of interest regularly out of the total income. To study the capacity in making the
payment of interest is known as interest coverage ratio or debt service coverage ratio.
The ability or capacity is analysed only on the basis of Earnings Before Interest and Taxes (EBIT)
available in the hands of the firms.
Greater the ratio means that better the capacity of the firm in making the payment of interest as
well as greater the safety and vice versa.
Example: Mr Ashmit Ahuja had an earning of ` 3,00,000 before he paid the interests
and taxes. What will be the interest coverage ratio if he pays ` 30,000 as an interest? What will it
mean?
Solution:
It illustrates the firms’ ability in making the payment of preference dividend out of the earnings
available in the hands of the firm after the payment of taxation. Greater the size of the profits after
taxation, greater is the cushion for the payment of preference dividend and vice versa.
The preference dividends are to be paid without fail irrespective of the profits available in the
hands of the firm after the taxation.
Notes Since the value of the dividend coverage ratio is quite high, the company has a strong cushion for
the payment of preference dividend.
Self Assessment
The ratio elucidates the relationship in between the gross profit and sales volume.
It facilitates to study the profit earning capacity of the firm out of the manufacturing or trading
operations.
Gross Profit
Gross Profit Ratio = ×100
Sales
Example: Om enterprises has earned a gross profit of ` 6,00,000 in the first quarter.
Calculate the gross profit ratio if the corresponding sales amounted to a value of ` 30,00,000.
What does it imply?
Solution: Notes
Gross Profit 6,00,000
Gross Profit Ratio = × 100 = × 100 = 20 : 1
Sales 30,00,000
The ratio implies that the firm has earned good profits out of sales in the first quarter.
!
Caution Standard norm of the ratio:
Higher the ratio means that the firm has greater cushion in meeting the needs of preference
dividend payment against Earnings After Taxation (EAT) and vice versa.
The ratio expresses the relationship in between the net profit and sales volume. It facilitates to
portray the overall operating efficiency of the firm. The net profit ratio is an indicator of over all
earning capacity of the firm in terms of return out of sales volume.
Net Profit
Net Profit Ratio = ×100
Sales
Example: Om enterprises has earned a net profit of ` 3,00,000 in the first quarter. Calculate
the net profit ratio if the corresponding sales amounted to a value of ` 30,00,000. What does it
imply?
Solution:
Net Profit 30,000
Net Profit Ratio = × 100 = × 100 = 1 : 1
Sales 30,00,000
The ratio shows that the company is running on a no profit - no loss state.
!
Caution Standard Norm of the Ratio:
Higher the ratio, the better the position of the firm is, which means that the firm earns
greater profits out of the sales and vice versa.
The operating ratio is establishing the relationship in between the cost of goods sold and operating
expenses with the total sales volume.
Cost of Goods Sold + Operating Expenses
Operating Ratio = ×100
Net Sales
Example: The cost of goods sold by Mangamal operators is ` 2,000. What will be the
operating ratio of the firm if the operating expenses are ` 50,000 and net sales is that of ` 5,00,000?
What does it mean?
Solution:
Cost of goods sold + Operating expenses 2,000 + 50,000
Operating Ratio = × 100 = = 1:2
Net sales 5,00,000
Since the ratio is quite low, this means that the firm is in quite favourable position and thus has
a high margin of operating profit.
Notes
!
Caution Standard norm of the ratio:
Lower the ratio, the more favourable and better the firm’s position is, which highlights the
percentage of absorption, cost of goods sold and operating expenses out of sales and vice
versa. The lower ratio leads to a higher margin of operating profit.
This ratio portrays the relationship in between the earnings and total assets employed in the
business enterprise. It highlights the effective utilization of the assets of the firm through the
determination of return on total assets employed.
Example: If one company has an income of ` 1 crore and total assets of ` 10,00,000, what
will be the return on assets if net profit after taxes is ` 5,00,000?
Solution:
!
Caution Standard norm of the ratio:
Higher the ratio illustrates that the firm has greater effectiveness in the utilization of assets,
means greater profits reaped by the total assets and vice versa.
The ratio illustrates that how much return is earned in the form of Net profit after taxes out of the
total capital employed. The capital employed is nothing but the combination of both non current
liabilities and owners’ equity. The ratio expresses the relationship in between the total earnings
after taxation and the total volume of capital employed.
!
Caution Standard norm of the ratio:
Higher the ratio is better the utilization of the long term funds raised under the capital
structure means that greater profits are earned out of the total capital employed.
Example: In the previous example, if the total capital employed is worth ` 25,00,000,
what is the return on total capital employed?
Solution:
Example 1: Sundaram & Co. sells goods on cash as well as credit basis. The following
particulars are extracted from the books of accounts for the calendar year 2005:
Particulars `
Total Gross sales 2,00,000
Cash sales (included in above) 40,000
Sales returns 14,000
Total Debtors 18,000
Bills receivable 4,000
Provision for doubtful debts 2,000
Total creditors 20,000
Example 2: Determine the value of the closing stock from the following details:
Sales ` 8,00,000
Gross profit 10% on sales
Stock velocity 4 times
Closing stock was ` 10,000 in excess of opening stock.
To find out the closing stock, stock turnover ratio is to be taken for consideration.
Cost of goods sold
Stock turnover ratio =
Average stock
Cost of goods sold = Sales-Gross profit
= ` 8,00,000-10% on ` 8,00,000
= ` 8,00,000-80,000 = ` 7,20,000
` 7,20,000
4 times =
Average stock
Average stock = ` 1,80,000
` 1,00,000
=
` 16,000 + Sundry creditors
The next step is to find out the sundry creditors; the reversal process is to be adopted.
365 days
73 days =
Creditors turnover ratio
365 days
Creditors turnover ratio = = 5 times
73 days
The next step is to substitute the found value in the equation of creditors turnover ratio. Notes
` 1,00,000
` 16,000 + Sundry creditors=
5
Sundry creditors = ` 20,000 - ` 16,000 = ` 4,000
Self Assessment
11.7 Summary
Ratio analysis is one of the important tools of financial statement analysis to study the
financial structure of the business fleeces.
Financial ratio analysis is the calculation and comparison of ratios which are derived from
the information in a company’s financial statements.
The level and historical trends of these ratios can be used to make inferences about a
company’s financial condition, its operations and attractiveness as an investment.
Financial ratios are calculated from one or more pieces of information from a company’s
financial statements.
A ratio gains utility by comparison to other data and standards.
Ratios are classified as liquidity, leverage, profitability, activity, integrated and growth
ratio.
Although financial ratio analysis is well-developed and the actual ratios are well-known,
practicing financial analysts often develop their own measures for particular industries
and even individual companies.
Analysts often differ drastically in their conclusions from the same ratio analysis.
11.8 Keywords
Balance Sheet or Positional Statement Ratios: These type of ratios are calculated from the
balance sheet of the enterprise which normally reveals the financial status of the position i.e.
short-term, long-term financial position, Share of the owners on the total assets of the enterprise
and so on.
Capital Structure Ratios: The capital structure position are analysed through leverage ratios as
well as coverage ratios.
Current Assets: Current assets are in the form of cash, equivalent to cash or easily convertible
into cash.
Current Liabilities: Current liabilities are short-term financial resources or payable in short span
of time within a year.
Income Statement Ratios: These ratios are computed from the statements of Trading, Profit &
Loss account of the enterprise.
Liabilities ` Assets `
Share capital 42,000 Fixed Assets Net 34,000
Reserve 3,000 Stock 12,400
Annual Profit 5,000 Debtors 6,400
Bank overdraft 4,000 Cash 13,200
Sundry creditors 12,000
66,000 66,000
2. Liquid Assets ` 65,000; Stock ` 20,000; Pre-paid expenses ` 5,000; Working capital ` 60,000.
Calculate current assets ratio and liquid assets ratio.
3. The current ratio of Bicon Ltd. is 4.5:1 and liquidity ratio is 3:1 stock is ` 6,00,000. Find out
the current liabilities.
