(1nur) Anaphy Lab Monthlys
(1nur) Anaphy Lab Monthlys
Monthlys
MICROSCOPE
- Anton Van Leeuwenhoek: first microscope
- Single lens or simple microscope
- Robert Hooke: discovered the cells
- Compound microscope: made of a set of lenses
Parts of a microscope
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- Lamp: below stage, high intensity, another light source
- Condenser: concentrates light
- Diaphragm: adjusts light intensity
- Disk diaphragm: rotating disk with different holes sizes
- Iris diaphragm: like a human iris, dilates and constricts
- Arm
- Base
- Pivot: connects arm to the base
- Course focus: great distance
- Fine focus: little distance
Anatomy
- Means to dissect or cut apart parts of the body
- 2 basic approaches to study anatomy
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- Systemic: by systems
- Regional: by area
- 2 General ways to examine internal structures
- Surface anatomy: external features
- Anatomical imaging: x-rays, ultrasound, MRI
Physiology
- Deals with processes or functions of living things
- Major goal of studying physiology
- To understand and predict the body's responses to stimuli
- To understand how the body maintains internal conditions
Characteristics of life
1. Organization
- Specific relationship of the many individual parts of an organism (Cells
→ tissues…)
2. Metabolism
- Sum of all chemical & physical changes sustaining an organism
- Ability to use energy to perform vital functions
3. Responsiveness
- Ability to sense changes and respond to these changes to help
maintain its life
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- Respond to internal and external changes
4. Growth
- Increase in size of all parts of an organism
5. Development
- Changes in form & size
- Changes an organism undergoes through time
- Differentiation: change in cell structure from general to specific
6. Reproduction
- Formation of new cells or new organisms
- Tissue repair
Homeostasis
- Maintenance of constant internal environment despite fluctuations in external
or internal environment
- variables: measure of body properties that may change in value
- Ex: body temp, glucose cell count
- Homeostatic mechanisms: maintain body temp near an average normal
value or set point
- Governed by nervous & endocrine
- Ex: shivering & sweating
Term Definition
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Inferior lower/below
Superior Higher/above
Anterior/ Front
Ventral
Posterior/ Back
dorsal
- Abdomen:
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Division Organs
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Hypogastric bladder, part of the sigmoid colon, the
anus, and many organs of the
reproductive system, such as the uterus
and ovaries in females and the prostate
in males
- Body planes
- Sagittal: vertical plane that separates body left & right parts
- Median plane: sagittal that passes through the midline of the body
- Frontal or coronal: vertical plane dividing the body front and back
(anterior & posterior)
- Transverse: horizontal plane dividing the body superior and inferior
Body cavities
1. Thoracic cavity
- Mediastinum: divides thoracic cavity into right & left parts
- Houses heart, thymus, trachea esophagus
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- Between 2 lungs
- Pericardial cavity: surrounds the heart
- Visceral pericardium: covers heart
- Pericardial cavity
- Parietal pericardium: forms outer layer of the sac around the
heart
- Pleural cavity: surrounds the lungs
- Visceral pleural:
- Pleural cavity: contains pleural fluid
- Parietal pleural: lines inner surface of thoracic wall, lateral
surface of mediastinum, and superior surface of diaphragm
2. Abdominopelvic cavity
a. Abdominal cavity
- Contains the stomach, intestines, liver spleen, pancreas &
kidney
b. Pelvic cavity
- Contains urinary bladder, parts of large intestine, internal
reproductive organs
- Peritoneal cavity
- Visceral peritoneum
- Peritoneal cavity: peritoneal fluid
- Parietal peritoneum: lines the walls of inferior surface of diaphragm
Serous membrane
- Line the trunk cavities & cover organs
- Visceral serous membrane: covers organ
- Parietal serous membrane: outer part
- From inner to outer: visceral → cavity → parietal
- Pericarditis: inflammation of pericardium
- Peritonitis: inflammation of the peritoneum
- Appendicitis: a form of peritonitis, when the appendix is inflamed
due to a bacterial infection
- Mesenteries: 2 layers of peritoneum fused together
- Anchor the organs to the body wall and provide a pathway for nerves
and blood vessels to reach the organs
- Retroperitoneal organs: kidneys, adrenal glands, portion of pancreas,
parts of intestines, urinary bladder
- Covered by parietal peritoneum
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Chapter 3: CELL STRUCTURE & THEIR FUNCTIONS
