Professional Documents
Culture Documents
J Wade Thesis
J Wade Thesis
net/publication/329339798
CITATIONS READS
0 47
1 author:
Jeannette Wade
North Carolina Agricultural and Technical State University
6 PUBLICATIONS 10 CITATIONS
SEE PROFILE
Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects:
All content following this page was uploaded by Jeannette Wade on 01 December 2018.
IN ADOLESCENCE
A Thesis
Presented to
In Partial Fulfillment
Master of Arts
Jeannette Wade
May, 2011
SEX EDUCATION, COMMUNICATION AND LIFE SATISFACTION
IN ADOLESCENCE
Jeannette Wade
Thesis
Approved: Accepted:
______________________________ ___________________________
Advisor School Director
Dr. Pamela Schulze Mrs. Sue Rasor-Greenhalgh
______________________________ ____________________________
Faculty Reader Dean of the College
Dr. Baomei Zhao Dr. James M. Lynn
______________________________ _____________________________
Faculty Reader Dean of the Graduate School
Dr. Susan Witt Dr. George R. Newkome
_____________________________
Date
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Schulze. You have completely challenged me as a writer and student. You showed me
what the zone of proximal development is truly about. I am extremely proud of this work
and know it was only possible with your support. Dr. Baomei Zhao and Dr. Susan Witt I
am grateful to you both for serving as my committee. I have so much respect for the two
iii
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page
LIST OF TABLES ……………………………………………………………….. vi
CHAPTER
I. INTRODUCTION…………………………………………………………………. 1
Psychosocial Development……………………………………………………. 7
Parent-Child Relationships…………………………………………… 10
Self Esteem……………………………………………………………. 15
Sexual Debut………………………………………………………….. 17
iv
Sexually Transmitted Infections……………………………………… 18
Teenage Pregnancy……………………………………………………. 20
Behavior Changes……………………………………………………. 28
Summary…………………………………………………………………………. 29
III. METHODOLOGY……………………………………………………………….. 32
Sampling………………………………………………………………………… 32
Operationalization of Variables…………………………………………………. 33
Definitions…………………………………………………………………….. 33
Hypotheses………………………………………………………………… 34
IV. RESULTS…………………………………………………………………………. 36
Correlation of Variables…………………………………………………………. 41
Hypothesis One………………………………………………………………. 42
Hypothesis Two……………………………………………………………… 42
V. DISCUSSION………………………………………………………………………. 43
VI. BIBLIOGRAPHY……………………………………………………….………... 49
v
LIST OF TABLES
Table Page
vi
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
In the United States, 50-58% of teens between the ages 15-19 are sexually active (Robinson
& Frank, 1994). The average age for males to lose their virginity is 16.9, and 17.4 is the
average age for females (Landry, Darroch, Singh & Higgins, 2003). The National Survey of
Family Growth shows 47% of adolescents with Sexually Transmitted Infections reported
using condoms during their last intercourse (Kohler, 2008). Annually, over one million
teenage pregnancies occur, 75% of which are unplanned (Henshaw, 1998; as cited in Blake
et al. 2003). Teenagers account for 50% of all new sexually transmitted infection (STI)
reports, although they make up 25% of the sexually active population (as cited in Kohler et
al. 2008). Currently, 16% of those between ages 15-19 contract a sexually transmitted
disease annually, and the rate rises to one in three by the age of 24 (Blake & Ledsky, 2003).
The heightened risks of sexual behavior during adolescence can be understood in the
context of the developmental characteristics of this age group. Despite feeling autonomous
and independent, teenagers have a naïveté working against them regarding their bodies and
health. Young adolescents are cognitively unable to correlate current behaviors to future
outcomes (Hornberger, 2006). This can provide them with a sense of immunity from
repercussions of their actions, which can lead them to make poor choices that they will
1
regret later. As adolescents experiment with identity and spend more time away from the
family, it is important to provide them with the tools they need to make better choices.
Youth spend 1/3-1/2 of their waking hours in school (Steele, 1999). When one
factors in time for sleep, it is clear that teachers have the most access to students. The social
social norms of groups they are closely connected to (Kirby, 2001). According to a study by
Emerging Answers Research Findings on Programs to Reduce Teen Pregnancy and Sexually
Transmitted Diseases, students who are attached to school and perform well have later
sexual debuts, infrequent intercourse and less unwanted pregnancy (Kirby, 2007). This,
combined with a decline in communication with parents (Hornberger, 2006), suggests that
Because of their specialized training, teachers may be best qualified to assess the
educational needs and developmental status of adolescents. Most public schools in the
United States offer some type of sex education, which may be a part of health class, physical
education, or family and consumer sciences curriculum. However, what children are taught
Despite studies revealing the benefits of sex education, there are continued
inconsistencies among educators. High school sex education teachers were asked when they
thought specific sexual subtopics should be offered to students and when they actually
offered them. Forty-eight percent of teachers believed that information on safe sex, in
addition to abstinence only, was needed before eighth grade, but only 27% provided it.
2
Seventy-five percent of teachers surveyed believed children should be taught about STIs
prior to completing seventh grade, only 50% actually taught it. Fifty five percent of teachers
think seventh graders need to know about specific forms of birth control; 35% actually teach
the methods, and 18% provide information on community resources (Forest & Silverman,
1989).
classroom settings, other more controversial topics, like family planning, continue to lag. A
survey of health education instructors revealed that 60% support lecturing on birth control
options and 78% support discussions on condom use. But only 50.3% offer resources on
how to acquire either option (Landry, Darroch, Singh & Higgins, 2003).
offers a scientific explanation for one’s changing body and desires. Courses also serve as an
questioned abstinent teenagers about their reasons for avoiding sex. The group cited fear of
sexually transmitted infections (34%), fear of pregnancy (35%), parental disapproval (14%),
and peer pressure (3%). This showed responsible decision making comes from knowledge
sexual health education prior to and during the onset of puberty (Whitaker, 1999).
abstinence and family planning, is associated with numerous positive outcomes. These
include: providing the communicative tools to navigate difficult social situations, creating
scientific bases to counter balance the social and moral teachings of peers and family, and
3
allowing optimal psychosocial growth by teaching adolescents aspects of healthy dating
Kirby, 2001).
human functioning” (Gilman &Huebner, 2006, p 318). The interchangeable names show the
measure as a self assessment of current and ongoing fulfillment (Diener, 2000; as cited in
Gilman & Huebner, 2006). In studies, participants are generally asked to assess their
current status on a likert type scale which ranges from, “not at all satisfied” to “completely
satisfied.” This subjective questioning style allows the individual to measure his or her life
with one’s own set of standards (Diener et al., 1999, as cited in Gilman & Huebner, 2006).
