Professional Documents
Culture Documents
656 659 PDF
656 659 PDF
ABSTRACT
Drug use is a practice that dates to prehistoric times. There is archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive substances
dating back at least 10,000 years, and historical evidence of cultural use over the past 5,000 years.
Psychoactive substances are used by humans for a number of different purposes, both legal and illicit. Many psychoactive
substances are used for their mood and perception altering effects, Certain psychoactives, particularly hallucinogens, have been
used for religious purposes since prehistoric times.
Drugs have also had an undeniable influence on art and culture. Many artists, especially in the XIX century, used various drugs
and explored their influence on human life in general and particularly on the creative process. Drugs play an important role in
various subcultures, such as reggae music and hippy movements.
In every culture, man has used drugs to dispel anxiety, stimulate productivity, and to increase the feelings of joy and satisfaction.
Drug abuse particularly affects young people and has become one of the most important and widely discussed issues in society.
It is therefore an important task in medical science to find answers to how drugs exert their effect and what leads to addiction
and permanent consumption.
Keywords: psychoactive substances, recreational drugs, art, hallucinogens, including jimsonweed, psilocybin mushrooms,
literature, culture and cannabis have been used in religious ceremonies for
centuries. There is speculation that hallucinogenic mushrooms
Introduction and cacti greatly influenced the major religions of India, North
Drug use is a practice that dates to prehistoric times. There is and South America, the Middle East, and Europe, including
archaeological evidence of the use of psychoactive substances Christianity (13, 30).
dating back at least 10,000 years, and historical evidence of The use of entheogens for religious purposes resurfaced in
cultural use over the past 5,000 years (25). the West during the counterculture movements of the 1960s
Psychoactive substances are used by humans for a number and 70s. Under the leadership of Timothy Leary, new religious
of different purposes, both legal and illicit. Many psychoactive movements began to use LSD and other hallucinogens as
substances are used for their mood and perception altering sacraments (6). In the United States, the use of peyote for ritual
effects, including those with accepted uses in medicine and purposes is protected only for members of the Native American
psychiatry. Classes of drugs frequently used recreationally Church, which is allowed to cultivate and distribute peyote.
However, the bona fide religious use of Peyote, regardless
include:
of ancestry, is protected in Colorado, Arizona, New Mexico,
Stimulants, which elevate the central nervous system. These Nevada, and Oregon (17).
are used recreationally for their euphoric and performance-
Drug subcultures are examples of countercultures,
enhancing effects;
primarily defined by recreational drug use. Drug subcultures are
Hallucinogens, which induce perceptual and cognitive groups of people loosely united by a common understanding of
distortions; the meaning and value (good or otherwise) of the incorporation
Hypnotics, which are used recreationally to because they into life of the drug in question. Such unity can take many
induce inebriation; forms, from friends who take the drug together, possibly
Analgesics, which are used recreationally because of their obeying certain rules of etiquette, to full-scale political
euphoric effects (20, 28). movements for the reform of drug laws. The sum of these parts
In many cultures, possessing or having used recreational can be considered an individual drug’s “culture”.
drugs is seen as a status symbol. For example, in ancient There are multiple drug subcultures based on the use of
Egypt, gods were commonly pictured holding hallucinogenic different drugs - the culture surrounding cannabis, for example,
plants (7). Certain psychoactives, particularly hallucinogens, is very different from that of heroin, due to the different sort of
have been used for religious purposes since prehistoric times. experiences, sentiment amongst the crowd who is attracted to the
Native Americans have used mescaline-containing peyote cacti drug in question, as well as the problems the users encounter.
for religious ceremonies for as long as 5700 years (12). The Drugs also play an important role in various other
muscimol-containing amanita mushroom was used for ritual subcultures, such as reggae music and hippy movements.
purposes throughout prehistoric Europe (35). Various other Many artists, especially in the XIX century, used various
656 BIOTECHNOL. & BIOTECHNOL. EQ. 22/2008/2
drugs and explored their influence on human life in general among Europeans. Coca’s turning point in Europe came in
and particularly on the creative process. A prime example is 1860 when Albert Niemann extracted pure cocaine powder
“Artificial Paradises” by Charles Baudelaire. from coca leaves. This refinement allowed the use of cocaine
Drug slang is often used in music, most notably hip-hop but in many different medicinal products and beverages, most
also Alternative rock and Punk rock. notably Coca-Cola and Vin Mariani (3).
