TypeOlivetti MariaRamos
TypeOlivetti MariaRamos
September 2015
The word utopia is the most convenient way to sell off what one has not the will,
ability, or courage to do. A dream seems like a dream until one begin to work on
it. Only then it becomes a goal, which is something infinitely bigger.1
-- Adriano Olivetti.
1 Original text: ‘Il termine utopia è la maniera più comoda per liquidare quello che non si ha
voglia, capacità, o coraggio di fare. Un sogno sembra un sogno fino a quando non si comincia
da qualche parte, solo allora diventa un proposito, cio è qualcosa di infinitamente più grande.’
Source: fondazioneadrianolivetti.it.
--
Abstract
The history of the typewriter has been covered by writers and researchers.
However, the interest shown in the origin of the machine has not revealed a further
interest in one of the true reasons of its existence, the printed letters. The following
pages try to bring some light on this part of the history of type design, typewriter
typefaces. The research focused on a particular company, Olivetti, one of the most
important typewriter manufacturers.
The first two sections describe the context for the main topic. These
introductory pages explain briefly the history of the typewriter and highlight
the particular facts that led Olivetti on its way to success. The next section,
‘Typewriters and text composition’, creates a link between the historical
background and the machine. It shows the typewriter as a subsidiary cause of
social changes and new habits in typography. The core contents of this research are
included in the last two sections. They offer a description of the type design process
in Olivetti, a comparison between typefaces, and some examples of the influence of
the typewriter in digital type.
Due to the large number of typefaces included in this dissertation, there is no
room for an exhaustive analysis of the lettershapes. Instead, this paper provides an
overview of type design in the 20th century for a specific product, typewriters.
contents
Methodology 9
-- 1 --
Historical background 11
1.1 - Origin of the typewriter
1.2 - Evolution of the typewriter
-- 2 --
“Olivetti style”, the identity of the company 15
2.1 - The product, the company from the inside
2.2 - The advertising, the external communication
2.3 - The social and cultural activity
-- 3 --
Typewriters and the text composition 19
3.1 - Olivetti typewriters
3.2 - The typist and the typewriter, the social changes
3.3 - The limitations of the machine
3.4 - The typewriter manual
-- 4 --
Type design for Olivetti typewriters 27
4.1 - Olivetti type designers
4.2 - The brief, the peculiarities of the typewriter
4.3 - Olivetti typefaces, evolution and classification
4.4 - Comparison with other typewriter typefaces
-- 5 --
Digital typewriter typefaces 59
5.1 - Typefaces based on Olivetti models
5.2 - Other examples of digital typewriter typefaces
Conclusion69
Appendix 73
Bibliography81
Sources of the illustrations 85
--
Methodology
There is not much written about type design for typewriters. In the search of
information for this research, only a couple of magazines on this particular topic
were found: the article ‘Typewriter type faces’ by Alan Bartram in Typographica 6,
and the typewriter type issue of Print, the magazine of the graphic arts. The article in
Typographica 6, offers a good visual collection of typewriter typefaces in the 60s,
but the information it provides is extremely brief. The especial issue of Print was a
useful source for understanding the process of designing type for typewriters, but
the story is told from the perspective of the American industry with no specific
mention to European manufacturers.
The search for literature on the topic broadened to publications about the
history of the company, Olivetti, and the typewriter; which could offer a context
for the main topic. Some of the books consulted also included information about
type design: Century of the typewriter, The typewriting dictionary, and Design Process:
Olivetti, 1908–1978.
The information and images compiled from books and magazines was far
from being enough for the analysis of lettershapes. The visit to the Arquivio Storico
Olivetti in Ivrea (Italy) provided a solid background for the topic. The documents
and images examined there were an important part of the research process, and the
solid grounds of some of the ideas expressed in the following pages.
Type designers were mostly ignored in the sources consulted. Many typefaces
discovered in this research do not mention their author. The interviews to type
designers who worked for Olivetti showed another perspective of the design
process for typewriters. They created a good balance, a designer who worked as an
external contractor, Wim Crouwel, and a designer who still works in the company,
Gianmaria Capello.
The analysis of lettershapes needed some extra material to look at. Colección
Sirvent provided access to 38 Olivetti mechanical typewriters, and printed samples
were created from the different models (see appendix 1, p. 73). The Special
Collections at the department of Typography and Graphic Communication of
the University of Reading provided another 22 samples from other typewriter
manufacturers (see appendix 2, p. 75).
9
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
10
-- 1 --
Historical background
The history of the typewriter is long and complicated. It is out of the scope of this
research to explain in detail the origin of the machine. The next pages will offer a
brief outline of the evolution of the typewriter as an introduction to the main topic,
type design in Olivetti.
11
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
Printing wheel
12
The Blikensderfer 5 (fig. 2), released in 1893, can be considered the first
portable typewriter. The portability of the machine opened new opportunities in
the market. The typewriter started to be sold also for personal use.
The electric models had an independent evolution. Blikensderfer in 1906,
Mercedes in 1921, or IBM in 1935, are a few examples of companies that
manufactured electric typewriters in the first half of the 20th century. All these
early models used the typebars for printing. The main innovation happened in
1961, when the IBM Selectric introduced the ‘typeball’, a new printing method that
allowed for the use of different typefaces in the same machine.
The next big technical advance arrived in the 70s: the electronic typewriter.
The new machines included a different printing device, the ‘daisy wheel’. A similar
element had been already used in 1890 in the index typewriter1 Victor (fig. 3).
The electronic typewriters were the logic transition between the electric
machine and the new technology to come, the computer. When the first Apple
computer was released, in 1976, the sales of typewriters started to decline. The
typewriter era was coming to an end.
There were companies that linked their history to the machine. The Italian
Olivetti became one of the most popular typewriter manufacturers. The company
got international recognition for the special attention paid to design. This interest
was not only focused on the shape of the machine, but also on the architecture of
the factories and the advertising of the products.
1 The index typewriters did not have keyboards. The characters were selected from an index with a
pointer, and a lever activated the movement of the type for printing. 13
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
a b
c d
e
The personality of a company is defined by the image that people perceive. The
messages that the company sends about the products are the basis of its identity.
The difficult task lies in making a coherent communication through the different
channels used to transmit the message. The identity of Olivetti was created using
three main vehicles of interaction with the audience: the product, advertising, and
the social and cultural activity.
1 Adriano Olivetti (son of the founder of the company, Camillo Olivetti) became the director
of the Advertising Department in 1928. He was the president of Olivetti from 1938 to 1960. 15
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
s s p ss
M1 - 1911 M20 - 1920 MP1 - 1932 Studio 42 - 1935
Camillo Olivetti Domenico Burzio Levi & Magnelli Luzzati, Schawinsky, Figini & Pollini
The first typewriter made in Italy. Similar to the M1 in appearance, but The first Olivetti portable. The first semi-standard typewriter.