During adolescence, high levels of life satisfaction are linked to academic success, healthy
interpersonal relationships and low levels of depression and anxiety (Gilman & Huebner,
2006). Although no previous studies have correlated adolescent life satisfaction with having
knowledge of teenage pregnancy, or risk of STI, it makes intuitive sense that the
empowerment that comes from successful comprehensive sex education programming can
The association between life satisfaction and the formation of one’s sexual identity
is important to study for the following reasons. First, there is a need to increase both the
quantity and quality of sex education courses or programs offered to young people. There
are many children with no access to sex education (Landry, Darroch, Singh & Higgins,
2003). In addition, adolescent self image has been correlated to individual levels of sexual
4
knowledge. Self reports from sexually active teenagers revealed that those who were
unaware of their contraceptive options prior to their sexual debut were more likely to
describe themselves as “stupid.” By contrast, those who were informed and chose to utilize
risk taking behaviors, peer relations, and parent-child communication, many researchers
have concluded that sex education is needed in the school setting. Teenagers receive mixed
signals on sexual norms because their parents, friends and partners have conflicting views
This study is a secondary data analysis using existing data from the 2001-2002 Health
results from (1) adolescent’s self reported life satisfaction, (2) reported ease of communication
with their mothers and fathers respectively, (3) and whether or not the student had received in
necessary to examine life satisfaction, perceived ease of discussing difficult topics with
parents, and involvement in sex education programming. Previous studies have focused on
adolescents are perpetual autonomy seeking. Studies of the benefits of sex education have
not considered how such programming may affect their socio-emotional well-being. Given
5
the dramatic emotional changes taking place during this stage of development, it is
important to understand sex education and its correlates in developmental context. The
changes that occur during adolescence, including the implications for emotional wellbeing
and social relationships with family and peers. Sex education, both abstinence-only and
6
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
The following chapter will review literature on adolescent development and the
development will be used as a theoretical lens through which we may understand the socio-
of adolescence will be discussed. Two aspects of identity formation, sexual maturity and
parental separation, will be the focus. Further research on the connection between life
satisfaction and adolescent development will be presented and studies on the role of sexual
Psychosocial Development
stages across the lifespan. Humans perpetually overcome crises that are one part biological
pressure and one part socio-cultural expectations (Brown & Lowis, 2003). To fully
understand the crises associated with adolescence the theory will be outlined in its entirety.
During the first psychosocial crisis, an infant must decide whether to trust its mother
or primary care provider. The caregiver must be responsive to the baby for inner security to
develop (Graves, 2006). Erikson says the first stage involves the child receiving and
7
accepting care; parental concern fosters a sense of concern within the infant (Erikson, 1968).
Successful completion of the first stage is essential across the lifespan. Without developing
Erikson defines shame as feeling exposed. Doubt comes from an awareness of the
body’s front (penis or vagina) and back (anus), and knowing that the areas are pleasurable,
but only controllable by others, during toilet training. The child is now exploring life away
from mother (Graves, 2006). During toddlerhood children begin to walk and communicate
which opens many doors socially. For best outcomes, caregivers must find a balance among
allowing their child to explore and providing boundaries. Figuratively, under exposure, or
minimizing opportunities for trial and error in early toddlerhood, prevents a child from
developing a healthy sense of autonomy, shame and doubt. Experiencing too much holding
or carrying from caregivers can be restraining and restrictive, and thus frustrate the toddler’s
efforts to become autonomous. Conversely, too little holding can be neglectful. Erikson
describes the latter as leading to “precocious conscience” or a sense of greater ability in the
Here the child begins to engage in make believe play as well as master language.
Make believe play serves as a catalyst to practice adult behaviors. Successful completion of
this stage entails an improvement in language as well as a desire to model the behaviors of
the same sex parent. To encourage initiative in early childhood, parents should create a
sense of responsibility through household duties and caring for pets (Smith & McSherry,
8
2007). On the other hand, over involved parents who prevent their child from taking
initiative in daily activities such as dressing and personal hygiene create irresponsible
Once school aged, children seek attention for their achievements from primary
caregivers, educators, peers and other involved parties. A satisfactorily developing child
will have an appropriate level of honor and inclusion in social activities. Children who are
denied opportunities to express themselves academically or receive few accolades for their
2002).
the crisis faced by adolescents (Erikson, 1968; as cited in Ward, 2004). Identity is defined
individual history” (Marcia, 1980, p. 109). The process of establishing an identity allows
people to assess their own strengths and weaknesses. Research on identity formation shows
it is associated directly with one’s self image, or self concept. Males who have not
established an identity feel very distant from their ideal self; conversely, those who have
successfully formed an identity feel close to their ideal self (Rosenfeld, 1972; as cited in
Marcia, 1980). For example if a young male envisions himself as a football star or
mathematician and he is lacking in these areas his real self will be a disappointment because
he has not achieved his ideals. However when identity formation is successfully achieved
9
he will accept those realities and focus on other strengths, perhaps his writing abilities or
social skills.
Parent-Child Relationships.
communication. Much of this has to do with the characteristics of this stage of development.
With the onset of adolescence, the goal of psychosocial development becomes separating
from one’s family of origin and establishing a sense of self (Hornberger, 2006). The process
of self identification includes creating a sexual identity. With puberty, there are physical as
children. Teenagers are frequently secluded when at home and spend more time with social
groups their parents are not included in as a way to establish autonomy (Hornberger, 2006).
Adults will notice their children’s need for privacy also increases immensely during early
adolescence. Parents often misinterpret this need as rejection (Hornberger, 2006). Both
sensitive matter. If a teenager perceives her parent as disapproving a given behavior, like
premarital sex, she will be unlikely to respond when her parent asks questions in the future
(Dutra, Miller & Forehand, 1999; as cited in Whitaker, Miller, May, & Levin, 1999). For
example, mothers who call men disrespectful names and constantly question their intensions
decrease the chances their daughter will discuss love interests with them (Aronowitz, Todd,
living two secret lives. Teenagers avoid the possession of contraceptives because of
concerns that their parents might find them. According to a study of teenage mothers, one
respondent admitted, “I figured they might get suspicious if I had condoms or whatever, so I
means through which adolescents develop a sense of identity. Brown (1999) asked
teenagers to rate the reasons they are involved with romantic partners. The prominent
responses showed a relationship to the goals of identity formation. The most frequently
reported reasons that peers engage in romantic relationships were: status among peers,
which is in line with establishing a sense of self outside the family of origin; recreation,
which is actually evidence of the egocentricity associated with adolescent years; identity
formation was cited outright, showing teenagers associate an adult image with intimate
relationships; and autonomy from parents (as cited in Zimmer-Gembeck, Siebenbrunner &
Collins, 2001).
developmental implications of adolescent dating, and concluded that love interests offer
teens a source of “intimacy, companionship, and support” (p.314). In their study, teenagers
reported how many people they dated in the past year. The participants reported a range of
0-35 romantic partners; those with larger numbers were called “over involved” in dating.
11
Participants who were considered “over involved” in dating also ranked themselves highly
in perceived social acceptance, sexual appeal, and appearance, but low on perceived
behavioral conduct. They also showed poor emotional health, academic performance, and
2001). The study concluded that difficulty obeying rules or laws and poor academic
performance increase with casual dating and decrease as adolescents move toward steady
relationships.
Erikson believed that adolescents must discover who they are and, once content,
move on to find intimacy in early adulthood. The alternative is loneliness and isolation.
