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High-Intensity Interval Training, Solutions To The Programming Puzzle
High-Intensity Interval Training, Solutions To The Programming Puzzle
Sports Medicine
ISSN 0112-1642
Volume 43
Number 10
1 23
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Sports Med (2013) 43:927–954
DOI 10.1007/s40279-013-0066-5
REVIEW ARTICLE
Abstract High-intensity interval training (HIT) is a well- are typically the first variables to consider when pro-
known, time-efficient training method for improving car- gramming HIT (refer to Part I). However, anaerobic gly-
diorespiratory and metabolic function and, in turn, physical colytic energy contribution and neuromuscular load should
performance in athletes. HIT involves repeated short also be considered to maximize the training outcome.
(\45 s) to long (2–4 min) bouts of rather high-intensity Contrasting HIT formats that elicit similar (and maximal)
exercise interspersed with recovery periods (refer to the cardiorespiratory responses have been associated with
previously published first part of this review). While ath- distinctly different anaerobic energy contributions. The
letes have used ‘classical’ HIT formats for nearly a century high locomotor speed/power requirements of HIT (i.e.
(e.g. repetitions of 30 s of exercise interspersed with 30 s C95 % of the minimal velocity/power that elicits maximal
of rest, or 2–4-min interval repetitions ran at high but still oxygen uptake [v/pVO_ 2max] to 100 % of maximal sprinting
submaximal intensities), there is today a surge of research speed or power) and the accumulation of high-training
interest focused on examining the effects of short sprints volumes at high-exercise intensity (runners can cover up to
and all-out efforts, both in the field and in the laboratory. 6–8 km at vVO_ 2max per session) can cause significant strain
Prescription of HIT consists of the manipulation of at least on the neuromuscular/musculoskeletal system. For athletes
nine variables (e.g. work interval intensity and duration, training twice a day, and/or in team sport players training a
relief interval intensity and duration, exercise modality, number of metabolic and neuromuscular systems within a
number of repetitions, number of series, between-series weekly microcycle, this added physiological strain should
recovery duration and intensity); any of which has a likely be considered in light of the other physical and technical/
effect on the acute physiological response. Manipulating tactical sessions, so as to avoid overload and optimize
HIT appropriately is important, not only with respect to the adaptation (i.e. maximize a given training stimulus and
expected middle- to long-term physiological and perfor- minimize musculoskeletal pain and/or injury risk). In this
mance adaptations, but also to maximize daily and/or part of the review, the different aspects of HIT program-
weekly training periodization. Cardiopulmonary responses ming are discussed, from work/relief interval manipulation
to HIT periodization, using different examples of training
cycles from different sports, with continued reference to
M. Buchheit (&) the cardiorespiratory adaptations outlined in Part I, as well
Physiology Unit, Football Performance and Science Department, as to anaerobic glycolytic contribution and neuromuscular/
ASPIRE, Academy for Sports Excellence, P.O. Box 22287,
musculoskeletal load.
Doha, Qatar
e-mail: [email protected]; [email protected]
P. B. Laursen 1 Introduction
High Performance Sport New Zealand, Auckland, New Zealand
High-intensity interval training (HIT) is defined as either
P. B. Laursen
Sport Performance Research Institute New Zealand (SPRINZ), repeated short (\45 s) to long (2–4 min) bouts of rather
Auckland University of Technology, Auckland, New Zealand high- but not maximal-intensity exercise, or short (B10 s,
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928 M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen
repeated-sprint sequences [RSS]) or long ([20–30 s, sprint sessions should be considered in light of the demands of
interval session [SIT]) all-out sprints, interspersed with other physical and technical/tactical sessions so as to avoid
recovery periods. These varying-length efforts combine to overload and enable appropriate adaptation (i.e. maximize
create training sessions that last a total of *5–40 min a given training stimulus and minimize musculoskeletal
(including recovery intervals). The four distinct HIT for- injury risk [8, 9]).
mats these generate are typically thought to be important Controlling the level of anaerobic glycolytic energy
training components for including in the periodization of contribution during HIT sessions may be an important
training programmes, for the development of middle- to programming consideration. In many sports, especially
long-term physiological adaptation, and to maximize per- those where a high glycolytic energy contribution is
formance (refer to Fig. 1 in Part I of this review [1]). required (e.g. track-and-field sprint athletes, some team
Any exercise training session will challenge, at different sports), so-called ‘lactate production training’ is believed to
respective levels relative to the training content, both the be an important component [10]. In this training, the high
metabolic and the neuromuscular/musculoskeletal systems anaerobic energy contribution of HIT quickly depletes
[2, 3]. The metabolic system refers to three distinct yet glycogen stores [11]. Thus, the implementation of such
closely related integrated processes, including (1) the sessions needs to be managed as a function of training
splitting of the stored phosphagens (adenosine triphosphate strategy [12] and competition schedule [13]. For example,
and phosphocreatine [PCr]); (2) the nonaerobic breakdown when implementing a ‘training low’ strategy (i.e. training
of carbohydrate (anaerobic glycolytic energy production); twice a day with likely reduced glycogen stores during the
and (3) the combustion of carbohydrates and fats in the second session) [12, 14], coaches must select the morning
presence of oxygen (oxidative metabolism, or aerobic HIT sessions that are most effective for depleting glycogen
system) [4]. It is therefore possible to precisely characterize stores. Conversely, under some circumstances, coaches
the acute physiological responses of any HIT session, prefer lower ‘lactic’ sessions, such as for distance runners
based on (a) the respective contribution of these three aiming to complete larger volumes of HIT (Part I [1]), or in
metabolic processes; (b) the neuromuscular load; and team sport players with little time to recover their glycogen
(c) the musculoskeletal strain (Fig. 1, Part I [1]). Under stores before competition [15]. Finally, considering that
these assumptions, since HIT is in the first instance a tool training sessions associated with high blood lactate levels
to improve cardiorespiratory fitness, we consider the car- are generally perceived as ‘hard’ [16, 17], programming
diorespiratory responses reviewed in Part I as the primary fewer ‘lactic’ sessions might help in maintaining perceived
variable of interest when programming HIT sessions. By stress at a low level during heavy training cycles.
logic, anaerobic glycolytic energy contribution and neu- The acute neuromuscular load/musculoskeletal strain
romuscular load/musculoskeletal strain (e.g., see [2, 3, 5]) associated with HIT sessions should also be considered
are therefore likely the more important secondary variables with respect to long-term performance development, the
to consider. While quantification of the phosphagen-related possible interference with other training content, as well as
metabolism during HIT is also of interest, there is today, acute and chronic injury risk. In the context of this review,
unfortunately, no sound technique for measuring its con- neuromuscular load refers to the various physical stressors
tribution during field-based exercise; these variables have an athlete’s anatomy encounters during the HIT session,
therefore been omitted from the present review. and the acute effects this has on the neuromuscular and
To illustrate the importance of quantifying the different musculoskeletal systems. These include, amongst others,
physiological responses to HIT, it is worth noting that the tension developed in locomotor muscles, tendons,
contrasting HIT formats that have similar (and maximal) joints and bone, the muscle fibre recruitment and associated
cardiorespiratory responses can be associated with dis- changes in neuromuscular performance as a function of the
tinctly different anaerobic energy contributions [6] and/or potential neural adjustments and changes in force-gener-
neuromuscular load [5]. Indeed, the high-exercise intensi- ating capacity. In practice, endurance coaches often seek to
ties (i.e. C90–95 % of the minimal velocity/power that increase the neuromuscular characteristics of the HIT ses-
elicits maximal oxygen uptake [v/pVO _ 2max] to 100 % of sions in an attempt to improve the athletes’ locomotor
maximal sprinting speed (MSS) or power; Part I [1]) and function (i.e. running economy) and, hypothetically, the
volumes (runners can cover up to 6–8 km at vVO _ 2max per fatigue resistance of the lower limbs (neuromuscular
session in runners) of HIT sessions lead naturally to high learning effect [18]). Performing uphill HIT sessions,
engagement of the neuromuscular/musculoskeletal system. climbing stairs in a stadium, running in the sand [19–21],
For athletes training twice a day, and/or in team sport introducing jumps, lunges, sit-ups and performing short
players typically taxing both metabolic and neuromuscular shuttle runs or lateral running between work intervals (so-
systems simultaneously [7], both the anaerobic energy called Oregon circuits) [22] are all different attempts dis-
contribution and physiological strain associated with HIT tance-running coaches use to try to make gains in their
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HIT Programming: Anaerobic Energy, Neuromuscular Load and Practical Applications 929
runners. Similarly, cyclists perform low cadence HIT, 2 Metabolic and Neuromuscular Responses
sometimes as strength-specific sessions [23]. Nevertheless, to High-Intensity Inverval Training (HIT)
neuromuscular fatigue, if maintained for several hours/days
after the HIT session, can have a direct effect on the 2.1 Anaerobic Glycolytic Energy Contribution to HIT
‘quality’ of subsequent training sessions [8, 9] (both neu-
romuscularly oriented as strength or speed sessions [pos- While a gold standard method of assessing anaerobic gly-
sible interference phenomenon [24]]) and on technical and colytic energy contribution to high-intensity exercise has
tactical sessions in team sports. Despite limited evidence not been established [31], measurement of accumulated O2
[25], residual neuromuscular fatigue post-HIT may reduce deficit [4] and muscle lactate concentration [13] tend to be
force production capacity and rate of force application the preferred methods. The accumulated O2 deficit method,
during the following (strength/speed) sessions, which can, however, has a number of limitations [32] and such data
in turn, attenuate training stimuli for optimal neuromus- have only been reported in a few HIT-related studies [3, 6].