It was not a copy of any other model. with improved mechanics. Flatter keyboard. Different series: e.g. Studio 46 (Spain).
The margin unlock is on the keyboard. The margin unlock is near the scale. Manufactured in 9 different colours.
The typebars were placed one by one. The typebars are in a type basket. Special series: e.g. Invicta Harrods.
The shift key moves the platen. The shift key moves the type basket.
s p ss p
Lexicon 80 - 1948 Lettera 22 - 1950 Praxis 48 * - 1964 Valentine - 1969
G. Beccio & M. Nizzoli G. Beccio & M. Nizzoli E. Sottsass & H. Von Klier E. Sottsass & P. King
Rounded corners and compact design. More compact and lighter than the Electric model that uses typebars. It became a design icon. The
Part of the MoMA collection. MP1. The mechanism was simplified. The main advantage of the advertising of this machine brought
Series: Olivetti Graphika (1957), Part of the MoMA collection. electromechanical typewriters was pop-art into the typewriter industry.
includes proportional typefaces; Different series: e.g. Scribe (England) that the typebars always struck the Part of the MoMA collection.
Lexicon 80E (1950), the first and Pluma 22 (Spain). paper with the same force, giving the
electric model. text an even colour.
s p s s
Linea 98 - 1971 Lettera 35 - 1974 Studio 46 - 1974 Lexicon 90 * - 1975
Mario Bellini Mario Bellini Mario Bellini E. Sottsass & A. Leclerc
It includes a touch regulator and a Model evolved from the Lettera Smaller than previous standard The first electric standard using
quick space bar. The last standard 22, bigger in size and mechanically typewriter models. the typeball. Like in mechanical
mechanical typewriter designed optimised. The keyboard is more Since the Linea 98 the trend was to typewriters, the carriage moved and
by Olivetti. compact. Different series: e.g. design the keyboard in light colour. there printing point was fixed.
Lettera 37 and Italia 90.
s p p
* Electric ET 101 ** - 1978 Lettera 10 - 1979 ET 55 ** - 1987
** Electronic Mario Bellini Mario Bellini M. Bellini & A. Chiarato
s Standard The first electronic typewriter The smallest Olivetti typewriter. This model allowed right and
p Portable manufactured in the world. It used a cartridge ribbon. centered alignment, underlining
ss Semi-standard It could write in bold and underline The colour selector was removed. words and correcting mistakes.
text. It included a line memory for Part of the MoMA collection.
correcting mistakes.
Table 1 - Featured
models of Olivetti
typewriters and notes
about their mechanism
and design.
-- 3 --
Typewriters and the text composition
19
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
1 The scene of Who’s minding the store? (1963), where Jerry Lewis writes in an
imaginary typewriter, is especially famous. 21
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
1 Popular magazines like i-D or Emigre used the typewriter as type compositors, enlarging and
reducing the text with photocopy machines. Source: Tullett, Typewriter art, 82.
2 A standard typewriter usually included just 88 characters. 23
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
a b
Design
Ergonomics
26
-- 4 --
Type design for Olivetti typewriters
Greek
Hebrew
Devanagari
Cyrillic
Thai
Arabic
Amharic
Cree
28
writing systems to make the machines accessible to different cultures. Arturo Rolfo
himself designed typefaces for the Arabic, Thai and Cree1 script. (fig. 17)
Typeface design involves constant research not only in traditional alphabets
such as the Cyrillic, Arabic, Greek or the Japanese Katakana, but also those of
ancient nations and civilizations emerging today into the technological world,
like the Korean, Hindi, Singhalese, Burmese, Nepalese and Thai.
-- Renzo Zorzi, Design Process: Olivetti, 1908–1978, 226–227.
The design of alphabets for minority languages allowed some communities to use
the typewriter as a tool to maintain their writing systems in printed texts.
In 1969 Olivetti created the Libro Cassinelli, an internal manual with useful
information for the design of typefaces in Olivetti. More than 100 typewritten
pages that included texts and visual samples. It covered different areas in type
design; from legibility and classification of typefaces, to technical specifications
about the design of letterforms. The book had two main objectives: to give
information about the peculiarities of the machine, and to offer a wider knowledge
about the history and trends in type design. Nevertheless, the most important
part was the specific rules for the design of characters: ‘those are not just
recommendations but an important condition for achieving a good result.’2
By the end of the 70s, when Gianmaria Capello joined the team, the company
was living the transition between the electric and the electronic typewriters. He
explained how the process of designing a new typeface started, ‘generally we were
asked by the marketing department to draw a new typeface. We made suggestions,
making photographic reductions of our drawings to the actual size the typeface
would have in the typewriter. The marketing department decided if the design was
approved (…) when the design was approved the typeface was manufactured.’3
Olivetti liked to work with international designers. Imre Reiner and A.M.
Cassandre were commissioned to design a typeface for the Olivetti Graphika,
and Wim Crouwel, Müller-Brockmann, and Lindinger created new typefaces for
the company. All of them were designers whose work was not only focus on type
design. This circumstance probably led them to try a more experimental approach
to letterforms, which they used as a vehicle of graphic expression.
Imre Reiner
Reiner studied in Germany and worked as a graphic designer in New York, Paris,
London, and Chicago, but he spent most of his life in Switzerland working as a
painter, illustrator, and type designer. However, he never identified himself with the
International Swiss Style.
In 1957 Reiner got the commission from Olivetti to design a proportional
typeface for the new typewriter Olivetti Graphika (see p. 21). The characters had
to be designed within four width possibilities. The four groups were created from
a basic unit, 0.8 mm; and from there the width options were 1.6 mm, 2.4 mm, 3.6
mm, and 4.8 mm. Reiner designed a proportional typeface whose appearance
differed greatly from the standard typewriter type. The colour of the typewritten
1 The Cree is a syllabic script used by nearly all Cree-speaking First Nations in Canada. Initially
an invention of the English missionary James Evans to create a non-Latin writing system for Cree
and Ojibwe, it was readily adopted because its appearance was unlike that of the Latin alphabet
and therefore free of the stigma of colonialism. Source: ancientscripts.com.
2 Aso, Libro Cassinelli, ‘Introduction’.
3 Interview by the autor. 29
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
Fig. 21 - Samples of Cassandre and Reiner typefaces for the Olivetti Graphika.
30
text was quite even. His design introduce a new style in the font library for Olivetti
typewriters (fig. 18).
Olivetti liked to work in a long-term basis with external designers. The
commission for the Graphika was not the only typeface that Reiner created for
the company. He also designed Consilium (fig. 19) and started a new design
that Olivetti called ‘Senatus’. In a letter sent to Reiner1 it was mentioned that this
typeface was inspired by the Elzevir type. The reasons are unknown, but this
typeface was never released.