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Smooth Cytoplasm W/o ribosomes, makes lipids
Endoplasmic
Reticulum
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cytoskeleton
-forms mitotic spindle
-maintains cell shape
-forms parts of flagella, cilia, centrioles
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Cell membrane
- Outermost component
- Extracellular: substance outside the cell
- Na+, Ca2+, Cl-
- Intracellular: substance inside the cell
- Enzymes, glycogen, potassium
- Acts as a selective barrier: determines what moves in and out,
communication between cells
- 2 types of molecules: phospholipids and proteins
- Fluid-mosaic model: studies of arrangement of molecules
- Phospholipids form a double layer of molecules
- Polar, phosphate-containing ends: hydrophilic, face the
extracellular & intracellular fluids
- Nonpolar, fatty acid: hydrophobic, face away
- Fluid quality: phospholipids are able to move
- Cholesterol: adds strength and stability by limiting the amount of movement
- Channels: movement of substances through the cell membrane
- Receptor molecules: enables cell recognition and coordination
- Maintains fluid balance (from discussion)
- Albumin
- Higher concentration of albumin, higher oncotic pressure (pull
factor)
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1. Diffusion
- Solution: solute and solvent
- Diffusion: Solutes usually move from area of high to low
concentration of the same solute
- Results from natural, constant random motion of all solutes in a
solution
- Concentration gradient: difference in concentration of a solute in a
solvent between two points divided by the distance between the two
points
- Steeper when concentration difference is large (distance is
small)
- Down (with) the concentration gradient: high → low
- Moves up ( against ) concentration gradient: low → high
- Doesnt occur by diffusion, requires energy
- Channels:
- Water soluble substances (like ions) pass through cell
membrane through channels
- While lipid soluble molecules can easily pass through
- Leak channels: constantly allows ions to pass through
- Gated channels: limit the movement of ions by opening and
closing
2. Osmosis
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across a selectively permeable membrane
- Measure of the tendency of water to move by osmosis across a
selectively permeable membrane
- Hydrostatic pressure: (push factor) the pressure exerted by a fluid
at equilibrium at a given point
- In the experiment: net movement of water stops when osmotic
pressure is equal to the hydrostatic pressure
- The greater the concentration of a solution the greater its osmotic
pressure and the greater the tendency for water to move into the
solution
a. Hypotonic solution
- Low concentration of solute and high concentration water
- Osmotic pressure: less than the cell
- Water moves INTO the cell
- The cell swells
- Lysis: swells enough to rupture
b. Isotonic
- Concentration of solutes and water are the same on both sides
of the cell membrane
c. Hypertonic
- Solution has a higher concentration of solutes and lower
concentration of water
- Water moves OUT of the cell
- The cell shrinks or crenation
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- Move large water-soluble molecules or electrically charged ions across
cell membrane
- Molecule binds w carrier molecule → carrier molecule changes shape →
releases molecule inside cell membrane → goes back to original shape
- Exhibit specificity: only specific molecules are transported by carriers
- FACILITATED DIFFUSION
- High to low concentration
- Doesnt require ATP
- ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- Low to high concentration
- Requires ATP
- *cystic fibrosis: genetic disorder affects active transport of Cl-
into cells
- Some cases it can exchange one substance for another
- SECONDARY ACTIVE TRANSPORT
- Active transport of one substance, establishing a concentration
gradient
- The diffusion of the substance provides energy to transport a
second substance
- Cotransport: diffusing substance moves in the same direction
- Countertransport: opposite direction
4. Endocytosis and exocytosis
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liquid
- Exocytosis
- Secretory vesicles: accumulate material for release
- Move to the cell membrane where the vesicle fuses with
the cell membrane and material is released
Organelles
1. Nucleus
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- Rough ER: W Ribosomes
- Smooth ER: w/o ribosomes
- Site for lipid synthesis and detoxification for chemicals
within cell
4. Golgi apparatus
- Stacks of curved, membrane-bound sacs
- Collects, modifies, packs, and distributes protein and lipids
5. Secretory vesicles