cular adaptations. Therefore, in contrast to endurance ath- While accumulated O2 deficit has been mentioned in the
letes, team sport players generally tend to perform low- present review where possible, blood lactate accumulation
volume HIT sessions with minimal acute neuromuscular is also reported as a surrogate marker. The use of blood
load/fatigue [8, 9, 26]. In the final phase of team sport lactate concentration to assess anaerobic glycolytic energy
competition preparation, however, a high neuromuscular contribution has a number of limitations, including large
load during HIT might also be needed in players to repli- individual responses, prior nutritional substrate status [33],
cate specific game demands [27, 28]. Finally, if we con- session timing in relation to prior exercise [11], timing of
sider that a good athlete is first an injury-free athlete, sampling post exercise [34], the possible variations
neuromuscular load should also be considered within the between different analyzers and sampling sites (e.g. finger
context of musculoskeletal pain and injury risk manage- vs. ear lobe), the effect of aerobic fitness [35] and its poor
ment. Running speed, time/distance run at high intensity, as association with muscle lactate [36], especially following
well as specific running patterns or ground surfaces should, high-intensity intermittent exercise [13]. Nevertheless,
therefore, also be considered when programming HIT. since all subjects would generally be expected to present
The aim of the second part of this review is to explore with normal nutritional/substrate stores when involved in a
the acute metabolic (restricted to anaerobic glycolytic study, the potential influence of these latter factors for the
energy contribution in this part) and neuromuscular present review is likely to be low. Therefore, with the
responses to HIT, in order to offer practitioners and sport aforementioned limitations in mind, we have used blood
scientists insight towards maximizing their HIT program- lactate changes during exercise to estimate anaerobic
ming. Numerous HIT variations exist in terms of work/ energy contribution for a given exercise stimulus [37]. In
relief interval manipulation and periodization, and these an attempt to compare the anaerobic glycolytic energy
will be discussed using different examples of training contribution during different forms of HIT, the present
cycles from different sports, with continued reference to review will focus on post-HIT values and on the initial rate
time spent near VO _ 2max (T@VO _ 2max, Table 1), anaerobic of blood lactate accumulation in the first 5 min of exercise
glycolytic energy contribution (Table 2), as well as acute [38]. This latter measure was selected due to the fact that
neuromuscular load and injury risk (Table 3). As this was a blood lactate values collected after prolonged HIT sessions
narrative and not a systematic review, our methods inclu- do not permit discrimination between different HIT ses-
ded a selection of the papers we believed to be most rel- sions (e.g. at exhaustion, participants have already reached
evant in the area. Additionally, since the literature on the a plateau in blood lactate accumulation [39, 40]). The 5-
anaerobic glycolytic energy contribution and neuromus- min duration was chosen since it corresponds to the aver-
cular responses to actual HIT sessions is limited, we used, age time to exhaustion shown for continuous exercise at
where appropriate, responses to other forms of high- _ 2max [41, 42] (Part I [1]), is near the duration of long
vVO
intensity exercises to offer a starting point towards under- interval bouts used with typical HIT sessions, as well as
standing the possible responses to HIT sessions imple- being close to the duration of most RSS. Additionally, this
mented in the field. Standardized differences (or effect duration approximates the time needed for blood lactate
sizes, ES [29]) have been calculated whenever possible to levels to normalize as a function of the metabolic demand
examine the respective effect of the manipulation of each [37, 43]. For studies where blood lactate values were not
HIT variable. ES are interpreted using Hopkins’ categori- provided *5 min following exercise onset, the rate of
zation criteria where: 0.2, 0.6, 1.2 and [2 are considered blood lactate accumulation has been linearly extrapolated
small, medium-large and very-large effects, respectively to a predicted 5-min value using pre- and post- (immediate)
[30]. exercise measures (only exercises lasting 2–6 min were
930
Table 1 Recommendations for the design of run-based high-intensity interval training protocols for optimizing time at maximal oxygen uptake
Format Work duration Work intensitya Modality Relief Relief intensity Reps and Between-set recovery Expected Acute
duration series b T@VO
_ 2max demandsc
Duration Intensity
Table 2 Recommendations for the design of run-based high-intensity interval training protocols with respect to blood lactate accumulation
Format Work Work intensitya Modality Relief Relief intensitya Expected initial rate of
duration duration blood lactate accumulation
(mmol/L/5 min)
included in this analysis). Post-HIT blood lactate values during long intervals likely create a higher rate of blood
were categorized as low \3 mmol/L, moderate [6 mmol/ lactate increase and likely require a greater supply of
L, high [10 mmol/L and very high [14 mmol/L. HIT anaerobic glycolytic energy [47–49].
sessions were also categorized based on the initial rate of
blood lactate accumulation as follows: strongly aerobic 2.1.1.2 Effect of Work Interval Duration Extending the
\3 mmol/L/5 min; aerobic [3 mmol/L/5 min; mildly interval duration of an HIT session without altering relief
anaerobic [4 mmol/L/5 min; anaerobic [5 mmol/L/ interval duration clearly increases anaerobic glycolytic
5 min; and strongly anaerobic [6 mmol/L/5 min. energy contribution, as more work is completed in a given
time period. In practice, however, coaches generally maintain
2.1.1 Anaerobic Glycolytic Energy Contribution to Long- the work/relief ratio when they manipulate HIT variables. In
Bout Duration HIT Sessions these latter conditions, an increase in work interval duration
also likely increases anaerobic glycolytic energy contribu-
2.1.1.1 Effect of Work Interval Intensity In endurance- tion. For instance, doubling interval duration (2 vs. 1 min ran
trained athletes performing constant-speed efforts at at vVO_ 2max, work/relief ratio = 1) leads to substantial
_ 2max, over interval durations longer than *90 s, the
vVO increases in anaerobic glycolytic energy release (Fig. 1a) [3].
initial rise in blood lactate ranges from 5 to 7 mmol/L/5min Accumulated O2 deficit (&25 ± 2 vs. 21 ± 2 mL/kg, ES
(Fig. 1a) [44–49]. For example, in elite French middle- ?2.3) and end-session blood lactate measurements
distance runners (vVO _ 2max = 21.2 ± 0.6 km/h) perform- (8.8 ± 3.6 vs. 4.8 ± 1.1 mmol/L, ES ?1.7) were very lar-
ing repeated 600-m bouts (*1 min 40 s, work relief ratio gely and largely higher, respectively. Furthermore, in dis-
1), the initial rate of blood lactate increase was in the lower tance runners (vVO _ 2max 19.5 ± 0.7 km/h), increasing the
range of the values reported, i.e. &5 mmol/L/5 min [20]. _ 2max from 2 min 10 s to
interval duration ran at 100 % of vVO
While blood lactate accumulation will be related to training 2 min 30 s (?15 %) with a work/relief ratio of 1:2 resulted in
status [35] (Fig. 1a), it can likely be modulated acutely an almost twofold increase in the initial rate of blood lactate
through the manipulation of HIT variables. Despite the lack accumulation (from &6 to &10 mmol/L/5 min) [48]. It is
of a direct examination in a similar group of athletes, study worth noting, however, that a decrease in work intensity
comparisons suggest that higher work intensities performed (from 93 to 84 % of vVO _ 2max with a 5 % grade on a
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932 M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen
Table 3 Recommendations for the design of run-based high-intensity interval training protocols in reference to acute neuromuscular perfor-
mance and potential injury risk
Format Work Work Modality Ground Relief Relief Acute change in Injury risk leveld
duration intensitya surfaceb duration intensitya muscular
performancec
Game- [2–3 min Self-selected Sport specific Sport B2 min Passive 55 % SSG format- Traumatic ?? (contacts, joint
based RPE [7 specific _ 2max
vVO dependent sprain) overuse ?
training (40 % VIFT)
HIT with [2–3 mine C95 % Straight line Grass or 2 min Passive From improved Traumatic -; overuse ?
long _ 2max
vVO treadmill ?? to
intervals impaired ??
[2–3 mine C95 % Straight line Track 4–5 min 60–70 % From improved Traumatic ?? (tendons);
_ 2max
vVO _ 2max
vVO ? to impaired overuse ???
(45–55 % ?
VIFT)
[2–3 mine C85 % Hill Road 2 min Passive From improved Traumatic -; overuse ??
_ 2max
vVO ? to impaired (downhill = shocks)
?
HIT with \15 s \120 % Straight line Track, [15 s 60–70 % From improved Traumatic-; overuse – (since
short _ 2max
vVO indoor \30 s _ 2max
vVO ? to impaired short series)
intervals (\100 % (45–55 % ?
VIFT) VIFT)
B20 s \110 % Straight line Track, B20 s Passive From improved Traumatic -; overuse ??
_ 2max
vVO indoor ? to impaired (since long series)
([90 % VIFT) ??
B20 s \110 % COD Track, B20 s Passive From improved Traumatic ?? (ankle and
_ 2max
vVO indoor ? to impaired knee sprain); overuse ??
([90 % VIFT) ??
B20 s \110 % COD Grass B20 s Passive From improved Traumatic ?? (ankle and
_ 2max
vVO - to impaired knee sprain ? adductors);
([90 % VIFT) ??? overuse ?
RST B5 s All-out Distance \20 m, Sport B25 s Passive Impaired - to Traumatic ?? (ankle and
45–90° COD specific ?? knee sprain)
[3 s All-out Straight line Sport B30 s &55 % Impaired ? to Traumatic ?? (hamstring)
[20 m specific _ 2max/40 %
vVO ???