Reiner showed in his career an experimental and creative approach to
letterforms. He was a productive type designer and most of his typefaces are now
available in digital format.
A. M. Cassandre
Cassandre was a painter and a graphic designer. He worked also as a teacher and
devoted part of his career to typeface design.
Like Reiner, in 1957 he was asked to design a typeface for the Olivetti
Graphika. The typewriter was manufactured in two series, one with the typeface
designed by Reiner, and the other one with Cassandre’s type.
Some theories found the roots of Cassandre’s typeface for Olivetti in the
Carolingian minuscule.2 It seemed like the rather static appearance of typewriter
typefaces did not fit Cassandre’s ideas of letterforms.
Each letter is a rhythmic element (like an isolated gesture in choreography).
It communicates this rhythm to the word, the phrase, the line as a whole and,
lastly, the page.
-- A.M. Cassandre, Cassandre, 148.
The limitations of the machine were not a problem for Cassandre. He found the
way to create an expressive typeface. Some unconventional letterforms, like the ‘a’
and the ‘g’, gave the text a distinctive appearance (fig. 20).
It is interesting to see how Reiner and Cassandre used differently the four
widths available in the machine. For instance the letter ‘r’ is a wide character in
Reiner typeface and narrow in Cassandre’s (fig. 21).
The designers were asked to adapt their designs to a monospace typeface,
but later on an experts commission in Olivetti decided to dismiss the monospace
design and keep the original proportional typefaces of Reiner and Cassandre.3
Some sources mentioned another typeface designed by Cassandre for Olivetti
(Nuova Pica),4 but it was no possible to find further information about this design.
Wim Crouwel
Wim Crouwel is a Dutch graphic and exhibition designer who based a big part of
his work on grids and experimental letterforms.
Wim Crouwel was not a type designer, but he created a large number of
customised alphabets. His design of the Neu Alphabet attracted the attention of
Olivetti, the head of the design department contacted him and said ‘your way of
thinking is quite interesting for us, for a typewriter typeface.’5
a b
c
32
When Olivetti approached Crouwel in 1974, the electric and electronic
typewriters were replacing the mechanical models. The new machines worked with
proportional type.
The typeface by Crouwel was designed using different widths for the
letterforms. The characters were based on a rectangle with 45° cuts, had angled
endings, and rounded corners (fig. 22).
Crouwel mentioned that the company was not involved in the design process,
so he was able to create the typeface on his own style, ‘it was a fantastic job, no
restrictions just go on.’1
In 1976 the company sent him a proof of the design in a typewritten text, but
the typeface was never released so Crouwel got the rights of the design back. Some
time later, he received a commission for designing post stamps for the Dutch post
service. He used the typeface he had crated for Olivetti, introducing some small
changes in the design.
J. Müller-Brockmann
Müller-Brockmann was a graphic designer who worked in advertising and taught
in several design schools. He is probably the main reference of the International
Swiss Style born in the 40s. His work was influenced by different design and
art movements like the Constructivism, De Stijl, or the Bauhaus. The use of the
rational grid and the asymmetrical layouts were part of his design identity.
Olivetti was probably trying to find a new perspective for the design of
typewriter typefaces. In the 70s, the company asked Müller-Brockmann to design a
new typeface for the machine. He was another example of the important figures in
the design industry who worked for Olivetti.
Müller-Brockmann had been working as a graphic designer for other
typewriter companies, like Hermes and IBM. This previous experiences in
the industry were related to advertising, but they were probably helpful in his
commission for Olivetti.
The typeface that Müller-Brockmann designed for Olivetti was called Candia,
which was the name of a municipality in the region of Canavese, in the north of
Italy. Candia was a monospace sans serif that showed the rational design style of
Müller-Brockmann (fig. 23).
Candia was a 12 pitch typeface, created for fitting 12 characters to the inch.2
Olivetti also released a pitch 10 version of Candia, it was called Livius.
H. Lindinger
Lindinger was an industrial and graphic designer directly involved in the Ulm
School of Design, founded in Germany in 1953. In operation from 1953 to 1968,
this school was very influential in design education.
Most likely, Olivetti got in touch with Linginger through this institution.
People like Müller-Brockmann and Herbert Bayer, who worked with Olivetti, had
been visiting lecturers of the Ulm. The connection between Olivetti and this school
went even further, as they worked together in some collaborative projects. Hans
von Klier, who was head of the corporate design department in Olivetti, had also
studied at the Ulm.
Fig. 25 - Comparision
of letter ‘a’ in different
Olivetti typefaces. Ulm Sirio Candia Silva Livius Pica Cicero Elite
Fig 26 - Comparison
between monospace
and proportional type
in typewriters.
34
Lindinger designed a couple of typefaces for Olivetti, Sirio and Ulm (fig. 24),
both of them were monospace typefaces. Sirio was a pitch 12 typeface, and Ulm
was created for pitch 10.
It is hard to conceive Sirio as a text typeface because the readability of the text
would be compromised in a long piece of writing. It was a design that contrasted
with the conventional typewriter type Pica. In the fig. 25 there are a few samples of
the design of letter ‘a’ in different Olivetti typefaces, the designs by Lindinger stand
out for their originality.
The Ulm typeface, with its rational and constructive appearance, showed the
design approach of an industrial designer. It was a design that Lindinger probably
created following the ideas of the Ulm school, a pioneer in the integration of
science and art.
Fig. 27 - Typewritten
‘a’ printed with
ribbons made of Actual design Cotton Silk Nylon Polythene
different materials.
a b
c d
Fig. 30 - Example
of how to draw the
joints of the strokes
in letter 'M'.
37
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
minimum 0.35
39
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
Pica, conventional
Italico, italic
Lettera, imperial
Reiner, proportional
Hindi, non-Latin
Fig. 32 - Examples of
Olivetti typefaces for every
group of the classification.
Above the images, name of
the typeface and group.
40
The previous pages have shown the particular circumstances that made typewriter
typefaces became an unique style. However, the typefaces designed for typewriters
do not look all the same. Different companies offered different designs.
1 Records of a meeting held in Olivetti (20.01.1958). The type design commission was composed
by the engineer Berla, the professor Pampaloni and the engineer Rozzi.
2 Elenco scritture e tasti, Uff. Tec. Olivetti (1977). 41
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
Fig. 33 - Typewritten
samples of Pica (top)
and Elite (bottom).
Pica (400%)
Fig. 34 - Comparison
between Pica and
Elite lettershapes.
The scale of the Elite
characters is bigger, Elite (460%)
in order to get the
same x-height in
both samples.
