Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Konseling Kreatif Dan Jarak Jauh
Konseling Kreatif Dan Jarak Jauh
A thesis
Submitted to the
Department of Dance/Movement Therapy
In partial fulfillment of the requirements
for the degree of Masters of Arts
A. Introduction 1
B. Purpose and rational 2
C. Methods and limitations 4
PART 1 - THEORIES
Chapter 1 ..................................................................................................... 6
1.1. Dance/ movement therapy
- an overview 6
1.2. Dance/ movement therapy
- influenced by the field of dance 7
1.3. Dance/ movement therapy
- influenced by the field of psychology 9
1.4. The therapeutic process
in dance/ movement therapy 10
1.5. The therapeutic process 18
in group therapy
Chapter 2 ...................................................................................................... 22
2.1. Creativity - the phenomena 22
2.2. Creativity -a process 26
2.3. Polarities - a necessary condition 29
2.4. Creativity - a closer look into relationships 36
2.4.1. The internal landscape 38
2.4.2. The external landscape 43
2.4.3. The intermediary realm 47
2.5. Awareness - building the bridge 53
Chapter 3 ...................................................................................................... 56
3.1. Creativity and psychopathology 56
3.2. Similarities - part 1 58
3.3. The setting 61
3.4. The session 63
3.5. Analysis 65
3.5.1. The creative process of the group 65
3.5.2. The progression of Chacian principles 71
3.5.3. Individual creative processes 73
3.5.4. The creative process of the therapist 79
3.6. Similarities - part 2 84
3.7. Movement - a medium for change 88
3.8. Last thoughts
A. Introduction
Dance Movement Therapy (dmt) - defined by the American Dance Therapy Association as “the
psychotherapeutic use of movement as a process which furthers the cognitive, social and physical
integration of the individual “- emerged out of the field of psychology and for a large part out
of the arts, in particular out of the field of dance. Dance can be seen as the most fundamental
form of the arts since the body is used as a medium of direct expression and communication.
Especially in modern dance, the body is not just a tool for aesthetic form, but more importantly,
the body is used for exploration of themes and movement qualities. Each new choreography
requires its unique movement repertoire. Inside the dancer’s body, a creative and personal
transformation might take place. Most of the pioneers in dmt were accomplished dancers,
performers or choreographers, who adapted their knowledge of dance and movement processes
to the challenges and needs of working in the field of mental health. In the last 45 years, dmt has
become an acknowledged part of the creative arts therapies next to the other modalities using
creative and artistic expression such as music therapy, art therapy and psychodrama.
Using an art form and engaging in a creative activity offers the possibility to enter a creative
process. Often it has been seen as a given that one would be accessing one’s own creativity and
entering the creative process when using an art form. Only in the last 50 years serious efforts
were made to conduct research in the field of creativity to define and describe the phenomenon
of creativity and the creative process. Since then a vast number of publications and theories on
creativity entered the market. But investigating creativity brought new problems: one discovered
the complexity of the phenomena of creativity in general and the difficulty to measure, to asses,
and to describe this phenomena in particular. The fact that creativity contains as many aspects as
human nature itself (physical, psychological, cognitive, social, emotional and cultural) brought
up new problems and questions and seemed to increase the difficulty describing and defining
creativity.
The same is true for the therapeutic process. I conceptualize the therapeutic process as the
process of growth facilitated by the therapeutic relationship. The creative process and the
therapeutic process are often described in a vague fashion, not really illuminating their nature
and keeping them within the realm of mystique. The difficulty defining and describing both
processes lies partly in their nature: Both processes lead to a “product”, which at some point in
time is not existent in one’s world of knowledge or world of experience. Both processes unfold
from the known to the unknown - unfold the unknown and make it visible for the involved
persons. Some researchers even say the therapeutic process is the creative process par excellence
(Landau, 1984). If both processes have similar features and can be integrated within the frame
of dmt, it is most likely that theories of creativity will expand a therapist’s awareness and
The purpose of this thesis is to demonstrate how different theories on creativity can offer an
alternative way of conceptualizing the client’s interpersonal world in general, the development
occurs within dmt specifically, and to examine how theories of creativity are related to change
and growth. One underlying assumption of this thesis is that the therapeutic relationship in
therapy is the major agent of change and growth (Yalom, 1983) and that change in a client will
be seen in the way he relates to self and the world around him. Like the therapeutic process, the
but it potentially occurs in all interactions of a person with ideas, and dreams, either with oneself
or with other human beings as well as with inanimate objects. Therefore, “creativity and art are
The majority of dance/movement therapists (dm-therapists) work from the idea that a session
unfolds along the needs of the client. Shaping intervention based on kinesthetic empathy (the
nonverbal empathic communication with the client which is created by the therapist physically
reflecting back the client’s physical and emotional state) is one of the major tools within dmt,
which demand from the dm-therapist that he be able to improvise and to use his ability to
create interventions in the present moment. In that sense, the dm-therapist ideally enters his
own creative process which provides him with information about his interaction with the client.
Deeper understanding of the creative process in general and one’s own creative process might
Engaging a client in movement structures and body experiences might trigger dreams,
memories, images and symbols. These are responses closely related to individual creativity. One
might see these responses solely as a reflection of a client’s intrapsychic situation. Working with
symbolic expressions on a continuum according to the different phases of the creative process.
health , since the medical definition of health and illness does not often sufficiently apply to the
clients who seek psychotherapeutic support and definitely does not always reflect the personal
experience of the chronically mentally ill client. (Creativity) “ ... is an ideal form of behavior ;
a clear notion of ideal, normal and pathological“ (Rothenberg, 1976, p.4). By using a creative
medium, dm-therapists have the unique possibility to integrate creativity theories in their work in
order to assist the client more effectively in his process of growth, toward a healthy and satisfying
The methods I will use to support my hypothesis are both literature review and clinical
experience.
The thesis will be divided in two parts. The first part - the literature review - will focus a) on the
origin and the importance of different theories and methods in dmt with its special relationship
to creativity, b) on theories and methods of group therapy and c) theories of creativity and the
creative process as originated in the field of creativity research, psychology and the arts.
Part 1 will conclude in a comparison of these different theories in the field of dance movement
therapy and creativity research to find interrelated concepts, similarities and differences. I will
then elaborate on a possible application of theories on creativity to the practical work in dmt with
Part 2 focuses on the practical application of those theories. A description of one dmt group
will be introduced to examine how the responses of the clients can be conceptualized and be
perceived from the introduced theories within the framework of dmt. A coding sheet reflecting
I am not intending to define the phenomena of creativity or growth nor do I propose clinical
theories and methods for dm-therapists, which are based in scientific research. This paper is meant
to be a descriptive study on these complex issues, in order to display their interdependence, and
The case studies focus on institutionalized chronic clients, diagnosed with psychotic disorders.
Especially with chronically mentally ill clients, the dm-therapist is challenged with his own
feelings as well as with his client’s feelings of hopelessness, helplessness and a lack of perspective.
More ways to view clients’ maladaptive behavior, such as perseverative, fragmented,
disorganized or repetitive, can help the dm-therapist to work more effectively with those clients
Most of the dmt literature use the female pronouns for the dm-therapist and the masculine for
the clients. Since I use my personal experience in this thesis I will use the masculine pronouns for
the dm-therapist and the clients. It is not my intention to make any gender inferences, relating to
PART 1 - THEORIES
“In the present moment, we have the capacity to simultaneously notice vast amounts of
information from the body’s senses and the mind’s activities of memory, thought and imagination.
But our ability to be aware of and integrate this information needs to be developed. It’s a muscle
Dmt is a process-oriented modality using movement, dance and the creative and direct
expression of oneself through the body as primary media for the therapeutic interaction. One
underlying belief is that the body and mind are interconnected and that “ body movement
reflects inner emotional states and that changes in movement behavior can lead to changes in
the psyche, thus promoting health and growth” (Levy, 1988, pp. 1). Through their practice dm-
therapists were able to adapt their knowledge to a wide range of populations and to work in a
variety of different settings including: psychiatric facilities, nursing homes, educational settings,
drug treatment centers, wellness and alternative health centers, rehabilitative facilities, but also in
political or organizational settings as consultants. One might say that establishing and developing
the professional field has been and still is an ongoing creative process in itself.
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
* Ruth Zaporah, a teacher, performer and director living in Berkeley, USA. She created a form of body based
improvisational theater called Action Theater. She has been the recipient of a National Endowment for the Arts
Choreographer’s Fellowship
1.2. Dance/ movement therapy - influenced by the field of dance
In the field of dance, the revolution of modern dance which advocated dance, movement
and the body itself as an expressive medium made the development of dmt possible. In
classical ballet, especially in the beginning of the last century, dance and the body were tied
to a rigid aesthetic. Beauty, innocence, and youth were ideals communicated in fairytale - like
choreography. Modern dance enriched this repertoire with human expression of all kinds,
remembering the long-standing history of dance and its importance as a significant social element
through expression of self, and interwoven within spirituality, religion, and community.
Mary Wigman especially expanded the dance repertoire towards the use of dance and
movement as an expression of inner states. Her way of creating dances was driven by her interest
in the underlying emotions in movement and by her passion to express those in an artistic form.
“Dance is a living language that is spoken by people and speaks of people - an artistic statement
that rises above the basic level of reality to speak on a higher level in images and symbols of
those things that move people’s hearts and demand to be communicated.” (Wigman in Müller,
1992, pp.54) Although working in an improvisational form with the transient medium of dance,
Mary Wigman saw the inner experience as the element which makes movement last. Along that
line she also delineated spontaneous ideas as different from creations. “Spontaneous ideas might
not be repeated in the same form and no attempt to reconstruct them has been successful - but
- if it was a creation then what first seemed to be lost will emerge again, free from all ballast to
be at the right place, at the right moment. ” (Wigman in Müller, 1992, pp.67) While she created
her choreography she connected movement with its underlying meaning, provoking a process of
transformation and working as well on the outside (movement and choreography) and the inside
(inner experience). “The creative force belongs equally to the space of reality and the realm of
fantasy. And there are always two currents, whose energy circuits that attract each other, kindle
each other and resound into each other, until in unison, they completely pervade each other: the
creative readiness that invokes the image, and the will to act, intensified to the point of obsession,
that takes possession of the image and transforms its material, however volatile it may then still
be, into shapable material, so as to lend it its final Gestalt in the molding crucible.” (Wigman,
There were other important artists, such as Isadora Duncan, Rudolf von Laban, Ruth St. Denis,
Martha Graham, working in and changing the field of dance, who influenced the pioneers of
dmt tremendously, and who laid the groundwork that the body, movement and dance could be
spiritual experience.
The fact that modern dance and later dmt emphasized self expression as well as individual
creativity can also be seen under the light of the fact that both were developed in times of
social and political tension. Artists (Goldsworthy, 1990, Zaporah, 1995) as well as psychologists
(Csikzentmihalyi, 1996, May, 1975) have mentioned that creative ideas, inventions or behavior
are more likely to occur in a tension-field, within dialectic opposites. Those polarities can exist
solely within the personality structure of the individual or between the individuals inner life and
happened in the beginning of the century. One might say that modern dance reconnected to the
inner experience and to the unconscious parts on the body level in an artistic form. In Freudian
psychoanalysis the integration of the unconscious happened solely on the verbal and cognitive
level. It was Wilhelm Reich, a former student of Freud, who brought the attention to the body
and promoted the connection between psychological and physical development and behavior.
He believed that conflicts and trauma are manifested in one`s body and movement behavior,
and that one can promote psychological change by working through one`s body armor,
releasing old conflicts and tension. (Kriz, 1994) Carl Gustav Jung, another former student of
Freud, extended psychoanalytic theories toward the recognition of the collective unconscious,
containing common symbols, images, dreams and archetypes, which are originated in the
development of the human and cultural development of the human existence. The act of change
according to Jung, requires one to access these unconscious realms which might lead to potential
Another major influence on the development of dmt and the field of psychiatry was Harry
Stack Sullivan. His view on psychiatric problems involved the verbal and nonverbal interactions
between the client and his environment. “The core of Sullivan’s work was the study of
communication between persons: interpersonal relations. ... For Sullivan “interpersonal” had
more meaning than just personal overt actual transactions. Sullivan included fantasy as well
as reality .” (Bunney, 1996) Treatment was based on the hypothesis that early relationship
dysfunction’s can be reworked within the therapeutic relationship (Fischer & Chaiklin, 1993)
and new patterns of relating can develop. Incorporating nonverbal behavior and the realm of
fantasy in his theory makes his theories highly applicable to therapeutic modalities using dance,
It appears that the development of dmt happened in an overall social tension field, where there
was a willingness to experiment and ultimately, to incorporate new ideas about human existence
and human development. Since the profession has been strongly rooted in the arts, it seems to be
natural that the pioneers combined their ideas about creativity with those about therapy.
“Experience evolves. In the natural world, change occurs continuously. Change occurs at varying
speeds from lightning fast to slow browning of leaves. Sometimes change strikes abruptly without
warning. Sometimes incrementally, step by step. And sometimes change transpires so slowly that
we don’t see the change at all. There is always an inner motivation , a hidden bridge that ties one
Since dmt has been shaped out of different backgrounds, by a variety of personal styles, and has
produced a wide ranging interaction of different bodies of ideas, I believe that there are no pure
theoretical frame works developed within the field. Different practitioners formulated concepts
and practiced dmt within an existent therapeutic perspective. I will refer to concepts and not to
theories in the further discussions, because they described their experiences and methods through
the lens of the therapeutic frame work which they adopted. Despite the differences in their
therapeutic frameworks, the pioneers in dmt formulated important concepts which can be seen as
Marian Chace, one of the main pioneers in the field, believed that dance is communication and
therefore fulfills an essential human need. S.Chaiklin and C.Schmais (1979) extracted four main
concepts essential to Chace’s work. Chace believed that those concepts facilitated the therapeutic
relationship on a movement level in which change can take place. These four concepts are a)
body action, b) symbolism, c) rhythmic group action and d) therapeutic relationship (Chaiklin &
Schmais, 1979).
a) Body action (Chaiklin & Schmais, 1979): muscular activities evoke emotion. Movement
structures, as used in dance/movement therapy, can be seen as a journey of emotions which are
supposed that the dance could be a potent means of communication for the reintegration of
the seriously mentally ill patient.” (Chace, 1975, pp. 210) There is a clear connection between
motility , dance and emotional expression (Roskin Berger, 1956). By moving together readiness
b) Symbolism (Chaiklin & Schmais, 1979): movement provides us with a symbolic language
to communicate ideas and emotions. Dance can be seen as the organization of that symbolic
language which allows one to communicate with others, independent from the cognitive level.