VIFT
B3 s All-out Straight line Sport B30 s &55 % Impaired ?? to Traumatic - (hamstring),
\20 m ? specific _ 2max /
vVO ???? traumatic ?? (ankle and
COD ? jump 40 % VIFT knee sprain)
SIT [20 s All-out Straight line Sport [2 min Passive Impaired ?? to Traumatic ????
specific ???? (hamstring)
a _ 2max and VIFT [179]
Intensities are provided as percentages of vVO
b
Comparisons between muscular fatigue following runs over different surfaces are adapted from the work of Sassi et al. [180] (with an energy cost of running lower
for hard surface \ sand \ grass \ treadmill) and Gains et al. [181]. While additional combinations between the different surfaces and exercise modes can be
implemented (e.g. uphill running on a treadmill), these examples illustrate the main logic behind the selection of HIT variables
c
Fatigue responses are likely athlete-dependent
d
The level of injury rate is estimated based on the combination of running speed, total distance at high intensity, ground surface and specific running patterns, and
expressed as a function of the number of ‘?’ symbols
e
To be modulated with respect to exercise mode (longer for cycling vs. running for example), age and fitness status (shorter for younger and/or more trained
athletes)
COD changes of direction, HIT high intensity interval training, RPE rating of perceived exertion, RST repeated-sprint training, SIT sprint interval training, SSG
_ 2max lower speed associated with maximal oxygen uptake, ? and - indicate
small-sided games, VIFT peak speed reached in the 30–15 Intermittent Fitness Test, vVO
the magnitude of the expected changes in neuromuscular performance and acute injury risk
treadmill) can compensate the effect of work interval subsequent bout’s anaerobic glycolytic energy contribution
extension from 1 to 6 min (work/relief ratio 1) and maintains is not straightforward. While maintaining a work/relief
blood lactate at ‘acceptable’ levels (i.e. 4–5 mmol/L post- ratio of 1, the accumulated O2 deficit at the first min during
exercise) [50]. 2 min/2 min intervals ran at vVO _ 2max was shown to be
markedly greater than during a 1 min/1 min sequence
2.1.1.3 Effect of Relief Interval Characteristics The (23.8 ± 1.6 vs. 20.5 ± 1.9 mlO2/kg, ES 1.9) [3]. This is
influence of HIT recovery interval duration on the likely related to the lower oxygen uptake (VO _ 2) attained
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HIT Programming: Anaerobic Energy, Neuromuscular Load and Practical Applications 933
20s/20s
30s/30s
60s/60s
120s/120s
180s/180s
[94/100%vVO2 max]/
Tlim (300-400s)
[50%vVO2 max] 5
bution than accumulated O2 deficit, which may explain the
3,4,5,6,7,8,9
.
differences between Vuorimaa et al. [3] and Seiler and
10,11 .
Hetlelid’s [47] studies. The influence of the relief interval
intensity on blood lactate and exercise capacity has been
b 102/120 Work/Rest ratio = 1
discussed in Part I of the review (section 3.1.1.3) [1]. When
Recovery = passive
Strongly Aerobic the relief interval duration is [3–4 min, active recovery
Work interval intensity
98/115 Aerobic
(60–70 % vVO _ 2max) can be used to accelerate blood lactate
(%VIFT / VInc.Test)
Mildly Anaerobic
94/110
Anaerobic clearance compared with passive conditions [52, 53],
Strongly Anaerobic
leading to a lower accumulation throughout the session.
89/105 While the effect of short (B2 min) passive versus long
([3–4 min) active recovery on the anaerobic energy con-
85/100 tribution to exercise has not been studied, it is worth noting
that reductions in blood lactate may be indicative of
80/95 effective ‘lactate shuttling’ and high-lactate consumption
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180 200 in working skeletal muscles [54].
Work interval duration (s)
Fig. 1 Estimated anaerobic energy contribution to different short- 2.1.1.4 Work Interval Modality Despite the common use
and long high-intensity interval training (HIT) formats. a Anaerobic of field-based HIT sessions involving hill repeats, sand
glycolytic energy contribution to different high-intensity interval running, stair climbing or plyometric work, there is limited
training sessions as inferred from the initial rate of blood lactate data showing the anaerobic energy contribution of such
accumulation ([La]). Values are mean ± standard deviation. High-
intensity interval training sessions include either long or short exercise. In elite French middle-distance runners
intervals at different exercise intensities (% of the peak speed reached _ 2max = 21.2 ± 0.6 km/h, VO
(vVO _ 2max 78 ± 4 ml/min/
in the 30–15 Intermittent Fitness Test [VIFT], speed or power kg), blood lactate accumulation during a self-paced HIT
associated with maximal O2 uptake [v/pVO _ 2max], or peak incremental
hill session on the road (6 9 500 m [*1 min 40 s, work/
test speed [VInc,Test] see review Part I [1]). The grey rectangular box
represents the initial rate of blood lactate accumulation during ‘lactate relief ratio 1], slope: 4–5 %) was largely lower compared
production training’ i.e. all-out sprints or at the speed maintained with a ‘reference’ self-paced track session (6 9 600 m)
during a 400-m run (V400m) [10, 89]. b Schematic illustration of the [blood lactate concentration ([La]) post-series: 8.5 ± 2.2
energy system requirements for different forms of high-intensity vs. 13.2 ± 4 mmol/L, ES -1.5] [20]. As discussed in Part
interval training, with respect to blood lactate accumulation. (Strongly
aerobic: \3 mmol/L/5 min; aerobic: [3 mmol/L/5 min; mildly I (Sect. 3.1.1.4) [1], this might be related to the lower
anaerobic: [4 mmol/L/5 min; anaerobic: [5 mmol/L/5 min; strongly absolute running speed attained during the inclined con-
anaerobic: [6 mmol/L/5 min). 1 [10], 2 [89], 3 [45], 4 [61], 5 [62], 6 dition that did not compensate for an eventual higher
[44], 7 [46], 8 [48], 9 [47], 10 [63], 11 [3]. Tlim time to exhaustion, v mechanical muscle demand and potential change in muscle
_ 2max minimal velocity associated with maximal oxygen uptake
VO
pattern activation [55]. Further studies are needed to
during longer (i.e. 2 min) rest periods, which may increase compare the effect of different exercise modes (e.g. run-
the O2 deficit at the onset of the subsequent interval [51]. ning vs. cycling vs. rowing) on anaerobic glycolytic energy
When the duration of the exercise interval is fixed, a contribution during actual HIT sessions in athletes.
shortening of the recovery interval is typically associated In summary, while HIT with long intervals is likely the
with higher anaerobic glycolytic energy contribution due to best format for adapting cardiopulmonary function (see
the increased exercise load (greater total work done in less Part I, i.e. 3–4 min intervals at [92–95 % vVO _ 2max,
time). However, following self-selected, 4-min work interspersed with a passive B2-min recovery or C4- to
_ 2max (with
interval intensities ranging from 83 to 85 % vVO 5-min active recovery) [1], blood lactate accumulation (and
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934 M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen
likely anaerobic glycolytic energy contribution) will still see [5, 64]), this latter experiment [63] shows how the
reach high levels (rate of accumulation [5 mmol/L/5 min selection of the appropriate combinations of different HIT
and end-session values [10 mmol/L) [48] (Fig. 1a). variables may be needed to reach specific blood lactate
Therefore, for coaches striving to limit the anaerobic gly- accumulation targets (Fig. 1b). For exercise at 100 % of
colytic contribution, the use of different forms of HIT, such VInc.Test, only work intervals longer than 1 min tend to be
as short intervals, may be warranted [19]. associated with high blood lactate levels. With work
intensities of 110 % VInc.Test, however, anaerobic glyco-
2.1.2 Anaerobic Glycolytic Energy Contribution to Short- lytic energy contribution is already likely increased when
Bout HIT Sessions exercise is longer than 30 s. At a fixed work interval
intensity, increasing the work/relief ratio is associated, not
One of the interesting aspects of short-bout HIT, is the surprisingly, with substantial increases in the initial rate of
capacity to exercise at a high exercise intensity, yet with blood lactate accumulation (Fig. 1) [62]. Finally, at extre-
relatively low levels of blood lactate [19, 56–58]. From an mely high exercise intensities (i.e. 20 s @ 170 % of
evolutionary perspective, it is believed that such an inter- _ 2max interspersed with 10-s rest periods for 2 min), the
pVO
mittent locomotion strategy actually contributed to natural accumulated O2 deficit may reach maximum levels [6] (i.e.
selection and survival of the species (i.e. ‘‘In nature, ani- similar to the anaerobic capacity of the subject, defined as
mals that stop and start win the race’’ [59]). The low lactate the maximal accumulated O2 deficit during 2–3 min of
levels shown with brief intermittent exercise relate pre- continuous high-intensity exercise to exhaustion) [31].