Fig. 38 - Typewritten
samples of the
Olivetti typefaces
Elite (top) and
Lettera (bottom).
Elite (400%)
Lettera (400%)
Fig. 39 - Comparison
between Elite and
Lettera characters.
Imperial typefaces
A new type style appeared in Olivetti by the 50s. The new typeface Lettera1 was a
design with some contrast in the typewritten letters. It offered a darker and more
severe appearance to the text (fig. 38).
The market demanded new typefaces, but the mechanics of the machine and
the low-quality printing were built into big walls for the evolution of typewriter
type design. The imperial typefaces were one of the first attempts to create a new
style for the machine.
Lettera, like Elite, was a pitch 12 type. Comparing the two of them, the
characters in Lettera were narrower and smaller, so the letters looked more widely
spaced. The shapes of the numbers were substancially different. While Lettera used
lining figures, Elite used old-style numerals.2 (fig. 39)
There were a couple of variants of Lettera: Imperial, bigger in width and height,
and Lettera Pica, which was basically the design of Lettera placed in type slugs for
the pitch 10 size. (fig. 40)
Lettera was widely used in Olivetti. It was included, together with Pica and
Elite, in the group of standard typefaces used in typewriters.
The variety of typewriter styles grew quickly after World War II. New trends in
type design and changes in the taste of users favoured the arrival of new typefaces.
Fig. 41 - Samples of
the Olivetti typefaces
for small sizes. From
top to bottom:
– Mikron
Piccolissimo
– Mikron Piccolo
– Mikron
– Perla
– Perla Elite
Fig. 42 - Samples
of different sizes of
Stampatello. From
top to bottom:
– Stampatello Elite
– Stampatello Piccolo
– Stampatello
– Stampatello Grande
Fig. 43 - Samples of
Telegrama (top),
Avvisi (middle) and
Gigante (bottom).
Fig. 44 - Sample of
Simplicitas.
Fig. 46 - Sample of
Quadrato.
Fig. 47 - Lowercase
and uppercase letters
of Notizia.
1 A shiftless alphabet was a type design that only included one character per typebar, so the
typewriter did not need a shift key. 47
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
Vista
Windsor
Carlyle
Fig. 48 - Samples of
three proportional
typefaces for Olivetti.
Venezia (1964–1965)
Editor 5
electric typewriter
2.40 2.40 2.40 1.60 1.60 2.40 3.20 1.60
Carlyle (1968)
Editor 5
Venezia (1974)
Lexicon 93
electric typewriter
2.12 2.12 2.12 1.42 1.42 2.12 2.64 1.42
Venezia (1976)
TES 501
electronic typewriter
Fig. 49 - Example
of the evolution of 2.54 2.12 2.54 1.69 1.69 2.12 2.96 1.69
proportional type
in Olivetti.
Proportional typefaces
As it was mentioned before, Olivetti had created proportional typefaces for the
manual typewriter Graphika in 1958. These designs were not as successful as
expected, and it was not until the arrival of the electric typewriter that Olivetti
decided to design more proportional typefaces.
The type design department of Olivetti worked in new proportional designs.
The font library of the company grew and electric models used typefaces like
Venezia, Tempo, Kent, Windsor, Vista, Doricus, or Carlyle. Unfortunately, it was
not possible to find samples of all of them. (fig. 48)
The internal manual for type design, the Libro Cassinelli, included
specifications for the distribution of the characters in different widths. This
information showed how the width distribution could change from one design
to another (see appendix 3, p. 77). The proportional typefaces for Olivetti were
based on five modular units. The smallest sizes used a basic unit of 0.7 mm, and
the standard size typefaces used 0.8 mm as the basic unit. In proportional type,
uppercase letters were usually wider than lowercase; the narrowest characters were
‘I’, ‘J’, ‘f ’, ‘i’ and ‘t’; and the widest ‘M’, ‘W’ and ‘m’.
All the typefaces mentioned in this group, were designed for the typeball.
When the first electronic machine was manufactured, most of them were adjusted
for the daisy wheel. The design of the proportional typefaces in Olivetti evolved
with the machine (fig. 49). The width of the characters and the thickness of the
strokes changed through different models.
Venezia was one of the most used typefaces in Olivetti electric typewriters.
The lettershapes were not a monolinear design, they had some modulation in the
strokes (fig. 50). Still, typewriters were not reliable as a printing method, and a big
part of the modulation was lost in the printed letters.
Fig. 50 - Drawing of
Venezia lowercase ‘b’
(25:1). For seeing the
image in original size go
to appendix 4, p. 79. 49
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
Fig. 51 - Samples of
Olivetti typefaces
for different scripts.
From top to bottom:
– Greek
– Cyrillic
– Hebrew
– Devanagari
– Thai
– Arabic
– Amharic
Fig. 52 - Samples
of different type styles
for Greek and Cyrillic.
From top to bottom:
– Greek Elite
– Greek Stampatello
– Cyrillic Roman
Medium
– Cyrillic Stampatello
50
In the 70s, there was an attempt to design a new proportional typeface. Olivetti
commissioned Wim Crouwel, but his design was never released.
The design of proportional typefaces increased the variety of styles available
for the machine. The font library grew and changed with time. The typefaces were
drawn in different styles and scripts.
Non-Latin typefaces
There is no room in this research for an exhaustive analysis of the design of the
different scripts created for Olivetti typewriters. However, it is interesting to show
some examples of the writing systems that the company supported (fig 51). Some
scripts were developed further, and they were available in several styles (fig. 52).
Every script had particular features, and the dimensions of the characters
did not always fit in the 2.6 mm width of the conventional Pica. For instance, in
monospace typefaces, the width of Arabic characters was 2.8 mm, and in Amharic
letterforms it was 3.14 mm.
Some scripts like Thai needed to place marks above and below the letters, so
the height of the characters was also a factor to consider for the design (fig. 53).
The design of multi-script typefaces pursued the access to foreign markets. The
sales in the Latin script market was more segmented, and some fonts were made to
fulfil particular purposes.
Centre of D=0
the platen
Baseline E = 1.45
Fig. 53 - (75%)
Specifications for
the design of Thai
Limit for F = 2.51 characters for
lower marks Olivetti (1982).
A–F = 5.07 mm (maximum height of the design)
C–E = 2.19 mm (height of the main character)
width of the character = 2.1 mm
51
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
a b
Fig. 54 -
a. Colour selector in a
Lexicon 80, the white circle
is the option for stencil type.
b. Close-up of a text
sample typewritten in
the stencil mode.
Perforante
Fig. 56 - Sample of
the typeface Roma
in an Olivetti type
specimen (1970).
52
Typefaces for special purposes
The typewriter evolved with time, and that evolution came with new market
demands. The machine was both used in the office and at home. The requirements
of a typeface for private purposes were different than those of a typeface for
professional use. The next examples are typefaces designed by Olivetti with a
specific function.