Successful young adults will be confident in who they are and find partners who are also
pleased with themselves. Intimacy is necessarily placed after identity formation due to the
complexities of love. In order to be vulnerable enough to fully accept another person and
make personal changes to accommodate them, one must have a solid sense of self (Marcia,
1980). Among young adults, intimacy occurs in those with identity achievement, and
isolation occurs in those who are identity diffuse. Identity diffusions are young people who
have no set occupational or ideological direction, regardless of whether or not they may
12
Generativity vs. Stagnation.
The seventh stage is by far the longest, ranging throughout the entire active adult
period often extending past what is considered to be “retirement age.” Adults must be of
assistance to others to feel complete. Generativity is defined as concern for guiding the next
generation. Generative adults should have a balance of agency and communion. Agency is
the desire to create something that represents one’s self, yet will outlive the individual
(Frensch, Pratt, & Norris, 2007). Communion is the desire to care for others and relate to
people in a caring way (Frensch, Pratt, & Norris, 2007). Adults hold close friends and
family dear to maintain generativity (Graves 2006). Mental health comes from participation
The final stage of Erikson’s model takes place during the senior years. The end of
the life cycle involves maintaining dignity as the body and financial state diminish. Older
adults begin to reflect on their life as a whole and impending death. Accepting death as a
natural part of the life cycle, and successfully overcoming stages one to seven allows one to
gain a sense of ego integrity (Brown & Lowis, 2003). Despair occurs if a person is
dissatisfied with the way their life turned out, as it is too late to start over.
13
Physical and Reproductive Changes During Adolescence
Adolescence can be divided into three stages: early (ages 10-13), middle (ages 13-
15) and late (ages 16-18) (Hornberger, 2006). During this period both anatomical and
physiological changes take place, transforming the individual from a child to an adult. From
ages 6-11 the adrenal gland begins to excrete sex hormones. This leads to the emergence of
secondary sex characteristics such as pubic hair, oily skin, body odor in addition to genital
development (New, Levine & Pang, 1981 as cited in McClintock & Herdt, 1996). Both girls
and boys experience a growth spurt in middle adolescence. Because the onset of puberty is
later for males, the growth spurt usually occurs in unison with other physiological advances.
Body composition changes as well. Children accumulate 50% of their eventual adult
weight during adolescence (Rogol, Clark & Roemmich, 2000). For reproductive purposes,
females gain twice as much body fat as males. Fat is traded for muscle in young boys, who
cognition, perception, attention, emotions and sexuality mature from hormonal exposure
(McClintock & Herdt, 1996, p. 180). The development of sexual activity occurs in three
stages: (1) the mean age of initial reports of sexual attraction begin at 9.6 years old in males
and 10.1 years old in females, (2) the mean ages for first reports of sexual fantasy are 11.2
and 11.9 years of age in males and females, respectively, and (3) and the mean ages for
sexual intercourse to begin are 13.1 and 15.2 in males and females (Herdt & Boxer, 1993; as
cited in McClintock & Herdt, 1996). According to Herdt and McClintock (1996), once
cognition is sufficient to understand adult sex acts, children can successfully imitate them.
14
Outcomes Associated with Pubertal Confusion
When left to their own devices, teenagers often make risky decisions. Youth are said
to have an “illusion of unique invulnerability” (Lauer & Lauer, 1997). This means that,
although they are aware of the consequences of their actions, adolescents do not feel
susceptible to these consequences. The following studies illustrate the array of negative
Self Esteem.
Self esteem is defined as, “the extent to which one perceives oneself as relatively close to
being the person one wants to be and/or as relatively distant from being the kind of person
one does not want to be with respect to person-qualities one positively and negatively
values” (Block & Robins, 1993, p. 911). Experts do not consider people to be fully healthy
without high self esteem (Lauer & Lauer 1997), which for adolescents stems from creating a
unique identity.
Self esteem has been measured throughout adolescence. Self esteem can be
measured in specific categories like academic performance or social acceptance, but also
can be measured globally. Results from studies on global or universal self esteem can be
forms (specific and global) because one may have high self esteem in certain domains and
Collins, 2001), teenagers partake in risky behaviors to feel socially secure, and are left
personality traits. They interviewed 44 males and 47 females in ninth grade and again in
twelfth. Each participant described their perceived self from a list of preset adjectives and
then several days later they described their ideal self using the same list. Correlations
revealed, during early, middle, and late adolescence, males have higher universal self
esteem than females, and the inequality only increases over time. The study showed males
increase in self esteem by one fifth of a standard deviation from ages 14-23, whereas
To discover who the “real me” is, teenagers must determine who they are as an
individual, not as a member of a nuclear family unit. And to define a “sexual me,” they
must adjust to newly raging sexual urges and learn to accept and cope with their emerging
adult bodies. Adolescence is uniquely difficult because youth struggle to define both almost
simultaneously.
There are gender differences in defining the “real me” and “sexual me.” Beginning
in early childhood, males are taught to be strong, competent, and athletic, and in
adolescence are encouraged to engage in as much sex as possible (Brandel, 2009). An adult
sense of maleness is established through having sex and reproducing (Friedman, 1990).
Robinson and Frank (1994) studied the relationship between sexual behavior and self
esteem in adolescents. Each participant completed a questionnaire that measured global self
esteem. The highest level of self esteem possible was a score of 25. Sexually active males
scored 18.34, and males who were virgins scored 17.67. Teenage males who are sexually
active have higher self esteem, and feel more socially and physically competent.
16
Female socialization, in contrast, is quite different. As children, females are taught
(Brandel, 2009). Sexual activity is not encouraged among girls as it is in boys. In general,
girls do not equate losing their virginity as a rite of passage into womanhood as males do.
The responses of the females in Robinson’s and Frank’s (1994) study were much less varied
than those of the male participants. Sexually active females scored 17.28 in global self
esteem, and virgin females scored 17.63 (Robinson & Frank, 1994).
There are several negative implications associated with teen sexual activity. Peers
call sexually active girls names like, “gig, hoe, and nasty” (Aronowitz, Todd, Agbeshie &
Rennells, 2007, p. 12). Sexually active females are also seen by age mates as having low
self esteem. During an interview of high school students one perspective of sexually active
females was, “They have a self esteem problem, finally somebody, they think, somebody
like[s] them and they can better themselves if they do it [have sex]. It’s their chance”
Sexual Debut.
Studies show those with low levels of self awareness and unplanned futures are
most likely to have early sexual debuts (Allen et al., 1997; as cited in Kivisto, 2001, p.
1997). Until one sets goals and understands how the negative implications of sexual activity
can hinder those goals, there is little motivation to act responsibly. Generally by middle to
late adolescence, many teenagers have a concrete vision of their future. Students are aware
that attending college with a child can be difficult, so they avoid irresponsible sexual
17
A study by Kivisto (2001) provided statistical insight into teenage sexual behaviors
were 443 in total. The study revealed that 55% of the respondents lost their virginity before
age 15, with 15% occurring prior to age 12. When asked why they lost their virginity, the
responses varied and did not seem to involve logic. Thirty five percent of the teens said
they lost their virginity because they enjoy sex, which is interesting since enjoyment cannot
occur prior to the act. The next largest group, 28%, cited love as the reason for their sexual
debut. Seven percent of teens reported they were pressured by their partners. Six percent of
the respondents said losing their virginity made them feel “grown up.” And the final two
reasons were tied at 2%: peer pressure and wanting to have a baby. The fact that 15% of the
teenage respondents reported 5 or more partners suggests that earlier sexual debut is
As mentioned in Chapter One, adolescents who are sexually active increase their
rate of STI. STIs can have lifespan implications. Infertility becomes a possibility when
STIs go untreated and advance in severity. Because adolescents are less likely to seek
medical attention, their STIs are more likely to reach advanced stages (Bunnell et al., 1999).