4. From the following information, prepare a balance sheet show the workings
`
(a) Working capital 75,000
(b) Reserves and surplus 1,00,000
(c) Bank overdraft 60,000
(d) Current ratio 1.75
(e) Liquid Ratio 1.15
(f) Fixed assets to proprietors’ fund .75
(g) Long term liabilities Nil
(B.Com Madras, April 1980)
5. Debtors velocity 3 months
Creditors velocity 2 months
Stock velocity 8 times
Capital turnover ratio 2.5 times
Fixed assets turnover ratio 8 times
Gross profit turnover ratio 25%
Gross profit in a year amounts to ` 1,60,000 .There is no long term loan or overdraft .
Reserves and surplus amount to ` 56,000. Liquid assets are ` 1,94,666. Closing stock of the
year is ` 4,000 more than the opening stock Bill receivable amount to ` 10,000 and bills
payable to ` 4,000
(a) Find out
(i) Sales
(ii) Closing stock
6. You have been hired as an analyst for Mellon Bank and your team is working on an
independent assessment of Daffy Duck Food In(c) (DDF In(c)) DDF In(c) is a firm that
specializes in the production of freshly imported farm products from France. Your assistant
has provided you with the following data for Flipper Inc. and their industry.
In the annual report to the shareholders, the CEO of Flipper Inc wrote, “2003 was a good
year for the firm with respect to our ability to meet our short-term obligations. We had
higher liquidity largely due to an increase in highly liquid current assets (cash, account
receivables and short-term marketable securities).” Is the CEO correct? Explain and use
only relevant information in your analysis.
7. In the above question, what will you say when you are asked to provide the shareholders
with an assessment of the firm’s solvency and leverage. Be as complete as possible given
the above information, but do not use any irrelevant information.
8. Firm A has a Return on Equity (ROE) equal to 24%, while firm B has an ROE of 15% during
the same year. Both firms have a total debt ratio (D/V) equal to 0.8. Firm A has an asset
turnover ratio of 0.9, while firm B has an asset turnover ratio equal to 0.4. What can we
analyse about the relationship between both the firms?
9. If a firm has ` 1,00,000 in inventories, a current ratio equal to 1.2, and a quick ratio equal to
1.1, what is the firm’s Net Working Capital?
10. What can you say about the asset management of the firm discussed in question 6?
Be as complete as possible given the above information, but do not use any irrelevant
information.
11. The data summarised in the table below show the performance of two firms A and B, over
five years.
Notes
(a) Using the information in the table explain the comparative attractiveness of the two
firms to a potential investor.
(b) Why is it important that potential investors should be aware of the ratio of ordinary
share capital to other forms of long-term finance?
Books B.M. Lall Nigam and I.C. Jain, Cost Accounting, Prentice-Hall of India (P) Ltd.
Hilton, Maher and Selto, Cost Management, 2nd Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Ltd.
M.N. Arora, Cost and Management Accounting, 8th Edition, Vikas Publishing House
(P) Ltd.
M.P. Pandikumar, Management Accounting, Excel Books.
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
12.1 Meaning of Fund Flow Statement
12.2 Preparation of Statement of Changes in Working Capital
12.3 Preparing Funds from Operations
12.3.1 Net Profit Method
12.3.2 Sales Method
12.4 Preparing Fund Flow Statement
12.5 Summary
12.6 Keywords
12.7 Review Questions
12.8 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Explain the meaning of fund flow analysis
Illustrate the preparation of statement of changes in working capital
Prepare fund flow statement
Introduction
Every business establishment usually prepares the balance sheet at the end of the fiscal year
which highlights the financial position of the yester years. It is subject to change in the volume
of the business not only illustrates the financial structure but also expresses the value of the
applications in the liabilities side and assets side respectively. Normally, Balance sheet reveals
the status of the firm only at the end of the year, not at the beginning of the year. It never discloses
the changes in between the value position of the firm at two different time periods/dates.
The method of portraying the changes on the volume of financial position is the analysis of fund
flow statement.
Notes i.e. especially due to either increase or decrease in the working capital. Some of the transactions
may lead to increase or decrease the volume of working capital. Some other transactions register
neither an increase nor decrease in the volume of working capital.
According to Foulke, “A statement of source and application of funds is a technical device
designed to analyse the changes to the financial condition of a business enterprise in between
two dates.”
Various facets of fund flow statement are as follows:
1. Statement of sources and application of funds
2. Statement changes in financial position
3. Analysis of working capital changes and
4. Movement of funds statement
5. Depreciation charged on assets
6. Appropriation of profits to reserves
7. Payment of interim dividends
8. Payment and appropriations in relation to provisions for taxation/dividends where they
are treated as non-current liabilities.
Fund flow statement has following objectives:
1. It pinpoints the mobilization of resources and the further utilization of resources.
2. It highlights the financing of the general expansion of the business firms.
3. It exemplifies the utilization of debt finance in the structure of financing.
4. It portrays the relationship between the financing, investments, liquidity and dividend
decision of the firm during the given point of time.
1. First and foremost step is to prepare the statement of changes in working capital, i.e.
to identify the flow of fund/movement of fund through the detection of changes in
the volume of working capital.
2. Second step is the preparation of Non-current A/c items-Changes in the volume of
Non-current A/cs have to be prepared only in order to quantify the flow fund i.e.
either sources or application of fund.
3. Third step is the preparation Adjusted Profit & Loss A/c, which already elaborately
discussed in the early part of the unit.
4. Last step is the preparation of fund flow statement.
Self Assessment
The ultimate purpose of preparing the schedule of changes in the working capital illustrates the
changes in the volume of net working capital which envisages either sources or application of
fund. The schedule of changes is focused as follows:
Increase in Current Assets Increase in Working Capital
Example: From the following details prepare a statement showing changes in working
capital during 2005.
Balance Sheet of Pioneer Ltd
as on 31st December
Liabilities 2004 (`) 2005 (`) Assets 2004 (`) 2005 (`)
Share capital 5,00,000 6,00,000 Fixed assets 10,00,000 11,20,000
Reserves 1,50,000 1,80,000 Less: Depreciation 3,70,000 4,60,000
Profit and Loss A/c 40,000 65,000 6,30,000 6,60,000
Debentures 3,00,000 2,50,000 Stock 2,40,000 3,70,000
Creditors for goods 1,70,000 1,60,000 Book Debts 2,50,000 2,30,000
Provision for tax 60,000 80,000 Cash in hand 80,000 60,000
Preliminary expenses 20,000 15,000
12,20,000 13,35,000 12,20,000 13,35,000
Notes Solution:
Schedule of Changes in Working Capital
Self Assessment
State whether the following statements are true or false:
3. Normally, working capital means current assets.
4. Increase in current assets means increase in working capital.
5. Purchase of plant and machinery ` 10 lakh through the issue of 1 Lakh shares at ` 10 per
share; affect the non-current asset and current liabilities accounts.
6. XYZ Ltd. has made a credit purchase of ` 1 lakh worth of goods led to ` 1 lakh worth
of additional stock of tradable goods for the enterprise, leads to increase in the working
capital.
!
Caution The first method is widely used method by all in determining the volume of
Fund from Operations (FFO).
Under the Net Profit Method, fund flow from operations can be computed. Under this method,
fund from operations can be determined in two different ways The first method is through the
statement format
The second method of determining the fund from operations under the first classification is the
Accounting Statement Format
Adjusted Profit & Loss A/c
Dr Cr
To Depreciation xxxx By Opening Balance Profit xxxx
To Goodwill Written off xxxx By Profit on Sale of Fixed Assets xxxx
To Patent Written off xxxx By Profit on Sale of Investments xxxx
To Loss on Sale of Fixed Asset xxxx By Profit on Redemption of Liability xxxx
To Loss on Sale of Investment xxxx By Transfer from General Reserve xxxx
To Loss on Redemption of Liability xxxx By Balancing Figure fund from Operations xxxx
(FFO)
Contd...
Under this method, the following is the statement format is used to arrive fund flow from
operations.
Sources:
Sales xxxxx
Stock at the end xxxxx
Less:
Application:
Stock at Opening xxxx
Net Purchases(Purchase-Returns) xxxx
Wages xxxx
Salaries xxxx
Telephone expenses xxxx
Electricity charges xxxx
Office stationery expenses xxxx
Other operating cash expenses xxxx
1,22,000
Less: Refund of Tax 6,000
Profit on Sale of Building 10,000
Dividend Received 10,000
Second Method:
Adjusted Profit & Loss A/c
Task Discuss any non-current account transactions affecting the fund position of a firm
of your choice.
