Study of Vasubandhu Treatise

” A Study of Vasubandhu’s Treatise on Pure Land :
with special reference to his theory of salvation
in the light of the development of
the bodhisattva ideal ”
Hiroko Kimura
Thesis submitted for the degree of
M.Phil.
University of London
School of Oriental and African Studies

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2
Thesis Abstract
The present thesis is threefold: Firstly, a brief
study of Vasubandhu, to point out the issues and
problems involved regarding the author of the text;
secondly, a study of the development of the ideal and
the path of practice of the Mahayana bodhisattvas, with
special emphasis on the ideal of Compassion and guid
ance in the world; and lastly, a re-examination of
the text itself, -from the perspective of ethical
ontology and in the light of the above ideal and the
Mahayana path.
The text, though very short, reveals a complex
vision of ’’that Land” and the path which function
as the means to realize that vision. The vision is
manifold as it incorporates various "ends” which are
wished for or aspired to by beings of diverse spiritual
capacities. It includes not only the Land of salvation
and the tranquil, undefiled realm of meditative states
but also the sphere of Mahayana Compassion and guidance.
The latter is the highest bodhisattva ideal described
by the vision of the "Pure Buddha Land."
The text thus combined a) the popular, devotional
cult of Amidism and its soteriologioal teaching of

3
attaining ’’birth” in Amida’s Land with b) the bodhi-
sattva ideal and the path for its realization. In
doing so, the text not only upgraded the former, by
providing the philosophical.-ontological foundation,
but also presented a practical means whereby all
sentient beings, including even beginners, might
approach the Mahayana path. The path of the five
spiritual practices ’’embraces” all sentient beings
of diverse spiritual levels, leading them gradually
to higher levels of practice while, at the same time,
fulfilling the spiritual content of their wishes
and aspirations. The difficulty of the text has much
to do with the hermaneutic approach the author adopted
in propagating the Mahayana teaching and the path.-

$
Table of Contents
List of Abbreviations------------------------------- q
Introduc tion —------------------------------- ------ 12
Chapter I. Vasubandhu----- --- -------- —---------- -20
A. Life and Date —-—------------ ------- --- ——-—
A.1 Life
A. 2 Date
B. Yogacara philosophy of Vasubandhu ———■———
C. Works of Vasubandhu----——------- ;---------
Chapter II* The Development of Bodhisattva Ideal-—ilO
A. The ’’bodhisattva"----------------------------- 4*
A.1 The word "bodhisattva”
A.2 The origin and formation of
the bodhisattva concept
B. The conception of Bodhisattva before
the Mahayana----- —-------------- ——-------- 47
B. 1 Bodhisattva in the Jatakas
B. 2 Resolutions (prapidhana) and
Buddha Lands
C. The bodhisattva in the early Mahayana :
Seeker of Enlightenment------- -------------- £4
C. 1 Mahayana versus Hlnayana
C.2 The bodhisattva in the Mahayana

6
a) The aspiration for Enlightenment
b) The path of six paramita-s» leading
to the highest Wisdom of Enlightenment(prajna)
p„ The bodhisattva in the Yogacara--- —------ — qty
D. 1 The Yogacara philosophy of Mind---------- '7^
D.2 The bodhisattva ideal of Wisdom-Compassion

’ —----------—7A
D. 5 The Yogacara path --------- _______ ___
a) Five Ranks and ten bhumi-s
b) The initial path
c) The path leading to Wisdom
d) The path beyond Wisdom:
the path of Compassion
E. The bodhisattva in the Pure Land teaching—/^/.
E. 1 The Pure Land teaching --- ——--- ——---- 105
a) Sutras
b) Buddha Land
E.2 The Bodhisattva Dharmakara ------------- III
a) The story of his resolutions
b) Sukhavati, the Buddha Land of Amida
E.5 The Pure Land teaching in a work
attributed to Nagarjuna----------- ———
E.^f- The Pure Land teaching in Vasubandhu*s
Treatise on the Pure Land------------ — 116