Pelvic inflammatory disease, ectopic pregnancy, preterm birth and fetal abnormalities are
examples of outcomes associated with STI (Kaestle, Halpen, Miller and Ford 2005).
Numerous risk factors have been identified that increase an adolescent’s likelihood
of contracting an infection: one is social power. Females are often too timid to refuse sex or
18
more susceptible to infection (Kaestle, Halpen, Miller and Ford 2005). Other risk factors for
girls contracting STIs during adolescence include: a sexual debut earlier than 15 years of
age, having more than one sexual partner, and dating a drug dealer (Bunnell et al., 1999).
Early sexual debut has even greater implications than STI risk. Prior to becoming
sexually active, children create sexual scripts based on the social norms they have been
exposed to in which they determine what acceptable sexual behavior is. If an adolescent’s
debut experience does not match the ideal scenario found in his sexual script, he is likely to
engage in risky sexual behavior perpetually (Kaestle, Halpen, Miller and Ford, 2005). This
Bunnell and colleagues (1999) surveyed teenage patients at a family planning clinic
in an attempt to measure STI incidence in urban females. Each teenager who reported
testing positive for an STI, or 40% of the original sample, was asked to return in six months
for a follow up assessment. Chlamydia proved to be the largest epidemic among the girls
during the second meeting. The disease was found in 38% of the overall group and in 26%
of those with herpes, 48% of those with trichomoniasis, and 56% of the girls with
gonorrhea.
abstinence is promoted as the only fool-proof method of avoiding them. Virginity pledges
have been used as a method of encouraging abstinence among teens. However, those
those who have not signed pledges (Bruckner & Bearman, 2005). Because these teenagers
vow to wait until marriage to have sex, they often do not receive or seek sexuality education
19
or information about STIs. Parents may not feel as obligated to discuss safe sex with their
children, and professionals appear to be less inclined to offer condoms to teens who have
pledged to abstain from sex. Those who break their vow are too embarrassed to admit their
mistake and often avoid their primary healthcare provider. Also, results from Add Health
show members of the virginity pledge movement engage in most of the oral and anal sex
reported among adolescent “virgins” (as cited in Bruckner & Bearman, 2005). Because
vaginal intercourse is often the adolescent’s definition of losing one’s virginity, the
aforementioned acts are not considered “sex.” Unfortunately these behaviors include
Teenage Pregnancy.
Teenage pregnancy is a health risk for both the mother and baby and should be
avoided (Kivisto, 2001). Teenagers’ reluctance to seek medical attention extends to prenatal
care. Their transitioning bodies may not be fully equipped to healthily carry a baby full
term. In addition to concerns about the health of the teen parents and their infants, there are
also concerns about the ability of teens to meet the practical and financial responsibilities of
parenthood. The reason for this concern is self-evident: Teen parenthood can interrupt or
end a teen’s education. Among teenagers who have experienced a pregnancy, the mean
years of education are 11.57, compared to an average of 13.32 years of education for teens
who have never been pregnant (Berry, Shillington, Peak and Hohman, 2000). In today’s job
adolescence. Examples include low socio-economic status for African American youth,
20
having less educated parents, and having parents who started their own family in
adolescence (Miller & Moore, 1990; as cited in Berry, Shillington, Peak & Hohman, 2000).
Psychosocial risk factors include low self-esteem, over-concern with peer acceptance, and
drug and alcohol use (Oates, 1997; as cited in Berry, Shillington, Peak &Hohman, 2000).
Robinson and Frank (1994) studied the self esteem of sexually active adolescents.
The study revealed low self esteem in those who were teenage fathers. The teenage mothers
were more likely to have reconciled their relationships with disappointed parents. For
females, self esteem is greatly defined by social connections. Males, however, felt teen
parenting would ruin their future and disappoint important adults. This stems from gender
socialization that emphasizes the importance of financial support of children as central to the
fatherhood role.
that they started a family. Simply being unaware of contraceptive methods puts many teens
at risk for conception. One participant reminisced about becoming a young mother; the
father “volunteered to use a condom, but I said he didn’t have to, I was young…I was
21
The Role of Family Ties and Norms in Pro-social Behavior
Family closeness has been found to be positively correlated with less emotional
distress, drug and alcohol abuse, and suicidality as well as later sexual debut. Resnick et al.
(1997) defined family closeness as perceived caring provided by mother and father,
satisfaction with parental relationships, the number of activities youth reported engaging in
with their parents in the last four weeks, whether parents were present before and after
school as well as meal and bed times, whether parents discussed the importance of
completing high school. Successful suicide attempts by close relatives were also included as
focus on avoiding anti-social behaviors to avoid discipline. This is because parents report
using rewards systems with daughters and punitive measures with sons (Roche, Ahmed &
Blum, 2008).
styles. Parents who avoid direct disapproval of teenage sexuality rear children who perceive
their chances of experiencing its negative implications as minimal (Dittus & Jacquard, as
cited in Bearman & Bruckner, 2001). The Alan Guttmacher Institute (1994) showed
adolescents with one parent or who are in step families have more unsupervised time, which
is a predictor of younger sexual debut (as cited in Bearman & Bruckner, 2001).
According to Ochs and Kremer-Sadlik, parents are charged with showing their child
that “growing up means that obligation precedes pleasure and that time is finite and must be
22
managed” (2007, p. 9). Families show children how to interact socially and serve as an
interactions within the family. Parents are likely to use any social setting as an opportunity
to reference and resolve moral dilemmas. This teaches youth to do so in other situations
Parents can detour their offspring from risky behaviors by placing value on school
and success. Children who focus on school and extracurricular activities are the least
sexually active (Kirby, 2001). Close parental monitoring is associated with lowering the
risk of one’s offspring having an early sexual debut or getting pregnant (Usher-Seriki,
Bynum & Callands, 2008). Teens whose parents openly express their disapproval of
premarital sex have later debuts, less frequent sexual encounters and fewer partners (Kirby,
2001). When parents advocate for condom use, their children have fewer partners and
practice safe sex if sexually active (Usher-Seriki, Bynum & Callands, 2008).
generative is associated with life satisfaction and higher self esteem in adulthood (McAdams
development during adolescence. Generative women see teenage children moving out as
the appropriate step in parent-child relations. To ensure this occurs, they encourage
autonomy by granting their child various freedoms. At the same time, they expect mature
behavior, so they enforce reasonable rules and regulations (Pratt, Danso, Arnold, Norris, &
Filyer, 2001).