Self Assessment
Notes
Example: From the following relating to Panasonic Ltd., prepare funds flow statement.
Liabilities 2004 (`) 2005 (`) Assets 2004 (`) 2005 (`)
Share capital 6,00,000 8,00,000 Fixed assets 3,80,000 4,20,000
Reserves 2,00,000 1,00,000 Accounts receivable 2,10,000 3,00,000
Retained earnings 60,000 1,20,000 Stock 3,00,000 3,90,000
Accounts payable 90,000 2,70,000 Cash 60,000 1,80,000
9,50,000 12,90,000 9,50,000 12,90,000
Additional Information:
1. The company issued bonus shares for ` 1,00,000 and for cash ` 1,00,000.
Solution:
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Balance b/d 3,80,000 By Depreciation (Adjusted Profit & 30,000
Loss A/c )
To Cash (Purchase) Balancing fig. 70,000 By Balance c/d 4,20,000
4,50,000 4,50,000
Notes The next non-current account is that non-current liability which is nothing but Share capital
Dr Share Capital A/c Cr
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Balance c/d 8,00,000 By Cash (Issue of shares) 1,00,000
By General reserve 1,00,000
By Balance b/d 6,00,000
8,00,000 8,00,000
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Share capital 1,00,000 By Balance b/d 2,00,000
To Balance c/d 1,00,000
2,00,000 2,00,000
The next step is to prepare the Adjusted Profit & Loss A/c.
Dr Adjusted Profit & Loss A/c Cr
Particulars ` Particulars `
To (Fixed Assets ) By Balance b/d (Retained Earnings) 60,000
depreciation 30,000
To Balance c/d 1,20,000 By Fund from operation Balancing fig.. 90,000
1,50,000 1,50,000
The next step is to prepare the fund flow statement of the enterprise.
Fund Flow Statement
Sources ` Applications `
Issue of Shares 1,00,000 Purchase of Land 70,000
Funds from operation 90,000 Increase in working capital 1,20,000
1,90,000 1,90,000
Example: Balance sheets of M/s Black and White as on 1-1-2006 and 31-12-2006 were as
follows:
Balance sheet
The next step is to determine the cost of the machinery before the charge of depreciation i.e. to
find out the Gross value of the assets. In other, words, original cost of the assets to be found out
at the moment of purchase.
1-1-2006 31-12-2006
Written down value of the machinery extracted from the ` 80,000 ` 55,000
balance sheet as on dated
Add: Accumulated depreciation or
Provision for depreciation 25,000 40,000
Original Cost of Machinery 1,05,000 95,000
The ultimate aim is to find out the original cost of the machinery for the preparation of the
machinery account.
Before preparing the Machinery account, the worth of the sale transaction of the machinery
should be found out.
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Balance B/d 1,05,000 By Cash (Sales) 5,000
By Provision for Depreciation 3,000
By loss on sale(Adjusted profit and 2,000
loss account)
By Balance c/d 95,000
1,05,000 1,05,000
The next one is the provision for depreciation account or accumulated depreciation account.
Dr Provision for Depreciation A/c Cr
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Machinery A/c 3,000 By Balance B/d 25,000
To Balance c/d 40,000 By depreciation provided during the 18,000
current year
43,000 43,000
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Drawings (Balancing fig.) 17,000 By Balance B/d 1,25,000
To Balance c/d 1,53,000 By Net profit 45,000
1,70,000 1,70,000
At the end of the year, the total volume of the capital should be equivalent to ` 1,70,000 but it Notes
amounts ` 1,53,000. It is only due to the personal drawings of the owner of the enterprise.
The closing volume of the loan is more than the opening balance of loan; it means that the
firm has recently borrowed an amount of ` 10,000 in addition to opening balance of the loan
borrowings.
Debit what comes in - Cash resources are coming inside the business.
Credit the giver/liabilities - Register the name of the banker who is nothing but the giver of the
loan.
Particulars ` Particulars `
By Balance B/d 40,000
To Balance c/d 50,000 By Cash (Balancing fig) 10,000
50,000 50,000
The opening balance of the loan amount is greater than the closing balance which amounted to
` 25,000; it means that the initial loan amount was paid during the year.
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Cash (Loan paid) 25,000 By Balance B/d 25,000
To Balance c/d -----------
25,000 25,000
The name of the party that receives the amount of loan repayment should be mentioned.
Debit the receiver - Cash resources are going out of the firm during the moment of making the
repayment of the loan. Credit what goes out of the firm.
The closing balances of the land and building are greater than the opening balances: this means
that additional land and building was procured by the firm for its future prospects.
The purchase of the land & building leads to applications -outflow of fund
The next step is to prepare the Adjusted Profit & Loss Account.
Adjusted Profit & Loss Account
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Machinery (Loss on sale) 2,000 By Balance B/d -----------
To Provision for Depreciation 18,000 By fund from operations 65,000
To Balance c/d (Net profit) 45,000
65,000 65,000
Sources ` Applications `
Sale of machinery 5,000 Purchase of land 10,000
Loan from P.N.Bank 10,000 Purchase of Building 25,000
Fund from operation 65,000 Drawings 17,000
Repayment of Mr. White Loan 25,000
Increase in working capital 3,000
80,000 80,000
Self Assessment
Choose the appropriate answer
10. The meaning of the “To cash ( Tax paid)” entry posted in the Provision for taxation account
is
(a) Last year taxation is paid through the current year provision
(b) Current year taxation is paid through the current year provision
(c) Last year tax is paid through the last year taxation
(d) Current year taxation is paid through the last year provision
11. Profit on sale of the fixed assets are considered to be
(a) Resource to the enterprise
(b) Non-operating income
(c) Application of the enterprise
(d) None of the above
12. The treatment of current year depreciation with the closing balance of profit in determining
the fund from operations
(a) To be added
(b) To be multiplied
(c) To be deducted
(d) To be divided
13. The redemption bank term loan leads to change in the
(a) Non-current liability account and current asset account
(b) Current asset account and current liabilities account
(c) Non-current asset account and current liabilities account
(d) Non-current asset account and current liabilities account
14. Flow of funds means the change in
(a) funds
(b) working capital
(c) either
(d) both
12.5 Summary
Fund flow statements summarize a firm’s inflow and outflow of funds.
Simply put, it tells investors where funds have come from and where funds have gone.
The statements are often used to determine whether companies efficiently source and
utilize funds available to them.
Fund flow statements are prepared by taking the balance sheets for two dates representing
the coverage period.
The increases and decreases must then be calculated for each item. Finally, the changes are
classified under four categories: (1) Long-term sources, (2) Long-term uses, (3) Short-term
sources, and (4) Short-term uses.
It is also important to zero out the non-fund based adjustments in order to capture only the
changes that are accompanies by flow of funds.
However, income accrued but received and expenses incurred but not received reckoned
in the profit and loss statement should not be excluded from the profit figure for the fund
flow statement.
Fund flow statements can be used to identify a variety of problems in the way a company
operates.
Meanwhile, a company that is using long-term money to finance short-term investments
may not be efficiently utilizing its capital.
12.6 Keywords
Current Assets: Assets which are in the form of cash, equivalent to cash or easily convertible into
cash.
Current Liabilities: Short-term financial resources of the firm.
Decrease in Working Capital: Decrease in Net working capital i.e. Excess of current liabilities
over the current assets – Resources side of the fund flow.
Flow: Flow means changes occurred in between two different time periods.
Fund: Fund means working capital.
2. Balance sheets of M/s Black and White as on 1-1-2006 and 31-12-2006 were as follows:
Balance Sheet
Additional Information:
(a) During the year machine costing ` 10,000 (accumulated depreciation ` 3,000) was
sold for ` 5,000.
(b) The provision for depreciation against machinery as on 1-1-2006 was ` 25,000 and on
31-12-2006 ` 40,000.
(c) Net profit for the year 2006 amounted to ` 45,000.
You are required to prepare funds flow statement.
3. Discuss the various methods of determining the fund from/lost (in) operations. Notes
4. Explain the process of preparing the statement of changes in working capital.
5. Draft the pro forma of the Fund Flow Statement.
6. From the following balance sheets of A Ltd. on 31st Dec. 2008 and 2009, you are required
to prepare Fund flow statement. The following are additional information has also been
given
(a) Depreciation charged on plant was ` 4,000 and on building ` 4,000
(b) Provision for taxation of ` 19,000 was made during the year 2009.