dominantly to stored oxygen sources. During the initial
phase of short efforts, the O2 bound to myoglobin supplies 2.1.2.2 Relief Interval Intensity and Duration As most
the majority of the O2 requirements before the respiratory authors examining the impact of relief interval intensity
and circulatory systems are stimulated to meet the O2 during HIT on blood lactate accumulation have used runs
demand [57]. Thus, intense ([v/pVO _ 2max) but short to exhaustion, which are not typically completed in prac-
(B*20 s) bouts of exercise can be repeated for up to 30 tice, the specific impact of recovery interval intensity on
min before exhaustion when they are interspersed with blood lactate accumulation during actual HIT sessions
passive pauses [57] or low-intensity recovery intervals. In performed by athletes is not clear [39, 65, 66]. With
the field, for example, endurance-trained runners (vVO _ 2max increased recovery intensities (i.e. 50, 67 and 84 % of
18.5 ± 1.2 km/h) performing a 30 s/30 s HIT format vVO_ 2max) during a supramaximal 30 s [105 %vVO _ 2max]/
[100 %/50 % vVO _ 2max], managed to run at VO _ 2max from 1 30 s effort model, a progressive increase in blood lactate is
to 3 min at a blood lactate level of 4 mmol/L [60]; a blood observed at exhaustion (estimated lactate from pH values:
lactate level substantially lower than that obtained for the &6 ± 2, 10 ± 2, 11.5 ± 2 and 12.5 ± 2 mmol/L),
same exercise intensity (at both the cardiovascular and despite progressive reductions in exercise time [65, 66]. In
speed/power levels) during an incremental test (i.e., contrast, compared with passive recovery, active recovery
[10 mmol/L in the same study). (40–50 % vVO _ 2max) during a repeated submaximal 15 s
[102 %vVO _ 2max]/15 s HIT model is consistently associated
2.1.2.1 Work Interval Intensity and Duration When we with slightly lower blood lactate values at exhaustion
consider short HIT sessions (i.e. 15 s/15 s) of a similar (10.7 ± 2.0 vs. 11.7 ± 2.1 mmol/L, ES -0.5 [39] and
mean intensity (i.e. 85 % of vVO _ 2max), we find that higher 12.6 ± 1.7 vs. 13.1 ± 2.7 mmol/L, ES -0.2 [40]). The
work interval intensities elicit greater blood lactate exercise time is, however, shorter with active recovery,
responses, and also shorten time to exhaustion [5]. For which prevents deciphering the respective effect of
example, blood lactate at exhaustion was 9.2 ± 1.3 mmol/ recovery intensity versus exercise time. In the only HIT
L for work/relief intensities of 90/80 % of vVO _ 2max, study to examine recovery intensity over comparable
9.8 ± 1.4 mmol/L for work/relief intensities of 100/70 % durations (15 s [102 %vVO _ 2max]/15 s), active recovery
(ES 0.4 vs. 90/80 %) and 11.3 ± 1.3 mmol/L for work/ was shown to be associated with moderately higher post-
relief intensities of 110/60 % (ES 1.6 and 1.1 vs. 90/80 % HIT blood lactate values (10.7 ± 2.0 vs. 9.2 ± 1.4 mmol/
and 100/70 %, respectively) [5]. The respective effects of L, ES ?0.9 [67]). Thus, the lower muscle oxygenation
work interval intensity and duration on blood lactate level apparent with active recovery [40] will likely trigger
accumulation was also examined in semi-professional for a greater anaerobic glycolytic energy system contribu-
soccer players (peak incremental test running speed, tion [40, 68, 69]. But if we consider active recovery to be
VInc.Test (see Part I [1]) 16.5 ± 2.3 km/h), during HIT that the preferred method for increasing T@VO _ 2max during HIT
included intervals lasting 10 to 30 s (Fig. 1a [3, 44–48, 61– with short intervals (Part I, Sect. 3.1.2.3 [1]), then the
63]). Combined with data collected in other studies (e.g. programming of such HIT sessions with low blood lactate
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HIT Programming: Anaerobic Energy, Neuromuscular Load and Practical Applications 935
%
work interval duration prevents excessive anaerobic energy 90
6x (4s/21s[0%]) 12
6x (4s Wdw/21s[45%]) 12
15x (40m/25s[50%]) 14
22x (15m/26s[0%]) 4
22x (15m/26s[55%]) 4
6x (25m/21s[45%]) 7
13x (30m/44s[0%]) 4
20x (15m/17s[0%]) 10
13x (30m/44s[55%]) 4
15x (40m/120s[0%]) 11
15x (40m/60s[0%]) 11
8x (50m/70s[55%]) 4
15x (40m/30s[0%]) 11
8x (50m/70s[0%]) 4
40x (15m/27.4s[0%]) 3
40x (15m/15.6s[0%]) 5
15x (40m/33.6s[0%]) 5
40x (15m/10.4s[0%]) 5
6x (30m/20.31s[45%]) 6
10x (30m COD90/30s[50%]) 13
20x (30m/25.5s[0%]) 3
15x (40m/22.4s[0%]) 5
6x (25m COD90/21s[45%]) 7
15x (40m/24.4s[0%]) 3
6x (30m COD135/20.27s[45%]) 6
6x (30m COD90/20.31s[45%]) 6
6x (30m COD45/20.39s[45%]) 6
6x (20m COD90/13.7s[0%]) 9
6x (25m+Jump/21s[45%]) 8
6x (25m COD90+Jump/21s[45%]) 8
levels, i.e. similar to those reached during specific ‘lactate
production training’ (all-out 30-s efforts [10] or 300 m ran
at the speed maintained during a 400-m run [V400m] [89]).
While it is clear that methodological inconsistencies can
partly explain the differences between the protocols/studies
(Sect. 2.1), these data show that manipulating both the
sprint distance/duration and the recovery intensity/duration b 120
can have a substantial impact on the anaerobic glycolic [La]rate <5 mmol/L/5min
20 25m
30m reco = 13s
18 40m
during an exhaustive 2–3 min continuous exercise [31].
16 50m Total accumulated O2 deficit over the 4 sprints however
4s
14 was 3 times higher than the anaerobic capacity. Blood
12
30s[all-out]/4min[0%] 1
300m[87%V400m]/6min[0%] 2
lactate levels during SIT generally reach 16–22 mmol/L [2,
10 10, 91, 92], which corresponds to blood lactate accumu-
8 lation rates [10–15 mmol/L/5 min (Figs. 3, 4). While SIT
6 variables have rarely been manipulated for the specific
4 purpose of examining anaerobic glycolytic energy contri-
2
n = 20
r = 0.67 (0.39;0.84)
bution, it is likely that shorter sprints and/or lower inten-
0
sities will lower the anaerobic glycolytic energy
0.0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 contribution. In addition, sprints [45 s are likely to engage
W/R ratio a greater contribution from the aerobic system (i.e. [40 %
[4]), which will lower the anaerobic glycolytic energy
b 18 demand during subsequent sprints. In contrast, if the goal is
15m
16 25m reco = 10 s
to produce a large amount of lactate, recovery periods
30m
14 40m should be long enough (i.e. [1.5–2 min) to allow for the
50m
Speed decrement (%)
session. In general, longer interval durations and higher [106–110]. This is problematic, since (muscle) fatigue is
interval intensities (when [vVO _ 2max) will elicit higher task-specific [114]. Alternate and perhaps more specific
blood lactate levels. While the evidence is limited, field-based measurements might include the assessment of
increasing the intensity of exercise during the recovery changes in musculoskeletal stiffness regulation [22, 115],
interval in short HIT bouts may also increase blood lactate stride parameters [112], countermovement jump (CMJ)
accumulation. Interestingly, anaerobic glycolytic energy height and sprint speed [51, 83, 116]. While CMJ height
release can also be manipulated during game-based HIT reflects the efficiency of both muscle activation and muscle
(i.e. small-sided games, as detailed in Part I, Sect. 2.2 [1]) contractile properties [51], sprint speed can be a less pre-
via changes in rules and/or player number and pitch cise measurement of neuromuscular fatigue, as changes in
dimension [27], so that blood lactate accumulation can be inter- and intramuscular coordination factors, motor control
maintained at low levels despite a prolonged T@VO _ 2max and/or stride parameters may limit the speed decrement
[98]. Practical examples of HIT sessions associated with during maximal sprints, so that fatigue appears to be less
varying levels of anaerobic glycolytic energy contribution pronounced. For example, jump performance shows a
are shown in Table 2. much greater performance decrement (i.e. 3 times) than
sprint performance during repeated-sprint and jump
2.2 Neuromuscular Responses to HIT sequences [83, 117]. Another limitation of these latter
performance measures is that they are generally of maxi-
Quantifying the neuromuscular load of an HIT session is mal nature, while in practice, HIT with short and long
important, since it (1) affects the HIT performance, and intervals are often not performed at maximal intensity (i.e.
subsequently, the T@VO _ 2max (see Part I [1]); (2) might less than MSS or peak power output). It is also worth
have potential carry-over effects for subsequent training noting that the acute effects of high-intensity running on
sessions [99–101]; (3) might modulate long-term neuromus- leg muscle performance depends on the physiological
cular adaptations [18, 24, 26, 101]; and (4) may influence characteristics and training history of the athlete [89, 116,
injury risk during (i.e. traumatic-type injuries) [102–104] and 118]. For example, while explosive athletes involved with
following (i.e. overuse-type injuries both in runners [105] and speed events (i.e. track and field) or team sports generally
team sport athletes [104]) the HIT sessions. Therefore, show impairments in muscular performance following
understanding how to manipulate HIT variables to modulate high-intensity exercises [89, 116, 119], endurance-trained
neuromuscular load during HIT is important to maximize a athletes tend to show less impairment [89], no changes
given training stimulus and minimize musculoskeletal pain [116, 119] or even improvements [120] (possible post-
and/or injury risk. However, until only recently, there has been activation potentiation [121]). During repeated-sprint
limited data quantifying the effect of HIT variable manipu- exercises, similar findings have been reported, with
lation on neuromuscular function. endurance-trained athletes showing less fatigue than team
Data on neural and muscular adjustments using force sport athletes [122]. Finally, with the exception of a very
trace measures and motor nerve stimulation [106–109] limited number of studies [21], post-exercise neuromus-
following high-intensity exercise suggests that fatigue cular tests are generally performed either immediately after
induced by HIT including either very short (\20 s) to short or 10–30 min following the HIT sessions. Since residual
(B1 min) and/or non-maximal efforts (B*120 % fatigue is likely to be extended following such sessions,
_ 2max) tends to be predominantly peripheral in origin investigating the time course of muscular and neural
vVO
responses to HIT over a longer time course (i.e. hours/days
[106, 107, 110, 111] (i.e. alterations to muscle excitability
[123–125]) is needed to assess potential carry-over effect
and excitation-contraction coupling, related to intramus-
of HIT on the subsequent training sessions [8, 9].