Although cannabis has been used for its psychoactive effects Freud began experimenting with cocaine around this time,
since ancient times, it first became well known in the United consuming small quantities to combat depression, sharing his
States during the jazz music scene of the late 1920s and 1930s. experience with other European physicians who also found
Louis Armstrong became a prominent and life-long devotee. It cocaine to be an effective topical anesthetic. Freud became a
was popular in the blues scene as well, and eventually became a fervent supporter of the use of cocaine as an anti-depressant,
prominent part of 1960s counterculture (4). even publishing a manuscript detailing its virtues, although he
Hashish is a preparation of cannabis. It contains the same later changed his position and came out against the drug.
active ingredients as cannabis (but in higher concentrations) Conan Doyle stood alone in the late 19th century depicting
and produces the same psychoactive effects. the destructive qualities of cocaine in his consulting detective,
Hashish is solid, of varying hardness and pliability, softening Sherlock Holmes (9).
under heat. Its colour can vary from reddish brown to black or As cocaine’s popularity increased, health risks were
it can be golden coloured or greenish if it contains surplus plant noted and seized upon by American egislators, who made the
material. It is consumed in much the same way as cannabis buds, substance all but illegal in 1916 (33, 34).
often being smoked in joints mixed with tobacco.
Following the discovery of the properties of lysergic acid
The Club des Hashischins, was a Parisian group dedicated diethylamide (LSD), by Albert Hofmann, in 1943, its early
to the exploration of drug-induced experiences, notably with utilization was limited to the medical profession in treatment
hashish. It was active from about 1844 to 1849 and counted of psychiatric disorders (15), and in research to understand the
the literary and intellectual elite of Paris among its members, etiology of schizophrenia since LSD induced symptoms of the
including Dr. Jacques-Joseph Moreau, Théophile Gautier, latter (11). The CIA also was investigating the possibility of
Charles Baudelaire, Gérard de Nerval, Eugène Delacroix and
using LSD as a possible speech-inducing drug (19). However,
Alexandre Dumas, père. Monthly “séances” were held at the
by the mid 1960s, widespread use of LSD, as a recreational
Hôtel de Lauzun on the Île Saint-Louis. Gautier wrote about the
drug had occurred. This was largely due to the efforts of
club in an article entitled “Le Club des Hachichin” published in
the Revue des Deux Mondes in February 1846, recounting his Timothy Leary, on east coast, who became its biggest advocate,
recent visit. While he is often cited as the founder of the club, espousing the spiritual benefits of the drug. At the same time,
in the article his says he was attending their séances for the Ken Kesey, on the west coast, also advocated LSD usage, but
first time that evening and made clear that others were sharing as a recreational drug rather than as a means of becoming
a familiar experience with him (14). more spirtual and would figure prominently in the start of
psychedelic music.
Cocaine is obtained from the leaves of the South American
coca plant. It is a stimulant of the central nervous system and The 1960s was a time of great change, in the United States,
an appetite suppressant, giving rise to what has been described which was spearheaded by a younger generation that rejected
as a euphoric sense of happiness and increased energy. It is the conservative norms of society to establish a counter-culture
most often used recreationally for this effect. Nonetheless, where they would be in control of their own destiny. Among
cocaine is formally used in medicine as a topical anesthetic, the counter-culture were the youths referred to as the Hippies.
specifically in eye, nose and throat surgery. Originally, this subculture had no name for themselves, but were
In modern Western countries, cocaine has been a feature later mockingly referred to as hippies (junior grade hipsters)
of the counterculture for over a century. There is a long list by members of the Beat Generation. The Beat Generation,
of prominent intellectuals, artists, politicians, and musicians Beats or Beatniks were the bohemians of the 1950s and looked
who have used the drug, ranging from Sir Arthur Conan Doyle down upon the hippies as poor imitations of themselves. They
and Sigmund Freud to former U.S. President Ulysses S. Grant. saw them as lacking in intellect and interested only in sex,
Its possession, cultivation, and distribution are illegal for non- drugs and rock n roll. While these were some of the interests
medicinal and non-government sanctioned purposes in virtually among Hippies, they were also influenced by the philosophy
all parts of the world. Although its free commercialization is of Buddha, Gandhi and Jesus, they criticized the middle-
illegal and has been severely penalized in virtually all countries, class values by which they were raised, spoke out against the
its use worldwide remains widespread in many social, cultural, Vietnam War and opposed nuclear weapons. Whether it is
and personal settings (9). perceived as being good or bad, the legacy of hippies can be
Originally consumed without any processing, the chewing seen throughout our society, today. We have greater freedom of
of coca leaves was popular among South American natives expression to voice dissent, selection of alternative life styles
long before the arrival of the Spanish in the 16th century. and sexual preference. Our eating habits have changed as a
The leaves were chewed in a manner consistent with modern result of the popularity of natural food stores that carry herbal
use of coffee, chewed for a small burst of energy or stamina. remedies, and diet supplements. Men with moustaches, beards
The Spanish explorers noticed how the natives used the coca and long hair are now commonplace where they were once
leaves and themselves partook in some cases, but the practice frowned upon, during the 1950s and early 1960s. And of course
of chewing the raw leaves did not become especially popular their influence in music and art, which is today’s topic (10).