Movement carries symbolic meaning and is given symbolic meaning by the mover. Symbolism
allows the client to invent the future, to experience and reenact the past and to connect to the
present by communicating those issues that would otherwise not be expressed. During symbolic
play, freedom is communicated to create new interactions and recapitulate old ones. The use of
symbolism promotes the use of fantasy and imagination and through that links dmt to creativity.
c) Rhythmic group action (Chaiklin & Schmais, 1979): rhythm is communal communication.
It can unify a group, organize the individual within a broader context of relationships and
communicate support. It creates an environment of safety and solidarity. Everyone has his
own rhythm as well as being part of a greater rhythm. Rhythmic group action emphasizes the
group pulse which is composed out of the individual rhythms and can be seen as a basic form of
on a body level is essential to all dmt approaches. Kinesthetic empathy communicates to the
patient understanding, but also reflects the underlying emotion of a movement and therefore
All four principles promote communication and interaction. Chace’s emphasis on the
interpersonal field and the therapeutic relationship show clearly the influence of Harry Stack
Sullivan on her work. The reasoning which led her to emphasize interaction so strongly is best
described through her own words: “ Through interaction the person becomes aware of himself.
He also begins to feel his different muscles move in response to action from someone else, not
manipulated by someone else but interacting and this becomes expressive because it comes
from within the person. This is what dance therapy is about. “ (Chace, 1975, pp. 395)
This statement reflects upon her belief that creativity is originated at first within an
interaction with others where the individual is allowed to express oneself. Marian Chace also
believed that creativity is universal and a natural potential in everyone: “Not all people are artists,
The connection between creative and therapeutic processes can be found in the work of Mary
Whitehouse, another pioneer in the field of dmt. Whitehouse had two main influences. First, her
early dance training at the Mary Wigman School in Dresden and second, her studies of Jungian
his physical self” (Levy, 1988, p.64 ). It is the subjective connection to all bodily changes which in
b) Polarity: “ There are physical and psychological opposites ... Life is never either/or but
always the paradox of both/and” (Whitehouse, p.69). Along with C.G. Jung Mary Whitehouse
c) Active imagination: Whitehouse (1979, pp. 71) stated “ the inner sensation, allowing the
impulse to take the form of physical action is active imagination in movement just as following
the visual images is active imagination in fantasy. It is here that the most dramatic psycho
physical connections are made available.” Whitehouse adapted C.G. Jung’s concepts of active
imagination which clearly derived from Freud’s free association, to movement processes
Whitehouse to connect the individual to what Jung called the “Self” a term which refers not
to the individual ego driven self, but to the whole personality , egoconsciousness, personal and
collective unconsciousness.
for the experience while moving which she described as the sensation of moving and being
moved. “It is a moment of total awareness, the coming together of what I am doing and what is
happening to me” (Whitehouse, 1979, pp.68). This means also that in this process one gives up the
Active imagination and movement in depth are closely related. Movement in depth is like
instant choreography melting spontaneous expression with an abstract form) becomes active
imagination. Stern (1995) makes a comparison between improvisation in dance therapy to the
free association in psychoanalysis. “The dance/ movement therapist improvises until something
happens and the therapist and patients meet on the intersubjective level. That is the same as in
psychoanalysis. One talks and listens until something happens, only then understanding can be
1997, pp. 30) Both improvisation in dance and leading improvisational dialogues in therapy allow
for creativity to emerge as they offer an open and less controlled frame for interaction to happen.
As did many others in the field, Whitehouse believed that one fundamental skill of a therapist is
to recognize the client’s present condition and create the therapeutic dialogue from that presence.
The second skill is the ability of a therapist to trust his/her intuition while working with the
client . Whitehouse saw “physical movement as a revelation of the Self” (Whitehouse, 1979,
pp.79). She defined the Self ( a term created by Jung) as “the world of the transpersonal, a world
greater than the individual, more powerful than the ego” (Whitehouse, 1979, pp. 79). Whitehouse
was able to combine her improvisational dance background (Wigman) with Jungian theory.
She gave, like M.Wigman and C.G.Jung, creativity an important place in her work. She saw the
lack of affective and emotional connection in movement as a social phenomena and as a result
of the lack of creative expression in movement. For Whitehouse creativity consisted “.... in his
working toward his own fullest development the realizing of his own potential the allowing
Trudi Schoop, another pioneer in the field, operated from the idea that all individuals
encompass the complete range of every feeling, action and thought. The conflict of witnessing
the restriction of many hospitalized clients and at the same time believing in the wholeness
of a person led her to stress the importance of utilizing opposites in her work. “I believe that
opposites are mutually inclusive. The fact that an individual can be sad also means that he can
be joyful “ (Schoop & Mitchell, 1979, pp.45). One way of increasing awareness of the opposites
was to incorporate contrast in her work to allow the patient to explore the contrasting pulls.
She purposely created splits and conflicting body/ movement tasks to allow for exploring the
contrast and the conflict between the obvious and the invisible.
Schoop was also dedicated to explore the inner fantasies of her patients: “My belief in the
positive nature of fantasies has never diminished during my life time .... I feel rather than
suppressing the fantasy of a psychotic individual I should fly with him for a while to descend
with him for a soft landing on this earth ...” (Schoop & Mitchell, 1979, pp.52) She believed that
the psychotic fantasies stem from the same place as the images an actor has, with the difference
being that he knows how to move between the two worlds of reality and fantasy. The trained
actor would be able to travel between his inside reality and external reality while the psychotic
patient could not. This inside outside shifting is a skill trained in Actiontheater: “Students must
simultaneously experience and disengage from the unfolding content to give memory and
imagination to pull the scene in unexpected directions” (Zaporah, 1995, pp.166). The ability to
move between and integrate inside and outside appears to be a challenge, especially for the client
Although stressing fantasy and imagination, Schoop was rooted in movement. “Human
& Mitchell, 1979, pp.48). She assessed the physical expression of clients on their alignment,
centricity, tension, rhythm and use of space. Her commitment to movement and the direct
expression is also reflected in her use of improvisation in her groups. Yet she stressed the
importance of reproducing one`s experience in repeatable movement experiences. Reproducing
and repeating significant aspects of one`s improvisation promotes ego functions of self-
observation and self-reflection and therefore increases ego strengths. (Schoop & Mitchell, 1979)
Claire Schmais (1985) selected eight “healing factors”, promoting therapeutic change . These
symbolism and integration. They can be seen as an extension of Chace’s four principles.
Especially symbolism and integration appear to be important for the integration of the creative
and the therapeutic process in dmt. In a dmt session one allows for the “interaction of words
and movement to escalate affect and to provide an associative matrix from which integrative
dance symbols can arise. Symbolic expression in dance therapy form the bridge between the
patient’s internal and external worlds as they transfer the energy from one realm to the other in
a social context” (Schmais, 1985, pp. 33). Bridging between personal reality and external reality is
important for Schmais too. The skill to move between both realms might be a necessary condition
In any case, bridging those realities means integration. In dmt, integration ideally happens on
a variety of different levels. “The therapist strives to integrate body actions, facial expression
and verbalization, thought and expression , feelings and words, breathing and activity, past and
present and self image and self presentation “ (Schmais, 1985, pp. 26). Schmais elaborated on the
integration fostered by dmt treatment and stated 5 premises underlying the integrative function
of dmt:
activity
revelations
d) Integration requires that experiences are both felt and symbolically represented
As we will see in the following chapters, especially the last four premises of the integrative
factors in dmt show similarities to underlying assumptions surrounding creativity. For example,
Csikszentmihalyi (1996) stated that creating implies commitment and discipline and that creative
Since I will refer in the practical application to a dmt group, it is important to look at the change
promoting mechanism in group therapy. Irvin D. Yalom, a main theorist in group therapy,
therapy. The therapeutic factors even though the group might differ in form and setting are
external factor, cohesiveness and interpersonal learning. Studies have shown that the factors
“most successful group therapy patients deem most important is interpersonal learning in
conjunction with catharsis and insight.” (Yalom, 1983, pp.49). Different therapeutic factors seem
to have different qualities. Some of them can be seen as factors determining the group culture
like instillation of hope, universality, altruism and group cohesion. Others describe intrapersonal
processes like catharsis or existential factors while the rest are interpersonal in nature.
Specifically for dmt Penny Lewis (1979) proposed a developmental stage model conceptualizing
a) dependence and acclimatization: in that phase clients test out the safety in group, they might
be hesitant , do not trust and the test “ the group’s potential to be a container and the power of
and might display resistance and hostility . ”Anal ambivalence between regression into secure
c) interdependence and orientation to task: the client develops the ability to participate in short
d) Group cooperation and consensual role relatedness: during that stage, group members work
on long term tasks, are able to delay “personal gratification for the benefit of the other members
These “Group Process Developmental Lines” (Lewis 1983) go along with the delineation of
therapeutic factors, giving them a natural progression. The first stage is utilizing factors promoting
group culture, during the second stage therapeutic factors of intrapersonal processes become
important and the third and forth stage utilize therapeutic factors promoting interpersonal
learning.
Yalom’s model and dmt acknowledge the importance of interaction. “Basically this theory posits
that one`s character structure is shaped by one`s previous interpersonal relationships and that
pp.45). He believed that psychopathology regardless of its external symptomatic picture, has
its source in distorted relationships with others. In group therapy, a social microcosm is created
where these relational patterns unfold and can be examined. By helping a client to understand
his behavior in group, one has the chance that he will be able to apply this understanding to
his relational patterns in his outside social life. The clients who correct maladaptive interpersonal
patterns in the group - in the here and now - will ultimately transfer this learning to his
outside lives. “Even though individuals present for therapy with a wide array of different
types of symptoms, therapists make the assumption that there is an interpersonal component in
and leads to the corollary that therapists treat not the manifesting symptom, but instead, the
It seems to me that focusing on the here and now is like setting the stage for an improvisational
play. As the therapist creates the safe environment, the play unfolds along the personal histories
of the clients and by the present interaction amongst them. Like improvisational theater, the
creative playing happens as one “responds to the material of one’s own awareness: information
from the senses, imagination and memory. To act is to enact the current experience of awareness
as it awares” (Zaporah 1995, pp.154). In therapy focusing on the here and now and using “all
events of the group as grist for the interpersonal mill” (Yalom, 1983, pg. 195) is a similar process
and therefore carries creative potential. Like on stage, a group focusing on the here and now
has the chance to try out new behavior, to form new ideas or to view conflicts from multiple
perspectives.
As important as it is to create this stage, - to “activate the here and now” - (Yalom, 1983) is to
“illuminate the process” (Yalom, 1983). During illumination of the process, the client learns to
step back and reflect on one’s behavior. One can compare that with the audience in the theater,
the witness in authentic movement or the movement presentation used by Schoop. The outside
eye promotes the ability to distance oneself in order to increase awareness of self and the
environment.
It becomes clear that the therapeutic process is difficult to define, too. “Psychotherapy is an
undefined technique applied to unspecified problems with unpredictable outcomes. For this
technique we recommend rigorous training.” (Schellenbaum, 1987, pp.34) The training should
take place in the therapist’s world of experience and awareness. That would also increase his
ability to access his creativity. “Until one is familiar with the experience of letting go into the
unfamiliar, one often misses the place to jump off. One is too busy doing the exercise, listening
difficult to say where one stops and another begins. Place is found by walking, direction determined
by weather and season. I take the opportunities each day offers; if it is snowing, I work with snow, at
leaf-fall it will be leaves: a blown over tree becomes a source of twigs and branches.” (A.Goldsworthy,
1990, pp.162) “I stop at a place or pick up material because I feel that there is something to be
discovered. Here is where I can learn . I might have walked past or worked there many times. Some
places I return to over and over again, going deeper - a relationship made in layers over a long time.
Staying in one place makes me more aware of change. I might give up after a while. My perception
of a place is often frustrating limited. The best of my work, sometimes the result of much struggle
when made, appears so obvious that it is incredible I did not see it before. It was there all the time.”
Thoughts and theories on creativity are as old as human kind. The word creativity has been used
indiscriminately - often without common definition. The word creativity has its baggage - a
One of those misconceptions has been that being creative is the same as being artistic. Yet, artistic
creations are only one form of creativity. Also, being an artist or using an artistic medium for any
purpose does not necessarily mean that one is creative. Often people expect one to be extremely
gifted, a genius or brilliant, to be creative. Yet, research has shown that a high IQ does not
indicate any heightened creative ability (Guilford 1986). Not uncommon, especially in the nineties,
is the idea that creativity is this magic ingredient which makes one`s life happier, richer or more
exciting. In this case people forget first, that creativity involves a creative process with oneself
as active participant and secondly, that this process deals with the unknown which potentially
__________________________________________________________________________________________________
* A. Goldsworthy, born in 1956 in Great Britain, studied at Bradford School of Art and Preston Polytechnic Since his
student days, he has worked largely in the open air, using materials that he has found around him. He completed
major exhibitions, commissions and projects all over the world.