cular potassium concentration disturbance and accumula-
tion of metabolic by-products including inorganic
phosphate and hydrogen ions, respectively [112]). Inter- 2.2.1 Neuromuscular Responses to Long-Bout HIT
estingly however, performance impairment during repeated
long (i.e. C30 s) and all-out sprints may be more essen- The effect of interval duration on changes in CMJ height
tially related, in addition to the usually reported peripheral during an HIT session was examined in national level
mechanisms, to central fatigue [113]. However, few runners (vVO_ 2max 19.1 ± 1 km/h) [120]. There was no
authors, if any, have investigated the neuromuscular within- or between-HIT differences in CMJ height
responses to HIT sessions using sport- and training-specific throughout 1 min/1 min versus 2 min/2 min interval ses-
tasks, with maximal isometric voluntary contractions of the _ 2max [120]. Similarly, there was no effect
sions ran at vVO
active musculature (MVC) generally chosen as the labo- on stride length throughout successive intervals [120].
ratory-based task for assessment of neuromuscular changes These findings may relate to the particular profile of the
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HIT Programming: Anaerobic Energy, Neuromuscular Load and Practical Applications 939
endurance-trained athletes, the fact that running speed was represent a useful alternative to reducing overall acute
actually similar between the two protocols and that blood hamstring strain and appears well suited for high-volume
lactate levels remained moderate, even during the 2 min/ training cycles. It is also worth noting that over longer time
2 min intervals (8.8 ± 3.6 mmol/L). While not implying frames (once the acute muscle damage is recovered),
cause and effect, impairment in muscle function during downhill running can have a prophylactic effect [130] (i.e.
high-intensity exercise is generally accompanied by high repeated-bout effect) and can therefore be effective training
blood lactate levels, i.e. [10–12 mmol/L [89, 126]. for preventing future musculoskeletal injuries.
The effect of running speed on neuromuscular load may
be indirectly inferred from recent results reported in
2.2.2 Neuromuscular Responses to Short-Bout HIT
highly-trained young runners (vVO _ 2max 18.6 ± 0.9 km/h)
[2]. CMJ height and 20-m sprint times were examined The acute neuromuscular responses to 5 9 300-m runs
before and after long-duration HIT (5 9 3 min) in nor- _ 2max) interspersed by
(77 % of MSS, &120–130 % vVO
moxia (90 % vVO _ 2max) or normobaric hypoxia (inspired
1-min recovery periods (100-m walk-jog) was examined in
O2 fraction 15.4 %, simulated altitude of 2400 m, 84 % well-trained middle- and long-distance runners [109].
_ 2max) [2]. Since neuromuscular performance tests were
vVO Despite non-significant changes in maximal torque during
performed in normoxia for both running conditions, and a knee extensor MVC (-5 %, with ES & -1.2, which still
considering similar constraints with the exception of the shows a large effect), the HIT session caused severe acute
actual running speed (e.g., same air resistance, treadmill), peripheral fatigue, as evidenced by reduced efficiency of
the specific effect of a 16 % difference in running speed on excitation-contraction coupling (e.g. -28 % for twitch
neuromuscular load could be indirectly examined. For both torque, ES [ -5). Muscle contractile function was recov-
HIT protocols, no changes in CMJ height were observed, ered and even improved within 10 min following the ses-
either immediately or 20-min post. Interestingly, however, sion (e.g. ?11 % for twitch torque, ES [ 1), while
while there was no change in sprint times following the maximal torque during the MVC remained depressed for at
runs completed at 84 % vVO _ 2max, sprint times were least 120 min (&-5–6 %, ES \ -1.2). Due to the task-
improved after the runs completed at 90 % vVO _ 2max dependency of acute muscular fatigue [114], the potential
immediately after the session (ES for difference in changes carry-over effects of HIT-related fatigue on subsequent
0.2–0.5). This possible immediate post-activation potenti- training sessions involving sport-specific movement pat-
ation effect [121] was no longer evident 4-h post. terns (e.g. sprints, squats) is not straightforward and
Finally, compared with a ‘reference’ track session requires further research. In the only study to date to assess
(6 9 600 m), stride frequency (2.98 vs. 3.1 strides/s) and neuromuscular performance after an HIT session (3 sets of
amplitude (185 vs. 203 cm) tended to be lower during a 7 9 25 to 45-s intervals performed at the highest sustain-
road-based HIT hill session (6 9 500, 4–5 % incline) [20], able intensity, work/relief ratio 1/2–3), most measures
suggesting a lower loading of the hamstring muscles. In showed a return to baseline within 24 h [21]. As well, the
agreement with this, inclined (5 %) 250-m sprints have recovery of some measures was slightly better when the
been associated with reduced stride length (-14 %) and session was performed on sand versus grass. It is possible,
rate (-7 %), and a ?27 % increase in push-off time, therefore, that longer recovery periods may be required
compared with 300-m sprints on the track [55]. Impor- when sessions are performed on a harder surfaces (e.g.
tantly, despite no changes in the activation of quadriceps track, road). In addition, consideration for the run surface
muscles, hamstring muscles were also less activated. and its influence on the neuromuscular load should be
Finally, in middle-distance runners (vVO _ 2max 21.8 ± 1.8 considered when programming run training (i.e. Table 3).
km/h), performance measures reflecting muscle power While direct comparisons between long- and short-bout
have also been shown to be lower for uphill versus hori- HIT have yet to be documented, the acute neuromuscular
zontal incremental running performance [127]. Taken load may be greater with short intervals for the following
together, these data [20, 55, 127], and others [128], suggest reasons. First, work intensity is generally higher with
that incline running lowers hamstring strain in runners, shorter intervals (Part I, Fig. 3 [1]). While the majority of
which could be beneficial to prevent injuries during max- muscle fibres might already be recruited during long
imal and/or high volume sessions [129]. However, since intervals (considering a minimal recruitment threshold at
athletes might be required to run downhill to prepare for [75–85 % vVO _ 2max for both type I and II fibres [131,
the next interval, care should be taken with respect to 132]), the firing rate and relative force development per
potential acute muscle damage arising from the downhill fibre is likely greater during short intervals [133]. Second,
phase [130]. Therefore, if coaches can find strategies for short intervals require frequent accelerations, decelerations
avoiding the downhill running, HIT hill sessions could and re-accelerations (for which occurrences are increased if
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940 M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen
the intervals are performed over shuttles). In addition to the neuromuscular fatigue related to localized overload on
increased metabolic and muscle force demands during these muscle groups). While the effect of these sessions on
acceleration phases of high-intensity exercise [72, 134], the neuromuscular fatigue over longer durations is unknown
completion of short intervals requires achievement of a (i.e. 24–48 h), these data suggest that in team sport players,
greater absolute speed. For example, for a run completed at running pattern/exercise modes have important implica-
120 % of vVO _ 2max in the field, a small portion (i.e. 1-3 s) tions for programming, which should be considered with
of such a run may, in fact, need to be run at 135 % to respect to other training sessions to avoid overload/injury
compensate for the time lost during both the acceleration and maximize adaptation.
and deceleration phases [67]. When this high-speed portion
of HIT is considered in relation to the percentage of MSS 2.2.3 Neuromuscular Responses to RSS
and anaerobic speed reserve achieved ([80 % and [50 %,
respectively), the level of neuromuscular engagement is During run-based RSS, the reduction in running speed
high [133] and should be considered within the context of observed throughout the successive sprint repetitions
training load and injury management (especially hamstring reflects the progressive increase in overall locomotor stress,
muscles [129]; traumatic-type injuries [102–104]). Finally, as evidenced by an impaired force production capacity,
for unique athletes, such as extremely tall or heavy bas- changes in stride patterns, musculoskeletal stiffness regu-
ketball or rugby players, the musculoskeletal load of long lation [115], and both neuromuscular adjustments and
intervals might actually be higher than during short inter- metabolic disturbances at the muscle level [112]. Despite
vals, due, potentially, to poor running technique and its poor reliability [136], the percentage of speed decre-
economy. Therefore, for these particular athletes, long run- ment (%Dec) is still the more commonly reported index
based intervals should be avoided, or implemented on soft used to assess acute fatigue during RSS; a marker that
surfaces (e.g. sand, grass [21]), bikes or rowing ergometers varies from 1 to 12 %, depending on the (run-based) RSS
to prevent injuries. format (Fig. 3a). In practice, %Dec values should be
While the specific impact of COD on the neuromuscular interpreted with caution with respect to neuromuscular
system during field-based HIT sessions has yet to be load. While a high %Dec is likely associated with an
examined in detail, it may exacerbate lower limb muscular increased (muscle) fatigue in the acute setting, the actual
fatigue compared with straight-line running due to the musculoskeletal strain of the sequence (with respect to
additional accelerations and decelerations required [135]. possible muscle damage and/or injury risk) is more likely
The impact of a strength-oriented HIT session on the related to running patterns and the running speed main-
neuromuscular system was also examined in eight high- tained during each repetition. For instance, an RSS
level endurance runners (peak incremental test speed allowing a higher running speed to be maintained (i.e. low
[VInc.Test] 20.7 ± 1.7 km/h) [22, 77]. Interestingly, when %Dec) may induce a greater musculoskeletal strain. When
repeating six 200-m runs at 90–95 % of vVO _ 2max data from the studies shown in Fig. 4 were pooled, %Dec
(36–38 s), with alternate 30-s dynamic or explosive was moderately and positively correlated with work/relief
strength exercises, the runners avoided impairment in leg ratio (r = 0.48; 90 % confidence limits 0.21, 0.68,
stiffness during running (8.08 ± 1.49 vs. 7.87 ± 1.31 kN/ Fig. 3b). A higher work/relief ratio is generally associated
m, ES \ -0.2). While this might be related to the specific with reduced PCr resynthesis and an accumulation of blood
population of athletes (Sect. 2.2), this finding suggests that lactate (Fig. 4a) and metabolites in the muscle, which may
such training is well tolerated by distance runners, and partially explain the greater impairment of repeated
might have limited carry-over effects on subsequent ses- sprinting capacity [112, 114]. It is, however, worth noting
sions. Whether injury risk is increased from such training is that for extremely short recovery periods (i.e. 10 s [80]),
not known, but the increased load on the musculoskeletal the percentage of speed decrement is dramatically
system should be considered [22]. Finally, the impact of increased (see ‘outlier’ data point, Fig. 4b). Since this latter
different running pattern/exercise modes on acute neuro- format might impose a substantial load on the musculo-
muscular responses during HIT with short intervals was skeletal system, it should only be implemented with con-
also examined in adolescent handball players (detailed in sideration for the timing of the other neuromuscular-
Sect. 2.1.2.3) [77]. The acute neuromuscular responses to oriented training sessions so as to avoid overload.