7
Chapter III. The Treatise on the Pure Land--------- j2l
A. The Text—--------------—------------- -------- 12|
A.1 The authenticity
'A.2 On the identification of
’’source marials”
A. 3 Relevant works and Translations
B. The Content-- --------------------------------- -

130
Chapter IV. Salvation in the Treatise on the
Pure Land ---------------------------- -IWl
A. Complexity of ’’salvation” --------------------
A.1 The method
A. 2 Men, the ’’gate”
B. Five gates of Mindful Practices----- -------—153
B. 1 Translation of the passages
B.2 Nien, smpti and manslcara
B. 3 The vision of‘'that hand”
a) The merit-adornments
b) The vision
c) Four levels of meditative practices
C. Five gates of Merit-perfection------- ------- /65
C. 1 Translation of the passages
G.2 Entry-Egress
8
D. Diversity and Complexity --- .---------------- „J(? |
D.1 Diversity in the spiritual levels------- i’ll
a) Good men and women
b) Three levels of bodhisattvas
D.2 Diversity in ’’that which is sought*’----- Ml
a) ’’Desire, or Wish”
b) ’’Aspiration”
T f
c) Hsiang-ying : ”to be in conformity with
the practice which accords with the truth”
d) The higher bodhisattva practice :
”to practise in accordance with the truth”
Conclusion : The Mahayana path --------- -—-——
Notes and References------- --------- -—--- ------ —1^
Selected Bibliography 204

q
List of Abbreviations
Arahan. The Early Buddhist Theory of Man Perfected:
A Study of Arahan by I.B. Horner
BD Bukkyogo Daijiten by H.Nakamura
BgK Bukkyogo no Kenkyu by H. Sakurabe
Bosatsudo. Dai jo Bosatsudo no Kenkyu ed. by G.Nishi
BR The Buddhist' Religion by R.H. Robinson
BS Bukkyo no Shiso series 12 vols. (Kadotavv« )
Bussho. Bussho Kaisetsu Daijiten 12 vols.Aby
G. Ono
Butten. Dai jo Butten series 15 vols. ed. by
G.M. Nagao
Chin. Chinese
Dayal The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist
Sanskrit Literature by Har Dayal
ERE Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics
Essentials. The Essentials of Buddhist Philosophy
by J. Takakusu
G Genshi Jodoshiso no Kenkyu by K. Fujita
HKR Hikata-hakase Koki-kinen Ronbunshu
IBK Indogaku Bukkyogaku Kenkyu by Nihon Indo-

gaku Bukkyo-gakkai
Jap. Japanese
(G
Kaidai. Shin Button Kaidai Jiten ed. by K. Miauno
Konpon. Bukky'o no Konpon Shinri ed. by S. Miyamoto
Lun-chu Wu-liang-shou-ching yu-p1 o-t'i-she yuan-
sheng-chi ohu (T.No.1819) by T'an-luan -
Mathews. Mathews’ Chinese English Dictionary,
American Edition
Mv. The text of the Mahavyutpatti in Hon'yaku
Myogi Taishu Sasaki edition
MW A Sanskrit-English Dictionary by M.Monier
Williams
NP A New Practical Chinese-English Dictionary ed
by Liang Shih-chiu
Perspective. Buddhism : A Modern Perspective ed.
by C, Prebish
PLT Wu-liang-shou-ching yu-p'o-t’i-she yuan-
-sheng-chi (T.No.152*0 by Vasubandhu
S Shinshu Shogyd Zensho, Vol.1
Seiritsushi. DaiJo Bukkyo no Seiritsushi-teki
Kenkyu ed. by S. Miyamoto
SJ Seshin no Jodoron by S. Yamaguchi
Skt. Sanskrit
Soothill A Dictionary of Chinese Buddhist Terms
by W.E. Soothill and L.Hodous