Perforante was a typeface used for protective writing in cheques and similar
work. The typewriter included an option for stencil type that embossed the letters
on the paper, instead of printing them (fig. 54). The Perforante characters were
engraved in the metal type with sharp contours, so that it cut the paper when using
the stencil mode. Olivetti offered a type variant that included both Stampatello
and Perforante. With this typeface, the user could cut and print letters in security
documents with the same machine. (fig. 55)
There was another group of typefaces that were designed with a very particular
function, the script style. The increasing number of users that bought typewriters
for personal use, created the need for more informal designs. The tone of a letter
written to a client was not the same as a letter written to a friend. The script style
imitated the appearance of handwriting, and gave an informal appearance to the
typewritten letters.
In the sources consulted for this research, just one sample of this script style
was found among the Olivetti typefaces. It was called Roma, a typeface used
also by other typewriters like Olympia or Facit. This is an example of a typeface
designed by an external type foundry and sold to several companies. Roma cannot
be included in the group of typefaces designed for Olivetti, but it is shown in here
as a sample of other type styles designed for the typewriters (fig. 56).
The typefaces mentioned in previous pages are samples of the type styles designed
for Olivetti typewriters. They have shown the evolution of type design in the
company. In order to have a wider perspective, the Olivetti typefaces will be
compared to a few designs created by other companies. The next pages offer a
description and visual samples of several typewriter typefaces, and an explanation
of the differences and similarities with those made for Olivetti.
53
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
Fig. 58 - Drawings
comparing three
different designs of ‘d’
for a Pica typeface.
Fig. 59 -
Comparison of
the conventional
typeface of different
manufacturers. The
circle highlights
the characters with
more distinctive
features in each
sample. From top to
bottom:
– Olivetti
– Remington
– Corona
– Imperial
– Smith-Corona
– Underwood
documents. Some references to typewriting identification appeared as early as
1891 in the Sherlock Holmes story ‘A Case of Identity’:1
It is a curious thing (…) that a typewriter has really quite as much
individuality as a man’s handwriting.
-- Arthur Conan Doyle, Tales of Sherlock Holmes, 409
In his article of 1968, ‘Class characteristics of foreign typewriters and typefaces’,
Crown showed the main differences between American and European typewriter
typefaces. He used as examples typefaces from different manufactures, among
them the Olivetti Pica and Elite (fig. 57).
The Libro Cassinelli also included a reference to the differences in the design
of conventional typewriter typefaces. By looking at the pictures in fig. 58, it can be
said that the European Pica had longer serifs and smaller countershapes, and the
trend in the ‘modern’ style was to create wider characters with shorter ascenders.
There were many differences in the Pica typeface form one manufacturer
to another. In the fig. 59 there are text samples of several typewriters. The most
distinctive characters in each sample have been underlined. The letters that might
make the identification easier are ‘a’, ‘g’, ‘t’, ‘w’, ‘E’, ‘J’, and ‘Q’.
European manufacturers used slightly different sizes from the American
companies. Apart from the American 2.54 mm width for pitch 10, in Europe, the
characters were also designed for 2.50 and 2.60 mm; and 2.00, 2.12, 2.20, 2.23,
2.25, and 2.30 mm were possible widths for pitch 12.2
The changes in the width and height of the letters, and the small differences
in the design of the characters influenced the colour of the typewritten text. The
typeface, the typewriter, the typist, and the ribbon, were factors that made every
document unique.
The second half of the 20th century was a complex time for the industry. The
exclusivity of typefaces became part of the past and manufacturers shared the
designs offered by external companies. It was common to find the same letterforms
in machines of different brands. The merge of companies, like Olivetti and
Underwood, also changed the typewriter scene; and making a clear classification of
typefaces was complicated.
Some type styles were especially popular in the industry. In the 50s, the
‘techno’ pica was a breakthrough in the typewriter market (fig. 60). The ‘techno’
typeface by Caractèreres, Cubic, was used in Olivetti typewriters.
Quadrato
Fig. 61 - (400%)
Comparison Cubic
between some
letters of Quadrato
and Cubic.
Fig. 62 - Samples of
Quadrato (top) and
Cubic (bottom).
Fig. 63 - Close-up of
the type slugs of two
typewriters with a
‘techno’ typeface.
56
Quadrato, the typeface designed by Arturo Rolfo for Olivetti, was also
included in this style. The design by Rolfo was quite different from the other
‘techno’ typefaces. The characters of Quadrato had a shorter x-height (fig. 61) and
the colour of the letters in text was completely different. Quadrato was a pitch 12
typeface and Cubic pitch 10 (fig. 62).
The type manufacturers used reference codes to classify the designs. They
engraved this reference and the initials of the company in the metal type, so that it
was easier to identify the typefaces (fig. 63).
The electric typewriter introduced many new designs. Those created for the
IBM Selectric were of special importance. They survived in their digital version
and are still popular today. Courier (Howard Kettler, 1955), Letter Gothic (Roger
Roberson, 1962) and Orator ( John Scheppler, 1962) are just a few examples. The
three of them were also used by other typewriter companies, among them Olivetti.
IBM typefaces became a major source for digital revivals.
57
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
Fig. 65 - Comparison
between Quadrato
(200%) and Valentine.
Fig. 66 - Sample
of Valentine.
58
-- 6 --
Digital typewriter typefaces
Typewriter typefaces did not disappear with the machine. Beyond the differences
between styles, the particular look of typewritten letters had an aesthetic unity.
Many designers today find in typewriter type a source of inspiration.
Gridnik
Wim Crouwel and David Quay, 1997
In 1997, Wim Crouwel was approached by David Quay to revive some of his
alphabets as digital fonts. The New Alphabet, Fodor, Stedelijk and Gridnik were
released in the 90s by The Foundry, based in London.
The design of Gridnik was based on the typeface that Crouwel had made for
Olivetti typewriters, which was later used in the design of Dutch post stamps. It
was initially offered as a single weight font, and in 2008 the family was expanded.
It was published as Foundry Gridnik and it included four weights: light, regular,
medium, and bold (fig. 64).
Among the Crouwel alphabets released as digital fonts, Gridnik was the only
one created as a text typeface. The design was digitised from the original pen
and ink drawings for Olivetti, the letters that had been designed with the width
restrictions of the typewriter. The digital design was faithful to the original, and
besides the letter ‘r’, all the letterforms maintained the width of the initial design.1
Gridnik was a success in the market. It brought back the work of Wim Crouwel
to the design scene. In 2015, the Foundry joined Fontshop, which was later
acquired by the Monotype corporation. Because of that, the rights of distribution
of Foundry Gridnik belong currently to Monotype.