the four different HIT sessions were protocol specific, with In addition to variations in sprint duration and work/
improvements in CMJ height shown following the running relief ratio, the introduction of COD to RSS can also affect
and squatting formats (possible post-activation potentiation the fatigue profile, and hence acute neuromuscular load.
[121]), and reductions in hopping height shown follow- Compared with straight line sprinting for example, RSS
ing the running and hopping conditions (possible with 180°-COD were associated with a slightly lower
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HIT Programming: Anaerobic Energy, Neuromuscular Load and Practical Applications 941
%Dec (ES -0.4) [90]. When comparing the effect of COD- interspersing run-based RSS with 5 min rest, followed by
angles per se (on sprints adjusted for initial sprint duration), 6-min active recovery and then a short specific warm-up
the fatigue response to the RSS were angle-dependent [81]. (total time &15 min), repeated-sprint performance was not
Values for %Dec were 6.7 ± 2.5, 4.8 ± 3.6, 7.0 ± 3.2 and impaired during the second set [83]. Explosive strength,
7.1 ± 3.0 % for straight line, 45°, 90° and 135°, respec- however, had not fully recovered, since CMJ height was
tively (with %Dec for 45° being substantially lower than 5 % lower (ES -0.4) than before the first set [83]. Com-
for the three other conditions) [81]. Running with 45° COD pared with cycling, however, changes in neuromuscular
required variation in muscle activity compared with coordination and stride adjustments appear to compensate
straight-line running (slowing down slightly to turn), for the acute fatigue during sprints to maintain running
without the need to apply large lateral forces, such as with performance [51]. This data suggest that when RSS are
the greater angles (135°) [135]. This finding suggests that repeated within a short time period (i.e. within 2–5 min
repeated sprints involving 45° COD may be an effective [139–141]), neuromuscular fatigue, as evaluated from post-
alternative to reducing acute neuromuscular load during exercise jump tests, is accentuated. To implement ‘quality’
RSS. Preliminary results from our laboratory during repe- RSS sessions (if this is indeed possible [26]), a prolonged
ated high-intensity 16.5-m runs with 90°-COD (performed and likely active recovery period should be implemented
within 4 s, departing every 20 s) have shown that a sta- between sets (possibly [15–20 min) to maximize muscle
bilization time after a single-leg drop jump is increased recovery.
compared with straight-line HIT (Hader, Mendez-Vi-
llanueva and Buchheit, unpublished results). In the same 2.2.4 Neuromuscular Responses to SIT
study, a fatigue-induced modification in lower limb control
was observed with CODs (i.e., a selective reduction of The large speed or power decrement score generally
electromyography activity in hamstring muscles), which observed (20 % for repeated 30-s cycling sprints [92, 97],
may induce, in turn, a potential mechanical loss of knee 5–20 % for track sessions involving repeated 300-m runs
stability (Hader, Mendez-Villanueva and Buchheit, [89]) suggests that neuromuscular function is largely
unpublished results). Therefore, RSS including sharp COD impaired following a SIT session. Recent data suggests
might expose athletes to a higher acute risk of both ankle also that, in contrast to other forms of HIT (e.g. short-
sprain and knee injuries. This risk may be exacerbated in duration and/or non-maximal efforts [106, 107]), central
athletes not used to performing such movement patterns at mechanisms may be the primary origin of the impairment
high speed (e.g. martial art athletes, gymnasts). to MVC performance following the repetition of long
The specific impact of deceleration during RSS has the sprints [113]. There is, however, little data available
potential to increase acute muscle fatigue (i.e. impaired examining the neuromuscular response to SIT variable
repeated-sprinting performance), but only when a large manipulation. Neuromuscular fatigue (as assessed by jump
number of sprints are performed, i.e. [11 sprints [137]. height) following an HIT session in elite 400-m runners
Finally, adding jumps after each sprint during RSS is also (personal best 92 % of world record) is likely protocol-
likely to increase neuromuscular load. This was shown by a dependent [89]. The magnitude of the SIT-induced reduc-
moderately greater %Dec for sprints, with (ES ?0.7) and tion in CMJ height was shown to be positively correlated
without (ES ?0.8) shuttles (180°) [83]. Finally, when with initial CMJ height and is affected by between-run
jumps were added to RSS that involved shuttles, the %Dec recovery duration, with longer recovery durations (and
for jump performance was highest (12 ± 4 vs. 8 ± 4 % for hence the greater the anaerobic glycolytic energy contri-
shuttle vs. straight sprints, ES ?0.8), which suggests that bution, see Sect. 2.1) showing greater impairments in jump
this latter RSS format is likely more demanding on lower height [89]. When examining the neuromuscular responses
limbs. With respect to traumatic injuries at the muscle in team sport athletes to single maximal sprints lasting 15
level, the introduction of COD during RSS has the (100 m), 31 (200 m) and 72 s (400 m), Tomazin et al.
advantage of restricting sprinting distance and stride [142] showed that knee extensor MVC reduction was only
length, which might help prevent hamstring overload/acute apparent immediately and 5 min after the 72-s sprint, and
injuries. was fully recovered 30-min post-sprint.
Finally, the time needed to recover from acute neuro- In run-based sports, SIT is often implemented in a
muscular fatigue following RSS is important for RSS straight-line fashion or over an arcing shape of [200 m
programming [99]. In cycling studies, it has been shown (running over half of a football pitch for example). While
that when a second RSS was performed, 6 min after the this setting can allow players to reach very high running
first, fatigue was exacerbated (i.e. %Dec of 17 vs. 13 % for speeds (close to their MSS for the first intervals), it can
the second vs. the first set) [138], suggesting that a certain dramatically increase hamstring injury risk [129]. SIT
level of neuromuscular fatigue remained. When sessions should therefore be considered using a cost/benefit
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942 M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen
3 Programming HIT
Table 4 Example of high-intensity interval training programming over two different weekly microcycles for an elite female Olympic distance
triathlete (International Triathlon Union points ranking \100)
Microcycle Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
Preparation phase
AM Swim (90 min, Rest Swim Swim (60 min, 3 km, Swim Bike (3–5 h; Run off-
5 km, including (90 min, technique) (90 min, \VT1HR) road, hilly,
30 min long 5 km, 5 km, LSD (2 h,
HITa) including including \VT1HR)
30 min 30 min long
short HITb) HITa)
PM Bike (3 h, Rest Run (90 min Bike (90 min trainer Run (fartlek, Rest
\VT1HR steady) session, including single 60 min
steady), leg HIT [182], 3– variation in
followed by run 4 9 3 min [pVO _ 2max]/ terrain)
(30 min easy, 3 min [50 W])
grass)
Note: this microcycle is characterized by a progressive increase in training volume, with weekly training durations ranging from 15 to 25 h/wk
(small, medium, large, small, etc.)