- Small, membrane-bound sac that transports or stores materials
- Fuses with cell membrane and contents are released to the
exterior of the cell
- Some are released upon signal
6. Lysosomes and peroxisomes
- Membrane-bound vesicles
- Intracellular digestive systems
- Lysosomes: break down materials in the endocytic vesicle
- Peroxisomes: break down fatty acids, amino acids, hydrogen
peroxide
7. Mitochondria
- Cristae: folds in the inner membrane
- Mitochondrial matrix
- Mitochondrial DNA
- Site of ATP production
- Aerobic respiration
- Cells with large energy requirement have more mitochondria
8. Cytoskeleton
- Internal framework
- Support and hold the organelles, allows the cell to change its
shape
- Microtubules: hollow structure
- Support cytoplasm
- Assist in cell division & forming of essential components
(cilia and flagella)
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-Microfilaments: small fibris
- Support cytoplasm, cell shape, cell movement
- Intermediate filaments: fibrils formed from protein
- Smaller than microtubules, bigger than microfilaments
- Provide mechanical support
- Ex: keratin
9. Centrioles
- Centrosome: close to nucleus where microtubule formation
occurs
- Contains 2 centrioles normally oriented perpendicular to
each other
- Composed of microtubules organized into 9 triplets
each triplet consist of 3 parallel microtubules
10. Cilia, flagella, microvilli
- Cilia: cylindrical, composed of microtubules, numerous on
surface cells that line the respiratory tract
- Flagella: longer than cilia, only one per cell
- Microvilli: specialized extensions that are supported by
microfilaments, do not actively move, increase the surface area
of the cells
- Abundant in areas which absorption is an important
function
Whole-cell activity
- Cell's characteristics are determined by the types of protein it produces →
protein determine the genetic info
1. Gene expression
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a. Transcription: DNA to RNA
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b. Translation: RNA to protein
- Stop codons: UAA, UGA, UAG
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2. Cell cycle (from the video)
a. Interphase: majority of the time is spent during interphase
i. G1 (gap 1): cell growth
ii. S (synthesis): duplicates DNA
iii. G2 (gap 2): organelles duplicate
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b. Mitosis ( forms 2 haploid daughter cells)
i. Prophase
- Nucleolus disappears
- Duplicated chromosomes appear
- Mitotic spindle forms (made out of microtubules)
ii. Metaphase: aligned at the Middle
- Spindle fibers attach to the centromeres through the
kinetochores
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- Nuclear envelope & nucleolus form at each pole
- Chromosomes decongest
- Spindle fibers disappear
c. Cytokinesis
d. Checkpoints
i. G1 checkpoint: if DNA is damaged
ii. S checkpoint: if DNA replication occurs properly
iii. G2 checkpoint: checks if complete sets of DNA
iv. Metaphase checkpoint: checks if chromosomes are aligned
3. Differentiation
- Sperm cell and oocyte unite to form a single cell → single cell divides
by mitosis to form 2 cells → divide to form 4 …
- Differentiation: specialized structures and functions
- Some portions of DNA are active and some are inactive
- Results from selective activation and inactivation of segments of
DNA
- Ex: DNA responsible for structure and function of bone cells are
diff from muscle cell
4. Apoptosis
- Programmed cell death
- In a developing fetus it removes extra tissues
- Regulated by specific genes
- Chromatin within nucleus condenses and fragments → nucleus
fragments → cells death
1. Cellular clock: After a certain time or number of cell divisions the cell
dies
2. Death genes: "death genes" causes cells to die
3. DNA damage: through time, DNA is damaged
4. Free radicals: susceptible to direct damage resulting in mutations
- Atoms or molecules with unpaired electron
5. Mitochondrial damage: mitochondrial DNA more sensitive to free
radical damage than nuclear DNA
- Result in loss in protein
- Loss of mitochondrial function → loss of energy critical to cell
function
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Chapter 4: TISSUES
Epithelial tissue
- Epithelium: covers and protects surfaces outside and inside the body
- Characteristics
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5. Nonvascular
- Blood vessels in underlying connective tissues do not penetrate
the basement membrane to reach epithelium
- Gases and nutrients reach epithelium by diffusing from blood
vessels
6. Capable of regeneration
- Replace damaged cells
- Undifferentiated cells (stem cells) continuously divide and
produce new cells
- Functions
1. Protecting underlying structures
- Ex: skin & oral cavity
