Four Fundamental States of Matter Solid Liquid Plasma Atoms Noble Gas Neon Elemental Oxygen Compound Carbon Dioxide Mixture Air

Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter (the others being solid, liquid, and plasma).
A
pure gas may be made up of individual atoms (e.g. a noble gas like neon), elemental molecules
made from one type of atom (e.g. oxygen), or compound molecules made from a variety of atoms
(e.g. carbon dioxide). A gas mixture, such as air, contains a variety of pure gases. What
distinguishes a gas from liquids and solids is the vast separation of the individual gas particles.
This separation usually makes a colorless gas invisible to the human observer. The interaction of
gas particles in the presence of electric and gravitational fields are considered[by whom?] negligible,
as indicated by the constant velocity vectors in the image.
The gaseous state of matter occurs between the liquid and plasma states,[1] the latter of which
provides the upper temperature boundary for gases. Bounding the lower end of the temperature
scale lie degenerative quantum gases[2] which are gaining increasing attention.[3] High-density
atomic gases super-cooled to very low temperatures are classified by their statistical behavior as
either Bose gases or Fermi gases. For a comprehensive listing of these exotic states of matter
see list of states of matter.
Contents
 1Elemental gases
 2Etymology
 3Physical characteristics
 4Macroscopic
o 4.1Pressure
o 4.2Temperature
o 4.3Specific volume
o 4.4Density
 5Microscopic
o 5.1Kinetic theory
o 5.2Brownian motion
o 5.3Intermolecular forces
 6Simplified models
o 6.1Ideal and perfect gas models
o 6.2Real gas
 7Historical research
o 7.1Boyle's law
o 7.2Charles's law
o 7.3Gay-Lussac's law
o 7.4Avogadro's law
o 7.5Dalton's law
 8Special topics
o 8.1Compressibility
o 8.2Reynolds number
o 8.3Viscosity
o 8.4Turbulence
o 8.5Boundary layer
o 8.6Maximum entropy principle
o 8.7Thermodynamic equilibrium
o 8.8Effect on state sovereignty
 9See also
 10Notes
 11References
 12Further reading
Elemental gases[edit]
The only chemical elements that are
stable diatomic homonuclear molecules at STP are hydrogen (H2), nitrogen (N2), oxygen (O2), and
two halogens: fluorine (F2) and chlorine (Cl2). When grouped together with the monatomic noble
gases – helium (He), neon (Ne), argon (Ar), krypton (Kr), xenon (Xe), and radon (Rn) – these
gases are called "elemental gases".
Etymology[edit]
This article may require cleanup to meet Wikipedia's quality
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"loch"" -- and how is that ch pronounced (IPA?)? Sources
give "[lɒk]" and "[lɒx]" as IPA for loch. Is it [x]? Please
help improve this article if you can. (March 2018) (Learn how and when
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The word gas was first used by the early 17th-century Flemish chemist Jan Baptist van
Helmont.[4] He identified carbon dioxide, the first known gas other than air.[5] Van Helmont's word
appears to have been simply a phonetic transcription of the Ancient Greek word χάος Chaos –
the g in Dutch being pronounced like ch in "loch" (voiceless velar fricative, IPA |x]) – in which
case Van Helmont was simply following the established alchemical usage first attested in the
works of Paracelsus. According to Paracelsus's terminology, chaos meant something like "ultra-
rarefied water".[6]
An alternative story[7] is that Van Helmont's word is corrupted from gahst (or geist), signifying a
ghost or spirit. This was because certain gases suggested a supernatural origin, such as from
their ability to cause death, extinguish flames, and to occur in "mines, bottom of wells,
churchyards and other lonely places". In contrast, French-American historian Jacques
Barzun[8] speculated that Van Helmont had borrowed the word from the German Gäscht, meaning
the froth resulting from fermentation.
Physical characteristics[edit]
Drifting smoke particles provide clues to the movement of the surrounding gas.
Because most gases are difficult to observe directly, they are described through the use of
four physical properties or macroscopic characteristics: pressure, volume, number of
particles (chemists group them by moles) and temperature. These four characteristics were
repeatedly observed by scientists such as Robert Boyle, Jacques Charles, John Dalton, Joseph
Gay-Lussac and Amedeo Avogadro for a variety of gases in various settings. Their detailed
studies ultimately led to a mathematical relationship among these properties expressed by
the ideal gas law (see simplified models section below).
Gas particles are widely separated from one another, and consequently, have weaker
intermolecular bonds than liquids or solids. These intermolecular forces result from electrostatic
interactions between gas particles. Like-charged areas of different gas particles repel, while
oppositely charged regions of different gas particles attract one another; gases that contain
permanently charged ions are known as plasmas. Gaseous compounds with polar
covalent bonds contain permanent charge imbalances and so experience relatively strong
intermolecular forces, although the molecule while the compound's net charge remains neutral.
Transient, randomly induced charges exist across non-polar covalent bonds of molecules and
electrostatic interactions caused by them are referred to as Van der Waals forces. The interaction
of these intermolecular forces varies within a substance which determines many of the physical
properties unique to each gas.[9][10] A comparison of boiling points for compounds formed by ionic
and covalent bonds leads us to this conclusion.[11] The drifting smoke particles in the image
provides some insight into low-pressure gas behavior.
Compared to the other states of matter, gases have low density and viscosity. Pressure and
temperature influence the particles within a certain volume. This variation in particle separation
and speed is referred to as compressibility. This particle separation and size influences optical
properties of gases as can be found in the following list of refractive indices. Finally, gas particles
spread apart or diffuse in order to homogeneously distribute themselves throughout any
container.
Macroscopic[edit]
Shuttle imagery of re-entry phase
See also: Gas kinetics