Competition phase
AM Swim (90 min, Swim (open Swim Swim (60 min, 3 km, Swim Bike (3–5 h; Swim (long,
5 km, including water; 4 km) (90 min, technique) (90 min, \VT1HR) \VT1HR,
30 min long 5 km, 5 km, 2 h, 8 km)
HITa) including including
30 min 30 min long
short HIT) HITa)
PM Bike (3 h, Run, HIT, 4– Rest Bike, HIT, 4–6 9 5 min Run (60 min, Run off-
\VT1HR 8 9 3 min _ 2max]/3 min
[pVO steady) road, hilly,
steady), _ 2max]/
[vVO [100 W]) LSD (2 h,
followed by run 4 min [50 % \VT1HR)
(30 min easy, _ 2max]
vVO
grass)
Note. Recovery (i.e. day-off) inserted and subsequent programme adjusted based on athlete perceptions, soreness, and morning monitoring of
cardiac autonomic status [183]. Microcycle is characterized by similar weekly training durations (15–30 h/week), but higher training intensities
_ 2 kinetics
and therefore higher training loads. Note that longer HIT intervals are performed on the bike to compensate for the likely slower VO
[184]
a
Due to the specificity of swim HIT programming, these sessions are not discussed in the present review. For the reader’s information, swim
long HIT sessions include repetitions of 100-m intense bouts at various speed (1 min 13–1 min 07) interspersed with 10–20 s passive recovery
bouts for a total volume of &15 repetitions
b
Short HIT sessions include repetitions of 25–50 m at various speeds (13–31 s) interspersed with 10–25 s passive recovery bouts for a total
volume of &30 repetitions
AM morning, HIT high-intensity interval training; LSD, long slow distance, PM afternoon, p or v VO_ 2max, power or velocity associated with
maximal oxygen uptake, VT1HR heart rate associated with the first ventilatory (aerobic) threshold
clearly demonstrated, it has been suggested that to maximize [161]) the combined analysis of these aforementioned studies
adaptations, HIT sessions should be performed when vagal- [151–155] using moderately trained athletes (e.g. physical
related indices of HRV are high [156, 157] (i.e. when, after the education students) confirm previous training recommenda-
initial post-exercise decrease, cardiac ANS activity has tions [8], i.e. that an average of &48 h should separate HIT
recovered or even rebounded above pre-existing levels). Both sessions to enable the majority of athletes to perform and train
the acute and long-term ANS responses to HIT sessions are maximally. This premise is supported by research in runners
likely related to the nature of the session (e.g. exercise showing that when HIT sessions are separated by less than
intensity and anaerobic glycolytic energy release [85, 158]) 2 days, a progressive overload is likely to occur [162]. While
and an athlete’s training background (with fitter athletes this occurrence could be part of an athlete’s normal training
recovering faster [159, 160]). While acknowledging the lim- cycle (i.e. shock microcycle [163, 164] generally followed by
itations of HRV to track the recovery of some biological reduced training or tapering), this can lead to non-functional
variables (e.g. glycogen stores and neuromuscular function overreaching when repeated over several days or weeks [162].
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HIT Programming: Anaerobic Energy, Neuromuscular Load and Practical Applications 945
Table 5 Example of HIT programming over two different weekly microcycles for an elite male rower during the competition phase
Week Time Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
1.Competition AM1 Row 20 9 500 Row (90 min) Row 10 9 1 Row (60–90 min), Row (90 min) Row (80 min), Rest
phase: build m (100–120 [\LT1] km (*3 including HIT 5 [\LT1] including
race pace s) [CLT2]/ min) HIT 5 9 3
speed and 250 m [CLT2]/ 9 250 m (50–60 min [[LT2]/
anaerobic (90–120 s) 1.5 min s) [[LT2 to all 3 min
capacity [\LT1] [passive out]/3–4 min [passive
recovery or [passive recovery recovery or
\LT1] or \LT1] \LT1]
AM2 Rest Rest 2–2.5 h ride Rest Rest 2.5–3 h ride
[\LT1]
PM Row (60–90 Row (60 min) Rest Row (60–75 min) Row (90 min) Rest
min) [\LT1] including 5 [\LT1] [\LT1], 5 9
10 stroke starts
9 10–15 with bungeea
stroke starts (max 15–20 s)/
(max 15–20 open recovery
s)/open [\LT1]
recovery
[\LT1]
2. Competition AM1 Row 40 9 250 Row (90 min) Row 5 9 2 Row (60–90 min), Row (90 min) Row (80 min), Rest
phase: build m (50–60 s) [\LT1] km (*6–7 including HIT 6 [\LT1] including
race pace [CLT2]/250 min) HIT 6 9 3
speed and m (90–120 s) [CLT2]/3 9 250 m [[LT2 min [[LT2]/
anaerobic [passive min to all out]/3–4 3 min
capacity recovery or [passive min [\LT1] [\LT1]
\LT1] recovery or
\LT1]
AM2 Rest Rest 2–2.5 h ride Rest Rest 2.5–3 h ride
[\LT1]
PM Row (60–90 Row (60 min) Rest Row (60–75 min) Row (90 min) Rest
min) [\LT1] including 6 [\LT1] [\LT1], 8 9
10 stroke starts
9 10–15 with bungeea
stroke starts (max 15–20 s)/
(max 15–20 open recovery
s)/open [\LT1]
recovery
[\LT1]
a Bungee sessions simulate long HIT sessions (i.e. cardiopulmonary intervals, Part I [1])
AM1 first morning session, AM2 second morning session, HIT high intensity interval training, LT1 the intensity associated with the first lactate
(aerobic) threshold, LT2 the intensity associated with the second lactate (anaerobic) threshold, max maximum, PM afternoon
When endurance-trained athletes (vVO _ 2max 20.5 ± 1 km/h) 3.2.2 HIT Selection During a Microcycle
repeated three HIT sessions (5 9 3 min [100 % vVO _ 2max]/
3 min [50 % vVO _ 2max]) per week for 4 weeks, they showed Despite the lack of scientific data related to the effects of
early signs of overtraining, with increased subjective ratings HIT sessions on the ‘quality’ of subsequent training and
of fatigue, muscle soreness and poor sleep quality [162]. potential overload and injury risk [8], relevant insight can
When 22 elite junior alpine skiers (peak power output be gained through discussions with expert coaches who
347 ± 67 W) performed an 11-day ‘shock’ microcycle, resolve the programming puzzle on a daily basis. Typical
including 15 HIT sessions (4 9 4 min [90–95 % of maximal examples of HIT programming during different training
HR]/3 min [active]), their CMJ performance remained cycles in international elite athletes are provided for tri-
slightly impaired by 5 % (ES -0.5) up to 7 days following the athlon (Table 4), rowing (Table 5) and team sports
end of the microcycle. This highlights the high neuromuscular (Tables 6, 7). Here, the HIT format is chosen with the other
demand of such training when HIT sessions are performed training sessions in mind. For example, depending on the
with limited recovery. expected metabolic and neuromuscular load, HIT sessions
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946 M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen
Table 6 Example of high-intensity interval training programming over three different weekly microcycles for elite soccer (male adults)
Microcycle Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
(physical
emphasis)
_ 2 development (generic)
Off-season VO
AM Injury prevention Speed (technique) Soccer Injury Power/ Soccer Rest
prevention speed
HITa: 2 9 5 min, Soccer HITa: 2 9 4 min Soccer Soccer HITa: 5 9 3 min,
10 s [95 % VIFT]/ 10 s [100 % VIFT]/ [90 % VInc.Test]/
10 s [0] 10 s [0] 2 min [0]
PM Soccer Rest Soccer Rest Soccer Rest
HIT: 2 9 6 min HIT: 2 9 4–5 min
[SSG]b [SSG]b 4 versus 4
5 versus 5 RPE 6 RPE 7
Note that during SSG, the number of players is modified with respect to exercise duration (the shorter the SSG, the higher the expected intensity)
_ 2 development (specific)
Off-season VO
AM Active recovery/ Speed (technique) Soccer Injury Power/ Soccer Rest
regeneration/injury prevention speed
prevention
HIT: 2 9 5 min, Soccer HIT: 2 9 4 min Soccer Soccer HIT: 3–4 9 4 min
technical circuitc technical circuitc [SSG]b 3 versus 3
RPE 6 RPE 7 RPE 8
PM Soccer Rest Soccer Rest Soccer Rest
HIT: 2 9 6 min HIT: 2 9 4–5 min
[SSG]b 5 versus 5 [SSG]b
RPE 6 4 versus 4, RPE 8
Note that compared with the previous phase, run-based HIT with short intervals (10 s/10 s) is replaced by an intermittent technical circuit with the ball
with similar a W/R ratio. The run-based 3-min intervals are replaced by SSG over similar durations
Competitive (in season)
AM Recovery/injury Soccerd Power/speed Speed Agility Rest Rest
prevention Soccer Soccer
PM Rest Soccerd Rest Rest Rest Game
HITd: 3–4 9 3 min
[SSG](b) 4 versus 4,
RPE 8
The type of SSG can be manipulated based on the content of the Tuesday and Thursday morning sessions (more or less neuromuscular load—based on
player numbers; the higher the number, the lower the neuromuscular load)
a
All run-based HIT sessions are performed in a straight line and on grass to minimize musculoskeletal load
b
In addition to player number (which are indicated as # versus #, with the lower the player number, the greater the cardiorespiratory demands), pitch
size and playing rules can be altered to manipulate anaerobic glycolytic energy contribution and neuromuscular load (the greater the pitch size, the
longer the sprints) [27]
c
High-intensity running with the ball (e.g. slaloms, repeated passes and shots [28])
d
The sessions on Tuesday are often performed as one unique session in the morning, especially during the late stages of the competitive season
AM morning, HIT high-intensity interval training, PM afternoon, RPE rating of perceived exertion, SSG small-sided games [27], VIFT peak speed
_ 2 maximal oxygen uptake, W/R
reached in the 30–15 Intermittent Fitness Test [179], VInc.Test peak speed reached during an incremental track test, VO
work/rest
are separated by 48 (Sect. 3.2.2, Tables 4, 6, 7) to 72 h to be less ‘lactic’, see Sect. 2.1). During the preseason
(Tables 5, 7), and are generally followed by an easy ses- especially, HIT sessions are performed at least 48 h before
sion the following day (i.e. rest or a swim session in tri- strength or speed-oriented training sessions, to ensure
athlon), which might accelerate post-HIT metabolic and optimal player freshness in these sessions. During the
neuromuscular recovery [165]. In the case of team handball competitive season, when the strength/power sessions are
for example (Table 7), while 2 ‘recovery’ days are not programmed in a particular week, RSS sessions are
scheduled following HIT with long intervals, there is only preferred over other HIT formats to compensate for the
1 day of recovery after HIT with short intervals (expected lack of neuromuscular load (Table 7). During the