(c) Interim Dividend of ` 8,000 was paid during the year 2009.
Balance Sheet
Liabilities 2008 (`) 2009 (`) Assets 2008 (`) 2009 (`)
Share capital 1,00,000 1,00,000 Good will 12,000 12,000
General Reserve 14,000 18,000 Building 40,000 36,000
Profit & Loss A/c 16,000 13,000 Plant 37,000 36,000
Sundry creditors 8,000 5,400 Investments 10,000 11,000
Bills payable 1,200 800 Stock 30,000 23,400
Provision for taxation 16,000 18,000 Bill receivable 2,000 3,200
Provision for doubtful 400 600 Debtors 18,000 19,000
debts
Cash 6,600 15,200
1,55,600 1,55,800 1,55,600 1,55,800
7. Prepare schedule of changes in Working Capital and Funds Flow Statement from the
following Balance Sheets as on December 31, 2008.
9. The following is the abstract of balance sheet of Software securities Ltd. for the year 2005
and 2006
(e) Equipment with a cost of ` 298800 was purchased for cash .Equipment with a cost of Notes
` 73800 (book value ` 64800) was sold for ` 61200.
(f) Debenture for ` 18000 were redeemed for cash and for ` 54000 were redeemed by
converting into equity shares at par value.
(g) Equity shares of ` 162000 were issued for cash at par.
(h) Income tax paid during the year amounted to ` 117000.
Prepare the fund flow statement with both the methods.
10. “Fund flow statements can be used to identify a variety of problems in the way a company
operates.” Illustrate the statement by the help of suitable examples.
Books B.M. Lall Nigam and I.C. Jain, Cost Accounting, Prentice-Hall of India (P) Ltd.
Hilton, Maher and Selto, Cost Management, 2nd Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Ltd.
M.N. Arora, Cost and Management Accounting, 8th Edition, Vikas Publishing House
(P) Ltd.
M.P. Pandikumar, Management Accounting, Excel Books.
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
13.1 Meaning of Cash Flow Statement
13.2 Classification of Cash Flow
13.2.1 Cash Flow from Operating Activities
13.2.2 Cash Flow from Investing Activities
13.2.3 Cash Flow from Financing Activities
13.3 Preparation of Cash Flow Statement
13.4 Summary
13.5 Keywords
13.6 Review Questions
13.7 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Explain the meaning of cash flow statement
Compute the cash flow form operating, investing and financing activity
Prepare cash flow statement as per AS-3
Introduction
Cash is considered one of the vital sources of the firm to meet day to day financial commitments.
The cash is considered to be as most important source of life blood of the business. The day to
day financial commitments are met out only out of the available resources. The cash resources are
availed through two different types of receipts viz. sales, dividends, interests known as regular
receipts and sale of assets, investments known as irregular receipts of the business enterprise.
To have smooth flow of business enterprise, it should have ample cash resources for its operations.
The availability of cash resources is mainly depending on the cash inflows of the enterprises. The
smoothness in operations of the enterprise is obtained through an appropriate matching of cash
inflows and cash outflows.
To have smoothness in the operations of the enterprise, the firm should have an appropriate
volume of cash resources at speedier rate as well as more than the financial commitments of
the firm. This smoothness could be attained by way of an appropriate planning analysis on the
cash resources of the firm. The meaningful analysis is only possible through cash flow statement
analysis which facilitates the firm to identify the possible sources of cash as well as the expenses
and expenditures of the firm.
The cash flow statement is being prepared on the basis of extracted information of historical
records of the enterprise. Cash flow statements can be prepared for a year, for six months, for
quarterly and even for monthly. The cash includes not only means that cash in hand but also Notes
cash at bank.
The following are the main motives of preparing the cash flow statement:
1. To identify the causes for the cash balance changes in between two different time periods,
with the help of corresponding two different balance sheets.
2. To enlist the factors of influence on the reduction of cash balance as well as to indicate the
reasons though the profit is earned during the year and vice versa.
1. To identify the reasons for the reduction or increase in the cash balances irrespective level
of the profits earned by the firm.
2. It facilitates the management to maintain an appropriate level of cash resources.
3. It guides the management to take futuristic decisions on the prospective demands and
supply of cash resources through projected cash flows.
(a) How much cash resources are required?
(b) How much cash requirements could be internally settled?
(c) How much cash resources are to be raised through external sources?
(d) Which types of instruments are going to be floated for raising the required
resources?
4. It helps the management to understand its capacity at the moment of borrowing for any
further capital budgeting decisions.
5. It paves way for scientific cash management for the firm through maintenance of appropriate
cash levels, i.e. optimum level cash of resources.
6. It avoids in holding excessive or inadequate cash resources through proper planning of
cash resources.
7. It moots control through identification of variations occurred in the cash expenses and
expenditures.
Self Assessment
Notes 2. The ...................... are availed through two different types of receipts viz. sales, dividends,
interests known as regular receipts and sale of assets, investments known as irregular
receipts of the business enterprise.
3. The cash includes not only means that cash in hand but also ...................... .
As per AS-3 (revised) the cash flow statement is prepared in a manner reporting the cash flows
into following categories:
Cash flows from operating activities are earned from the principal revenue - producing activities
of an enterprise. Through these activities the net profit or loss of the business is also determined.
Examples of such a flow from operating activities are given in AS-3 (revised) as follows:
1. Cash receipts from the sale of goods and rendering of services;
2. Cash receipts from royalties, fees, commissions and other revenue;
3. Cash payments to suppliers for goods and services;
4. Cash payments to and on behalf of employees;
5. Cash receipts and cash payments of an insurance enterprise for premiums and claims,
annuities and other policy benefits;
6. Cash payments or refunds of income taxes unless they can be specifically identified with
financing and investing activities, and
7. Cash receipts and payments relating to future contracts, forward contracts, option contracts
and swap contracts when the contracts are held for dealing or trading purposes.
!
Caution Some transactions, such as the sale of an item of plant, may give rise to a gain or
loss which is included in the determination of net profit or loss. However, the cash flows
relating to such transactions are cash flows from investing activities.
Cash Flows
Cash Inflows
Cash Outflows
Investing activities of an enterprise include the purchase of fixed assets (as plant and machinery,
land and buildings, furniture and fixtures) with an intention to generate the future incomes.
On account of being an important activity, a separate disclosure of the cash flows from these
activities is made. Examples of cash flows arising from investing activities are in AS-3 (revised)
as follows:
1. Cash payments of acquired fixed assets (including intangibles). These payments include
those relating to capitalized research and development costs and self-constructed fixed
assets;
2. Cash receipts from disposal of fixed assets (including intangibles);
3. Cash payments to acquired shares, warrants or debt instruments of other enterprises and
interests in joint ventures (other than payments for those instruments considered to be cash
equivalents and those held for dealing or trading purposes);
4. Cash receipts from disposal of shares, warrants or debt instruments of other enterprises
and interests in joint ventures (other than receipts from those instruments considered to be
cash equivalents and those held for dealing or trading purposes);
5. Cash advances and loans made to third parties (other than advances and loans made by a
financial enterprise);
6. Cash receipts from the repayment of advances and loans made to third parties (other than
advances and loans of a financial enterprise);
7. Cash payments for future contracts, forward contracts, option contracts and swap contracts
except when the contracts are held for dealing or trading purposes, or the payments are
classified as financing activities; and
8. Cash receipts from future contracts, forward contracts, option contracts and swap contracts
except when the contracts are held for dealing or trading purposes, or the receipts are
classified as financing activities.
Did u know? When a contract is accounted for as a hedge of an identifiable position, the
cash flows of the contract are classified in the same manner as the cash flows of the position
being hedged.
Cash Flow
Under financial activities those activities are included which are relating to the size and
composition of capital (equity and preferences) and borrowing or loans. As per AS-3 (revised), the
separate disclosure of cash flows arising from financing activities is important because it is useful
in predicting claims on future cash flows by providers of funds (both capital and borrowings) to
the enterprise. Examples of cash flows arising from financing activities are:
1. Cash proceeds from issuing shares or other similar instruments;
2. Cash proceeds from issuing debentures, loans, notes, bonds and other short or long-term
borrowings; and
3. Cash repayments of amounts borrowed.
Cash Flow
Contd...
and dividend is considered into financing activities. This cash flow arising from Notes
interest and dividend paid or received is disclosed separately.