Valentine
Stephan Müller, 2002
In 1993, Stephan Müller founded together with Cornel Windlin the digital type
foundry Lineto. This company is of especial interest for this research, because the
font library includes two typefaces inspired by Olivetti (Valentine and Lettera).
Valentine was based on the typeface designed by Arturo Rolfo for the
typewriter with the same name. Müller used a typewritten sample of the typeface
and the original drawings supplied by the Associazione Archivio Storico Olivetti. The
design of Valentine is an accurate version of the original typeface (fig. 65). The
proportions and the width of the letters are very similar to Quadrato (fig. 66).
Fig. 67 - Sample
of Lekton.
Fig. 68 - Sample
of Lekton Italic,
Regular and Bold.
Fig. 69 - Comparison
between Candia (top)
and Lettera (bottom).
Fig. 71 -
Comparison
Fig. 70 - Detail of between Lettera
the joints of the (top) and
strokes in the letter Lettera-Txt
‘k’ of Lettera. (bottom).
The main differences are in small details, like the shapes of the counterforms or the
joints of the strokes.
Valentine is a typeface family of six weights: Light, Light Italic, Regular, Italic,
Bold, and Bold Italic. Quadrato had only one weight, so the extra styles of the
family are a personal interpretation of Stephan Müller.
Lekton
ISIA Urbino, 2008
Lekton was born at ISIA, the Istituto Superiore per le Industrie Artistiche of Urbino
(Italy). The typeface was created by six students (Luna Castroni, Stefano Faoro,
Emilio Macchia, Elena Papassissa, Michela Povoleri, and Tobias Seemiller) under
the supervision of the lecturer Luciano Perondi. The initial typeface was designed
in only eight hours, and it was released under a Creative Commons licence.
The design of Lekton was based on Notizia, a typeface created in Olivetti
for electronic typewriters. The font is double and triple spaced, maintaining the
features of typewriter typefaces designed for the daisy wheel. The name Lekton,
which means ‘what can be said’, was chosen as a reference to the sophisticated
names given to Olivetti typewriters, such as Lexicon or Tetractys.
Lekton was a collaborative project opened to contributions for improving and
increasing the character set. The list of designers involved in the project grew fast.
Daniele Capo, Antonio Cavedoni, Riccardo Lorusso, Marco Comastri, Sabrina
Campagna, Elisa Ansuini, Raffaele Flauto, Mariangela Di Pinto, Jan Henrik Arnold,
and Paolo Mazzetti participated in the design of the typeface family. (fig. 67)
In 2011, Lekton was published in Google fonts. And now the typeface is only
available through this platform. The type family includes three styles, Regular, Italic
and Bold (fig. 68).
Lettera
Kobi Benezni, 2008
The design of Lettera was based on Candia, designed by Müller-Brockmann for
Olivetti (fig. 69). The name of the typeface was chosen by the designer, Kobi
Benezni, as a reference to the iconic Olivetti Lettera 22.
Lettera is a monospace typeface created in 2006 and published by Lineto in
2008. The design was inspired by an Olivetti type specimen. The sample had a
low resolution and did not show the details of the original design. What Benezni
interpreted as ‘reversed’ inktraps in the joints of the strokes, became one of the
main features of Lettera (fig. 70). Later on, he found out that those details were
not in the original design, but he decided to keep them in Lettera. The wide
countershapes and the large x-height of the letters, make it perform well in small
sizes. Lettera includes six weights, Light, Regular, Bold, and the matching italics.
The typeface turned into a big success in the market and users requested a
proportional version of the design. As a result of this demand, Lettera-Txt was
born. This proportional version of Lettera was released by Kobi Benezni in 2012.
The typeface family includes the same six styles as Lettera, and the extended
character set for Latin and Cyrillic. The monospace typeface Lettera evolved into a
peculiar grotesque sans serif (fig. 71).
61
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
Fig. 72 - Comparison
between Olivetti
Elite (200%) and
Typewriter.
Fig. 73 - Samples of
the typeface family
Typewriter.
Fig. 74 - Samples of
the typeface Sirio.
62
Typewriter
Henrik Kubel, 2012
Typewriter is a design of Henrik Kubel created in 2000 as a corporate typeface for
his studio A2/SW/HK. Typewriter was inspired by the conventional type used
in an Olivetti Lettera 22. The main design difference with the Olivetti Pica is that
Typewriter is not a monospace typeface. Besides the changes in proportions, there
are some other differences in the design of the letters, like the spur of the ‘g’ or the
terminals of the letter ‘a’ (fig. 72).
When the studio created the type foundry A2-Type in 2010, Typewriter was
included in the collection of 15 fonts offered. The typeface family includes three
weights (Regular, Medium and Bold) and the italics for the three of them (fig. 73).
In the design of the italics, there is also a clear reference to the typewriter Italic
typefaces created by Olivetti (see fig. 37, p. 44).
Typewriter is a text typeface that captured the essence of the letterforms
created, a long time ago, for the typewriter. In 2012, a group of independent type
foundries, among them A2-Type, joined their font libraries in a platform called
Village. Since then, Typewriter is also published in their website.
Sirio
Josh Young, 2014
Sirio was a project born from the personal interest of Josh Young, a graphic
designer based in London.
The inspiration for Sirio was the design, with the same name, that Herbert
Lindinger created for Olivetti. Young found an image with a small sample of Sirio
in the book Design Process: Olivetti, 1908–1978, and decided to create a digital
version. Sirio is a monolinear typeface with strokes of round endings (fig. 74).
Even tough Sirio did not start as a commercial project, when Young finished
the design, he decided to release it commercially. It is now available through the
digital font foundry HypeForType. Young himself points out that ‘it is a very quirky
typewriter face (…) and because of that it has a very limited audience.’1
Sirio was one of the last typefaces designed for Olivetti typewriters, a good
example of an unconventional design that still attracts the attention of designers.
There are some other examples of digital typefaces inspired by Olivetti. Most of
them created by typewriter enthusiasts who created their designs from typewritten
samples: Baksheesh (Stuart Brown, 2005), Olivetti Typewriter (Iza W, 2008),
Cassandre and Reiner (Richard Polt, 2010), Olivetti Type 2 (Hernan Asorey,
2010) and Ivrea (Íñigo López Vázquez, 2015).
Fig. 76 - Logo
designed by Milton
Glaser for promoting
the city of New York.
Courier (Bitstream)
64
American Typewriter
Joel Kaden and Tony Stan, 1974
American Typewriter was a typeface commissioned by ITC (Iternational Typeface
Corporation). Originally designed for phototypesetting, it is one of the first
typewriter typefaces created for printing.