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HIT Programming: Anaerobic Energy, Neuromuscular Load and Practical Applications 947
Table 7 Example of high-intensity interval training (HIT) programming over four different weekly microcycles for elite handball (male adults)
Physical Monday Tuesday Wednesday Thursday Friday Saturday Sunday
_ 2 development
Exclusive VO
AM Rest Handball Generic strength/ Handball Rest Handball Rest
injury prevention
PM Handball Handball Handball Handball Handball Handball
HIT (grass)a: 5 9 3 min, HIT (grass)a: HIT (grass)a:
[90 % VInc.Test]/2 min 2 9 12 min 5 9 3 min
[0] or HIT (grass)a: 15 s [95 % 30 s [90 %
2 9 12 min 30 s VIFT]/15 s VInc.Test]/
[85 %VIFT]/30 s [40 % [40 % VIFT] 2 min [0]
VIFT] HIT
Note that 2 days are allowed after the ‘lactic’ session (30 s/30 s), and that the long-bout HIT is programmed before the day off
_ 2 and strength/speed development (generic)
VO
AM Generic strength/speed/ Rest Generic power/ Rest Generic Handball Rest
injury prevention speed strength/
speed
HIT (grass)a:
2 9 10 min
20 s [95 %
VIFT]/20 s
[0]
PM Handball Handball Handball Handball Handball Rest
HIT (grass)a: 2 9 10 min 10 s
[110 % VIFT]/20 s [0]
Note the de-emphasis of ‘lactic’ work on Tuesday’s HIT session
_ 2 and strength/speed development (specific)
VO
AM Specific strength/speed/ Rest HIT: 10 min 10 s Rest Specific Handball Rest
injury prevention [110 % VIFT power/
shuttle]/20 s[0] ? speed
6 min 10 s
[100 % VIFT
shuttle]/10 s [0]
PM Handball Handball Handball Handball Rest Handball
SIT:
6 9 30 s
[all-out
shuttle]/
4 min [0]
Note that the ‘lactic’ session is programmed before the day off
Competitive (in season)
AM Recovery/strength/injury Rest Rest Strength/ Rest Rest Rest
prevention power/speed
PM Handball Handball Handball Handball Handball Game
HIT: 1 9 10 min 15 s [100 % HIT: 2 9 3–4 min
VIFT shuttle]/15 s [0] or (if the [SSG] 4 versus 4
power/speed session of RPE 7
Thursday is cancelled):
2 9 RSS 6 9 20 m-90° COD/
25 s [0] with 15 min [handball]
between RSS
Note that the RSS session is performed with 90°COD to reduce glycolytic anaerobic energy release, and is performed only when the speed/power session
is missed (to partially compensate for the neuromuscular work at high intensity). SSG can also be selected for their specificity, to lower the anaerobic
glycolytic energy contribution 3 days before the game
a
When not specified, the running pattern is ‘straight-line’ and performed indoors
AM morning, COD changes of direction, HIT high-intensity interval training (running), PM afternoon, RPE rating of perceived exertion, RSS repeated-
sprint sequences, SIT sprint interval training, SSG small-sided games [98], VIFT peak speed reached at the 30–15 Intermittent Fitness Test [179], VInc.Test
peak speed reached during an incremental track test
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948 M. Buchheit, P. B. Laursen
competitive season, the HIT format selected also includes maximize daily and/or weekly training periodization (Part
likely lower anaerobic energy contributions than during the I, Fig. 1 [1]). With respect to training prescription for any
preseason, so as not to compromise muscle glycogen athlete, there is, of course, always ‘more than one way to
recovery for critical competition play (Tables 6, 7). Com- skin the cat’ [169]. Our recommendation, however, is that
parison of elite soccer (Table 6) and handball (Table 7) is the integration of all training contents within a given mi-
interesting with respect to both training volume and HIT crocycle is viewed with the overall ‘performance puzzle
format. While soccer coaches typically put an emphasis on solution’ in mind. Choosing the best solution to such a
integrated HIT formats (i.e. circuits or small-sided games), puzzle might be analogous to how an Admiral goes about
handball training content is usually more ‘isolated’; an deciding which operation is best suited to take out a given
approach comparable to that of Australian football and military target. While mass destruction weapons might hit
rugby for example. Note also, that in most team sports, all targets at once (i.e., ‘‘running hard for a few minutes
long-interval HIT is typically used during the preseason for will do the job’’), collateral damage often occurs (analo-
its likely cardiopulmonary benefits (Part I [1]), despite its gous to extra fatigue, more injury/illness). Sometimes then,
lack of specificity. the best solution might involve specific ‘US Navy SEAL-
Finally, as musculoskeletal injury can unintentionally (Sea, Air, Land Teams) type’ operations, for more specific
occur during an HIT session, it is important to consider the targeting of the required physiological capacities, but with
total distance ran (at high intensity), the ground surface less risk of collateral damage. Along these lines, HIT
used and the likely neuromuscular load [18, 105]. As sessions should first be specific to the physiological adap-
alluded to throughout these reviews, distance ran at high tations desired (Part I, Fig. 1 [1]), and not necessarily
intensity in training is a key determinant of neuromuscular compulsory to the sport itself. With respect to HIT, fol-
adaptation and performance in endurance-trained athletes lowing VO _ 2 data (e.g. [2, 3, 5]), anaerobic energy contri-
[18, 166–168]. To achieve this, endurance coaches tend to bution and neuromuscular/musculoskeletal load are likely
opt for high-volume HIT sessions (Tables 4, 5), requiring the main secondary variables of interest. In practice, most
moderate levels of anaerobic glycolytic energy contribu- forms of HIT are effective at stressing the aerobic energy
tion. The addition of active recovery between intervals and system (both central and peripheral aspects, Part I [1]), and
sets can also increase the total distance ran during the some are associated with a large anaerobic glycolytic
session (i.e. Fig. 6, Part I [1]). Thus, Billat et al. [5] suggest energy contribution. It is, however, possible to minimize
the use of 15 s/15 s HIT runs at 100/70 % compared with the anaerobic system participation by using certain forms
90/80 % vVO _ 2max, despite the fact that both are associated of HIT, including short intervals (Table 2), and possibly
with a similar T@VO _ 2max. While increasing total weekly some types of small-sided games, at least for certain sports
running distance can have a protective effect against some [27] (not detailed in the present review). When appropri-
injuries (i.e. knees), a high training volume background and ately manipulated, HIT sessions (especially RSS or SIT)
a history of previous injuries is another important risk can, in contrast, be a powerful stimulus for producing high
factor [105]. In team sports, where HIT sessions have an levels of lactic acid in the blood (Table 2).
essential cardiorespiratory and metabolic objective, coa- In practice, while the magnitude of neuromuscular load
ches tend to favour highly efficient sessions (with a high during HIT can be modulated through the manipulation of
T@VO _ 2max/exercise time ratio, see Part I [1]) performed on HIT variables (e.g. work intensity or duration, exercise
grass or sand [21] to minimize leg muscle load (Table 7), mode/pattern), the responses are highly athlete profile-
so that athletes can gain freshness for upcoming tactical, dependent, with endurance-type athletes showing low
strength and speed sessions (e.g. Part I, Fig. 6 [1]). Further, levels of acute fatigue and speed decrement, and team sport
Gabbett et al. [104] recently reported that greater amounts athletes typically showing high levels of neuromuscular
of high-velocity running during training were associated fatigue following HIT. There is likely a bell-shaped rela-
with an increased risk of lower body soft-tissue injury in tionship between exercise intensity and acute neuromus-
team sports; this further supports the use of time-efficient cular performance responses, with too low (B85 %
and short HIT sessions (Table 3). vVO_ 2max) and too high (all-out) an intensity having not
enough and acute detrimental effects, respectively (Fig. 5).
Using data from the present review, coaches and support-
4 Conclusions ing scientists can choose and balance the level of neuro-
muscular engagement associated with a given HIT format,
Manipulating the acute responses to HIT is important, not based on both the expected training-induced adaptations
only in regard to the middle- to long-term physiological (either through the HIT session itself or the associated
and performance adaptations expected, but also to sessions and possible additive effects) and the acute
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HIT Programming: Anaerobic Energy, Neuromuscular Load and Practical Applications 949
changes in neuromuscular performance (Table 3). Running environments, while in practice, HIT sessions are often
pattern (e.g. COD, introduction of jumps during the performed in a state of accumulated fatigue (end of a team
recovery periods), exercise mode (e.g. cycling, running, sport session or in the afternoon following an exhaustive
bouncing) or ground surfaces (e.g. pavement, synthetic morning training session). Understanding the physiological
track, grass, sand, treadmill) and terrain (uphill, downhill) responses to technical/tactical training sessions is also an
also may have direct implications on traumatic and overuse important aspect of successful training in team sport ath-
injury risk, and should be chosen for programming based letes, so that the most appropriate HIT sessions can be
on a risk/benefit approach. Similarly, before programming programmed as supplemental sessions, i.e. how does one
an HIT training cycle, coaches should also consider that in ‘‘best solve the programming puzzle’’, while adding what is
team sports, physical fitness is unlikely to have the same ‘missed’ during the technical/tactical sessions.
impact on match running performance for all players, as
playing position, systems of play and individual playing Acknowledgments No sources of funding were used to assist in the
preparation of this review. The authors have no conflicts of interest
styles directly affect the relationship between physical fit- that are directly relevant to the content of this review. The authors
ness and match running performance [170–173]. also thank Daniel Plews for his assistance in preparing Table 5.
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