Looking from a historical perspective one sees that ideas regarding creativity have been
discussed through the centuries. The actual scientific research on creativity started in 1869 with
Galton’s publication “Hereditary Genius” (Landau 1984, Guilford, 1986). Yet it took the post war era
and its ever-accelerating efforts in a contest of intellects for that investigation on creativity and especially
how to originate and support creative thinking, to become of wide interest, especially in the USA. In 1950
the interest in creativity had just been awakened. In 1950 Guilford examined the index of Psychological
Abstracts for writings on creativity to prove its neglect by psychologists and found that “of approximately
121,000 titles listed in the past 23 years only 186 were indexed as definitely bearing on the subject of
creativity” (Guilford, 1950, p.34). Nowadays there is a lot more interest in creativity and this subject has
been receiving a lot of attention from various fields, e.g. science, business and popular publications have
flooded the market. According to Pimmer (1994) along with the research on creativity came the search for
a final definition of the phenomena: Stein (1952), Mc Kinnan (1962) and Barron (1969) defined novelty and
uniqueness as main criteria for a creative product. Drevdahl (1956) talked about creativity as the ability to
develop cognitive constructs and thoughts of any kind which are new or not known to the originator. These
constructs can be a syntheses of thoughts or products of the imagination. Dietrich/ Walter (1970) defined
creativity as the general ability to go beyond previous experiences to create something new. Dorsch (1970)
determined originality, flexibility, sense for the essential, openness, fluency of the production process and
novelty of the problem solution as components for creativity. In 1984 Landau defined creativity as a state
of being, which enables us to find new aspects in familiar contexts as well as to confront oneself with
the unfamiliar and to use previous knowledge to create a new experience (as synthesized from previous
knowledge and the input of the unknown). In general it appears that one designates “creative” when the
activity or the product shows the attributes of novelty and value (Rothenberg&Hausman, 1976). Yet novelty
and value appear to be hard to be defined, too, and depend largely on the context of ones research. In regards
to novelty in dm-therapy, this would mean that the idea or the movement is new in the experience of the
client. Rothenberg & Hausman formulated a general definition which also captured personal experience and
appears to be a minimal consensus of all definitions mentioned earlier: “Creativity consists of the capacity
Obviously, inquire regarding creativity is a difficult task. Next to the problem of defining what
exactly one investigates, researchers also need to define the orientation of one’s investigation.
Historically, there are 3 main orientations in which creativity has been conceptualized.
Naturalism (all events occur in an entirely lawful empirical scientifically knowable universe)
rationalism ( a less empirical view explaining phenomena in terms of a set of principles that
specify a structure of relationships necessary for this phenomena) and supernaturalism
(explanations are not based on the natural processes, but on supernatural such as god or
the muse). Investigators have espoused at least one of three broad orientations, orientations
based upon fundamental assumptions about the admissible content of explanations as well
as appropriate methods for obtaining information. I believe that these three orientations are
important to have in mind when reading or thinking about creativity. Since a lot of unconscious
idea forming is in the baggage of the word creativity, and these three broad orientations may
creativity becomes even more problematic, since this phenomena can not be studied or explained
in a traditional model of cause and predictions. The essence of creativity is to defy predictions
because it affirms the presence of discontinuity and spontaneity (Rothenberg & Hausman, 1976).
“There is an unavoidable paradox: creations ... are in some way recognizable and familiar to us
... However, creations in the most complete sense, are also radically new and therefore, in some
respect, unfamiliar. Therefore creativity is both determined and undetermined at the same time “
Most research on creativity targeted three main areas: the creative product, the creative
personality or the creative process. The research on the creative product has been looking at the
creative outcome, its novelty and value, and has been faced with the necessity to come up with
focused either on the biography of artists, describing their psychology or on the relationship
of creativity and education. The research on the creative process attempts to illuminate the
mechanism while one is creating. This is less product oriented and has been especially attracting
etc.” To be able to capture developmental processes, such as potential growth, different stage
models describing the creative process are common within the field of creativity research. Yet
the linearity of those stage models might be misleading. They are more a construct for the mind,
while in reality these stages might occur in a circular fashion, overlapping and repeating itself.
“It is a dynamic and continuous process and cannot be totally captured in a model working with
(1926). His four stage model is clearly influenced by other problem solution models (Landau
The first phase is the preparation stage in which an awareness toward the problem is awakened,
the problem is stated and information might be obtained. The first phase begins when there is
an urge to become active (Landau, 1969, Marksberry, 1963). Csikszentmihalyi pointed out that this
phase might start with the impression of an undefined tension or with the sense of a conflict. The
first phase is about taking in all information/ experiences. Sensitivity toward one’s surroundings
and oneself as well as the naiveté to not categorize and stereotype information is crucial.
The second phase is the incubation phase in which one seeks for solutions on an unconscious
level. Rollo May defined the unconscious as “the potentialities for awareness or action which the
individual cannot or will not actualize”. (May, 1975, p.55) The emphasis is not on the inability
to actualize but on its potential to actualize. Creativity will be heightened when the pool of
potentialities is big and experiences are not classified. This phase might be a frustrating and
unsatisfying phase, since one is confronted with unconscious processes exploring unknown
The third phase is the illumination phase where an idea emerges from the unconscious.
It is when the “AHA” occurs. Jean Cocteau described this moment as the “... moment that
consciousness must take precedence over the unconscious and that it becomes necessary to find
the means which permit the unformed work to take form, to render visible to all.” (Ghiselin, 1974,
pp. 79). This moment often is accompanied by strong feelings, since the conscious needs and
the unconscious experience can be in opposition (May, 1975, Landau, 1984). “The insight might
destroy something” (May, 1975, pp.59) - might destroy a hypothesis, a common belief, an old
way of coping or a self-world relationship. Obviously, the act of creating carries its opposite:
destruction. This can be a source for a variety of different emotions, such as anxiety, guilt and
repression, causing distress and struggle. Yet, the break through brings also a heightened sensory
awareness and heightened consciousness, the feeling of being alive and a sense of completion
(May, 1975).
The fourth phase is the verification phase where the solution is evaluated and tested. In this
phase one needs to transform the subjective experience into objective knowledge, expressed
in objective and common symbols. “Creativity does not happen inside people’s heads but in
(1996) separates the fourth phase in two and therefore speaks about five stages. The fourth stage,
evaluation, is when one has to make the decision if the creation/ invention is worthwhile. It is
in that phase when he sees the most emotional stressor of doubts and insecurities on the base of
the (unconscious) internalization of the domain in which the creation is taking place. The fifth
phase, elaboration, is the phase when one actually realizes the creative project. Edison referred
to that phase when he said that creativity consists of 1% inspiration and 99% perspiration
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1996).
Fritz (1991) described a form of the creative process which is less scientific and easier to apply to
the work of the dm-therapist. He emphasized that every creative process is a process of change.
That goes along with Landau (1984) who conceptualized every creative process as similar to the
problem solutions processes in the sense that one works with a situation and its information,
invests previous experiences, to combine both in order to create more satisfying structures.
Most of the models of the creative process carry intrapsychic and interpersonal aspects, which
can be seen as a dual system underlying the creative process. Dualities seem to be an important
aspect in the phenomena of creativity. “All investigations and understanding of creativity require
attention to the paradox between determined and undetermined aspects, and the most adequate
& Hausman, 1976, pp. 25) It seems that the nature of creativity is to encompass dialectic systems
“There are opposites and conflicts in my work - uncomfortable though creative tensions which I
use to shape my relationship with nature. I refuse to resolve them prematurely to make my own
The awareness of polarities or opposites, e.g. in philosophy, history or religion , is not particularly
new. Eastern cultures know about Ying and Yang, or Nirvana and Samasara. In Western culture
there are religious conceptions such as God and the Devil or Freud’s idea about Eros and
Thanatos. On a body level one finds dual opposing systems in every muscular activity or in the
DNA structure which is a double helical structure where the molecule consists out of identical but
spatially opposed chains.
Different researchers stress the importance of polarities within the investigation/ phenomena of
creativity. A. Rothenberg (1979) described a cognitive process as a major element of the creative
process: “Janusian thinking” (Rothenberg, 1975 pg. 55). Janus was the Roman god of doorways
and beginnings, whose faces look at different directions at the same time. He was able to observe
the interior of a house and the exterior at the same time. “In its purest form, Janusian thinking
consist of conceiving a notion , belief or fact which is generally taken to be absolutely true and
important about the cognitive process of Janusian thinking is that it involves simultaneity of
opposites. This simultaneity helps to explain the sense of newness and surprise in the creative
process. “Always surprising is the discovery that the opposite of a previous held idea, concept
or belief is operating or true.” (Rothenberg, 1979, pp.61) Rothenberg found in his research using
primarily writers, that ambiguity, tension and paradoxes very frequently are manifest goals in
a creative act. He stressed that Janusian thinking is a fully conscious, intentional and rational
process; and therefore, one is able to learn, at least in parts, this process.
individuals. He found that one common personality trait was complexity. “They (91 individuals)
entmihalyi, 1996, pg. 57). Csikszentmihalyi listed ten antithetical traits that are both present in an
dialectic tension.
a) physical energy versus rest/relaxation. This refers to the fact that creative individuals have
control over their energy and are able to focus as well as to recharge when needed.
b)naiveté versus intelligence. Creativity is connected to certain cognitive processes. It appears that
creative individuals are able to use two opposite ways of thinking. Convergent thinking which is
measured in the IQ tests, refers to problem solutions of well defined questions. Divergent thinking
which is measured in the creativity tests, involves fluency, flexibility and originality.
c) playfulness versus discipline. Creativity involves the openness of play as well as the structures.
d) Imagination/ fantasy versus rooted sense of reality. This refers to the ability to break away
e) Extroversion versus introversion. Introversion relates to the ability to tolerate being alone, to
immerse oneself with an idea or a domain. Extroversion relates to exchange and interaction.
f) Humbleness versus pride. Humbleness relates to one’s ability to not take anything especially
one’s own achievements for granted, while pride relates to the ability to own one’s achievements.
g) Femininity versus masculinity. “Creative individuals to a certain extent escape a rigid gender
psychological androgyny which refers to a person’s ability to be at the same time aggressive and
nurturing, sensitive and rigid and dominant and submissive (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996).
h) Traditional/ conservative versus rebellious/ iconoclastic. This refers to the ability to internalize
present systems and at the same time wanting to expand their limitations.
i) Passion versus objectivity. The ability of being able to be attached and detached, which is a
fundamental skill for performing artists as well as for therapists (observing ego)
j) The openness and sensitivity of creative individuals often exposes them to suffering and pain
Landau (1984) mentioned two important paradoxes which become integrated during the
creative process, A) Active versus passive receptiveness. “Creative ideas are not under our
voluntary control, yet they require a certain attitude”. (Henle, 1962, pp.39) In the first phase of the
creative process there is an active receiving of information evident which is opposite to the passive
processing during the second and third phase. B) Immersion and surprise. During the creative
process one needs to be able to immerse oneself in the problem as well as be open to be surprised
May (1959) mentioned polarities when he referred to Nietzsche’s Dionysian and Apollonian
principles, both evident in the creative process. The Dyonisian principle relates to surging vitality
and ecstasy while the Apollonian principle relates to form and rational order. Like Rothenberg,
May does imply similarity of these opposites, with the effect to be involved and to be able to
I agree with Czikszentmihalyi that these lists are to a certain extent arbitrary. More important
is the fact that creative people are able to operate on two sides of polarities, simultaneously.
Therefore, one can assume that creativity originates in a tension field of polarities. Or as
Rothenberg (1975, pp.75) said, “some of the most remarkable achievements begin with the
system” underlying nature and life in general and creative acts, specifically. “In the creative
process, tension is the engine that generates energy for action” and further “most artistic forms
rely on tension-resolution systems to create dynamic movement, the ability of a work of art
to move from one moment to the next, and from one section to the next” (Fritz, 1991, pp.46).
Developmentally as one grows into adulthood, one transitions from instinctive tension-resolution
systems to self-conceived tension-resolution systems. Along with the ability to conceive a tension
system comes the ability to delay tension resolution, in order to become more immersed with the
opposites creating the tension and its potential for creative solutions. (Fritz, 1984, 1991)
Deuter (1997) emphasizes the importance of polarities also for the therapeutic process. Opposite
forces are in all life- encompassing contexts a condition for differentiation and development.
Polarities are the main condition for movement, development and change. He also underlines
the importance of tension. As two poles exist they have to meet in the area of tension in order to
create movement and communication. Otherwise, the consequences are blocks and repression.
For normal and pathological development he emphasizes the importance of the opposite between
subject and object respectively between the need to differentiate and the wish to unify.
Clearly tension is a necessary condition for the creative and the therapeutic process. In both
processes there is a certain amount of struggle and conflict and at some point or another a
problem or question has to be dealt with. Finding the problem or posing the right question
is of major importance in therapy as well as when in a creative process. Finding the problem
is about finding one’s motivation. In a longitudinal study of prospective artists Getzels and
Csikszentmihalyi (1976) proved that problem finding had at least short term criterion validity as
an element of artistic creativity. They pointed out that “the creative process appears to be inspired
by personally felt problems of an existential nature which the artist tries to confront on his terms.”
(Csikszentmihalyi & Getzels, 1976, pp.107). As one is able to confront personal felt tension, one
To get in touch with ones motivation as a motor for development is crucial for a lot of clients,
especially since they might not be motivated, due to dominance of internal stimuli, medication
or resistance and the fear of confronting own issues. If one wants to combine the therapeutic
and the creative process in dmt, it will be necessary to first find the client’s motivation to create,
in order to inspire his motivation to change. Where do we find the motivation to create? The
psychoanalytic framework theorizes the motivation to create stems from the conflict arising
from the repression of libindal drives and formulating a reductionistic view. Others, like
Guilford (1986) stress the importance of curiosity and joy as motivating factors. Looking from a
developmental point of view, as early as the first year, a child gives evidence of active exploration
and experimentation. “The behavior is directed, selective and persistent . It is continued not
because it serves primary drives, but because it satisfies an intrinsic need to deal effectively
with the environment” (Csikszentmihalyi & Getzels, 1976, pg. 237). While the psychoanalytic
framework can be seen as tension reducing, the developmental argument can be seen as tension
seeking. In the tension seeking paradigm the mental processes do not need to be sparked by
dream to imagine. It is at first stimulus seeking and problem finding. Both models relate clearly to
tension and motivation. Csikszentmihalyi & Getzels (1978 pg. 238) suggest an integration of these
two principles, based on their observations that the conflict addressed by the artist exists “only
as diffuse free floating tension without structure or aim”. They argue further that the tensions
underlying creative work is not a structural problem. “The crucial task of the creative person is
precisely that of transforming potential into actual problems. The aim of creativity is not to restore
a previous equilibrium but to achieve an emergent one.” (Csikszentmihalyi & Getzels, 1978 pg.