BIOTECHNOL. & BIOTECHNOL. EQ. 22/2008/2 657
While Timothy Leary played an important role in the Opium-Eater is one of the first and most famous literary accounts
widespread, recreational use of LSD, he did not have any of opium addiction written from the point of view of an addict,
influence on the beginning of psychedelic music, i.e. music and details both the pleasures and the dangers of the drug. De
inspired by LSD. This genre of music would find its origin, Quincey writes about the great English Romantic poet Samuel
in the west coast, largely due to the efforts by Ken Kesey and Taylor Coleridge, another famous literary opium addict.
Chandler Laughlin. Towards the end of the nineteenth century, references to
Ken Kesey is best known as an American author, who wrote opium and opium addiction abound in English literature, as can
One Flew over the Cuckoo’s Nest, but was also a member of be seen, for example, in the opening few paragraphs of Charles
the counter-culture who became an LSD advocate. Prior to Dickens’s unfinished novel The Mystery of Edwin Drood. In
Kesey’s introduction to drug, he would seem to be an unlikely Arthur Conan Doyle’s Sherlock Holmes short story The Man
advocate of LSD. with the Twisted Lip, Holmes visits an opium den in order to
LSD had an enormous effect on popular music during the pursue his investigations, but his lucidity upon shedding his
1960s. Rock music during the early 1960s was perceived as disguise outside the den suggests that he did not partake of
being formulae and simplistic. Their sentiments are described the drug. Other works from nineteenth century Britain include
here by David Quanta, narrator of the BBC documentary History “The Lotus-Eaters” by Alfred Lord Tennyson and (some
of Psychedelia. Inspired by their LSD experienced, musical would argue) “Goblin Market” by Christina Rossetti, which
groups began making their musical compositions more complex, depicts thinly-veiled experiences of addiction and withdrawal.
and added more sound effects to their music. Their music was Oftentimes, characters in Edgar Allan Poe works are opium
an attempt to recreate their experience while still under LSD. users (“The Oval Portrait” and “Ligeia”), and sometimes
As an example, here is Donovan describing his composition the usage of drugs and its corresponding hallucinations or
and recording of Sunshine Superman. Unlike Donovan, some experiences are depicted. Poe himself is not believed to have
groups, such as the Jefferson Starship (nee Jefferson Airplane), used opium. Samuel Taylor Coleridge’s poem “Kubla Khan” is
did attempt to create their music while under the influence of also widely considered to be a poem of the opium experience.
LSD. Their second album, After Bathing at Baxters, was an In 1957 the physician Douglas Hubble wrote an article called
example of such an experiment, and is described here by former “Opium Addiction and English Literature” that chronicles the
band member, Paul Kantner. Some groups expressed their use of opium by prominent English writers, and its influence
psychedelic music in the composition of their songs and had only on their works. Jack Black’s memoir You cannot Win chronicles
modest experimentation, with respect to their instrumentation. one man’s experience both as an onlooker in the opium dens of
Here is Chris Dreja, rhythm guitarist, for The Yardbirds and Joe San Francisco, and later as a “hop fiend” himself. In the House
McDonald of Country Joe and the Fish explaining their uses of of the Scorpions, Mexico becomes a place where opium is
special effects, during the 60’s (32). planted. Oscar Wilde also wrote of opium use in The Picture of
The Beatles began as a pop group in the early 60’s. Even Dorian Gray when the main character visits a den to alleviate
before the onset of the psychedelic era, The Beatles began his chronic thinking and to add to the dark reputation that the
experimenting with their music and were demonstrating that lead character develops (16).