23
According to Peterson (2006) generative parents use an authoritative parenting
According to Baumrind, authoritative parents find a perfect blend of autonomy and structure
for their children (1966). This parent welcomes the child’s opinions, but always has the
final say. Authoritative parenting is positively associated with life satisfaction and healthy
self esteem in adolescents (Milevsky, Schlechter, Netter & Keehn, 2007). Encouraging a
child’s attempts to forge a sense of identity both within and outside ofthe family with
minimal friction can be beneficial to both the child and her parent(s).
Adolescents with healthy self esteem have higher cognitive ability and find prosocial
means for interaction (Bruckner, 1999; Harpen et al., 2000; as cited in Bearman &
Bruckner, 2001). Higher cognitive ability can be beneficial in peer negotiations and
assessing potentially dangerous situations. The ability to find prosocial means for
activities and participation in comprehensive sex education offer means to practice and
24
Research on the Need to Initiate Discussion Prior to Adolescence
At this stage, the home environment is still the dominant social structure in a child’s life
(Steinberg, 2001; as cited in Aronowitz, Todd, Agbeshie & Rennells, 2007). Developmental
become distant and hormonal it becomes more difficult for parents to spark their interests.
The pubertal process has been correlated with parent-child disagreements and less
family time (Crokett and Petersen, 1987; Hornberger, 2006). As a result of decreased
opportunity and sheer discomfort, most mothers wait to speak to their child openly about sex
and contraception after their sexual debut (Usher-Seriki, Bynum & Callands, 2008). This is
clearly less beneficial because once sexual activity has begun, interventions are less
effective (Seigel, Aten & Enaharo, 2001; as cited in Aronowitz, Todd, Agbeshie &
Rennells, 2007).
from home and resist parental supervision (Hornberger, 2006). The two most common
motives for teenage parenthood are to solidify a relationship or separate from one’s parents
(Kovisto, 2001). Adolescents often consider their parents unbearable. Youth undergoing
puberty believe that their peers understand life’s struggles the best (Crockett & Petersen,
1987).
25
Because teenagers are distancing themselves from home, the peer group and school
setting can be more influential than family at times. Among age-mates, adolescents receive
social scrutiny for avoiding sexual activity. “They [sexually active peers] try not to be
around you as much, they think you still [sic] a little girl” says one high school student
(Aronowitz, Todd, Agbeshie & Rennells, 2007 p. 12). This study shows previous gaps in
Early adolescence is when youth become very egocentric. This can be damaging to
parent-child bonds because teenagers are easily outraged by perceived injustices. Youth
objects and not hypotheses, in normal cognitive development this exists between the ages 7-
11 (Piaget, 1972) when they become emotionally over-stimulated. Because they are truly
unable to think in abstract terms while under distress, parents may perceive them as rude or
oblivious (Hornberger, 2006). Teens also exaggerate more frequently, which also puts their
The belief that sexual debut, marriage and childbearing should occur in a certain
order can be a source of conflict for parents and their adolescent children. According to
Furstenberg (1991), “the issue of early child bearing was invisible” just one generation ago
when the teen pregnancy rate was much lower, and the issue was not as openly discussed (p.
adolescent mothers and their own mothers, the results showed how volatile parent-child
interaction can become. One interviewee reported wrestling on furniture with her mother
26
Communication with family and risky sexual behavior seem to be related in several
ways, and for a variety of reasons. For example, adolescent males whose parents’
communication styles are perceived as nonsupporting are more likely to engage in risky
sexual behaviors (Rodgers, 1999; as cited in Aspy et al., 2007). Likewise, conversation in
engaging in sexual behaviors fear parental judgment (Klick & Stratmann, 2007).
Sex education gives teenagers the scientific reassurance that they are developing
typically and that their physical differences from peers should not be alarming (Hornberger,
2006). Many studies have positively correlated sex education to delayed sexual debut and
safer behaviors and decision making (Kirby & Laris, 2009; Kirby, Laris & Rolleri, 2006;
Whitaker, 1999).
abstaining from sexual activity” (Kohler et al. 2008). Abstinence only methods have been
education include abstinence training as well as information on the use of contraceptives for
both STI and pregnancy prevention (Kohler et al., 2008). Teenagers from comprehensive
programs have lower rates of unwanted pregnancy and delayed sexual debuts (Kohler et al.,
2008). Nine out of ten students in comprehensive sexual education programs have received
HIV education, and 50% have attended a lecture hosted by someone living with AIDS
(Hollander, 2003). Such programs also frequently partner HIV education with condom
27
distribution. Schools with condom distribution campaigns have students who are more
likely to use condoms and have more virgin students (Hollander, 2003). Among adolescents
who have experienced the distribution campaigns, 89% feel condoms are easy to obtain.
Behavior Changes.
It has been revealed that females who receive sex education are less likely to become
pregnant and more likely to use condoms, than their uneducated age mates (Kirby, Laris &
Rolleri, 2006). Schools that teach sex education (rather than abstinence only) often
distribute condoms to students. Students are twice as likely to use condoms to prevent
pregnancy, which also lowers susceptibility to STI if they are available in school (Blake &
Ledsky, 2003).
Previously, the declining pregnancy rate was positively correlated to less sexual
activity in general, increased condom use among those sexually active and longer lasting
female contraceptive options (CDC, 2000; as cited in Blake & Ledsky, 2003). Those
adolescents who have been trained to discuss sexuality with their partners have lower rates
There are positive social motives for behaving safely in sexual encounters as well.
According to Blake and Ledsky (2003) youth use condoms for the following reasons: (1)
positive beliefs about condoms, (2) peer approval, (3) confidence in use or negotiation
ability, (4) belief in the reliability of condoms, (5) coming to a consensus with their partner
Kivisto (2001) cited the following as teenage motives to use condoms: the
adolescent had personal acquaintances with STI’s and witnessed the difficulties associated
28
with them, or they saw the challenging lives of young mothers and were actively avoiding
the same fate, and lastly there is no need for parental approval since most clinics have
Kirby and Laris (2009) examined outcomes associated with sexual education. The
study assessed 55 programs, seven were abstinence only and 48 were comprehensive.
Among the programs 41% effectively prolonged sexual debut and 31% lowered the
frequency of sex among students. More than half of the programs showed significant
improvements in participants’ perceived risk of STI. There was a positive impact on the
teenagers’ self efficacy to refuse sex and obtain condoms. Knowing the health risks
associated with sexual behaviors provided motivation to restrict their number of partners
and intention to use condoms. Teenagers became more comfortable communicating with
their parents and avoiding situations which could lead to sex (p. 24).
Summary
which must be met in the identity formation process. They must establish a sense of self,
during which peers and love interests become the focus of social influence. Because they
are the same age, they provide a realistic point of reference in self assessment (Marcia,
1980). Adolescence also involves separating from one’s family of origin. Less time is spent
(Hornberger, 2006).