4. Taxes on Income: If no adverse information is given relating to taxes paid on incomes,
cash flow arising from the taxes paid as income is classified in operating activities.
If taxes are paid on such income which is relating to finance, such a cash flow will be
classified into financial activities.
5. Non-cash Transactions: The non-cash transactions are not recorded in cash flow
statement because they do not have a direct impact on the current cash flow while
they affect the capital and assets as purchase of fixed assets by the issue of shares or
debentures. In AS-3 (revised) examples of non-cash transactions are mentioned as
below:
(a) The acquisition of assets by assuming directly related liabilities,
(b) The acquisition of an enterprise by means of issue of shares, and
(c) The conversion of debt to equity
6. Balances of Foreign Branches: In some situations, the balance of cash and cash
equivalent held with foreign branches are not available due to foreign exchange
control or other legal restrictions. So the management should use that amount which
can be measured in cash and cash equivalent.
Self Assessment
4. Cash flows from ..................... activities are earned from the principal revenue - producing
activities of an enterprise.
6. Cash proceeds from issuing shares or other similar instruments are the examples of cash
flow from ..................... activities.
7. The ..................... are not recorded in cash flow statement because they do not have a direct
impact on the current cash flow while they affect the capital and assets as purchase of fixed
assets by the issue of shares or debentures.
8. Cash flow arising from the ..................... is shown in the cash flow statement after classifying
it into operating, investing and financing activities.
Cash flow statement provides information about the cash receipts and payments of an enterprises
for a given period. It provides important information that supplements the profit and loss account
and balance sheet.
The statement of cash flows is required to be reported by Accounting Standard-3 (Revised ) issued
by the Institute of Chartered Accountants of India in March 1997 Which replaces the ‘Changes in
Financial Position’ as per AS-3.
There are certain changes in the preparation of cash flow statement from the previous methods
as a result of the introduction of AS-3 (Revised).
Notes AS-3 (Revised) is mandatory in nature in respect of accounting periods commencing on or after
1-4-2001 for the following:
1. Enterprises whose equity or debt securities are listed on a recognised stock exchange in
India, and enterprises that are in the process of issuing equity or debt securities that will
be listed on a recognised stock exchange in India as evidenced by the board of directors’
resolution in this regard.
2. All other commercial, industrial and business reporting enterprises, whose turnover for
the accounting period exceeds ` 50 crores.
There are two methods of converting net profit into net cash flows from operating activities:
Direct Method
Under direct method, cash receipts from operating revenues and cash payments for operating
expenses are arranged and presented in the cash flow statement. The difference between cash
receipts and cash payments is the net cash flow from operating activities. It is in effect a cash
basis profit & loss account. In this case, each cash transaction is analysed separately and the total
cash receipts and payments for the period are determined. The summarised data for revenue
and expenses can be obtained from the financial statements and additional information. We may
convert accrual basis of revenue and expenses to equivalent cash receipts and payments. Make
sure that a uniform procedure is adopted for converting accrual base items to cash base items.
The following are some examples of usual cash receipts and cash payments resulting from
operating activities:
1. Cash sales of goods and services;
2. Cash collected from debtors (customers);
3. Cash receipts of interest or dividends;
4. Cash receipts of royalties, fees, commission and other revenues;
5. Cash payments to suppliers (creditors);
6. Cash payments for various operating expenses, i.e., rent, rates, power, etc.
7. Cash payments for wages and salaries to employees;
8. Cash payments for income tax, etc.
Indirect Method
In this method, the net profit (loss) is used as the base and converted to net cash provided by
(used in) operating activities. The indirect method adjusts net profit for items that affected net
profit but did not affect cash. Non-cash and non-operating charges in the profit & loss account are
added back to the net profit, while non-cash and non-operating credits are deducted to calculate
operating profit before working capital changes. It is a partial conversion of accrual basis profit
to cash basis profit. Necessary adjustment are made for increase/decrease in current assets and
current liabilities to obtain net cash from operating activities.
(`)
Cash Flows from Operating Activities
Cash receipts from customers (xxx)
Cash paid to suppliers and employees xxx
Cash generated from operations (xxx)
Income-tax paid xxx
Cash flow before extraordinary items xxx
Proceeds from earthquake disaster settlement, etc. xxx
Net cash flow from operating activities (a) xxx
Cash flows from Investing Activities
Purchase of fixed assets (xxx)
Proceeds from sale of equipment xxx
Interest received xxx
Dividend received xxx
Net cash flow from investing activities xxx
Cash flows from Financing Activities
Proceeds from issuance of share capital xxx
Proceeds from long-term borrowings xxx
Repayments of long-term borrowings (xxx)
Interest paid (xxx)
Dividend paid (xxx)
Net Cash flow from financing activities (b) xxx
Net increase (decrease) in cash and cash equivalents during the period (a-b+c) xxx
Cash and cash equivalents at beginning of period xxx
Cash and cash equivalents at end of period xxx
Particulars (`)
Cash flow from Operating activities
Net profit before tax and extraordinary items xxx
Adjustments for:
-Depreciation xxx
-Foreign exchange xxx
-Investments xxx
Contd...
Note As per the amendment of Clause 32 of the Listing Agreement of SEBI, 1995, all
the listed companies have to prepare and publish their Cash Flow Statement as per the
above formats with their annual financial statements in the reports. SEBI recommends the
indirect method to prepare the cash flow statement.
Notes
Example: From the information as contained in the income statement and the balance
sheet of SLV Ltd., you are required to prepare a cash flow statement using (i) Direct Method and
(ii) Indirect Method.
1. Income Statement and Reconciliation of Earnings for the year ended 31.3.2007
Particulars `
Net Sales 25,20,000
Less: Cost of sales 19,80,000
Depreciation 60,000
Salaries and wages 2,40,000
Operating expenses 80,000
Provision for taxation 88.000 24.48,000
Net operating profit 72,000
Non-recurring income:
Profit on sale of equipment 12.000
84,000
Retained earnings (balance in profit & loss account 1,51,800
brought forward)
2,35,800
Dividend declared and paid during the year 72,000
Profit & Loss account balance as on 31.3.2007 1.63,800
Particulars ` `
Cash Flows from Operating Activities:
Cash receipts from customers 25,02,000
Cash paid to suppliers and employees 21,15,200
Cash generated from operations 3,86,800
Income tax paid (86,800)
Net Cash from Operating Activities 3,00,000
Cash Flows from Investing Activities:
Purchase of land (48,000)
Purchase of building and equipment (2,88,000)
Sale of equipment 36,000
Net Cash used in Investing Activities (3,00,000)
Cash Flows from Financing Activities:
Issue of share capital 84,000
Dividend paid (72,000)
Net Cash from Financing Activities 12,000
Net Increase in Cash and Cash Equivalents 12,000
Cash and Cash Equivalents at the beginning 60,000
Cash and Cash Equivalents at the end 72,000
Working Notes
26,69,000
Less: Creditors at the end 2,34,000
Stock at the beginning 2,64,000
Advances at the beginning 7,800
Outstanding expenses at the end 48,000 5,53,800
21,15,200
(iii) Income tax paid:
Tax payable at the beginning 12,000
Add: Provision for taxation 88,000
1,00,000
Less: Tax payable at the end 13,200
Tax paid during the year 86,800
(iv) Accumulated depreciation written off on equipments (sold)
Accumulated depreciation at the beginning 1,20,000
Add: Depreciation for the year 60,000
1,80,000
Less: Accumulated depreciation at the end 1,32,000
48.000
(v) Sale price of equipment:
Cost price 72,000
Less: Accumulated depreciation 48,000
24,000
Add: Profit on sale 12,000
36,000
(vi) Purchase of building and equipments:
Balance at the beginning 3,60,000
Less: Cost of equipment sold 72,000
Balance 2,88,000
Balance at the end 5,76,000
Purchased during the year 2,88.000
Indirect Method
SLV Limited
Cash Flow Statement for the year ended 31.3.2007
Contd...