243). Dealing with diffuse tension, the creative person constructs stage setting problems in which
past and present concerns, reality and fantasy interact in symbolic disguise. Csikszentmihalyi
& Getzels (1978) found that creative behavior is motivated by tensions generated by or among
affective or cognitive symbols. They emphasize the complexity of the intangible social, emotional
and intellectual experiences that produce existential tensions which artists translate into tangible
creative solutions. They conclude with defining (artistic) creativity as follows: “It is a process
by which an individual (a) experiences a conflict in perception, emotion or thought, and (b)
formulates a problem articulating the previous inarticulated conflict, and (c) expresses the
problem in a tangible form, and (d) succeeds in resolving the conflict through symbolic means,
and (e) thereby achieving a new emotional and cognitive balance” (Csikszentmihalyi & Getzels,
1978, pp.246).” Therefore tension is a necessary condition for any creative process. According
to Csikszentmihalyi & Getzels (1978) the creative person transforms his deeply felt emotional
tensions into an expressive tangible counterpart; when he has arranged these symbolic elements
The way one deals with tension leads at first to one’s motivation and will influence one’s
creative behavior. The same is true for the process of growth. As one denies tensions and
oppositional forces, one will reduce one´s potential for growth. As one uses tension to get in touch
with one´s conflicts and questions, one has the chance to grow. In dmt the dm-therapist has the
unique chance to create non-threatening ways for the clients to explore tension fields, in order to
Creativity occurs in the context of interactions. According to Schachtel (1959, pp.243) “the main
motivation at the root of creative experience man’s need to relate to the world around him.”
Creativity and creative behavior is inseparable from how a person or an organism relates to their
world. (Woodman & Schoenfeldt, 1989) Creativity originates in the interaction of the internal
and the external of an organism’s reality. This in itself is a dual system. Also A.Goldsworthy
(1990, pp.3) described this duality: “The energy and space around a material are as important
as the energy and space within.” During the creative process as well as for many clients it is a
challenge to establish a communication between one’s inner subjective world of dreams, feelings,
perceptions and the outer objective world of outside stimuli, behavior and actions.
In addition, Winnicott (1975) named an intermediate realm, mediating between the inner
subjective world and the outer objective world. He called that intermediate realm the transitional
or potential space, where the interaction of internal and external and the creative use of that
its belonging to the internal or external. A perfect transitional space is the stage in theater. The
stage is the place where the internal experience of an actor meets and merges with the external
environment of a play, which leads him to a creation and embodiment of a new character. It is
the art of a director to establish the communication between a internal world and the external
enviroment in this transitional space, the stage. P. Brook (1968, pp.9), described that dialogue
from the position of the director. “I can take any empty space and call it a bare stage. A man walks
across this empty space whilst someone is watching him and this is all that is needed for an act of
theater to be engaged.”
The separation into the internal, external, and intermediate realms might be a helpful tool to
view not just the creative process but also the therapeutic process in dmt. The client carries his
inner subjective world into the group which provides him with an external reality of interactions
and group dynamics. Like a director the dm-therapist attempts to create this “stage” - the
transitional space. This is a necessity for the therapeutic process in general, but even more in dmt
But also within the Gestalt of the client exists the internal/ external dichotomy. I would define
the internal of the client as all those processes and phenomena which in themselves do not lead
to interaction with somebody or something else, including for example intelligence, fantasy or
imagination. This definition is broader than the term inner subjective experience, since it also
includes processes which might be neorological or for example unconscious. In the following
discussion I will refer to the internal of a client as to his internal landscape. The external are those
processes which naturally lead to interaction with somebody or something else, such as social
behavior and handling objects. As the external of a client includes more than the objective reality,
for example social interaction I will refer to the external of a client as to his external landscape.
Creative behavior can be manifested in both, the internal and the external landscape of a client
. There are creative thinkers, movers or those who are very creative in approaching others. It is
crucial to identify the creative areas of the client in order to establish next to kinesthetic empathy,
“creative empathy”.
From 1950 Guilford researched the relationship between intelligence and creativity, focusing
strongly on creative thinking. Guilford focused on cognitive processes other than traditional
of intellect model” (Guilford 1986), a model, reflecting and organizing the interaction of a wide
variety of intellectual abilities with a specific focus on intellectual abilities important for creative
production. He identified cognitive factors associated with creative thinking and distinguished
between divergent and convergent thought processes. His research laid the ground work for the
Although there are different cognitive processes involved during the creative process, empirical
research shows that divergent thinking or divergent production is the cognitive ability most
fundamental for the creative process (Woodman & Schoenfeldt, 1989). Divergent production is
quantity of ideas, which is important since people who produce a large number of
knowledge.
c) Novelty and originality - which refers to rareness, remote association and appropriateness of
the response.
d) Synthesizing and analyzing abilities - creative thinking requires the organizing of ideas
into larger more inclusive patterns and symbolic structures must often be broken down before
e) Sensitivity - creative people see problems where others might not which also can indicate a
Woodman & Schoenfeldt (1989) called those factors the cognitive components of creative thinking.
According to Landau (1984) those abilities become more or less important during the different
phases of the creative process. During the preparation phase, one needs more sensitivity for the
problem, fluency, flexibility and originality. During incubation phase one looks for fluency and
flexibility. During the illumination phase, sensitivity , fluency, flexibility, and originality, and in
the verification phase one needs especially sensitivity, synthesizing, and analyzing.
In general, Guilford’s research showed that intelligence and creativity are different phenomena
and their relationship constitutes as follows: “The striking thing is that there is a one-way
relationship. Individuals with low IQs are low in creative ability. But when a person has a high
IQ he can be almost anywhere in the range of creative talent.” (Guilford, 1986, pp.29)
Amabile (1983) classified “creativity relevant skills” necessary for creative production. She
d) keeping response option open as long as possible, e)suspending judgment, e) using wide
creatively. They all appear to relate in one way or another to the goal of stretching the individual
mental boundaries.
Associations were another area where researchers focused. They approached creativity from an
associationistic theory arguing that creative processes are taking place by the novel combination
of two or more ideas that have been freed from their normal correlates. Mednick (1962, pp.221)
defined the creative processes as “the forming of associative elements into new combinations,
which either meet specific requirements or are in some way useful. The more ..... remote the
elements of the new combination the more creative the process or solution .” Researchers working
from an associonistic framework made an effort to distinguish between creative output and
merely bizarre expressions, which is an important distinction especially, when looking at the field
of mental health.
There are some evidence for neurological influences on creativity. The lower part of the brain
centers. (Guilford, 1986) The input can come either from the environment or the person’s body
or soma. The processing of the input is fundamental to the creative process, since it activates a
person, e.g. in terms of his motivation or need for action. It is easy to imagine that the way of
processing information in the brain can be altered by individual differences in brain development
Much research has been done in the area of intrapsychic factors and their influence on creativity.
When investigating intrapsychic factors of creativity one deals again with the question: What
motivates a person to generate creative behavior? Cszikzentmihalyi (1996) sees one factor for
the motivation of creative behavior in the individual balance of the polarity of entropy versus
an intrinsic need for discoveries. Although both ends of the polarity are important, the driving
force for motivation to develop is the curiosity to discover new things. In psychoanalytic theory
the motivation for creative behavior is viewed to stem from the unconscious. Freud provided the
base for all psychoanalytic concepts with his contribution of the idea of sublimation as a defense
mechanism underlying creativity. The individual protects itself from the conflict arising from
the repression of libidinal drives by sublimating and creating a new reality through a creative
act. Sublimating is the creative versus a neurotic solution to conflict. The fact that Freud viewed
only the talented artist as able to use this defense effectively brings creativity close to the illness
and neurosis. Freud remained significant for the research on creativity since he emphasized non-
Jung described an autonomous creative “complex” that is separated from the complexes rooted
in psychopathology. “If a work of art is explained in the same way as a neurosis, then either the
work of art is a neurosis or the neurosis is a work of art (Jung in Wilmer,1987, pg. 260). In Jung’s
view archetypal themes of the collective unconscious are transformed by the creative process. The
creative process consists in an unconscious animation of the archetypes and in the development
and shaping of these images until the work is completed. During the creative process, one
journeys through two phases. First, through a female phase, where the unconscious which Jung
connects to the archetypes of the mother and the anima and second through a masculine phase
which is focused on the external world. Kris (1952) connects creative activity to an ego controlled
regression. Along with Freud he sees the conflict taking place in the unconscious but emphasizes
the role of fantasy and preconscious functioning which led him to distinguish between the
regression in the service of the ego and the regression during psychotic states in which the I gets
the individual as a driving force in the creative process (Rogers, 1959, May, 1975 Maslow,
1959 ) Self actualization strives for growth promoting behavior and the integration of the
behavior is motivation and goal at the same time. He delineates between primary creativity
and secondary creativity. Primary creativity underlies primary processes: a state which “comes
unifying within the person” (Maslow, 1958, pp.10). Secondary creativity underlies secondary
thought processes. Creativity using both types of processes Maslow called integrated creativity,
believing that that is where “great works of art, philosophy or science “ (Maslow, 1958, pp.12)
are originated. Rogers (1959) saw “openness to experience” and ” internal locus of evaluation”
as intrapsychic conditions associated with creative acts. Openness entails the ability to receive as
much even conflicting information without forcing closure upon the situation. “Whether stimuli
originates in the environment, in the impact of form, color or sound, of the sensory nerves, or
whether it originates in the viscera, or as a memory trace in the central nervous system, it is
available to awareness” (Rogers, 1959, pp.75). Stimuli can come potentially from anywhere and
openness allows one to integrate those into awareness. Internal locus of evaluation refers to the
fact that the basis of the evaluation lies in himself and actualizing of his potential is the ultimate
The internal landscape of a client is unique and divers. As a dm- therapist it is important to
identify the client’s strength and motivation stemming from his internal landscape. Some clients
might be detached from their internal landscape and will show more connection to their external,
offering the dm -therapist to establish a dialogue and therapeutic relationship in that area.
According to Csikszentmihalyi (1996, pp.6) “creativity results from the interaction of a system
composed out of three elements: a culture that contains symbolic rules, a person who brings
novelty into the symbolic domain and a field of experts who recognize and validate the
innovation.” The “domain” carries the culture, establishes rules and morals and values from
which a creative act will be evaluated. The “field” contains the gatekeepers who decide if a
creation is seen as valuable for the domain. Csikszentmihalyi’s (1996, pp.28) definition of creativity
emphasizes the transformative interaction of the individual with the environment through a
creative activity. “Creativity is any act, idea or product that changes an existing domain or that
transforms an existing domain into a new one. And the definition of a creative person is someone
According to Csikszentmihalyi’s model creativity and social recognition are inseparable. It is not
enough to exhibit creative behavior, but also to make this behavior be seen and established in an
existent culture.
The three components of Csikszentmihalyi system can be found in a dmt group, too. The
domain is a client’s extended environment such as his social network, friends and family. The
field is the the group in itself. Changes such as new behavioral patterns can be tried out and will
be evaluated in group. Growth only happens as personal changes enter a client’s culture and are
recognized as valuable at least by parts of the culture of the client. As with the creative act, change
and growth need to relate in one way or another to the environment, and to not be perceived as
merely bizarre.
There are different viewpoints on the kind of environment promoting creativity. Some
argue that an opposing environment with obstacles to push against will enhance creativity.
Others think that creativity is a delicate phenomena which needs a supportive environment
to flourish. Most likely, one will find evidence for both theories. As a matter of fact, creative
activity reflects environmental influences no matter if they were supportive or opposing. (Kapsi,
1993) For example one might think of art originated in concentration camps versus the creative
development of an artist like Mozart through constant support by his father (Hildesheimer, 1975).
The composition of the environment which successfully fosters creativity is related to the person’s
unique creative potential and the area in which a person expresses oneself.
Humanistic theorists see the environment as a crucial factor for the development of creativity (
Rogers 1959, Sternberg & Lubbart 1995). Rogers (1959, pp.78) believed that “the vary nature of the
inner conditions of creativity cannot be forced but must be permitted to emerge.” He emphasized
psychological safety and psychological freedom as the main conditions for a creativity enhancing
worth and the generation of a climate free of external evaluation, manifesting empathic
understanding. The latter encourages the motivation from within. In this climate one can permit “
.... one’s real self to emerge, and to express itself in varied and novel forming as it relates itself to
the world” ( Rogers, 1959 pp. 80). Psychological freedom relates to complete freedom of symbolic
expression. “It fosters the openness and the playful and spontaneous juggling of percepts,
concepts and meanings, which is part of creativity.” (Rogers, 1959, pp. 80).
Anambile (1983) proposed a model, which conceptualizes creativity through the interaction of
three components. a) domain relevant skills such as knowledge about the domain or technical
skills b) creativity relevant skills including cognitive and personality factors as described
earlier and c) task motivation including the individual baseline attitude toward the task and
perceptions of motivation for undertaking the task largely determined by social/ environmental
factors. Not only are those three components interacting, but each component results from
an interplay of internal and external factors. (Appendix #1) Underlying Amabile’s research
is that a non - constrained social environment is promoting creativity since “the intrinsically
creative behavior. Creativity enhancing influences are freedom of choice, those which stimulate
intrinsic orientation, perceptually stimulating environments , those which use play and fantasy
and modeling. Especially creative role models have a positive effect , but may not be controlling
and “it is important at some point to go beyond the examples set by one’s masters” (Amabile,
1983, pp.149). Reward systems, evaluation, peer pressure and surveillance have been shown as
factors undermining creativity (Amabile 1983). That is important for group-therapy, since group
dynamics might create conditions, such as peer pressure, which are not promoting creativity.
Sternberg & Lubbart (1995) distinguished similar environmental factors affecting creativity
as Amabile, and added societal ambiance, antecedents factors such as home climate and task
constraints. Task constraints refers to the correlation between the quantity and quality of limits
and creativity. May (1975, pp.89) too, expressed the value of limits for creativity. “Creativity itself
requires limits for the creative act raises out of the struggle of human beings with and against that
which limits them”. Task constraints create a tension in the individual, too. The most productive
and creativity promoting tension is created when the individual deals with a phenomena which
is relatively novel or unknown. It may not be too novel or too easy so a productive tension will be
It seems that creating enhancing external environments are different for different individuals.