When observing a gas, it is typical to specify a frame of reference or length scale. A larger length
scale corresponds to a macroscopic or global point of view of the gas. This region (referred to as
a volume) must be sufficient in size to contain a large sampling of gas particles. The resulting
statistical analysis of this sample size produces the "average" behavior (i.e. velocity, temperature
or pressure) of all the gas particles within the region. In contrast, a smaller length scale
corresponds to a microscopic or particle point of view.
Macroscopically, the gas characteristics measured are either in terms of the gas particles
themselves (velocity, pressure, or temperature) or their surroundings (volume). For example,
Robert Boyle studied pneumatic chemistry for a small portion of his career. One of his
experiments related the macroscopic properties of pressure and volume of a gas. His experiment
used a J-tube manometer which looks like a test tube in the shape of the letter J. Boyle trapped
an inert gas in the closed end of the test tube with a column of mercury, thereby making the
number of particles and the temperature constant. He observed that when the pressure was
increased in the gas, by adding more mercury to the column, the trapped gas' volume decreased
(this is known as an inverse relationship). Furthermore, when Boyle multiplied the pressure and
volume of each observation, the product was constant. This relationship held for every gas that
Boyle observed leading to the law, (PV=k), named to honor his work in this field.
There are many mathematical tools available for analyzing gas properties. As gases are
subjected to extreme conditions, these tools become more complex, from the Euler equations for
inviscid flow to the Navier–Stokes equations[12] that fully account for viscous effects. These
equations are adapted to the conditions of the gas system in question. Boyle's lab equipment
allowed the use of algebra to obtain his analytical results. His results were possible because he
was studying gases in relatively low pressure situations where they behaved in an "ideal"
manner. These ideal relationships apply to safety calculations for a variety of flight conditions on
the materials in use. The high technology equipment in use today was designed to help us safely
explore the more exotic operating environments where the gases no longer behave in an "ideal"
manner. This advanced math, including statistics and multivariable calculus, makes possible the
solution to such complex dynamic situations as space vehicle reentry. An example is the analysis
of the space shuttle reentry pictured to ensure the material properties under this loading condition
are appropriate. In this flight regime, the gas is no longer behaving ideally.
Pressure[edit]
Main article: Pressure
The symbol used to represent pressure in equations is "p" or "P" with SI units of pascals.
When describing a container of gas, the term pressure (or absolute pressure) refers to the
average force per unit area that the gas exerts on the surface of the container. Within this
volume, it is sometimes easier to visualize the gas particles moving in straight lines until they
collide with the container (see diagram at top of the article). The force imparted by a gas particle
into the container during this collision is the change in momentum of the particle.[13] During a
collision only the normal component of velocity changes. A particle traveling parallel to the wall
does not change its momentum. Therefore, the average force on a surface must be the average
change in linear momentum from all of these gas particle collisions.
Pressure is the sum of all the normal components of force exerted by the particles impacting the
walls of the container divided by the surface area of the wall.
Temperature[edit]
Air balloon shrinks after submersion in liquid nitrogen
Main article: Thermodynamic temperature

The symbol used to represent temperature in equations is T with SI units of kelvins.
The speed of a gas particle is proportional to its absolute temperature. The volume of the balloon
in the video shrinks when the trapped gas particles slow down with the addition of extremely cold
nitrogen. The temperature of any physical system is related to the motions of the particles
(molecules and atoms) which make up the [gas] system.[14] In statistical mechanics, temperature
is the measure of the average kinetic energy stored in a particle. The methods of storing this
energy are dictated by the degrees of freedom of the particle itself (energy modes). Kinetic
energy added (endothermic process) to gas particles by way of collisions produces linear,
rotational, and vibrational motion. In contrast, a molecule in a solid can only increase its
vibrational modes with the addition of heat as the lattice crystal structure prevents both linear and
rotational motions. These heated gas molecules have a greater speed range which constantly
varies due to constant collisions with other particles. The speed range can be described by
the Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution. Use of this distribution implies ideal
gases near thermodynamic equilibrium for the system of particles being considered.
Specific volume

Four Fundamental States of Matter Solid Liquid Plasma Atoms Noble Gas Neon Elemental Oxygen Compound Carbon Dioxide Mixture Air

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Gas is one of the four fundamental states of matter (the others being solid, liquid, and plasma).

Shuttle imagery of re-entry phase

See also: Gas kinetics

Air balloon shrinks after submersion in liquid nitrogen

Main article: Thermodynamic temperature

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