Example: From the following balance sheets of Sudhir Ltd., for the year ended 31st
March, 2006 and 2007, prepare a cash flow statement.
During the year, plant costing ` 50,000 was sold for ` 10,000. Accumulated depreciation on this
plant was ` 30,000. Loss on sale of plant was charged to profit & Loss account. Income-tax paid
during the year was ` 60,000.
Solution:
Sudhir Limited
Cash Flow Statement for the year ended 31.3.2007
Cash Flows from Operating Activities
Particulars `
Net profit before tax and extraordinary items 2,00,000
Adjustments for:
Depreciation 40,000
Provision for taxation 1,10,000
Proposed dividend 20,000
Loss on sale of machinery 10,000
Operating profit before working capital changes 3,80,000
Adjustments for:
Increase in debtors (50,000)
Increase in stock-in-trade (10,000)
Decrease in creditors (30,000)
Cash generated from operations 2,90,000
Tax paid (60,000)
Net cash from operating activities 2.30,000
Cash flows from investing activities
Purchase of property (50,000)
Sale of plant 10,000
Purchase of machinery (1,00,000)
Loans to subsidiaries (15,000)
Net cash used in Investing activities (1,55,000)
Cash flows from financing activities
Issue of equity share capital at premium 1,10,000
Redemption of debentures (48,000)
Dividends paid 115,000)
Net cash from financing activities 47,000
Net increase in cash and cash equivalents
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Balance b/d 4,00,000 By Bank (plant sold) 10,000
To Bank (purchases) 1,00,000 By Accumulated depreciation 30,000
(balancing figure) (on plant sold)
By Loss on plant sold 10,000
By Balance c/d 4,50,000
5,00,000 5,00,000
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Plant & machinery A/c 30,000 By Balance b/d 1,40,000
(on plant sold) By Dep. for the year 40,000
To Balance c/d 1,50,000 (balancing figure)
1,80,000 1,80,000
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Bank (balancing figure) 15,000 By Balance c/d (closing) 15,000
15,000 15,000
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Balance c/d 4,00,000 By Balance b/d 3,00,000
By Bank (balancing figure) 1,00,000
4,00,000 4,00,000
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Balance c/d 10,000 By Bank (balancing figure) 10,000
10,000 10,000
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Bank (balancing figure) 48,000 By Balance b/d 1,50,000
To Profit on redemption A/c 2,000
To Balance c/d 1,00,000
1,50,000 1,50,000
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Balance c/d 2,000 By 6% Debentures A/c 2,000
2,000 2,000
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Bank (tax paid) 60,000 By Balance b/d 50,000
To Balance c/d 1.00,000 By Transfer from P & L A/c 1,10,000
1,60,000 1,60,000
Proposed Dividend
Particulars ` Particulars `
To Bank (dividends paid) 15,000 By Balance b/d 15,000
To Balance c/d 20.000 By Transfer from P & L A/c 20,000
35,000 35,000
Task Illustrate the impact of the changes taken place on the current assets and current
liabilities to the tune of cash flows determination of the firm.
Self Assessment
Notes 11. Sale of the plant and machinery falls under the category of
(a) Non-current asset sale – cash in flow
(b) Current asset sale – cash out flow
(c) Non-current asset sale – cash out flow
(d) None of the above.
12. Which of the following cannot be included in financing cash flows?
(a) Payments of dividends
(b) Repayment of debt principal
(c) Sale or repurchase of the company’s stock
(d) Proceeds from issuing shares.
13. Which of the following cannot be included in cash outflows?
(a) Operating and capital outlays
(b) Family living expenses
(c) Loan payments
(d) None of these.
14. Which of the following is not a part to the Statement of Cash Flows (or Cash Flow
Statement)?
(a) Operating Activities
(b) Investors’ Activities
(c) Financing Activities
(d) Supplemental Activities.
15. Which of the following is not included under operating activities?
(a) Receipts from income
(b) Payment for a new investment
(c) Payment for expenses and employees
(d) Funding of debtors.
16. Which of the following is included under cash outflows?
(a) Buying new assets
(b) Money the business borrows
(c) Proceeds from selling an investment
(d) None of these.
17. Which of the following is not judged about by the cash flow statements?
(a) Profitability
(b) Financial condition
(c) Financial management
(d) Movement of fund
Cash flow statement indicates sources of cash inflows and transactions of cash outflows
prepared for a period.
It is an important tool of financial analysis and is mandatory for all the listed companies.
The cash flow statement indicates inflow and outflow in terms of three components:
(1) Operating, (2) Financing, and (3) Investment activities.
Cash inflows include sale of assets or investments, and raising of financial resources.
There are two methods of converting net profit into net cash flows from operating
activities:
Indirect method.
13.5 Keywords
Cash: It includes cash in hand and demand deposits with bank.
Cash Equivalents: Refer short-term risk free highly liquid investment
Cash Flow Statement: The statement which indicates the flow (movement) of cash during a
period.
Flow of Cash: It means the change in cash. It also includes the inflow and outflow of cash.
Additional Information:
(a) Net profit for the year 2005 amounted to ` 1,20,000.
(b) During the year a machine costing ` 50,000 (accumulated depreciation ` 20,000) was
sold for ` 26,000. The provision for depreciation against machinery as on 31 Mar.,
2004 was ` 1,00,000 and 31st Mar., 2005 ` 1,70,000.
You are required to prepare a cash flow statement.
Notes 2. Draw the proforma of the Adjusted profit and loss account.
3. Data Ltd., supplies you the following balance on 31st Mar 2005 and 2006.
Additional Information:
(a) Dividends amounting to ` 7,000 were paid during the year 2006.
(b) Land was purchased for ` 20,000.
(c) ` 10,000 were written off on good will during the year.
(d) Bonds of ` 12,000 were paid during the course of the year.
You are required to prepare a cash flow statement.
4. Since everything has some utility, analyse the cash flow statement analysis and explain its
various utilities.
5. Discuss the procedure of determining cash provided by operating activities. Give suitable
example to illustrate your answer.
6. The following is the abstract of balance sheet of Software securities ltd for the year 2005 and
2006.
Sales 1602000
less cost of sale 837000
less operating exp. 397800
less interest exp. 21600
Contd...
Additional Information:
(a) Operating expenses include depreciation of ` 59400 and charges from preliminary
expenses of ` 3600.
(b) Land was sold at its book value.
(c) Cash dividend paid for the year 2006 amounted to ` 27000 and fully paid bonus
shares were given in the ratio of 2 shares for every 3 shares held.
(d) Interest expenses was paid in cash.
(e) Equipment with a cost of ` 298800 was purchased for cash .Equipment with a cost of
` 73800 (book value ` 64800) was sold for ` 61200.
(f) Debenture for ` 18000 were redeemed for cash and for ` 54000 were redeemed by
converting into equity shares at par value.
(g) Equity shares of ` 162000 were issued for cash at par.
(h) Income tax paid during the year amounted to ` 117000.
Prepare the cash flow statement with both the methods.
7. Determine which of the following are added back to [or subtracted from, as appropriate]
the net income figure (which is found on the Income Statement) to arrive at cash flows from
operations.
(a) Depreciation
(b) Deferred tax
(c) Amortization
(d) Any gains or losses associated with the sale of a non-current asset.
Support your answers with elaborative reasoning.
8. Assume that you are thinking of purchasing a new machine that will allow you to offer a
new product to your customers. The machine will cost ` 100,000 to purchase and install,
and after five years (when you plan to sell it) the machine will be worth about ` 10,000.
Your facility has plenty of room, so you won’t have any additional rental costs for space,
and you can piggyback advertising for the new product on to your existing advertising
budget. You will, however, have to pay for insurance, personal property taxes, and a part-
time employee to operate the machinery (these items are included in your fixed costs which
will total ` 12,000 in the first year). Also, there will be costs for materials, supplies, and
electricity that will vary depending on the volume of production. These variable costs will
amount to about 60 percent of the sales revenues. Develop a projected cash flow statement
for the project.
9. Think of the possible errors that might be committed while developing the cash flow
statements and suggest ways to prevent such mistakes beforehand.
10. Show by example how to prepare a cash flow statement using a balance sheet.
Notes 11. Unlike the balance sheet and the income statement, the cash flow statement is not based on
accruals accounting, why?