Stimulating intrinsic motivation , providing a safe and free environment - even if it is a niche -
promotes self expression which I see as the underlying source of all creative behavior. Also, in
the interaction between environmental factors and the creative individual, one can observe the
Yet, the external landscape of a client does not solely mean the external reality which can
promote creativity or not. More so it means the unique way how a client is interacting with the
world and vica versa. By engaging the client in the creative process the dm-therapist challenges
“Fixed ideas prevent me seeing clearly. My art makes me see again what is there, and in this
respect I am also rediscovering the child within me.” (A.Goldsworthy, 1994, pp.36)
Every human being has to relate the inner world of experience with the outside reality.
Winnicott (1971) suggested that the tension originated by the polarity of inside and outside is
relieved in an intermediate area of experience which is not challenged by the outside world.
Winnicott also called this the potential space. It is in this potential or transitional space where
he sees play, illusion, creativity, the arts and culture originated. It is through play, and therefore
through the use of the transitional space, that a human being can grow. “Playing facilitates
growth and therefore health. Playing leads into group relationships, playing can be form of
communication in psychotherapy” Winnicott, 1971, pp. 41) Playing takes place neither in the
inside nor in the outside. Because it happens in the transitional space it is a bridge in between
both worlds: The inspiration comes from within. It is action oriented which carries the chance to
influence the outside as any action potentially can. Playing is doing and therefore a step towards
change. “It is only in being creative that the individual discovers the self” (Winnicott, 1971, pp.54)
The experience of that potential space and the polarity of inside and outside is part of normal
development and made at a very young age. In the development of a child the duality of inside
and outside becomes apparent when the “good enough mother” (Winnicott, 1971) lessens her, in
the beginning, nearly complete adaptation to the infants needs according to the infants growing
ability to account for failure of adaptation and to tolerate the results of frustration. The mother’s
task is to gradually disillusion the infant; therefore; confronting him with the conflict between his
internal world of needs and experience and the external world of environment and objects. One
way to deal with this disillusion, with the conflict of inside and outside is the infant’s growing
ability of “ (Winnicott, 1971, pp.10) remembering, fantasizing, dreaming” which can be seen as
an integration of past, present and future. Playing is inseparable from the objects and objects
relation involved in the play. Winnicott described a developmental process of object relations
related to play: At first subject (infant) and object are merged. Eventually “the object is repudiated,
reaccepted and perceived objectively” (Winnicott, 1975 pp. 47) The object (mother) is “in a to and
fro between being that which the baby has a capacity to find and (alternatively) being herself
waiting to be found” (Winnicott, 1971, pp.47). If the mother can play this role the baby will have
some “experience of magical control” - of omnipotence - and the experience that the omnipotence
of his intrapsychic processes are in harmony with the environment. The interplay of mother
and child is exciting. It is exciting because of “the precariousness of the interplay of the personal
psychic reality and the experience of control of actual objects” (Winnicott, 1971, pp.47). The next
step in the development happens as the subject (baby) develops the ability to play even when
the object is not present because the object continues to be available when remembered - also
called object constancy. At the end, the child is ready to play in the overlap of two play areas.
The mother introduces her own playing and the “first step for a playing together in relationship”.
(Winnicott, 1971, pp.48) The ability to play is also linked to culture and the arts. “There is a direct
development from transitional phenomena to playing, and from playing to shared playing, and
The experience of bridging the inside and the outside as part of an early developmental
progression is also described by Margaret Mahler. She described three main phases in the early
development of a child. During the first phase of “normal autism” the infant is in a state of
outside. This phase is objectless and it is one of absolute primary narcissism. In the second
phase of normal symbiosis the symbiotic connection of mother and child is a dual entity. The
child has an awareness with the need satisfying object. The infant behaves as an omnipotent
system of a dual unit (boundless ocean feeling). The essential feature is the hallucinatory or
delusional omnipotent fusion with the representation of the mother and the delusion of a common
boundary of the two. The child starts to develop during that phase a body image and the inner
sensations form the core of the self. The third phase (is named after the two paths of development
disengaging from the mother. This phase is split in a progression of four subphases describing
the different grades of separation/ individuation toward a stabile perception of I and Not I or of
by going back and forth between the mother it practices the alternating between inside and
outside. The mother can be seen as representation of a secure inner structure which provides
the child with safety. To move away from mother means to move towards the creation of a new
The polarity of inside and outside is an universal challenge in every human life. Without
“dialoguing” this polarity development and change would not be possible. As creativity at its core
deals with the same polarity the creative process can teach about change and development. One
learns in the transitional space of not-reality and reality since that is where the creative process
takes place.
In the transitional space there are different agents which bridge the inside and outside,
such as transitional objects, illusions and symbols. Transitional objects are the first “not me”
possessions and in addition can be seen as the first time a child uses symbols. Transitional objects
symbolize the union between the mother and the baby. They belong to the world of illusion and
imagination as they are “unchallenged in respect to its belonging to inner or external (shared)
reality.” (Winnicott, 1975, pp. 14) The integrative function of transitional objects lies in the fact
“that although they are real they act as illusions”. (S. Imus pp.39) Through transitional objects
the child makes its first experience with play and therefore, they are crucial to the child’s ability
to imagine, to play and to use symols. Transitional objects bridge the inner and outer world
by providing “external aid in the integration of various body-parts, rhythms and shapes into
a three dimensional image of the body.... both playing and holding are the basic methods of
building and maintaining the body image” (Kestenberg & Weinstein, 1978, pp.77). Kestenberg
&Weinstein link transitional objects and creativity. “Holding and fingering are the two aspects
of creativity which evolve from the intermediate zone between mother and child. One provides
the “holding environment ” (Winnicott, 1975) in which creativity flourishes.“ Transitional objects
might be the first mental creations in the human life. They are created in loneliness, serving an
integrative function. “They are based on feeling, yearning for past intimacy and the recreation of
past togetherness while weaving into it current wishes and hopes for the future.” (Kestenberg &
in an early age. By adapting to the infant in the beginning with nearly 100% adaptation of the
mother, she invites the infant in an illusionistic world where the outside corresponds or even is
created in accordance to the infant’s needs. ”From the birth therefore, the being is concerned with
the problem of the relationship between what is objectively perceived and what is subjectively
conceived”(Winnicott 1971 pg. 11). This relationship is not just a conflictual one but also a
facilitative one. Illusions, the capacity to produce mental images and imagery, allow us to create
a world not yet existing - a first step for any creation and an important condition for personal
growth. It allows one to imagine and project oneself and his life to a more constructive place - a
Symbols are created in the inner world to represent something which has been existing in the
past or which is imagined for the future. From a Jungian perspective symbols can be defined as
carry the dichotomy of inside and outside. In the depth of our psyche these are patterns of
universal symbols. The archetypes “are psychic instincts of characteristic inborn behavior patterns
and potential images” (Wilmer 1987, pp.58). Symbols are essential to creativity. They are a way
versatile and variable. Symbols are communication across a boundary; communication from
inside to outside and vice versa ... (Symbolism) bridges the gap between the familiar and the
Why are intermediate space, transitional objects and transitional phenomena important in
regard to the creative and the therapeutic process? By giving play, creative experience and activity
an important place in the therapeutic process Winnicott linked both. “Psychotherapy takes place
in the overlap of two areas of play that of the patient and that of the therapist. Psychotherapy
has to do with two people playing together.” (Winnicott 1971, pp.38) Although Winnicott never
explicitly described which “games” are played, he did describe the quality and the environment of
play and how that facilitates growth and change: Playing has to do with enrichment, enrichment
of experience. The client looking for help is looking for enrichment. Because one’s play area is
not inner psychic reality and not external world it has an integrative function. It allows someone
to gather objects and phenomena from the external world and then “uses these in the service of
some sample derived from inner or personal reality” (Winnicott, 1971, pp.51). Having access to
the intermediate space, to play, creativity and cultural experience, one can eventually enrich this
potential space according to ones own needs. As one integrates the internal and external one is
able to change.
Clients who choose to enter a therapeutic alliance are on the search of self or at least on
the search of an expansion of self. New and constructive experiences can only be made in an
environment which allows for searching. As Goldsworthy describes himself walking through
nature to find objects and places, the client in his search for self becomes creative in an
unintegrated state of personality in the neutral zone of rudimentary play. At the same time one
is dependent on the reflection of one’s experience, so integration can take place and the self can
be found. When the therapeutic procedure uses play to reach a state where life is experienced
in “the area of transitional phenomena, in the exciting interwave of subjectivity and objective
observation” (Winnicott 1971 pp.64), then the client and the dm-therapist join a creative endeavor
How does one build the bridge between the inner and outer? Which way leads to and possibly
into the transitional space? Bridging the inside and outside increasingly happens as one becomes
aware of one’s internal and external landscape. As one becomes aware, awareness brings one into
the transitional space. One becomes the listener to one’s own experience and the anticipator of
one’s actions.
In dmt one connects to the one’s experience in a fundamental way by experiencing oneself in
movement. As one increases one`s potential to experience one increases self awareness. But not
just that. “Experiencing is penetration in the environment, total organic involvement with it. This
means involvement on all levels: intellectual, physical and intuitive. It is in the increasing of the
individual capacity for experiencing that the untold potentiality of a personality can be evoked”
(Spolin, 1963, pp.3) I believe, that finding the untold potential is in the core of the creative act.
Finding the untold potential of personality is in the core of all therapy. The experience of the
own untold or unconsciuos potential might lead to an increase in self awareness. As well as
in experiencing and in awareness there is the duality of inside and outside. One can experience
oneself or be aware of oneself, the world around oneself, and the interplay between both.
In the performing arts, awareness is focused on the inside and the outside at the same time. Ruth
Zaporah describes it as a voyage where one “travels from the inner mind, the personal to the outer
ensemble, the contextual, and from the inner world of language to the outer world of relationship”
(Zaporah, 1995, pp.70) In Action Theater experiences arise from the interaction of sensation,
feeling, thought, emotion, memory, imagination and action, and therefore from interaction of
subjective and the objective. Increased awareness means increased awareness in relation to one’s
experience. ”We are not our experience, we are the consciousness that witness that process. We
are not our feelings. Feelings, emotions and thoughts pass through us.” (Zaporah, 1995, pp.18) In
other words: awareness means detaching from and owning ones experience at the same time. That
refers back to the objective devotion (Landau, 1984) and the polarity of passion and objectivity
(Csikszentmihalyi, 1996) as described earlier. Being able to detach and own means for the client
in dmt to learn to attend to his experience (at first to his physical experience) as well as to reflect
upon it , which leads to the increase of one’s ego strength. Or in Yalom’s word to be in “the here
and now” and be able to illuminate one’s process in the interpersonal dynamic of the group.
The ability to experience and to detach carries the possibility of development and change. One
“must simultaneously experience and disengage from the unfolding content to give memory
and imagination the room to pull the scene in unexpected directions”. (Zaporah, 1995, pg. 166)
Within the ability to remain in that tension one opens the room for the intermediate space with its
dreams, imagination and symbols.
For the dm- therapist experience and detaching leads to a flexible psychotherapeutic attention
(Speeth, 1982). It leads to having a functioning self observing ego and to the ability to direct
one’s attention to the inside and/or outside. According to Speeth (1982, pp.143) “the division
of attention between my inner process and what the client is doing, saying, etc. , is a division
according to the object of awareness”. The therapist’s awareness needs to be flexible not just
in regard to the object or place on which one focuses. As different phenomena have different
forms, one’s focus has to be flexible like a photographic lens. Speeth (1982) talks about the
narrow focused and panoramic awareness allowing the therapist to fulfill his role as witness of the
Zaporah (1995) also linked awareness and creativity. Creativity “is not about being creative it is
simply about being. Being creative implies being other than who you are, when actually creativity
is more of who you are ...The quality of attention ... determines one’s relationship to the changing
aspects of experience ...creativity comes with attention.” (Zaporah, 1995, pp.41) As awareness
increases the sense of an integrated self increases and one’s creative potential becomes available as
“It is more difficult to find nature in materials far removed from their source ..... what is important
Ideas about the connection between psychopathology and creativity are common and rather
old. In fact, the thought that creativity is connected to pathology goes as far back as to Plato
(Hasenfus & Magaro 1976). The most extensive research in that area is done on the connection
between creativity and neurotic processes as well as on the connection between creativity and
schizophrenia.
Freud linked neurotic processes and creativity. According to his theory neurotic and creative
processes are connected since creative and neurotic processes stem from the same intrapsychic
place. The creative person uses sublimation as a defense mechanism which is seen as the healthier
coping skill to deal with mostly psychosexual conflicts. According to Freud, in both the realm
of neurosis and the world of creativity, the personal reality is much more important then the
When looking at the connection between schizophrenia and creativity most researchers
conclude that there are “ some similarities between the operational definitions of creativity and
the operational definitions of the schizophrenic deficit”. (Hasenfus & Magaro, 1976, pp.348) The
overlap between both appears to be in the area of affect and unusual association (Prentky, 1980).
Nevertheless, Cropley & Siskand (1973) point out that differences are seen in the fact that often
schizophrenic clients present themselves with preference towards concreteness, low tolerance
for incongruities and with a certain amount of rigidity. All those are not positive conditions to
become creative.
The interplay of polarities in the creative process may deserve further attention when one
conflicting polarity within the schizophrenic client. One basic problem for the schizophrenic
patient is a distortion in his ability to differentiate between himself and outer reality, between
subject and object. There is a conflict between the wish to merge and a need to differentiate.
(Deuter, 1997) As the schizophrenic client is able to handle the tension between those poles
he might find orientation through the balance of his need to differentiate versus his need to
merge. Schellenbaum (1990) describes this conflict as the polarity of the absence of ego strentgh
accompanied by the subjective experience of non-existence versus the attempt to come to existence
by adopting the perceptual world of the other through a symbiotic like state.
In more general terms, one can imagine that the schizophrenic experience is perceived as
constantly unstable, unusual and new to the client. Like the creative person, the schizophrenic
client lives in a constant tension field. Because of his lack of ego strength he needs to move toward
rigidity in order to maintain a sense of self while the creative person tries to move away from
rigidity. As both go the same path even though at times in different directions there might be a
There is also evidence that there are neuroanatomical processes which are similar for
psychopathological and creative structures. This appears to relate especially to specific perceptual
processes such as specific modes of input regulation (the orientation to and the registration/
consolidation of input). (Prentky, 1980)
Prentky (1980) gives less importance to the causal relationship between creativity and mental
illness but emphasizes that the understanding of mental illness offers potential new insight into
the creative process, on the basis of the similarities in specific ways of processing information.