29
Part of adolescent identity formation involves acceptance of sexuality and learning to
from children to adults. Intense physical, cognitive, and emotional changes occur in a
relatively short time period (McClintock & Herdt, 1996). Dating and the acquisition of
While going through puberty and beginning the process of dating, teenagers face
many risks. Succumbing to negative peer pressure, STIs, unplanned pregnancies, and low
self esteem are examples that appear most often in literature (Aronowitz, Todd, Agbeshie &
Rennells, 2007; Kivisto, 2001; Klick & Stratmann, 2007). Adolescents need information and
Prior to adolescence parents are sought after to help their children analyze difficult
situations. However, adolescents are learning to navigate through life as independent adults
so they rarely approach parents with sexual crises. This predicament leads to the conclusion
that sex education should be provided for adolescents in their school settings.
formation are met in the absence of parental guidance. Studies have correlated sex
education to many positive psychosocial outcomes such as later sexual debut, use of
condoms and contraception when sexually active, and peer or intimate partner refusal skills
(Zelnik & Kim, 1982; Blake & Ledsky, 2003). To further explore the relationship between
different types of sex education and psychosocial outcomes in adolescence, this study will
30
examine the relationship among sex education, ease of parental communication, and life
satisfaction in adolescence.
31
CHAPTER III
METHODOLOGY
Chapter three outlines the research methods that were used for this secondary data
analysis. Using SPSS, results from student and administrative surveys were analyzed in an
attempt to find relationships among variables related to subjective well being, family
closeness and school based efforts to offer education on human sexuality. In this chapter,
description of its sample selection and size, operationalization of main variables, as well as
Sampling
The data for this study came from the 2001- 02 Health Behavior in School-Aged
Children Survey which is part of a collaborative effort among industrialized nations headed
by the World Health Organization. The United States began participating in the
international study in 1996. The survey focused on health related behaviors and lifestyle
issues in students grades 6-10. The final toll revealed a 73.2% response rate among schools;
that is, 340 of the 465 invited participated. Also, 81.9% of the students and staff
During the survey, students were given 45 minutes to answer 77 multiple choice
32
yes or no questions on the goals of their curriculum to see what aspects of education were
being presented.
The U.S. data from this international study came from a randomly selected list of
95% confidence in age\grade representation of the sample. Because the group used in the
international study does not account for racial minorities, researchers use a larger pool for
domestic application. This allowed them to use random selection to not only represent the
national average for age\grade appropriately but also race. The sample which will be used
for this study has a precision of ±5 at 90% confidence for African American and Hispanic
youth.
Operationalization of Variables
Definitions.
As proxies for emotional well-being, variables that involved student self reports of
life satisfaction and peer acceptance were included in the correlation analysis. In this study,
life satisfaction was conceptualized as an overall cognitive evaluation of one’s life (Huebner
et al., 2006; as cited in Saha et al., 2009 p. 150). Previous studies of life satisfaction in
adolescence have correlated positive subjective well being to positive attitudes about school
and teachers and a stronger sense of support from teachers and friends (Gilman and
Huebner, 2006; Suldo and Huebner, 2006; as cited in Saha et al., 2009). In this study, life
satisfaction was measured by one question. Students who participated in the survey were
shown an icon of a ladder which had the number 10 on top and 0 on the bottom. They were
then asked to gauge their levels of life satisfaction at the moment, 10 representing the best
33
possible life and 0 meaning the worst. The question, “Please show [sic] much you agree or
disagree with the following statements. Other students accept me as I am,” was included as
adolescence, high levels of life satisfaction are linked to academic success, healthy
interpersonal relationships and low levels of depression and anxiety (Gilman & Huebner,
2006).
communication. Respondents were asked, “How easy it is to talk to the following persons
I. Their mother. The answers included (1) very easy, (2) easy, (3) difficult, (4) very
difficult, and (5) don’t have or see this person (students with absent parents).
Students’ response to the question, “I have been taught proper condom use” was
communication with their mothers and fathers would also report higher life satisfaction. It
has been shown that separation from family of origin is a normal step in the transition to
identity formation. Students who report high levels of ease in parental communication will
also experience high life satisfaction. Although it is normal to avoid parent-child interaction
during this time, adolescents should feel comfort in knowing their parents are available and
supportive of them.
34
Hypothesis 2: It was hypothesized that high school students whose schools worked
diligently to promote STI prevention, provided family planning tools and helped teens
develop negation skills would correlate positively with higher levels of life satisfaction.
Gaining a sense of comfort and understanding with one’s own sexuality is a psychosocial
associations among the variables described previously in this chapter. SPSS statistical
software was used in the analyses, and a .05 alpha level was used to determine statistical
35
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS
Statistical information on the sample from the HBSAC, 2001-02 is found in table
one below. As can be seen in table one, the majority (N=2747, 41.7%) of the sample was
age 14 and an almost equal gender balance (N=3340, or 50.7% female). White respondents,
the largest ethnic sub group, comprised 57.3% of the sample. Urban areas or cities were the
most popular places of residence among participants (N=2349 43.2%). Ninety-two percent
36
Table 1 Descriptive Statistics of Student Sample (N=6588)
Gender
Male 3248 49.3
Female 3340 50.7
Imputed Age
14 2747 41.7
15 2666 40.5
16 1175 17.8
Geographic Location
Urban 2849 43.2
Suburban 1766 26.8
Rural 1841 27.9
Race
Latino 1331 20.2
Indian/Alaskan 391 5.9
Asian 303 4.6
African American 1489 22.6
Native Hawaiian 115 1.7
White 3775 57.3
Birth Country
United States 6007 91.6
Other 553 8.4
37
As can be seen in Table 2, less than one third of the students’ parents had graduated
from college (30.7% of mothers and 29.7% of fathers). After students indicated the type of
profession each parent had, an individual socioeconomic status (SES) was determined based
on occupation, (1 being high and 5 being low) or a sixth choice, “unclassifiable.” Students’
responses indicated that 24.4% of fathers were level 4 and 22% of the mothers were level 3,
indicating relatively low socioeconomic status for the sample. When asked who was
responsible for their care, students’ responses revealed that 55.2% of the sample was raised
38
Table 2
Familial Characteristics of the Sample (Percentages in Parentheses) (N=6588)
39
The sample differed somewhat from the United States population as a whole.
According to the Census (2000) 79% of those residing in the United States are in an urban
area (the figure includes suburban areas too) and 21% are in rural
by participants in the study, as can be seen in Table 2. Additionally, the sample has a
Finally, the national statistics for parental education in 2000 were as follows: 19.3% of
mothers and 19.9% of fathers did not finish high school, 29.6% of mothers and 27.6% of
fathers have graduated from high school, while 21.5% of mothers and 20.6% of fathers have
at least one college credit, and 29.6% of mothers and 31.9% of fathers.
The question, “During this school year, did teachers in this school teach any of the
education course in grades 6 through 10? How to Use a Condom,” was used to assess
whether comprehensive sexual education programming was in place. This measure proved
most effective for this study’s purposes for the following reasons. Outside of abstinence
only training, the best protection against pregnancy and STI is proper condom use, which is
adult situations, which is consistent with the psychosocial crisis of identity formation
40
Correlation of Variables
Because the variables involved in hypothesis testing were all nominal and ordinal
level, Spearman’s Rho correlations were used to test for association between variables.