American Typewriter is a proportional typeface which initially included
three weights. The Light and Regular were designed by Joel Kaden, and the Bold
weight by Tony Stan (fig. 75). It was released in 1974, the year that the typewriter
celebrated its 100th anniversary. The type specimen of ITC described it this way:
American Typewriter strikes a happy compromise with its forerunner. The rigid
spacing is dispensed with, but the distinctive typewriter flavour is generously
enhanced. And there is just enough nostalgia in American Typewriter to give it a
top billing in contemporary typography.
-- ‘Specimen of American Typewriter’, 1975.
The sources consulted did not mention any particular company, but Underwood,
Remington, and later IBM, were the most popular American manufacturers; and
they were probably considered in the design process.
In 1977, Milton Glaser used American Typewriter in his logo for the city of
New York (fig. 76). This image became a design icon and it increased the popularity
of the typeface.
ITC American Typewriter is now part of the libraries of some of important
font distributors (Adobe, Apple and Linotype). The typeface family is currently
composed by three weights (Light, Medium and Bold) with the matching Italic
and Condensed designs, nine in total. Since 2005, the typeface has a Greek version,
American Typewriter Hellenic, which includes 12 weights.
Courier
Howard Kettler, 1955
The design of Howard Kettler for IBM typewriters is probably one of the most
adapted typefaces ever.
When Courier was digitised it became the default system font of many
computers and printers. It was used by the US Government as a corporate typeface
and it became the industry standard for writing screenplays. It is still today one of
the most popular typefaces in computer coding.
In 1995, the operating system Microsoft 3.1. introduced Courier New. This is
just an example of the many versions of Courier that one can find in the market.
The different Courier typefaces are distributed through private foundries, font
libraries, and freeware licenses, by big and small distributors (Monotype, Linotype,
Adobe, Pampatype, URW++, Bitstream, etc.). It would be very difficult to point
out which one of them is more faithful to the original. (fig. 77)
Trixie
Erik van Blokland, 1991
Digital typefaces tried sometimes to emulate the look of the typewritten text,
where characters varied greatly in tone and weight. The design of Erik van
65
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
Fig. 80 - Samples of
the six weight/grades
of FF Trixie.
Light Heavy
66
Blokland, Trixie, is one of the first examples of this ‘realistic’ design of a typewriter
typeface. Chadler 42 (Steve Mehallo, 1994) and FF Magda (Cornel Windlin,
1995) could be also included in this group.
The typewritten letters of a Triumph Durable were the basis of the design. The
characters were digitised trying to maintain the essence of the original. The letters
vary in height, some of them are slightly rotated, and there is not a strict baseline.
In the 90s, the printing and operating systems were not prepared for handling
fonts with highly defined contours. The design of Trixie was simplified to make the
font work properly. This typeface was very popular, it was used for many mystery
films and series, among them X-files (fig. 78).
In 2008, the typeface family was expanded with new styles for higher
resolution. FF Trixie Rough, was a new option for using the typeface in big sizes.
The outlines of the characters included more details, so the sharp straight contours
of the original Trixie were not visible. FF Trixie HD was an even more detailed
design, which included seven alternates for each character. The Opentype features
transformed Trixie in a dynamic font that could use alternative lettershapes
throughout the text, so the text looked more similar to a typewritten document.
FF Trixie is available trough FontShop, and it contains three grades: Trixie,
Trixie Rough, and Trixie HD (fig. 79), with two weights per grade, Light and
Heavy, what makes a total of six styles (fig. 80), over 1 million of contours and 17
million points.1 FF Trixie covers the Latin, Cyrillic, and Greek script.
Although the uniqueness of the typewritten document cannot be faked by
digital means, Trixie is probably one of the typefaces that got a better resemblance.
There are many typewriter typefaces available in the digital market. It is not
possible to cover all of them in this research. It must be noted though that
monospace and typewriter typefaces are not exchangeable terms. A typeface that
belongs to the typewriter style is not always monospace, and the other way around,
a monospace typeface is not always designed in a typewriter style.
Every year new typewriter typefaces are released. It may be considered as an
over-adapted style, but typewriter typefaces are still a trend open to interpretations.
69
The typewriter became also a source of inspiration for new digital typefaces.
Every year new type families are released and they often include a typewriter style.
It is probably not only the particular look of typewriter typefaces what attracts the
attention of designers, but also their historical significance. In an over-connected
world people search for the freedom of not being observed. The typewriters are the
expression of a primitive technology without the distractions of the internet. It was
just the man and the machine.
71
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
appendix 1
72
73
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
appendix 2
74
75
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
appendix 3
source: Aso, Fondo Archivio Renzo Zorzi / Documentazione tecnica. Faldone 6, fascicolo
76 19. Libro Cassinelli, 120.
Doricus & Carlyle
Character
Windsor
Windsor
Venezia
Venezia
Tempo
Tempo
Italico
Italico
Vista
Vista
Kent
Kent
A 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 a 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
B 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 b 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
C 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 c 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
D 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 d 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
E 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 e 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
F 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 f 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
G 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 g 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
H 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 h 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
I 2 2 2 3 2 2 3 i 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
J 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 j 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
K 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 k 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
L 4 4 4 4 4 4 3 l 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
M 5 5 4 5 5 5 5 m 4 5 4 5 5 5 5
N 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 n 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
O 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 o 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
P 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 p 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Q 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 q 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
R 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 r 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
S 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 s 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
T 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 t 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
U 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 u 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
V 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 v 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
W 5 5 5 5 5 5 5 w 4 4 4 4 4 4 4
X 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 x 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Y 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 y 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
Z 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 z 3 3 3 3 3 3 3
77
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
appendix 4
Fiorentino, C. C. and Piscitelli, D. ‘Il libri Rossi dell’Olivetti,’ Linea Grafica 341
(September 2002): 32–39.
Hilton, O. ‘A systematic method for indentifying the make and age-model of
a typewriter from its work,’ The Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and
Police Science vol. 41, n. 5 (1951): 661–674; http://scholarlycommons.law.
northwestern.edu/jclc (accessed 28.06.2015).
Huygen, F. and Boekraad, H. C. Mode in module, Rotterdam: 010 Uitgeverij, 1997.
Jury, David ‘The typist and her typing manual,’ Baseline 48, Kent: Bradbourne,
2005, 21-24.
Kicherer, S. Olivetti: a study of the corporate management of design. London: Trefoil
Publicatons, 1990.
Mackay, E. The typewriting dictionary. London: Pitman, 1977.
Mouron, H. Cassandre, Munich: Thames and Hudson, 1985.
Musatti, R., Bigiaretti, L., and Soavi, G. Olivetti 1908–1958. Ivrea: Olivetti, 1958.
Museum of Modern Art of New York, ed.