12. For each of the following items, indicate which part (out of Operating, Investing, Financing
and Supplemental) will be affected and why.
(a) Depreciation Expense
(b) Proceeds from the sale of equipment used in the business.
(c) The Loss on the Sale of Equipment
(d) Declaration and payment of dividends on company’s stock
(e) Gain on the Sale of Automobile formerly used in the business.
Books B.M. Lall Nigam and I.C. Jain, Cost Accounting, Prentice-Hall of India (P) Ltd.
Hilton, Maher and Selto, Cost Management, 2nd Edition, Tata McGraw-Hill
Publishing Company Ltd.
M. N. Arora, Cost and Management Accounting, 8th Edition, Vikas Publishing
House (P) Ltd.
M. P. Pandikumar, Management Accounting, Excel Books.
Cost Management
CONTENTS
Objectives
Introduction
14.1 Activity based Costing
14.1.1 Important Factors of Selecting the Cost Drivers
14.1.2 Objectives of ABC
14.1.3 Process of Calculating ABC
14.2 Target Costing
14.2.1 The Basic Process
14.2.2 When are Costs Set?
14.2.3 Tools and Techniques
14.2.4 First, Price
14.2.5 Then, Cost
14.2.6 Finding Paths to the Targets
14.2.7 Maintaining Cost
14.3 Master Budget
14.4 Summary
14.5 Keywords
14.6 Review Questions
14.7 Further Readings
Objectives
After studying this unit, you will be able to:
Define activity based costing
Describe target costing
Discuss the preparation of master budget
Introduction
Activity based Costing (ABC) is an accounting technique that allows an organization to determine
the actual cost associated with each product and service produced by the organization without
regard to the organizational structure. It is developed to provide more-accurate ways of assigning
the costs of indirect and support resources to activities, bushiness processes, products, services,
and customers. ABC systems recognize that many organizational resources are required not for
physical production of units of product but to provide a broad array of support activities that
enable a variety of products and services to be produced for a diverse group of customers. The
goal of ABC is not to allocate common costs to products. The goal is to measure and then price
out all the resources used for activities that support the production and delivery of products and
services to customers.
Figure 14.1
Cost Driver
The concept of activity-based costing was evolved on the following set of assumptions:
The cost has to be assigned to the individual activity: How the cost can be assigned to the
individual activity? The cost of any activity is determined on the basis of the volume of
consumption of resources. The identification or determination of the volume of resources
consumed is only for the determination of the cost of an activity, which is known as
resource-driver.
In ABC, the cost is assigned to activity but in the traditional cost system cost is classified
and apportioned on the basis of functions of the enterprise viz Factory, Administrative,
Selling & Distribution and so on.
The second important assumption is the assignment of cost to cost objects: How can the cost
be assigned to cost object? Before understanding the methodology of the cost assignment,
every one should know about the meaning of the terminology of cost object. It is defined as
an item for which the cost measurement is required for the product, job and customer.
The assignment of cost to cost object only on the basis of activity drivers clearly determines the
real consumption of the activity.
The activity cost of any object is subject to the number of activities involved. The activity
cost of mounting the circuit board of the small transistor involves placing the circuit board
appropriately, fitting the screws, checking the quality of mounting and finally checking the
process of working.
Figure 14.2
Cost Driver
The above-enlisted activity requires labourers to carry out process of mounting, which are normally
denominated in terms of labour hours. The speciality of ABC is the number of hours consumed
by the labourers and the cost involvement of every activity at every level, but the traditional
costing system gives only in the form of direct labour hours without any information.
The ABC not only enlists the number of activities but also classifies them into two categories viz Notes
primary activity and secondary activity.
Primary activity is an activity which directly charges to cost object, which could be classified into
two different categories, in accordance with the nature of business viz Product and Service.
Figure 14.3
Primary Activity
Manufacturing Service
Figure 14.4
The next important classification is Batch Activity. It is most suitable in the case of pharmaceuticals,
cement, peripherals, watch industry, etc.
Figure 14.5
Number of Movers
Moving materials on the
conveyor belt
Moves per hour
Batch Activity
Quality check
Number of products
Notes Another classification is product activity. This activity is totally different from the yester
classifications, which plays a pivotal role in the industry in catering the needs and demands of
the customers and consumers. Product activity is predominantly used by the car, truck, 3-wheeler
manufacturing companies. The products are produced only to the tune of taste and preferences
of the consumers.
Now we can concentrate on the service industry. It could be discussed with the help of insurance,
share broking industry in order to know about the primary activities in detail.
Figure 14.6
Number of application
per policy
Unit Activity Processing the application to
the tune of prospective policy
Number of applications per
holders
hour
Figure 14.7
Service activity is being carried out in the insurance, banking industries as follows:
Figure 14.8
The next segment is nothing but the secondary activity to the cost object. The secondary activity
may be classified into two general categories viz support activities of the core activities and
non-support activities. The human resource department is the only department which mainly
extends support to the core activities of manufacturing i.e. primary activity.
Some of the support activities never go in line with the primary activities of the business firm.
Notes If the firm wants to introduce Activity-Based Costing system in practice, it must know the various
areas through which it could benefit out of the business intelligence. The areas of decision-making
are as follows:
Pricing Strategy: To fix the reasonable as well as competitive price not only to attract the buyers
but also to earn handsome profit margin out of the activity.
Make or Buy decisions and outsourcing: The firm should identify the right mode of supplying
the goods to the customers either through production or purchase; which is the best alternative
to yield profit.
This is being effectively applied by the automobile industry. The demand of the accessories and
spare parts are normally met through this method of costing to identify the proper way of supply
at right cost without axing the profit margin. It is being calculated through the study of nature
and number of activities involved.
Transfer Pricing
Nowadays, most firms process the materials not only for their production process to produce
finished goods, but also to fulfill the industrial demands of many firms through the supply of
work in progress materials.
Molasses, a residue of the sugar-manufacturing process, is considered a new material by farmers,
who use it to enhance the soil’s fertility once in two years. Though not a finished product, it
is considered as a by-product during the process of manufacturing of sugar. The sugar
manufacturing firms are expected to fix appropriate prices during the sale of molasses. It should
be neither overpriced nor underpriced by using scientific determination of price i.e. ABC which
slashes the cost of production.
The cost of the molasses is normally determined through an effective study of activities involved
in the process of production. During the early days, the method of computing the cost for the
work in progress was only on the basis of traditional cost system which mainly erred in the
process of apportionment of overheads.
Capital Budgeting Decisions: It is one of the most important tools of analysis to study the worth of
the long-term investments. The capital investment decisions are irreversible decisions which play
vital role to determine the profitability of the firms. In modern business, every firm is required
to study the long-term investment decisions only in the context of proposed cost drivers and
activity drivers for the manufacture of a product. The selection of the best investment proposal
among the available purely depends upon the earning potential over the cost drivers.
Accepting foreign orders: Foreign orders are normally accepted by considering the worth of
manufacturing. The worth of manufacturing is how best the firm makes use of the fixed cost
of operations. This is being studied through the comparison between the installed capacity and
capacity utilized. If the capacity of utilization is less than that of installed capacity, the firm could
think of for accepting the additional or foreign orders. This could be better analysed through
Activity-Based Costing.
Plant close decisions: The plant close decision is normally by all the firms by considering the cost
of resources and activity drivers involved in the process of manufacturing. The following examples
will certainly help us to understand the intricacies faced by the firm not only in the manufacturing
but also in the service industries. Let us discuss with an example from the service industry.
Example: The coach division of TV Sundaram Iyengar & Sons Ltd. Madurai, wound up
its operations due to the dominance of the cost of the resource drivers. The major resource for
the coach division is skilled labour in order to meet the expectations of customers, bus owners,
fleet owners and so on. The greater demand for skilled labour led to a hike in its costs. To fill
the absence of skilled labourers, the firm was supposed to carry out the operations, for which
outsourcing was preferred, not considering the quality of unskilled and semi-skilled labourers,
leading to consumption of more hours by them. This finally led to increase in the cost of resource
drivers as well as activity drivers. The management of TVS & Sons Ltd., decided to close the plant Notes
in Madurai division due to above discussed and later desired to rejuvenate the coach division of
Trichy at Viralimalai to meet the market demands at reasonable cost.