T fla-.isho Shinshu Daizokyo, or Taisho Tripitak;
eel. by J.Takakusu and K.Watanabe
TC ”T*an-luan’s Commentary on the Pure Land
Discourse : An Annotated Translation and
Soteriological Analysis of the Wang-sheng-
-lun Chu” by R.J. Corless
Thirty. Thirty Years of Buddhist Studies by
E. Conze
Tib. Tibetan
Tsuge. Shinshu ^suge Zensho, Vol.1 by Y. Kashiwa-
bara
T’ung-yung. T’ung-yung kan-ying t* zu-tient or
General Chinese-English Dictionary

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12
Introduction
Ching-t*u-lun ( , the Treatise
on the Pure hand or the Pure Land Treatise,
is a popular name for the Wu-1iang-shou-ching
yu-p* o_”t1i-she yuan-sheng-chi('M; )
or the hpadeâ of the Sutra on Infinite hif e

1
with Verses of Aspiration for Birth (T.No.1524).
It is also known by such short titles as:
Wu-liang-shou-ching lun(,
the Treatise on the Sutra of Infinite hi f e,
and Wang-sheng-lun( )» the Treatise
on Se-birth. The text will be hereafter referred
to simply as the PhT.
Neither a Skt.text nor a Tibetan trans-
lation is extant. The PhT which appears in
the Taisho Tripitaka was translated into Chinese

2
in 529 A.B. by the well-known translator
from northern India, BodhirucK or
in the Yung-ming-ssu temple( ) in the
city of ho-yang( 5^ /^) during the hater V/ei(î
dynasty.
It should be mentioned that there exists
a variation of the PhT. It is the text ’’reconstruc
ted1’from what was quoted in its commentary by

i3
T*an~luan. The reconstructed version serves
as the more popular version of the PLT and
has traditionally been used in the Japanese

5
Pure Land schools.
The text is attributed to Vasubandhu
of northern India. Vasubandhu is one of the
key figures in the history of Indian Buddhism,
and is well-known as the great Abhidharma
scholar and systematizer of the Yogacara
philosophy. He not only systematised the
philosophy of his Yogacara forerunners but
also established the philosophical foundation,
with an epistemological bent, for the later
development of the ’"Ideation-only” school
(vijnaptimatra-vada ), especially by two of
his best known works on the perfect realization
of the nature of ”Ideation-only” (vi j nap timatra^,
-Siddht ) . (see the list of his works in chap.l).
He is also considered as the authority of the
philosophy of Abhidharma school by virtue of
his great work, the Abhidharmakosa. The
problem of his dates and the complexity of his
philosophy will be dealt with in chapter I.

/4
The PLT exercised a far-reaching influence
over the Far Eastern Pure Land Buddhism by way
of its commentary composed by an ex-Taoist,

T»an~luan('-j| , ^76-5^3 A.D.). This
commentary was called Wu-llang-shou-ching
yu-p
l iiwi
An
f 11o-t
wmMhw s w*'i ’
i nu i iiwi-she
j* r i i ■ i »i i i»
b-wi an
yuan-sheng-chi
W l i'”* ■
fimiu M ibIi i' — i ichu(
»T>nifl»w wm'wmwh .»i nil K ' ' JS*— **^\J 4 j/
> (T.No. 1819)6 This was
more popularly known as the Wang-sheng-lun chu
( 4, the Ching-t’u-lun chu( ,
the Lun-chu( or, simply, as the "Commentary”
(Chu, ^3; ). T’an-luan’s commentary will be
hereafter referred to as the Lun-chu.
T’an-luan*s philosophy may be characterised,
firstly, by the mysticism of religious Taoism
in which he formerly sought a long life and,
secondly, by the application of dialectical
logic which belong to the Bhih^lunC B£7 ,
’’Four Treatises”, school, a branch of the
Madhyamika school in China. In interpreting
the PLT, T’an-luan applied his familiarity
with the philosophy of dialectical transcendence
of contradictions by the use of the logic of
negation,together with the intuitive and mys
tical elements indigeneous to China, even