2. Acting as a barrier
- Prevents substances from moving through it
3. Permitting passage of substances
- Allow substances to move through it
- Ex: CO2 and O2 exchange in lungs permitted by epithelium
4. Secreting substances
- Ex: sweat & sweat glands, enzyme-secreting portion of pancreas
5. Absorbing substances
- Carrier proteins regulate absorption of materials
- Ex: intestines
- Classification
- Based on number of layers:
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- Based on shape:
1. Squamous: flat or scalelike
- Mostly sa lungs
- Because it's flat its main function is to filter (diffusion &
osmosis)
2. Cuboidal: cube-shaped
3. Columnar: like a column, taller than wider
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or secretion & bronchioles
absorption in lungs,
surface of
ovaries
Keratinized Cytoplasm is
replaced by keratin
and the cells are
dead
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Stratified columnar More than 1 layer Some ab sorption, Mammary
but only surface secretion, gland ducts,
cells are columnar. protection larynx,
Deeper layers are portion of
are irregular or male
cuboidal. Rare urethra
- Free surfaces
- Free surface not in contact with other cells and faces away
underlying tissues
- Can be smooth or lined with microvilli or cilia
- Smooth: reduces friction (ex: endothelium: lining of
blood vessels which reduces friction as blood flows)
- Microvilli (surface area) and cilia (propel materials)
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- Cell connections
- Structures that hold cell to one another or to basement
membrane. These structures
1. Mechanically bind cells together
2. Help form permeability barrier
3. Provide mechanisms for intercellular communication
- Desmosomes: mechanical links that bind cells together
- Hemidesmosomes: modified desmosomes, anchor cells to
basement membrane
- Tight junctions: bind adjacent cells together and form
permeability barriers, prevent passage of materials because
they completely surround the cell (ex: lining of intestines)
- Adhesion belt: below tight junction, act as weak glue
- Gap junctions: small channels that allow molecules and ions to
pass from one epithelial cell to an adjacent one
- Most epithelial cells are connected by gap junctions
- Glands
- secretory organs
- Composed primarily of epithelium
- Exocrine: glands with ducts
- Duct: gland maintains open contact with epithelium
- Composed of many cells and are called multicellular glands
- Classified according to structure of their ducts and
secretory regions
1. Structure of ducts
a. Simple glands: single, nonbranched duct
(branched if multiple secretory regions that
branch off duct)
b. Compound glands: multiple, branched
ducts
2. Secretory region
a. Tubular: tubules, can be straight or coiled
b. Acinar or alveolar: saclike
c. Tubuloacinar/ tubuloalveolar
3. How products leave cell
a. Merocrine: release by exocytosis, used by
water producing sweat glands
b. Apocrine: pinched-off fragments of gland
cell (milk producing: mix of apocrine &
merocrine)
c. Holocrine: shedding of entire cell, cell
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ruptures and dies (used by sebaceous
glands)
- Goblet cells: secrete mucus
- Endocrine: no ducts, have extensive blood vessels
- Hormones: secreted into bloodstream
Connective tissue
- Function
1. Enclosing & separating other tissues
- Form capsules around organs
- Form layers that separate tissue and organ (separate muscles,
arteries, veins, nerves)
2. Connecting tissues to one another
- Tendons attach muscles to bone
- Ligaments hold bones together
3. Supporting and moving parts of the body
- Bones provide rigid support
- Joints allow the body to move
4. Storing compounds
- Adipose tissue store high-energy
- Bones store calcium & phosphate
5. Cushioning and insulating
- Adipose serve as a cushion and protects tissues around it
- Adipose insulates layer beneath skin
6. Transporting
- Blood transports gases,nutrients, hormones
7. Protecting
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- Chondrocytes: maintain cartilage
- Clasts: Break
- Osteoclasts: break down
- Extracellular matrix
- Structure is responsible for functional characteristics of
connective tissues
- Bones to bear weight, tendons to stretch, skin to
withstand abrasion
- 3 components
1. Protein fibers
- Collagen: microscopic ropes, flexible but resist
stretching
- Reticular fibers: fine, short collagen fibers,
branch from supporting network
- Elastic fibers: ability to return to original shape
2. Ground substance
- Consist of non fibrous protein
- Proteoglycans: large protein consist of protein
core attached to many long polysaccharides, trap
large quantities of water
3. Fluid
- Classification
1. Connective tissue proper
a. Loose:
- few protein fibers that form a lacy network, numerous
spaces filled with ground substance and fluid
- Widely distributed, attaches the skin to underlying tissues
and provides nourishment
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- Adipose
- Consist of adipocytes or fat cells which contain
large amount of lipids for energy storage
- Composed of large cells and small amount of
extracellular matrix which consist of loosely
arranged collagen & reticular fiber
- Thermal insulator tissue
- Reticular
- Framework of lymphatic
b. Dense
- Has relatively large number of protein fibers (produced by
fibroblasts) that fill extracellular space
Subcategories:
- Collagenous: made up of collagen fibers ( tendons,
ligaments, dermis), forms capsules around organs
- Dense regular: collagen fibers oriented in the
same direction (in tendons and ligaments)
- Dense irregular: oriented in many different
directions (dermis & organ capsules)
- Elastic: abundant elastic fibers which allow the tissue to
stretch and recoil (vocal cords, elastic ligaments, walls of
arteries)
- Regular elastic: vocal cords & ligaments
- Irregular elastic: walls of arteries
- Marfan syndrome: inability to maintain and form
elastic fibers (rupture of aorta wall that is covered
with connective tissues can cause death)
a. Cartilage
- Composed chondrocytes or cartilage cells: located in
spaces called lacunae
- Collagen gives it flexibility and strength
- resilient because proteoglycans of the matrix trap water
which makes cartilage rigid
- Provides support
- Cartilage heals slowly because blood vessels do not
penetrate it
3 types:
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- Hyaline cartilage: withstand compression
- most abundant, covers end of bones
- Respiratory tract, nasal cartilage, costal cartilage
- Fibrocartilage: able to resist pulling or tearing forces
- more collagen than hyaline which can be seen in
the matrix
- Disks between vertebrae, knee and
temporomandibular joint
- Elastic: contains elastic fibers other than collagen and
proteoglycans
- Appear as coiled fibers
- Able to recoil to its original shape when bent
- External ear, epiglottis, auditory tube
b. Bone
- Hard connective tissue
- Osteocyte: bone cells (located within lacunae)
2 types:
- Spongy: resembles a sponge because there are spaces
between trabeculae
- Compact: solid, no space
3. Fluid connective tissue
a. Blood
- Liquid matrix
- Formed elements: blood cells and platelets
b. Hemopoietic tissue
- Red marrow
- Yellow marrow
Muscle tissue
- Main function to contract or shorten
- Results from contractile protein
- Muscle fibers: muscle cells (fibers bcus they resemble tiny threads)
Types
- Skeletal: attaches to the skeleton and allows the body to move
- Voluntary
- Skeletal muscle cells: long and cylindrical with several nuclei per
cell
- Striated: banded because of arrangement of contractile proteins
- Cardiac: muscle of the heart To help pump blood
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-Involuntary
-Cardiac muscles cells: cylindrical but shorter than skeletal
muscles, one nucleus per cell
- Branched and connected to one another by intercalated disks:
contain gap junctions important in coordinating contractions
- Smooth: forms walls of hollow organs, skin & eyes
- Involuntary
- Smooth muscle cells: Tapered at each end, Single nucleus, not
striated
Nervous tissue
- Form brain, spinal cord, nerves
- Responsible for coordinating and controlling body activities
- Action potentials: electrical signals
- Neuron: nerve cell, For conducting action potentials
- Cell body: contains nucleus
- Dendrites and axons: cell processes
- Dendrites: receive stimuli
- Axon: where action potentials originate from
- Glia: support cells; nourish, protect and insulate neurons
Tissue membrane
- Covers a structure or lines a cavity
- Mucous membrane: lines cavities that open to outside of body
- Structure: Consist of epithelial cells, their basement membrane, loose
connective tissue
- Some contain smooth muscles
- Function: protection, absorption and secretion
- Serous membrane:line cavities that do not open to exterior of body
( pericardial, peritoneal, Pleural)
- 3 components: simple squamous epithelium, basement membrane,
loose connective tissue
- Serous fluid: lubricates
- Function: protects internal organs from friction, act as selective
permeable barrier to prevent fluid from accumulating within cavities
-
- Synovial membrane: line cavities of freely movable joints
- Structure: Connective tissue, continuous with dense connective tissue
or separated from the capsule
- Synovial fluid: reduces friction
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Tissue damage and inflammation
Tissue repair
Effects of aging
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