Despite the connection between creative processes and psychopathological processes, it appears
to me that - regardless of some favorable or rather unfavorable conditions - the potential for
One moves in an unqualifiable area as one talks about the overlap of creativity and therapy,
because one talks about people, their subjective worlds, their relationships or at least their
attempts to relate. Looking from a multiple perspective one finds a lot of general similarities.
Creativity as well as therapy is about discovery . During both processes something which has
been unknown will be formed and will emerge as something new and valuable.
As described before, both processes are about finding relationships. Finding relationships
between ideas and reality, between impressions or sensations previously perceived as unrelated,
between facts or between different parts of oneself. The parts which one has to relate to each other
are different depending on what one wants to create. In dmt it is about finding relationships
to one’s body, one’s innerlife or parts of it and about establishing a relationship between one’s
intrapsychic world and the world one lives in. The focus of this relationship is to facilitate growth
and self-actualization. Establishing relationships does not happen in a linear connection. One
spirals around an idea or a theme, approaches it and retreats from it, tests and re- defines it.
During the creative and the therapeutic process relationships are made in layers: As awareness
grows, one revisits and encounters different facets of the creative project and oneself which leads
Since it is about relationships it is about communication. During the creative process the
dialogue happens between oneself and the idea and eventually between oneself and the
environment about the idea. In the last stage, communication hopefully happens between
the creation (which came out of the idea) and the environment using its symbolic language.
In dmt establishing relationships entails establishing communication with oneself, with the
group, and with the therapist within the therapeutic alliance. In addition, in dmt, the modes of
communication are diverse, verbal and non verbal, incorporating unconscious and conscious
areas of the personality. As one increases perception and experience in dmt one will communicate
differently to the self and to others. Often new ways of communication reflect new ways of
involvement and experience facilitated by the creative process, one creates new parts of oneself.
integrative method of therapy, offering different modes to express and to relate, is an effective
modality to increase a client’s self-expression. That is of high importance since clients often need
to learn to express themselves in ways which are congruent with their experience of self and
others.
I view the bridging of the inside and the outside through an intermediate realm as one of the
main similarities of both processes. Bridging inner and external reality is a real challenge for a
majority of clients. The inside might be overwhelming, estranged, traumatized with paranoid
or threatening feelings. The outside often resembles nothing from their inner world, does not
hold any expectations, ultimately confronts with their own “strange - ness” and with the fact of
being mentally ill. As clients are drifting into apathy, bluntness, addiction or delusional worlds,
they withdraw from self and/or from others, in an attempt to heal themselves. The way a client
is disconnected can look differently: a client can be out of touch with himself (inside), others
(outside), the intermediate world, all at the same time or in any combination. During the creative
process, as one travels through the different phases, one can establish connections between
those realms again. During the creative process, one matches inner content with outer Gestalt by
matching idea and form. Because of this, the creative process is ideal for the client to learn the ego
As one looks at similarities of both processes and how those effect the therapeutic relationship,
it becomes apparent that we deal with the intermingling of the creative process of the client, the
creative process of the therapist and the creative process of the group. In an effort to be more
specific, I will use one dmt session for further illumination upon the similarity between creative
The group I will describe was held in an outpatient facility of a major psychiatric institution in
an American city. The participants had been coming to dmt treatment twice a week for 6 weeks.
Most of the clients were diagnosed with schizophrenia undifferentiated (295.90) (DSM4, 1995).
Half of the participants were dual diagnosed. The majority were in psychiatric treatment the major
part of their adult life. The age ranged from 44 years old (Thomas) to 62 years old (Geraldine).
I followed the participants creative process over the entire treatment period. To be able to
target different strengths and weaknesses of different clients in their creative output I designed
a coding sheet (appendix # 2). The coding sheet was meant to assist the therapist by increasing
his awareness of the client’s creative process. In the coding sheet, basic theories of the creative
process were translated into a dmt assessment. Assessing the ways a client deals with tension and
polarities received special attention throughout the coding sheet, as an indicator for his openness
to enter a creative process. Part 1 of the coding sheet is a general movement assessment focusing
on innerconnectivity and one’s relationship to self and others on the body level. Since creativity
is about relationships one needs to assess the client’s relationship to himself as a foundation
for relating to the outside. Part 2 focuses on the creative areas and preferred ways of taking in
stimuli. The areas of creative expression refer to the Chacian principles (body-action, symbolism,
rhythmic group action, therapeutic relationship), but include thought processes, interpersonal
For example client Lou`s preference for taking in information was through handling an object
(tactile), movement (kinesthetic), and through his visual sense. His preferred areas of creative
expression were in body action and symbolism. In accordance to that, he was easily involved
in symbolic reenactments, especially, when we created sceneries with props. This was quite
different from the client Geraldine who responded strongly to auditory stimulation. When she
was responding to internal stimuli, I could reach her with my voice or music, but not if I would
stand next to her or when I moved without talking. Her creative areas were in her thought
processes and in body action. As Geraldine suffered from altered thought processes this needed
to be seen on the background of her pathology: As her thought processes were too loose, it was
a challenge to support her creative thinking, and at the same time help her in organizing her
thoughts. The category “creative placement” (Part 2) assesses the positioning of the client in terms
Part 3 translated main theories on creativity on a body level. I defined equivalents for the
creative paradoxes (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996) in movement terms. My attempt during treatment is
to help the client to get access to both poles of a polarity. Part 4 focuses on clarifying the therapist’s
The session started out with everybody introducing themselves and then the purpose of the group
was reviewed. This was facilitated in a playful structure with a ball being used as a transitional
object. This was part of the established group culture. During Heather’s turn she took the ball
close to her body and responded: ”I am Leah. I was born 15 days ago. I am 23 years and one day
old, and I am a singer.” As I asked her who Heather was she answered that she did not know,
so I asked her to share one important thing about herself. Leah, alias Heather responded with:
“Sometimes I feel like a baby.” The next one to get the ball was Lou and he took Heather’s theme
and treated the ball like a little infant, rocking it in his arms. This was often a form this particular
group chose to either bring up needs of self-soothing or to create support for each another. I asked
them to pass the ball around and for each one of the members to come up with one idea how
they wanted to be with or to take care of the baby. James kissed the baby, and Geraldine talked
As the ball was passed around again, they started to treat the imaginary baby more like a ball,
still referring to it as their baby. They threw the ball/baby in the air, they dropped or spanked
the ball/baby. I took the movements of throwing something in the air and letting it drop as
a starting point for a sequential warm-up focusing on those qualities which emerged in the
introductory round. I encouraged the group to move along such opposites of dropping/lifting,
small/big, tender/strong and forceful/weak. During the warm-up, Thomas, who appeared
withdrawn in the beginning became engaged in the movement process. At the end of the warm-
up, I encouraged each of the participants to choose one polarity which they felt drawn to and to
explore it. Betty, who was working with big and small, was saying that big movements would
connect her to others. Immediately, Thomas responded, “I want to be alone without anybody“.
His voice sounded harsh and he appeared to be upset. Betty, while reaching out with her arms,
had said she would like to have her family around her. As she brought up the theme of being
connected versus alone, the others responded in their individual fashion; Geraldine started
hallucinating and whispered out of the window; Lou started moving with slight agitation,
while asking for the baby to not be alone; Frank stopped moving, while Heather responded to
the rhythm of the music. I verbally reflected the polarity of alone versus together and as I saw
a general decrease of mobility, I facilitated a movement exploration of that theme with another
The concreteness of the transitional object evoked new movement expressions: Lou and Frank
pulled on the stretchband, Thomas wrung it, Betty was shaking it while Geraldine and Heather
were rather careful in handling the object. I commented on the different levels of strengths which
led into several tug of war games, where mainly the male participants were engaged. As Lou
and Thomas competed, there was a lot of strength and force; and they needed assistance to stay
safe. They ended in a draw, clearly to avoid disappointment. There was a high level of tension. To
incorporate the women, I asked about other ways to test strengths and the group came up with
the idea to find partners to push into each other’s hands. In general, I observed a lot of playful
fighting during the pushing exercise. Beside Geraldine who wandered in between the group and
Heather who eventually sat down, the participants engaged in different ways to push somebody
away. As most of the group members acted out fighting, I asked everybody what they wanted
to fight in their lives. Betty responded with “I want to fight pain”; Geraldine started to elaborate
on the issue why it would not make any sense to fight, while displaying tangential thought
processes; James said “addiction”; Heather remained silent and then Thomas said, ” the hospital
- but I don’t fight anymore.” He then shared that he felt betrayed by his family who brought him
here, and that he missed his daughter and wanted to see her. He finished with telling the group
that this group was the only group he participated with and enjoyed. Meanwhile, the group
naturally found their way into a circle, and James was starting a slow circular arm movement.
to engage in this movement pattern, we reflected back on the group and what issues came up,
and Betty commented that one can recycle through movement. As it was Geraldine’s turn to
comment on what she wanted to recycle she responded by saying, ”it was really hard to come to
3.5. Analysis (For clarity and orientation of the interaction of the different processes please use
appendix # 3)
established)
The first phase started as the group engaged in the symbolic play around the ball and touched
on the theme of how to take care of somebody. That was when the group started to “search” for
the problem.
Sensitivity was awakened by giving everybody a chance to contribute their idea of caretaking,
and a pool of information and images were collected. By reaching out to everybody and asking
them to contribute their images, a complexity of images on the group level were created.
During the warm up, the dm-therapist has to work on decreasing anxiety, increasing trust, and
promoting a non-judgmental climate. In that atmosphere, the preparation phase of the creative
process can easily be facilitated since the warm-up of a dmt session promotes an increase of
sensitivity to the surrounding environment, and an openness towards stimuli which are the
main criteria for the preparation phase. One profound similarity between the creative process
and the therapeutic process in dmt is the creation of a climate which allows the individual to get
in touch with himself and encourages him to express himself within the context of a (therapeutic)
relationship.
Additionally I worked on the body level experiencing the tension between polarities. The goals
were to increase the toleration of differences and tension, to promote complexity and to foster
flexibility as cornerstones for a creative environment. This approach demands more awareness
and skill when it is utilized in a group setting where one is faced with some clients which are
loose or highly fragmented. As I worked with polarities, I was able to assess the polarities used in
the coding sheet reflecting the creative paradoxes. While observing the clients moving through the
opposites, one will be able to assess their flexibility or their rigidity .
Working with polarities provide a structure for patients with either loose or narrow boundaries.
For those patients with too loose boundaries the concept of polarities set clear limitations. For
those patients with blocked impulses the spectrum of two poles introduces a managable range
of possibilities. In the aforementioned session tension was induced by working with polarities in
the beginning. As the session carried on, the opposites changed from “tension inducing to tension
reducing” (Fritz, 1984). Opposites offer not just the chance for constructive conflict, but also for
the experimentation with a problem situation, and to learn about reaching or delaying resolution
The second phase of the creative process started as group members expressed emotional
one indicator for the emergence of unconscious material can be seen in an increase in the intensity
of the verbal and nonverbal expression. Then movement and thoughts appear to come from a
In the previous session, I saw the group moving into the second phase of the creative process
and witnessed the emergence of the unconscious material as the fragmentation and chaos
increased. The increase in chaos is caused by the accumulation of the individual unconscious
processes of the different group members. The chaos at that point in time reflects the search
in the unconscious on a group level which needed to be guided, yet not become regimented.
What often is described as dissatisfaction and frustration in that phase of the creative process, I
often have observed as a loosening of structures and an increase in chaos when working with
the schizophrenic client. As a dm-therapist it would not promote creativity if one would shy
away from the chaos. On the other hand, to not structure the chaos will most likely support the
pathology of the schizophrenic client. To facilitate the client’s creative process, I try to create
an environment which allows for the unconscious process to arise, yet provide structures and
boundaries in which the client can experience the AHA. Then the intensity of the AHA can be
regulated since for the schizophrenic client, cathartic moments can be overwhelming.
In dmt, regulating the intensity happens on the body-level. As a dm-therapist, I observe the
body language and movement impulses. Since I know at that point of a session major parts of the
client’s current movement presentation, I try to imagine and then anticipate where the presented
movement quality could develop. It is the challenge for the dm-therapist’s creativity to imagine
the past (movement initiation) and the future (where a movement could progress into) of the
movement presentation, because the schizophrenic client often will not be able to determine that.
Due to my capacity for imagining where the movement presentation could develop, I am able
to formulate the next intervention - the next transitional task for the client. It is the same challenge
every dancer has while improvising - to be in the presence of the movement, and at the same time,
to be one - but only one - second ahead. Imagining where the client’s movement presentation
In that particular session, I observed and stated the problem between being alone versus being
The illumination phase is marked by the AHA: an insight coming into awareness. During the
previous session, as the group members identified what they wanted to fight in their lives,
they gained insight, by both connecting their physical experience facilitated by the movement
structures, with their personal experience and emotional meaning. Obviously, each member had
their own personal AHA. What they had in common was that an increase in associational fluency
and physical flexibility promoted an increase in fluency of expression. These increased abilities
indicated the client’s creative involvement. In group, the AHA can come as a surprise, and can
be accompanied by strong feelings (May, 1975) but the AHA also can be quiet and slow. Often
the mentally ill client needs to be more defended as a consequence of a fragile internal structure,
and does not always express the real level of intensity. To recognize the AHA the dm-therapist
needs to look for an increase in self awareness or a new insight (even though it might be just a
temporary one) and not for the level of intensity of the client’s affective responses. Since the
AHA is related to awareness rather than carthasis, I prefer thinking of the AHA more in terms of
behavior)
Toward the end of the session, the group developed the gentle arm movement as a consequence
to their engagement in themes of strength, aggression and pain. As they called that movement
theme “recycling” it became apparent that they needed to transform. As the group expressed
this need physically, they can be seen on the verge of the verification phase. Yet the experience in
this group stayed on a subjective level and was not transformed into objective knowledge. This
would have been facilitated by bringing the topic into the present group dynamic situation, the
“ here and now” (Yalom, 1983), by illuminating the issue of pain as an issue of the group. As the
group suggested something else, and the group progression was asking for closure, the fourth
Throughout the aforementioned session, there was a progression of themes: a) taking care or not
taking care; b) being alone/ being abandoned versus being together; c) strength and aggression;
d) individual obstacles to fight against. I see in the progression of themes a clear continuum. The
development of themes can be seen as an approach to the challenging topic of the individual
battles which will most likely connect the clients to the reason for their hospitalization. Being
in relationships was a recurrent topic throughout the session, and I assessed that this was a core
issue in which most members could identify with and were able to work on.