they were not just another teenybopper group settling with a In the twentieth century, as the use of opium was eclipsed
tried formula. Subtle changes could be seen starting in their by morphine and heroin, its role in literature became more
Rubber Soul album, in 1965, but a radical change would take limited. In The Good Earth by Pearl S. Buck, Wang Lung,
place the following year with the release of their Revolver the protagonist, gets his troublesome uncle and aunt addicted
album. There was little doubt with the release of this album that to opium in order to keep them out of his hair. William S.
the music was inspired by LSD. The album covers mostly line Burroughs autobiographically describes the use of opium
drawn, in the psychedelic art style. The most controversial part beside that of its derivatives. The book and subsequent movie,
of the album, however, would be the last cut, Tomorrow Never The Wonderful Wizard of Oz, may allude to opium at one point
Knows. The beginning of the song, “turn off your mind, relax, in the story, when Dorothy and her friends are drawn into a
and float downstream...” was taken from the introduction of field of poppies, in which they fall asleep.
the book, The Psychedelic Experience: A Manual based on the Hector Berlioz’ Symphony Fantastique tells the tale of
Tibetan Book of the Dead, by Timothy Leary, Ralph Metzner a man who overdosed on the drug thinking of the woman he
and Richard Albert. This would be The Beatles first effort into loves. Each of the symphony’s five movements takes place at a
psychedelic music and was not their last. This was followed different setting and with increasingly audible effects from the
by the double-sided hit, Strawberry Fields, Forever and Penny drug. For example, in the fourth movement, Marche au Supplice,
Lane, and in 1967 by what is often regarded as the best album the artist dreams that he is walking to his own execution. In the
ever recorded, and the inspiration for all the music that was to fifth movement, Songe d’une Nuit du Sabbat, he dreams that
follow, Sgt Pepper’s Lonely Hearts Club Band. he is at a witch’s orgy, where he witnesses his beloved dancing
There were many recording artists who would try their hand wildly along to the demented Dies Irae (21, 22).
at psychedelic music. Few of these would ever become known Heroin has inspired countless writers, musicians and other
and a few would have one song that would become a financial artists over the past century of use. However, its influence
success in mainstream pop music. Relatively few would have is often misunderstood or unfairly assumed; many creative
long careers. Some of the successful groups include: Jefferson people have used or been addicted to heroin, but the extent to
Airplane, Jimi Hendrix, The Doors, Cream (32, 37). which the drug affected their creativity is debatable. Relatively
There is a rich and longstanding literature by and about few artists with great talent have credited heroin use with
opium users. Thomas De Quincey’s Confessions of an English major epiphanies. The 1996 Danny Boyle film Trainspotting,
658 BIOTECHNOL. & BIOTECHNOL. EQ. 22/2008/2
based on the book by Irvine Welsh, depicts heroin users in the 12. El-Seedi H.R., De Smet P.A., Beck O., Possnert G.,
areas around Edinburgh in Scotland. Other movies that deal Bruhn J.G. (2005) Journal of ethnopharmacology, 101(1-
with heroin users include the 1955 Frank Sinatra film The Man 3), 238-242.
with the Golden Arm; the 1971 Al Pacino film, Panic in Needle 13. Hall A. (2007) Entheogens and the Origins of Religion.
Park; the 2000 film Requiem for a Dream; and More (26, 29). 14. Hayry M. (2004) Journal of medical ethics, 30(4), 333-6.
Drug-using behavior and the responses it elicits are 15. Hofmann A. (1980) Use of LSD in Psychiatry. In: LSD, My
dynamic, multifaceted phenomena which are constantly Problem Child. Chapter 4. McGraw-Hill Book Company.
changing and which cannot be understood apart from the New York.
sociocultural and historical contexts in which they occur (27).
The comparison of different time periods in the same society 16. Hubble D. (2007) Opium Addiction and English Literature.
approximates the powerful experimental method of measuring 17. Johnson B. (2002) Psychological Addiction, Physical
the effect of change in one condition while holding all other Addiction, Addictive Character, and Addictive Personality
conditions constant (5). Disorder: A Nosology of Addictive Disorders.