–– ‘Olivetti: Design in Industry,’ The Bulletin of the Museum of Modern Art vol. 20,
n. 1 (Autumn, 1952): 3–19.
–– ‘Exhibition of architecture and design executed for the Olivetti company in
Italy to go on view at museum,’ press release (22.10.1952), https://www.
moma.org/momaorg/shared/pdfs/docs/press_archives/1655/releases/
MOMA_1952_0077_70.pdf (retrieve 06.07.2015).
Pitman, I. A. Manual of the Typewriter. London: Isaac Pitman & Sons, 1893.
81
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
Interviews
Wim Crouwel, graphic and type designer.
Amsterdam: interviewed by the author, 28.03.2015.
Gianmaria Capello, type designer in Olivetti since 1977.
Ivrea: interviewed by the author, 30.06.2015.
Online sources
Ancient scripts website
http://www.ancientscripts.com (accessed 20.08.2015).
Archivio Nazionale Cinema d’Impresa: advertising and documentaries on Olivetti
https://www.youtube.com/cinemaimpresatv (accessed 13.08.2015).
82
David Quay, http://davidquaydesign.com/foundry-gridnik (accessed 29.08.2015).
Fondazione Adriano Olivetti
http://www.fondazioneadrianolivetti.it (accessed 03.09.2015).
FontFont focus: FF Trixie, http://trixiefont.com (accessed 31.08.2015).
Grafik, ‘Letterform. Right Type’ (01.07.2014), https://www.grafik.net/category/
letterform/right-type (accessed 30.08.2015).
Lekton, http://lektongroups.blogspot.co.uk (accessed 29.08.2015).
Lettera-Txt, http://cargocollective.com/lettera (accessed 29.08.2015).
Lineto type foundry, http://lineto.com (accessed 29.08.2015).
Museo della Scrittura Meccanica
http://www.typewriterstory.com (accessed 20.08.2015).
‘Olivetti, storia di un’impresa,’ Associazione Archivio Storico Olivetti
http://www.storiaolivetti.it (accessed 13.08.2015).
The Foundry, http://www.foundrytypes.co.uk (accessed 29.08.2015).
Typetoken, ‘Lettera-Txt, Kobi Benezri’ (16.09.2012), http://www.typetoken.net/
typeface/lettera-txt-kobi-benezri (accessed 29.08.2015).
Village type foundry, http://vllg.com/a2-type/typewriter (accessed 30.08.2015).
Audiovisual sources
De Sica, A. Città dell’uomo. Italy: Rai 150 (La Storia siamo noi) and Fondazione
Adriano Olivetti, 2013.
Fasano, M. In me non c’è che futuro. Italy: Sattva Films and Fondazione Adriano
Olivetti, 2011.
Piccardo, E. Lettera 22. Italy: Plug_in, 2009
83
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
Fig. 8 - Pictures of the typebars and the daisy wheel by the author. Picture of the
typeball from a Olivetti type catalogue (Aso).
Fig. 9
–– ‘Who is the Olivetti girl?,’ Vogue 6, vol. 159 (1972).
–– ‘Joe Namath is an Olivetti girl,’ George Lois website
http://www.georgelois.com (retreived 15.08.2015)
84
90, Colección Sirvent.
Fig. 13 - Mackay, The typewriting dictionary, 236–238.
Fig. 14 - Mackay, The typewriting dictionary, 49–50.
Fig. 15 - Diagram by the author. Aso, ‘Documentazione Design ex-Zorzi.’
Fig. 16 - Beeching, Century of the typewriter.
Fig. 17 - Aso, ‘Carattere dattilografico Olivetti,’ March 1986.
Fig. 18 - Typewriter heaven (blog), ‘Graphika journey.’
http://typewriterheaven.blogspot.com.es/2013/09/graphika-journey.html
(retrieved 18.08.2015)
Fig. 19 - Bartram, Typographica 6, 53.
Fig. 20 - The typewriter revolution (blog), ‘Olivetti Graphika’.
http://writingball.blogspot.com.es/2010/12/olivetti-graphika.html
(retrieved 18.08.2015)
Fig. 21 - Aso, Fondo Biblioteca/Biblioteca - Sala F/Arte./Arte (Ed. Olivetti).
Faldone 15, fascicolo 3.
Fig. 22
–– a and c: Huygen and Boekraad, Mode in module.
–– b: Broos, Crouwel alphabets.
85
Type design for typewriters: Olivetti
86
Fig. 64 - Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:GridnikSpec.svg (retrieved 29.08.2015).
Fig. 65 - Type sample of Quadrato by the author in an Olivetti Lettera 35, Colección
Sirvent. Sample of Valentine from http://lineto.com (retrieved 29.08.2015)
Fig. 66 - Type sample of Valentine from http://lineto.com (retrieved 29.08.2015)
Fig. 67 and 68 - Google fonts, https://www.google.com/fonts/specimen/Lekton
(retrieved 29.08.2015)
Fig. 69 - Purcell, Josef Müller-Brockmann.
Fig. 70 - Lettera-Txt, Kobi Benezri (2012), http://cargocollective.com/lettera
(retrieved 30.08.2015).
Fig. 71 - Sample of Lettera from http://lineto.com, and sample of Lettera-Txt from
http://cargocollective.com/lettera (retrieved 30.08.2015).
Fig. 72 - Sample of Elite by the author in a Lettera 22, Colección Sirvent. Sample of
Typewriter from http://vllg.com (retrieved 30.08.2015).
Fig. 73 - Samples of from http://vllg.com (retrieved 30.08.2015).
Fig. 74 - Samples of from http://www.part-twocreative.co.uk/sirio.php
(retrieved 30.08.2015).
Fig. 75 - Linotype website, http://www.linotype.com (retrieved 30.08.2015)
Fig. 76 - Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:I_
Love_New_York.svg (retrieved 30.08.2015)
Fig. 77 - Sample of Courier from Typographica 6, 45. Samples of Courier, Courier
New and Courier Prime are shown in the actual font.
Fig. 78 - Wikimedia Commons, https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/
File:The_X-Files_title_logo.png (retrieved 31.08.2015)
Fig. 79 and 80 - Samples from http://trixiefont.com (retrieved 31.08.2015).
87
aknowledgements
Colección Sirvent, especially Alfredo for sharing his time and knowledge.
The Donor Study & Travel Fund of the University of Reading, for giving me the
opportunity to travel to Italy for the research.
Associazione Archivio Storico Olivetti and Gianmaria Capello, for all the information
and documentation provided.
Wim Crouwel, for his generosity and valuable opinions. And Gerard Unger, for
making the interview possible.
Ricardo Lorusso, Frederike Huygen, Josh Young, and Elena Papassissa, for their
selfless help.
My sisters Natalia, Raquel, and Berta, for proof reading the text and not letting me
get lost in translation.