Consistent with Hypothesis 1, it was expected that there would be a significant correlations
among the following variables: Talk to Father, Talk to Mother, Life Satisfaction, and
Students Accept Me. For Hypothesis 2, which states adolescents who have received
comprehensive sex education will have higher life satisfaction, it was expected that Taught
Proper Condom Use (the sex education variable) would be significantly correlated with talk
to father, talk to mother, students accept me, and life satisfaction. The results are
summarized in Table 3.
Table 3
**p<.001
41
Hypothesis 1. There was statistically significant support for the first hypothesis. As
expected, Talk to Father and Talk to Mother were highly correlated, rs(6212) =-.285, p
<.001. The variable Talk to Father was significantly correlated with both Life Satisfaction,
rs(6255) = -.234, p <.001 and Students Accept Me rs(6153) = .132, p <.001. To interpret
these correlations, it’s important to keep in mind that the variables Talk Father and Talk to
Mother have a range of answers that are opposite of the range for Life Satisfaction. Where
10 would indicate the best possible life, 1 would indicate it is very easy to talk to one’s
father or mother. This also applies to “Students Accept Me,” where a score of 1 indicates
one strongly agrees that students accept them. A positive correlation indicates that students
with high levels of peer acceptance also report being able to communicate with their fathers.
Likewise, the variable Talk to Mother was correlated with Life Satisfaction, rs(6162)= -.250,
p <.001, and with Students Accept Me, rs(6050)= .172, p <.001. The findings show
perceived ease of communication with one’s mother is significantly associated with greater
Hypothesis 2: High school students whose schools work diligently to promote STI
prevention, family planning tools and negation skills will have a high level of life
satisfaction. This hypothesis was not confirmed. Taught Proper Condom use was
significantly correlated with only one variable: Talk to Father, rs(4716)= -.044, p = .002.
The negative correlation indicates that students who received this component of sex
education were less likely to report feeling able to talk to their fathers. No further
42
CHAPTER V
DISCUSSION
milestones associated with all stages of life. Adolescence is an extremely complex stage of
psychosocially; these domains of development all influence each other, but do not
necessarily develop at the same pace. In many cases, adolescents may struggle with
psychosocial development and feel unprepared for the physical changes that are occurring.
According to Eriksonian theory, young adults must create a definition of self, one
distinct from the role within the nuclear family with independent views and self awareness
self awareness. This study set out to determine if these two important influences on identity
formation, family and peer relations have a relationship to life satisfaction in adolescence.
ease of communicating with parents and a rating of life satisfaction among the adolescents
who responded to this survey. According to Baumrind, authoritative parents find a perfect
blend of autonomy and structure for their children (1966). This parent welcomes the child’s
opinions, but always has the final say. Consistent with the findings of this study, Milevesky,
Schlecter, Netter, and Keehn (2007) found that authoritative parenting is positively
parenting, the question “How easy is it to talk to the following persons about things that
really bother you?” leaves room for options and independence, but also gives an indication
parents about things that really bother them, this allows dialogue in times of crisis or
distress. However, the question does not address whether such intimate conversations
actually occur with any frequency, if at all. It should not be assumed that life satisfaction
would have the same correlation to frequent or casual conversation among parents and their
adolescent offspring.
The wording of the question also sheds light on parent child closeness. Reported
ease of conversation comes from both participants respecting each other as people and
contributors to the subject matter. There is a quality of knowing that parents are “there for
you” if and when you need them that adolescents benefit from, even if they may be
psychosocially pulling away from their family of origin in some respects (Guilamo-Ramos
& Bouris, 2008). What this question gets to is not frequency of communication, but feelings
When interpreting the results of this study, it is imperative to remember the age of
participants. Early adolescence is when youth become very egocentric. This can be
(Hornberger, 2006). According to the stages of adolescence: early (ages 10-13), middle
(ages 13-15) and late (ages 16-18), the group used in this study consisted of adolescents in
44
their middle and late teenage years (Hornberger, 2006). Fourteen year olds made up 41.7%
The results show evidence that, because the students were moving out of the
egocentric phase, being able to communicate with their parents reemerged as beneficial to
their SWB. Age could also explain the weakness of the relationship. Although there was a
significant correlation, 82.2% of the sample was in middle adolescence and possibly at the
height of parent-child conflict. It is vital for parents to realize the importance of letting their
adolescent children know that they are there for them and continue to keep the lines of
and distancing from family, this is particularly challenging. Parents need to keep in mind
that their adolescents still need them even when they send signals that they do not.
demonstration in school, did not report having higher life satisfaction than those who hadn’t.
In fact, it was negatively associated with communication with father, which was particularly
surprising. It may be that such programming is targeted to particular at-risk students, who
are less likely to have positive relationships with their biological fathers. Revisiting age at
which the students received sex education programming and other demographic factors that
might be involved, more information is needed in order to fully understand the reasons for
these findings.
The literature review pointed out self-aware adolescents who have clear plans for the
future are most likely to delay sexual debut while they pursue goals (Allen et al., 1997; as
45
cited in Kivisto, 2001, p. 1997). If students have successfully mapped out young adulthood
and placed sexual endeavors low on their priority list, the topic would have little or no
too late; according to Kivisto (2001), 55% of adolescents have lost their virginity by age 15.
Another explanation for hypothesis two not having statistical significance is the
measure of life satisfaction. Although a second question, “students accept me” was included
to add another dimension to subjective well-being, neither that nor the life satisfaction
variable was associated with “taught proper condom use.” Previous studies showed that to
measure specific factors and their relation to self esteem, global measures are not ideal.
Results from studies on global or universal self esteem can be considered more of a
culmination of domain specific measures. It is important to study both forms (specific and
global) because one may have high self esteem in certain domains and feel insecure in
others. Perhaps a specific question on students’ perceived self efficacy in navigating sexual
The study of adolescent life satisfaction and its association with parent
research. Future directions for the study of parent communication and its impact on
adolescent life satisfaction could investigate each stage of adolescence: early, late and
middle separately. Because psychosocial and hormonal changes make the parent-child
dynamic change vastly over a 6-10 year span, empirical data should examine each sub-stage
46
individually. A more thorough understanding of Subjective Well Being in adolescents and
which substage is most impacted by different aspects of the parent-child relationship has
implications for further research, parent education, child/family therapy, and parent-school
To obtain more insight into relationships among comprehensive sex education and
life satisfaction, future studies should also examine issues among specific demographic
groups of adolescents in the United States. The sample used in this study was a fairly
representative group of American adolescents. However, parents’ marital status, the youth’s
primary caregiver, and geographical area of the U.S. are all areas of demography that should
be investigated more closely. For example, are the needs of rural, suburban and urban
comprehensive sex education? Might controversial practices such as teaching condom use
education affect communication between parents and teens differently across demographic
sub-groups?
variables to consider here. Religion plays a major role in shaping our beliefs about sexuality
and its role in our lives. A closer look at teenagers in light of their religious beliefs and
practices might help us to understand variability within teens. Information from such studies
any sort of prevention programming is likely to have unintended consequences. Each teen
must use the information and experiences in the programming to build their own meaning
47
systems; thus, each teen’s experience of sex education is likely to be unique. Sexual
practice is varied, so it stands to reason that sex education programming should vary as well.