The study of drug history can help us distinguish between 18. Johnson G. (2003) Ibogaine, a one-way trip to sobriety.
the direct pharmacological effects of a substance and those 19. Lee M.A., Shlain B. (1985) Acid Dreams: The Complete
external factors which influence an individual’s experience Social History of LSD, The CIA, the Sixties, and Beyond.
with a drug, the spread of its use, and society’s response. It can Grove Press, New York.
help identify which changes in a society effect changes in drug 20. Lüscher C., Ungless M. (2006) PLoS Med. 3(11), 437.
use, which populations are most susceptable to the attraction
21. Mac Coun R., Reuter P. (1997) Interpreting Dutch
of certain substances and under what conditions, why certain
cannabis policy: reasoning by analogy in the legalization
drugs have affected different societies in different ways, why
debate, Science 278 (5335), 47-52.
drug use spreads to certain locations and not to others, why its
use waxes and wanes, which characteristics of a society have 22. Madancy J.A. (2007) The Troublesome Legacy of
moderated or aggravated the disruptive potential of drug-using Commissioner Lin.
behaviors, and how drug use has been affected by past social 23. Manninen B.A. (2006) Journal of medical ethics 32(2),
responses, public policies, and laws (27). 100-105.
In every culture, man has used drugs to dispel anxiety, 24. McCoy A.W. (2007) Opium History – from 1858 to 1940.
stimulate productivity, and to increase the feelings of joy and 25. Merlin M.D. (2003) Archaeological Evidence for the
satisfaction. Drugs have also had an undeniable influence on Tradition of Psychoactive Plant Use in the Old World,
art and culture (36). Drug abuse particularly affects young Economic Botany, 57 (3): 295–323.
people and has become one of the most important and widely 26. Moraes F. (2004) The Heroin User’s Handbook.
discussed issues in society. It is therefore an important task in
medical science to find answers to how drugs exert their effect 27. National Commission, Drug Use in America; Commission
and what leads to addiction and permanent consumption. of Inquiry into the Non-medical Use of Drugs (LeDain
Commission), Final Report (Ottawa, Canada: Information
Canada, (1973), p. 35.
28. Neuroscience of PAS use and dependence, (2007) by the
REFERENCES WHO,.
1. Albert B. (2006) Event Horizons of the Psyche.
29. O’Toole J. (2005) Heroin: A True Story of Addiction, Hope
2. Anderson T.L. (1998) Drug identity change processes, and Truimph.
race, and gender. III. Macrolevel opportunity concepts, In:
30. Pahnke W.N. (1966) The International Journal of
Substance use & misuse, 33(14), 2721-2735.
Parapsychology, 8(2), 295-313.
3. Ashley R. (1975) Cocaine: Its History, Uses, and Effects,
31. Siegel R.K. (2005) Intoxication: The Universal Drive for
New York: Warner Books.
Mind-Altering Substances. Park Street Press, Rochester,
4. Barnett, R.E. (2007) The Presumption of Liberty and the Vermont.
Public Interest: Medical Marijuana and Fundamental Rights. 32. Stafford P. (2003) Psychedlics. Ronin Publishing, Oakland,
5. Barry H. (1968) Res. Nerv. Ment. Dis., 46(455-471), p. 465. California.
6. Becker H.S. (1967) Journal of health and social behavior, 33. UN Single Convention on Narcotic Drugs (2007).
8(3), 163 -176. 34. United States Food and Drug Administration (2007)
7. Bertol E., Fineschi V., Karch S., Mari F., Riezzo I. (2004) CDER Data Standards Manual.
Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine, 97(2), 84-85. 35. Vetulani J. (2001) Polish journal of pharmacology, 53(3),
8. Bullis R.K. (1990) Journal of psychoactive drugs, 22(3), 201-214.
325-332. 36. Vizi S. (2007) Drugs of Abuse – The Myth of Creativity
9. Dalby J.T. (1991) Sherlock Holmes’ Cocaine Habit, Irish and the Reality of Destruction, , Cambridge University
Journal of Psychological Medicine, 8, 73-74. Press, 15, 241-256.
10. Dworkin, R. (2006) Artificial Happiness, New York: 37. Winkelman, M.J., Thomas B.R. (editors) (2007).
Carroll & Graf., p. 2-6. Psychedelic Medicine: New Evidence for Hallucinogens as
11. Dyck E. (2005) Can. J. Psychiatry, 50, 381-388. Treatments, 2, Westport, CT, Praeger/Greenwood.
BIOTECHNOL. & BIOTECHNOL. EQ. 22/2008/2 659