Nevertheless, in order to facilitate the creative process on a verbal and non-verbal level within
a group, this often demands the patience of the dm-therapist to try different options until the
majority of the group members are involved in their issues, while being connected to a universal
structure. While working in a group within verbal and non-verbal media one never works in a
linear structure.
Using C.G.Jung’s ideas about the creative process, the group clearly developed from a female
phase in the beginning (having observed their use of caretaking, self-soothing and immersing
in movement) to a masculine phase (where strength, aggression and qualities of fighting were
In general, in the previuosly discussed session, body action and symbolism were used
predominately. During the first phase of the creative process, mainly body action was utilized.
In the second phase the use of symbolism helped to create transitional spaces. The third phase of
the creative process was facilitated through symbolism and clear physical structures. During the
verification phase the therapeutic relationship became the most important factor of the therapeutic
process.
As body action was facilitated the members had a chance to establish innerconnectivity. As the
clients established a stronger inner self (ego) through the physical activity they were able to enter
an intermediate realm with a clear sense of inside. This was seen in their ability to hold the topic
makes sense since creativity is about building relationships. Rhythm is a strong organizing factor.
It provides a point of departure and does help when the client’s ego structure starts to dissolve . In
terms of Chacian principles, body action and symbolism appear to me to be the creativity driving
principles, while the therapeutic relationship provides the foundation, enabling the creative
tangible to the client and does not drift away towards the merely bizarre.
During that session, the symbolic meaning of movement (recycling) and play promoted a
potential or transitional space (Winnicott, 1971), and so did the exploration of emotive polarities
on a movement level. The shift to the outside was facilitated by the kinesthetic experience of
touching the transitional object or touching each other (Pushing). In that sense, the possibility
of bridging inside and outside was offered. Especially in the verbal intervention, the therapist
responded to where the particular client was and/ or where the client moved to, to his creative
placement (see coding sheet/ appendix #3) and to his preferred cretaive areas.
Creating transitional spaces and moving the client between inside and outside promotes the
client’s ability to connect his inner experience with the outer reality. For example Heather’s
introduction displayed creative expression, yet her thought content was rather bizarre. At that
point in time, it was important to root her in a clear and non-psychotic sensation of inside, which
was facilitated by an extensive movement exploration. At other times or for other clients, it might
Each client has his own development of the creative process independent from the others, and
is at the same time influenced by others. The progression of the creative process is not necessarily
linear or smooth. Especially, if the clients may be more fragmented, and they might have several
creative impulses or various beginnings to their creative processes. As the dm-therapist is able
to be “creatively empathic” and connect to the clients creative responses and creative areas, (see
coding sheet/ appendix #3) he can assist them in registering, isolating and holding those creative
impulses in order to mold them together. Helping the clients to organize their ways to express
themselves will allow them to also become more organized on the physical and cognitiv level.
Thomas, a 44 year old man, was diagnosed with Schizophrenia undifferentiated (295.90)
(DSM4, 1995) and polysubstance dependency (304.8) (DSM4, 1995). He had a long history of
noncompliance with treatment. Thomas displayed difficulty in his thought-processes and his
short term memory and appeared to be confused at times, which could have been symptoms of
alcohol/ substance-induced dementia. Often he was very angry and upset, exhibiting paranoid
ideation. This led him to refuse angrily to attend and/or to participate in the group.
In the beginning of group he appeared to be distant from others and the group process. He
refused to participate in the introductory phase and appeared to be angry. As others tried to
include him, he refused categorically. As the group started the physical warm-up, he joined
sometimes, yet only when encouraged by the therapist. Eventually, he was able to participate
focus of the warm up he was able to connect because the body action reflected his inner situation.
During the interaction with Thomas, the dm-therapist tried to promote sensitivity towards a
conflict (this was done on the body level by allowing his tension to manifest), to foster flexibility
and fluency (which was done on the body level by introducing a series of polarities). Eventually
Thomas exhibited an increase in his range of movement and appeared to gain more possibilities
divergent production on the bodylevel, as one increases flexibilty, novelty, sensitivity, complexity
body level which promoted an increase in flexibility on other levels too, in the area of interaction.
As I validated him in his movement experience verbally and through kinesthetic empathy, he
displayed an increase in his intrinsic motivation and became more involved in the movement
Moving together awakened a sense of relatedness. Having learned from his history that
relatedness was a core issue of his, he often felt betrayed, abandoned, tricked or not taken
seriously. His need for relationships often was expressed in highly attention seeking behavior,
evoking rejection. His resistance and ambivalence toward the dmt group must be seen as a
reflection of that core issue. As he moved the polarities he approached this issue, expressing
this by his statement of “I want to be alone without anybody”. He obviously was in between
preparation and incubation phase at that point in time. His area of input was clearly kinesthetic
- as verbal interaction was too threatening and often too occupied by mistrust. As I mirrored
his movements, I tried to encourage the creative process on the body level and at the same time
validate his verbal expression. I tried to support his strength and not provoke his retreat. As
he became more engaged, he started becoming involved in the process of problem finding. As
Yalom (1984) stated it is essential for the psychiatric client to receive help in stating the problem.
According to Fritz (1991) and to Landau (1984) this is important during the creative process, too.
Thomas` problem for that session: How could he be with others without being too overwhelmed
by feelings of rage and fear? As the theme of relatedness was varied throughout the session, he
was able to formulate the problem in the way he perceived it which promoted autonomy and
Thomas was able to explore the conflict of wanting to be together, but he experienced an
impossibility rooted in his feelings of anger and rage. As he worked with the stretchband
As he pulled the stretchband and engaged in a tug of war, he was able to be connected with
others and at the same time was distant enough, so that his feelings of aggression could emerge
safely . Physically he explored being connected/ together and at the same time was dealing with
his strong feelings of anger. In fact, Thomas worked in a reverse way: at first he expressed his
feelings in regard to closeness which normally pushed others away or excluded him. As he was
validated in his aggression and was offered a safe outlet for those feelings, he was able to connect
with others during movement structures of pushing one another in the group.
As the contact became real by touching hands, he slowly moved from the incubation phase
to the illumination phase. The unconscious exploration of relational patterns became more of
a reality, by the immediacy of touching somebody else. As he stated that he missed his family
and acknowledged the importance of relationships within the group, he was able to express an
inner experience and relate that to others. He allowed his inner experience to be expressed to
the outside while he normally would deny his inner experience. Thomas moved in his creative
process from the inside (anger/ resistance) through an intermediate space of creative experience
during movement exploration. As he was mirrored and allowed to explore and to process his
sensations in playing with others, he was able eventually to bridge inside and outside, finding a
congruent form to express parts of his real self. He used body action as the primary area for taking
in stimuli and creative output. This makes sense taking his cognitive difficulty and his paranoid
ideation into account. Thomas definitely brought something into being: he brought the part into
being which could be with others without being threatened, without withdrawing and without
It is important to intervene and connect to the client where his strength is because that is where
the client can grow. The client`s strength is present when he is most spontaneous and expressive.
If the client is able to connect to his spontaneity and self-expression he is most likely to activate his
unique creative potential. Each member will absorb stimuli differently and express themselves in
other creative areas. At times it is a challenge to connect to the creative areas of a client in order to
In the case of Geraldine, it was difficult for me to detect her creative areas and relate to them,
in order to inspire a creative process. Geraldine was a 62 year old female diagnosed with
Schizophrenia undifferentiated (295.90). She displayed major impairment in reality testing and
communication and was responding to internal stimuli most of the time. Although Geraldine was
very fragile and had physical impairment due to a hip operation, she was a highly committed
group member as seen in her steady attendance and her commitment to the therapeutic alliance.
Although her movement repertoire was limited, she was often able to become integrated in the
group process through movement structures. Geraldine exhibited strong auditory and visual
hallucinations which made her interaction very fragmented. In an instant, her gaze would wander
- or she would stand up to go to a specific place in the room, to talk to an imaginary other.
In the beginning of the session, she only participated if approached by others. She was able to
handle the ball because she knew the group culture and the transitional objects. Yet, she appeared
to be removed and detached. Her concentration span appeared to be short and her activity was
interrupted by her responding to internal stimuli. There was no verbal or non-verbal connection
possible - she was lost in her inner landscape - and was detached from the reality of the group.
Her interactions were different from Thomas` who was resistant and refused to be in contact and
was relating through his anger. Geraldine was not in contact with others; only with her psychotic
realty. As the group worked with the stretchband, her movement presentation changed. She was
able to pull and let go in near synchronicity with others. She exhibited an increase in her ability
to take in stimuli on a physical level, and in the way she handled transitional objects. In general,
her preferred creative areas were body action and object handling. It was in that area I observed
an increase in spontaneity and interaction skills. Obviously, Geraldine was deeply immersed in
her internal world. Flexibility and fluency in her case did not mean to expand boundaries, but to
provide her with boundaries in which her fluency and flexibility would become an integral part
of herself in relation to others. In her case, I needed to provide her with boundaries to allow her
creativity to become integrated in her present experience.
Quite different from Thomas who withdrew in resistance, she withdrew in detachment, which is
not unusual for a schizophrenic patient. Even though they might appear to be flexible and fluent,
their creativity is not available to them, since they cannot instrumentalize it, in order to relate
to the outside. As a consequence one can observe creative responses, but at the same time they
might be flat and monotone in their interaction with others. Especially in the beginning of the
session, Geraldine was only in touch with her delusional thoughts. The challenge was to provide
her with a framework in which her creative process and her strength could manifest in the reality
of the group. If such a supportive framework is not provided the client can still be creative, but
will not enter a creative process, since he only relates in and through his psychotic world. Since
the schizophrenic client can be so absorbed in his delusional worlds and be out of touch with
oneself and others, I added a subphase to the creative process, proceeding the preparation phase,
which I call detachment. I view somebody as detached when he is so preoccupied with altered
thought processes and is not able to relate to self or others. For clients like Geraldine, it is a real
challenge to guide them into an intermediate realm because it is a challenge in general to establish
relationships and communication. I assessed Geraldine’s creative areas as being body action and
her perceptual preferences as being kinesthetic and auditory. As I saw her increasing involvement
in movement as an evidence for the unconscious exploration of a conflict, I witnessed her conflict
between her intrinsic need to relate and the obstacles she used to avoid intimacy.
Geraldine’s AHA came at the end of the session when she said, “it was really hard to come to
your world today but, I made it”. This insight was made possible by her shifting and experiencing
inside and outside several times in this session: In the intermediate realm of playing with the
transitional object she repeatedly connected - even though for short periods of time - to the group
(outside). Her need to relate to others became manifested in the intermediate realm of play and
Shifting between inside and outside enabled her to integrate her need to be with others and
express that congruently. Geraldine traveled through the phases of the creative process of
detachment to the beginning of the illumination phase by having the AHA experience. In the
aforementioned session, it was not possible to illuminate how that relates to previous experiences
or behavioral patterns.
3.5.4. The creative process of the dm-therapist
In all phases of the creative process the dm-therapist needs to have his awareness flexible between
inside and outside. Yet, it appears that the object of awareness is different, according to each
phase of the creative process. For example, in the beginning of a dmt session, the dm-therapist is
challenged by assessing the group and at the same time he needs to connect to his own internal
landscape and physicality, as an instrument for awareness and relationship. Assessing the client
means also to assess oneself. As one takes in all the different responses of the client there is
no need to streamline them immediately. The dm-therapist’s creative ability shows also in his
capacity to delay solutions. In the beginning of a dmt session, the dm-therapist needs to be able
to be in contact, to interact, to provide structure and safety and at the same time assess his own
experience. In that sense, the dm-therapist’s creative process potentially starts before the session
and not just in the session. He should be already in the preparation phase before he meets the
client. Therefore, it is important that the dm-therapist is warmed up physically and creatively
My incubation phase in that session began as we handled the baby/ball. As I already entered
the incubation phase, it was challenging to stay open and allow the unconscious and the intuitive
parts in myself to emerge while the group was still engaged in the warm-up, often looking for
orientation and guidance. The dm-therapist needs to allow the group’s world to unfold in the
therapist’s body of awareness, and to maintain at the same time, an active stance to implement
transitional tasks. Satisfying those conflicting interests was less difficult as I started to work with
polarities. At times, the dm-therapist will experience those conflicting interests because he might
be at a different place of the creative process than the client, and might need to follow his own
creative process. Then, he has to facilitate two creative processes at the same time. Fortunately,
movement is a flexible medium, so that it is possible, for example, to provide the client with a clear
movement structure and at the same time, to work with ones physical experience more openly
and intuitively. It is like having the chance to have two different dialogues around the same topic.
In addition, with schizophrenic clients, one might find oneself repeatedly at the same place in
a session or the opposite, at various disconnected places in a short time. Yet, that might also be
part of the creative process: The creative process of working through a current internal chaos or a
presentation of strong yet fast changing inspirations where the dm-therapist can assist in holding
and integrating those variety of responses. Nevertheless, this demands even more flexibility in the
dm-therapist’s awareness.
As I observed the polarity of alone versus together in the group as one core issue for that
day, I moved through the illumination phase. Naming this core issue can be seen as my main
AHA around which I tried to structure the session. Implanting structures to work on an issue
can be frustrating at times especially, if the group does not respond as one expects. There are
many reasons why clients do not respond: maybe it is not their issue after all, maybe they are
defending against it, and, they might be tired or their concentration is occupied by something
entirely different. It is important to follow ones inspiration and intuition, and at the same time, to
stay flexible as an idea or a transitional task may not motivate the interest of the client.