Understanding more about how different groups of teens respond to different components of
sex education programming might help educators to develop programming tailored to the
Perhaps the results of this study will encourage the promotion of more attentive
discussions among parents and their adolescent offspring. Adults should be prepared to
remain approachable even in the midst of a tumultuous period. Although youth undergo
developmental changes that impair their communicative abilities, results show those who
report having parents that are easy to talk to also report higher levels of life satisfaction.
48
REFERENCES
Aronowitz, Todd, Agbeshie, & Rennells. (2007). Attitudes that affect the ability of African
American preadolescent girls and their mothers to talk openly about sex. Issues in
Mental Health Nursing, 28(1), 7-20.
Aspy. (2007). Parental communication and youth sexual behaviour. Journal of Adolescence,
30(3), 449-466.
Baumrind, D. (1966). The effects of authoritative parental control on child behavior. Child
Development,
Berry, Shillington, Peak, & Hohman. (2000). Multi-ethnic comparison of risk and protective
factors for adolescent pregnancy. Child and Adolescent Social Work Journal, 17(2), 79-
96.
Blake, S., & Ledsky R. (2003). Condom availability programs in Massachusetts high
schools: Relationships with condom use and sexual behavior. American Journal of
Public Health, 93(6), 955-962.
Block, & Robins. (1993). A longitudinal study of consistency and change in self-esteem
from early adolescence to early adulthood. Child Development, 64(3), 909-923.
Brandel, I. (2009). In Wade J. (Ed.), Conversation from human sexuality class. The
University of Akron:
Brückner, H., & Bearman, P. (2005). After the promise: The STD consequences of
adolescent virginity
pledges. Journal of Adolescent Health, 36, 271-278.
Bunnell RE, Dahlberg L, Rolfs R, Ransom R, Gershman K, Farshy C, et al. (1999). High
prevalence and incidence of sexually transmitted diseases in urban
adolescent females despite moderate risk behaviors. The Journal of Infectious Diseases,
180, 1624-1631.
49
Crockett, L., & Petersen, A. (1987). Pubertal status and psychosocial development: Findings
from the early adolescence study. In R. Lerner, & T. Foch (Eds.),
Biological-psychosocial interactions in early
adolescence, (pp. 173-188). New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Forrest, & Silverman. (1989). What public school teachers teach about preventing
pregnancy, AIDS and sexually transmitted diseases. Family Planning Perspectives,
21(2), 65-72.
Frensch, K., Pratt M, & Norris, J. (2007). Foundations of generativity: Personal and family
correlates of emerging adults’ generative life-story themes. Journal of Research in
Personality, 41(1), 45-62.
Friedman, J. (1990). Where the Boys Are: Uncovering the values of male sexual
responsibility Planned Parenthood of Northern New England.
Gilman. (2006). Characteristics of adolescents who report very high life satisfaction.
Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 35(3), 293-301.
Graves, S. B., & Larkin, E. (2006). Lessons from Erikson: A look at autonomy across the
lifespan. Journal of Intergenerational Relationships, 4(2), 61-71.
doi:10.1300/J194v04n02_05
Hollander, D. (2003). Sexual behavior is safer when students can get condoms at their
schools. Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health, 35(5), 236-237.
Kaestle, Halpern, Miller, & Ford. (2005). Young age at first sexual intercourse and sexually
transmitted infections in adolescents and young adults. American Journal of
Epidemiology, , 774-780.
Kaplan, E. B. (1996). Black teenage mothers and their mothers: The impact of adolescent
childbearing on daughters' relations with mothers. Social Problems, 43(4), 427-443.
Retrieved from http://www.jstor.org/stable/3096953
50
Kirby. (2001). Understanding what works and what doesn't in reducing adolescent sexual
risk-taking. Family Planning Perspectives, 33(6), 276-281.
Kirby D, Laris BA, & Rolleri L. (2008). Abstinence and comprehensive sex/HIV education
programs: Their impact on behavior in developed and developing countries. XVII World
AIDS Conference, Mexico City.
Kirby, D., & Laris, B. (2009). Effective curriculum-based sex and STD/HIV
education programs for adolescents. Child Development Perspectives, 3, 21-29.
Kivisto. (2001). Teenagers, pregnancy, and childbearing in a risk society: How do high-risk
teens differ from their age peers? Journal of Family Issues, 22(8), 1044-1065.
Kohler. (2008). Abstinence-only and comprehensive sex education and the initiation of
sexual activity and teen pregnancy. Journal of Adolescent Health, 42(4), 344-351.
Landry, D. J., Darroch, J. E., Singh, S., & Higgins, J. (2003). Factors associated with the
content of sex education in U.S. public secondary schools. Perspectives on Sexual and
Reproductive Health, 35(6), 261-269. Retrieved from
http://www.jstor.org/stable/3181231
Lauer, R., & Lauer, J. (1997). Marriage and family: The quest for intimacy McGraw Hill.
McClintock, M., & Herdt, G. (1996). Rethinking puberty: The development of sexual
attraction. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 5(6), 178-183.
Milevsky. (2007). Maternal and paternal parenting styles in adolescents: Associations with
self-esteem, depression and life-satisfaction. Journal of Child and Family Studies,
16(1), 39-47.
Ochs. (2007). Introduction: Morality as family practice. Discourse & Society, 18(1), 5-10.
Resnick, M., Bearman, P., Blum, R., Bauman, K., Harris, K., Jones, J., et al. (1997).
Protecting adolescents from harm: Findings from the national longitudinal study on
adolescent health. Journal of the American Medical Association, 278, 823-832.
Robinson R, & Frank, D. (1994). The relation between self-esteem, sexual activity, and
pregnancy.. Adolescence, 29, 27-35.
Roche. (2008). Enduring consequences of parenting for risk behaviors from adolescence
into early adulthood. Social Science, 66(9), 2023-2034.
Rogol, A., Clark, P., & Roenmich, J. (2000). Growth and pubertal development in children
and adolescents: Effects of diet and physical activity. American Journal of Clinical
Nutrition, 72, 521s-528s.
Smith, & McSherry. (2007). How do children express their spiritual needs?. Pediatric
Nursing, 19(3), 17-20.
Steele, J. (1999). Teenage sexuality and media practice: Factoring in the influences of
family, friends, and school. The Journal of Sex Research, 36, 331-341.
Usher-Seriki. (2008). Mother daughter communication about sex and sexual intercourse
among middle-to upper-class African American girls. Journal of Family Issues, 29(7),
901-917.
Ward, L. M. (2004). Wading through the stereotypes: Positive and negative associations
between media use and black adolescents' conceptions of self. Developmental
Psychology, 40(2), 284-294.
Whitaker. (1999). Teenage partners' communication about sexual risk and condom use: The
importance of parent-teenager discussions. Family Planning Perspectives, 31(3), 117-
121.
52
Zimmer-Gembeck, M. J., Siebenbruner, J., & & Collins, W. A. (2001). Diverse aspects of
dating: Associations with psychosocial functioning from early to middle adolescence.
Journal of Adolescence, 24, 313-336.
53