Segmentation of new products: The firm should meet the needs and demands of the various
classes of people through a wide range of products. The segmentation of the products should
be appropriately done only by studying the cost of resource and activity drivers, for meeting
the needs and demands of specific class of buyers. The ABC is the proper tool for the firm to
introduce new products to cater the demands of various classes of people.
Figure 14.9
Establish the relationship in between the Overheads and Resources and Activity Drivers
Determine the activity cost pools Apportion the cost of support activities
+ on the basis of primary activities
Resources Consumed
x
Activity Cost Driver Rate
To assign costs to the cost objects
Notes
Example: This could be understood from the following example M/S Zenith & Co.
Identification of Activities
Recreation and refreshment expenses are to be apportioned to the primary activities only on the basis of
number of employees in each activity
` 10,000 ` 10,000 ` 5,000 (` 25,000)
Total Activity cost pool
` 55,000 ` 35,000 ` 25,000
Determination of Activity Drivers
Number of Purchase Hours of Production Number of Units
Orders
5,000 Orders 3,500 Hrs 12,500 Units
From the above table, the activity-based costing is obviously understood, It means that the charge Notes
of overhead is calculated on the basis of appropriate resources consumption, but the traditional
cost system determines the cost on the basis of overhead recovery rate.
Self Assessment
1. The assignment of cost to cost object only on the basis of ...................... clearly determines
the real consumption of the activity.
2. ...................... is an activity which directly charges to cost object, which could be classified
into two different categories, in accordance with the nature of business.
3. The selection of the best investment proposal among the available purely depends upon
the earning potential over the ...................... .
4. The segmentation of the products should be appropriately done only by studying the
...................... and activity drivers, for meeting the needs and demands of specific class of
buyers.
Target Costing is a disciplined process that uses data and information in a logical series of
steps to determine and achieve a target cost for the product. In addition, the price and cost are
for specified product functionality, which is determined from understanding the needs of the
customer and the willingness of the customer to pay for each function.
Another interesting aspect of Target Costing is its inherent recognition that there are important
variables in the process that are essentially beyond the control of the design group or even the
company.
Example: The selling price is determined by the marketplace – the global collection of
customers, competitors and the general economic conditions at the time the product is being
sold.
The desired profit is another variable that is beyond the control of the design organization. It may
be set at the corporate level. It is influenced by the expectation of the stockholders and the financial
markets. And, the desired profit is benchmarked against others in the same industry and against
all businesses. In this complicated environment, it is the role of Target Costing to balance these
external variables and help develop a product at a cost that is within the constraints imposed. In
short, traditional approaches, such as simple “cost-plus” is a recipe for market failure, and giving
the customers more than they are willing to pay for is a recipe for insolvency.
Define the
Product
Set the
Target
Achieve
the Target
Maintain
"Define" Competitive
"Set" Cost
"Achieve"
“fuzzy front end” of the product-realization process. That is when it is most important to get the Notes
product and its functional architecture right the first time. We have found a strong correlation
between the cost savings obtained and how early in the product-realization cycle Target Costing
was initiated. The moral: start early!
Table 14.1
MARKET SEGMENTS
Market 1 Market 2 Market 3
(# of customers) (# of customers) (# of customers)
Premium:
Further additional Feature L … …
features desired by some Feature M … Target costing generally
customers will to pay a is focused here.
… …
premium price
(2,000) (200) (20)
Step-up:
Additional features Feature H … …
desired to some Feature I … …
customers who are
Feature J … …
willing to pay a higher
price … … …
(200,000) (20,000) (2,000)
Basic: Feature A … …
Features desired by all Feature B … …
customers, that they are Feature C … …
all willing to pay for.
Feature D … …
… … …
(2,000,000) (200,000) (20,000)
The idea is to map the features desired by different market segments onto a single page. This
forces you to concentrate on the really important features or functionalities at a high level. The
Market for the potential product is divided into “natural” market segments. These distinctions
may be by geographic region, by customer’s type of business, by consumer-government-business,
by relative customer affluence, etc. Then the features desired by each market segment are divided
into three categories:
Basic: features desired by all customers in the segment, that they are all willing to pay for.
Step-up: additional or optional features desired by some customers in the segment who are
willing to pay a higher price to get them.
Premium: further optional features that a few customers want, and that carry a premium price.
The size of the market in each category is also listed, in terms of number of potential units that
can be sold, or by potential revenues.
Notes It is very important to separate the optional features from the basic ones, because if you make
an optional feature – that only some customers want – part of the basic product, you will either
force all customers in that segment to pay for it, or you will be giving it away. It is also important
to establish – and achieve – the target cost for the basic product, because that is where most
of the sales or revenues will be and so that is where you have to capture market share while
remaining profitable. Finally, we contend that a Market-Feature Table should play as great a role
in determining the architecture of a product as do physical and engineering considerations.
element. Comparing those costs with current or projected costs (again, ABC helps substantially) Notes
you can discover which elements need the most attention in cost-reduction efforts – based on an
understanding of their relative importance to the customer.
Example: If 35% of the value to the customer is derived from a single feature, this feature
is allocated 35% of the cost of the product. Actual mapping of the product features to product
cost if a bit more complicated in practice but this is the basic point.
Task Analyse your most favourite products in the FMCG industry. What do you think
is the better way to go for their accounting and why?
Self Assessment
Notes 8. Target Costing recognizes that the costs of a product are established very early in the
....................... .
9. Cost Object ....................... is utilized to identify money losing customers.
10. ....................... provide the link between the expenditures of an organization and the
Activities performed within the organization.
11. ....................... is a simple, straightforward process that can have significant impact on the
health and profitability businesses.
12. ....................... is the graph that depicts the increases in productivity as reflected in reduced
average and marginal costs.
1. The master budget is prepared by the budget committee on the basis of co-ordinated
functional budgets and becomes the target of the company during the budget period when
it is finally approved.
2. This budget acts as the company’s individualized key to successful financial planning and
control.
3. It provides the basis of computing the effect of any changes in any phase of operations, such
as sales volume, product mix, prices, labour costs, material costs or change in facilities.
4. It segregates income, costs and profits by areas of responsibility. Master budget presents all
this information to the depth appropriate for the top management action.
Note: The detail discussion on master budget is given under Unit 8.
Self Assessment
State whether the following statements are true or false:
13. Master budget is a consolidated summary of the various functional budgets.
14. All capital aspects are included in the operating budget.
15. In the master budget, costs are classified and summarised by types of expenses as well as
by departments.
14.5 Keywords
Constraint: A constraint is a restriction on the degree of freedom you have in providing a
solution.
Cost Object: A cost object is a tangible input for a product manufactured/service provided, like
labor or material.
Experience Curve: Graph that depicts the ‘experience effect’ (increases in productivity) as reflected
in reduced average and marginal costs.
Resource Driver: Activity based costing measure of quantity of resource consumed or required
by an activity.
Notes 7. Sparkling Housecleaning provides housecleaning services to its clients. The company uses
an activity-based costing system for its overhead costs. The company has provided the
following data from its activity-based costing system.
Activity Cost Pool Cleaning Job support Client support Other Total
Total Cost $645,576 $129,546 $ 20,900 $110,000 $906,022
Total Activity 72,700 hrs 5,400 jobs 760 clients Not applicable
The “Other” activity cost pool consists of the costs of idle capacity and organization-
sustaining costs.
One particular client, the Lotus family, requested 31 jobs during the year that required a
total of 62 hours of housecleaning. For this service, the client was charged $1,620.
Using the activity-based costing system, compute the customer margin for the Lotus family.
Round off all calculations to the nearest whole cent.
8. Assume the company of question 7 decides instead to use a traditional costing system in
which all costs are allocated to customers on the basis of cleaning hours. Compute the
margin for the Lotus family. Round off all calculations to the nearest whole cent.
9. “One of the key points in target based costing is that the target cost is the dependent
variable.” What is so important about the statement? Analyse and answer.
10. “A fundamental shift in performance often needs a radical change in the way an organisation
is managed.” Comment.
11. “Historically, target costing has been developed and used in manufacturing companies.”
Does this imply that target based costing is less/not useful for non-manufacturing
companies?
12. A master budget is the summary budget incorporating its component functional budgets
and which is finally approved, adopted and employed. Discuss.