As I implanted different transitional tasks focusing on their relational patterns and tried to
connect the client’s response to this issue, I entered the verification phase. It is then, when I tested
my insight - my intuition, through the different variations of the theme (alone v/s together).
As I mentioned previously, it seems that the dm-therapist’s creative process is often one step
ahead. I believe it starts before the session, and often has a different timing. I do not think, this
conflicts with the attempt and method in dmt to meet a client within his present set of emotions.
As the phase model helps to organize the internal and the external work of the therapist, one
can - and in fact has to - be with the client, and, at the same time process the experience of that
interaction differently than the clients do. It also adds to the dm-therapist’s clarity if one realizes
that the dmt session, if structured as described by Schmais (1981) including the warm-up, release,
theme development and closure can be seen as equivalent to the stage model of the creative
process, as encountered by the client. The warm-up in dmt potentially facilitates the preparation
phase (or helps the client to transition out of the detachment-phase), the release can be used as the
transition to the incubation phase and theme development can be seen as similar to the incubation
and illumination phase. The closure can be used to promote the verification phase. Even though
clients have their own timing and might spend the entire session in one phase, this framework
Another difference between the client’s and the dm-therapist’s process is the fact that the client
chooses his creative project. The dm-therapist has this freedom only to a certain extent. The client
is the dm-therapist’s creative project. The client searches in his own internal landscape. The dm-
therapist searches for inspiration within the borders of the clients` internal landscape and the
client/dm-therapist interaction.
Fritz (1991) suggested a model of the creative process containing 9 conditions which I find offer
in its practicality some simple guidelines for the dm-therapist especially when working with
schizophrenic patients who display a fragmented internal structure. Besides the importance of
forming a conception, a vision for what to create and testing the current reality in regard to what
one wants to achieve, Fritz (1991) emphasized one condition in the creative process to be able to
repeatedly “Adjust-Learn- Evaluate- Adjust” . “ Each action you take is an experiment that leads
to cognitive and internal learning” (Fritz 1991, pp.93). That becomes even more true if one takes
into account that often in dmt the dm-therapist needs to try out different interventions before
the group will join in . Fritz (1991) emphasized that it is important to set a direction for further
procedure: No matter in which direction one goes or how many detour s one takes. Adjust-learn-
evaluate - adjust is naturally a continuous dialogue between the dm-therapist’s observing ego and
the reality of the group dynamic. According to Amabile (1983) “creativity relevant skills” help to
Ideally the dm-therapist’s creative process and the client’s creative process support eachother
and interact. This interaction happens more easily in dmt because the format is open and the
presence of the moment is utilized as basis for kinesthetic empathy and the therapeutic process.
As the dm-therapist has to respond to the different creative areas of the client, he needs to have a
broad repertoire to connect to those areas. Unlike a choreographer or a dancer, his creative process
does not only happen within the medium of dance. It can happen in all the different creative areas.
Therefore the dm-therapist needs to be a creative seer, thinker, mover, talker, actor, object handler,
all in one. He needs to be able to improvise, in an empty space as well as in a tight structure of
The dm-therapist not only needs to have a broad repertoire but also needs to apply his internal
relating to self and others, and how creative he can use those observations to implement structures
in order to promote the growth of his client. The dm-therapist’s creativity develops and will show
on the continuum of observation, processing observation and molding of the dm-therapist’s and
the client’s world and coming into action. As the dm-therapist processes his observation in his
internal landscape, a creative transformation can happen. This creative transformation effects how
the client will be seen by the dm-therapist and will offer the client the opportunity to perceive
Throughout the treatment the dm-therapist models the use of creative behavior. Through
the use of his own creative process, he models qualities such as divergent production, fluency,
spontaneity, and flexibility. Often those qualities are not found in clients with severe pathology
- or they are found to such a degree that they need containment. By using his creative potential
and conceptualizing the interaction with the client from a stand point incorporating creativity
theories, the dm-therapist offers the client the opportunity to learn about their own creative
abilities. Especially in the beginning stages as the client does not have access to his own creative
process - the dm-therapist needs to model qualities introducing the client to different areas of
his creativity. As the client eventually enters his own creative process, the dm-therapist’s and the
Fundamental to dmt is the interrelatedeness of body and mind as described in part 1 of this paper.
In dmt, change and healing is seen in a more process-oriented and holistic framework. Creative
processes too, encompass body and mind. Sensitivity, flexibility or receptiveness can be seen as
features which are for a major part originated, cultivated or stimulated by physical processes.
As we perceive and sense in and with our bodies we can influence or create, flexibility and
fluency in our bodies. Other conditions for the creative process incorporate predominantly mental
processes, such as synthesizing and analyzing abilities, redefining or evaluating. One can say that
through the creative process one also furthers the integration of body and mind and promotes the
Integration is one core element in the theories of creativity. (Maslow, 1958) But it does not
As movement and the body develop throughout ones lifetime, they offer a perfect medium to
experience integration and learn about change. This can happen by repatterning movement
the body’s memories. In addition, the developmental process of object relations is ingrained in
the body and ones movement behavior. Consequently, a client’s movement behavior reflects his
interpersonal development.
In summary, the creative process and the therapeutic process, and specifically the forming of
the therapeutic relationship as the major agent of change, are developmental processes. In dmt,
both are facilitated by the developmental medium of movement. It is fair to assume that if one
combines the developmental theories looking at creativity and those looking at growth and
change, one will create a common language for all those different processes and one will be able to
effectively use them in the interest of the client. (figure 2/ appendix #3)
There are major similarities between the developmental process of object relations (Winniott,
1971) and the stage model of the creative process. During the first stage, the subject and object
are merged. In the creative process, during the incubation-phase, one merges with the creative
environment by merging with an idea or a conflict. This merging promotes a change of the inner
dynamic. As a client encounters intensity and affective responses and is mirrored by the dm-
therapist, he recognizes himself and an interplay of internal and external is possible for him. The
interplay of inside and outside is like the interplay between mother and child. It has the same
quality since in the beginning of the creative process its content is not questioned and a freedom
of experimentation and play is present. During the illumination phase, the creative process
develops its own life. For example in therapy, the client can in that phase internalize new ways
of perception and integrate them in the existent pattern of his personality. As this integration
happens the client changes and will effect through that his environment. The effect on the
environment is part of what Winnicott (1971) called playing together in relationship. The client
can use his creation to connect to himself and his environment and play with his new part of the
self.
Also, the developmental theories of M.Mahler are adaptable to the stage model of creativity.
As mentioned earlier, I added the subphase called detachment before the preparation phase. One
can compare that phase with normal autism as described by Mahler, as an objectless phase of
primary narcissism. (St.Clair, 1986) In that phase, the client’s internal landscape is detached from
his external environment. The preparation phase and the incubation phase can be compared to
the phase of normal symbiosis. The difference is that during the creative process, one fuses with
an intrinsic need or an internal conflict. This fusion also happens when clients use their defense-
mechanisms, because that is a way to become involved, too. Separation and individuation is
the process of becoming oneself: a more individuated self. In the creative process this happens
during the illumination and verification phase, as the creative product gains form and outer
reality and takes on its own life. Creator and creative product separate and the creative product
can be objectified. In terms of personal change, the separation between creator and creative
product happens as one is able to distance oneself from and reflect on ones behavioral patterns or
on own decisions.
When working from those developmental frameworks - one is able to assess group development,
the development of the relationships between the clients, and the therapeutic relationship and the
development of the client’s creativity within the same frame work using the same language.
Definitely the biggest challenge, especially with clients lacking or needing internal structures
(such as the schizophrenic client) is, that the abilities such as flexibility, fluency, toleration of
tension and affect are potential goals in therapy while they are conditions for the creative process.
What the creative process needs as a precursor are goals in therapy. Additionally, motivation
which is essential to the creative process is a complex issue in psychiatric facilities and cannot
be expected. Clients might show signs of helplessness and hopelessness, might have been
hospitalized for a long time, might be influenced by medication and are burned out. Because of
If one agrees with Rothenberg & Hausmann (1976) that creativity is an ideal form of behavior,
then creative environments are stimulating constructive ways of behavior, and are in general,
strength supporting.
I would consider creative environments as environments where a client can come in contact
with a) the different creative areas and creative senses as outlined in the coding sheet, and b)
where creativity relevant skills (Anambile, 1983) are modeled, and c) where intermediate spaces
are created in which a client can experience himself in the overlap of his internal and external
landscape. Dmt with its potential multi-modal ways to relate to clients provides an effective
Also, creative environments are easily formed by a group. A group provides an individual
with the field which will give feedback to one’s creative expressions and with the “domain”
therapy will be observed in internal shifts and measured in new ways of constructive behavior,
the group provides a test arena for the social importance of those newly evolving changes. This
clearly relates to Yalom’s (1984) theory of therapeutic factors promoting change in therapy: The
illumination and verification phase of the creative process happens essentially through the
Movement in itself is a medium which allows for the shifting between inside and outside. It is
internal yet creates an outer form. The movement presentation of the schizophrenic client often
reflects his lack of awareness of body and self. The client often is not aware where the movement
is originating, or of the emotional impact nor the symbolic meaning. These clients manifest
movements without a past and future: solely existing in the moment of its execution. As a dm-
therapist, one can recreate the timeline of past, present and future of a movement expression, since
the client might not be able to find that context. The past of a movement means the place in the
body where the movement is initiated, how the movement was formed, and what movement
quality preceded that movement. When I look at the present of the movement, I use movement
observation skills to determine movement qualities and movement features as well as interactional
meaning. I consider the future how this particular movement expression could develop further.
The dm-therapist needs to (at least kinesthetically) imagine the natural potential of a movement
expression. Where would that movement lead to if one would follow its natural progression.
Imagining the future of a movement expression will help in formulating the transitional task. As
one finds the past/ present/ future of the movement’s symbolic meaning too, one will discover
the client’s deeper levels of personality and can aid in promoting the client’s integration.
As the dm-therapist helps to provide this context on a movement level, the client has the chance
to experience an expansion of his movement repertoire which will eventually lead to an increase
in his imagination. This is crucial since change and creativity relate strongly to one’s imagination.
During the creative process, and especially during the incubation phase, the client has the chance
to connect to his images, symbols, dreams and ideas living in his imaginary world. As they
emerge to one’s consciousness, they function as mediator between the deeper inside and the
outside. Expansion of movement behavior and of imagination will create new perspectives. This
might be a first step toward imagining different possibilities, situations, behaviors and ultimately
ones life. As one is able to imagine or to project oneself to a different place, one will be able to
change. Change depends on one’s imagination. Imagination can be created through movement
and its symbolic meaning. Imagination immediately leads into the transitional space. In this sense,
flexible connection between reality and his imagination - between outside and inside - one has
As noted earlier, creativity and dmt meet in an undefined world. There is not enough research
and no valid data - yet, there are many unanswered questions, often originated in the difficulty to
objectify both processes and their overlap. Additionally, questions are hard to answer since there
is no common language to define those questions and search for answers. As a dm-therapist one
might be able to describe what is happening on a movement level and might be able to describe
what is going on creatively - but there is the problem for all creative arts therapies to change
the language of the medium of therapy to the therapeutic language describing clinical change.
(Aldrige, 1993)
To a certain degree, the mystery around creativity and therapy is nurtured by its practitioners.
I agree with Rhodes (1987) that creativity never will be a science, but is an art - a teachable and
learnable art. I believe that the same is true for the therapeutic process. Within both of those “arts”
the mystery has its place and its legitimacy as one does not strive for simple facts. As one attempts
to capture complex “constructs”, one is forced to have a multiple perspective. If one combines
both “arts” a dialectic perspective might suit one best, to see a process rather than a thing, to see
changes and not static constructs and to view one phenomena in relation to another one. The use
of dialectic schemata “provides paths in thought leading from the “present object” to a wider
set of realities; its past and future history, its contexts and relations. Thus, “dialectic ontology
opens up ones perception of reality, lends to it more variety and more connectedness - both
central features of the creative process.” (Stein, 1989, pp.204) As I have described earlier, dialectic
systemes are fundamental to creativity (Csikszentmihalyi, 1996, Landau, 1984, Rothenberg, 1979),
to the therapeutic process in general (Deuter, 1997, Wilmer, 1987) and to the therapeutic process in
As one moves through the creative or the therapeutic process, one will encounter simultaneous
opposites. Landau (1984) named the existential challenge in human life to integrate those
opposites, specifically the paradox between internal and external reality. As the creative process
bridges those realities, an integrated sense of self will be increased, since selfhood is built on the
Maslow (1958) proposed that creativity stems from the need of a person to self actualize. What is
true for self actualization is true for creativity: One actualizes and creates oneself in relation to the
world around oneself. Koehler (1998) suggested a path of self actualization, relating to creativity.
At first, there is creation of self, and, then creation of relationships followed by creation* of the
world. Creativity is crucial to all three of those stages. In the creation of self, it helps to transcend
from the personal self. Or in Jungian terms: creativity allows one to not just be connected to the
self (the ego) but to the Self (the whole personality, including ego, consciousness,
________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Selbstgestaltung - Beziehungsgestaltung - Weltgestaltung. The term Gesatltung is difficult to translate in English as it
stems from Gestalt. Creation in that context means to give Gestalt
personal and collective unconscious). In the creation of relationship creativity facilitates the
“playing together” (Winnicott, 1971). In the creation of the world it promotes the development
of vision and cultural experience. Creativity creates on all three levels the transitional spaces to
develop and change. Therefore, creativity is change. Then, it is true that the therapeutic process
is the creative process par excellence (Landau, 1984) and that both are inseparable. Because the
creative process promotes change, the ability to access the personal creative self and those of the
client will be highly valuable to every dm-therapist. The beauty and the main obstacle when
researching the application of creativity for the therapeutic process is that one deals with all
aspects of human beings. Therefore, quantitive studies with objective data or general statements
Nevertheless, on a larger scale a human society will be measured by its ability to allow the
individual to feel included and respected as a co-creator on the basis of the contribution of his
unique potential. Having that in mind might help the dm-therapist to master the first challenges
in developing a therapeutic alliance as well as developing the client’s creative potential. In the
beginning of the therapeutic and the creative process, he needs to facilitate within the dmt group
the creation of a world, where each client perceives himself as a validated co-creator by the fact
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