including the magic and superstition.
In the Lun*»chu, he taught that, by the
recitation of the Buddha's name, one will be
saved through attaining birth in the Pure
Land of the Buddha Amida, or Amita. The
commentary thereby propagated the recitation
practice) and popularised the Pure Land teaching
as the special "path of easy practice"( jjgT ).
Lun-chu proved to be influential over the later
development of the popular Pure Land movement

characterised by nien-fo( ^4^} ) in China as
well as the whole Japanese scene of the so-called
Pure Land (Jodo in Jap.) schools. Its influence
covered not only such Chinese masters as Tao-ch’o
also the whole Japanese scene of the Pure Land
schools.
In Japan, the PLT was counted by Honen
of the Jodo sect (Jodo-shu in Jap.), as one of
the four basic texts of his Pure Land school
a disciple of Honen, founded what he called

16
the ’’true Pure Land teaching” which later
developed into the Pure Land Shin school

( JpL , Jo do Shin-shu in Jap.). The
Shin school became the largest of all Buddhist
denominations in Japan with a great number
of followers throughout the country and even
outside Japan. It has established its branches
not only in the States but also in Europe.
Shinran valued the Lun-chu, and hence
indirectly the PLT, so highly that he even
derived his Buddhist name, Shinran, from the
two masters™--’’shin” froin Vasubandhu(Seshin or
Tenjin in Jap.) and "ran” from T’an~luan
(Donran, in Jap.). He revered T’an-luan and
absorbed much of the philosophy expounded in
the latter’s commentary on the PLT, in the
process of formulating the philosophical side
of his doctrine of "salvation by faith" or
"salvation by other~power"(tariki). In this
way, the Lun-chu introduced the text to Japan,
and it traditionally served as the authoritative
and standard interpretation of the PLT. Thus,
in the Japanese Pure Land schools, the understanding

17
of the PLT was mostly through the channels
of T’an-luan’s philosophy. The Lun-chu provided
the general philosophico^doctrinal framework
for the traditional interpretation of the
text. The examination of the text, independently
of its commentary, has rarely been done in the
traditional,sectarian, circleCi.e., within
the so-called Pure Land schools).
The influence of the PLT over the Japanese
Pure Land schools was, therefore, in an indirect
way, being mediated by the overwhelming popularity
of the Lun-chu among these masters over above the
PLT itself. The PLT has, nevertheless, greatly
contributed to molding the whole direction of
later development of the Pure Land teaching.
In chapter I, attempts were made to present
the issues, concerning the life and the date
of Vasubandhu, and the necessity of further
and systematic clarification of his complex
philosophy exhibited in and among the large
list of works attributed to him.
In chapter II, I have tried to give a
brief, general survey of the development of
bodhisattva ideal and the path, leading to

the highest ideal of great Compassion. The
term, anu11 ar as amy aksaiffbp dhi, the realisation
of the supreme Enlightenment of Equality^ then
emerges as the highest bodhisattva ideal which

reveals^synthetic unity of WisdomCprajna),
CompassionCkaruaa or maitri) and Expedient
means(upaya). It originates from the altruistic
goal, the salvation of all beings, and it is
the ideal of the one who delivers the multitude
in the world from their samsaric suffering by
gradually guiding them to Enlightenment, using
various skills and abilities as Expedient means.
In the chapters III and IV, attempts were
made to carefully re-examine the text of the
PLT itself, independently of the Lun-chu, in
the light of the above bodhisattva ideal and
the path of the Mahayana for the realization
of the highest goal.
In this thesis, those discussions regarding
the doctrinal subtleties which are mainly of
sectarian interest are deliberately avoided.
But some references are made when they are

ft
highly relevant in the context. Frequent use
of the Shinshu Shogyo gensho» Vol.1 (”SH) was
made mainly because of its convenience and
partly due to unavailability of certain volumes
of the Taisho Tripitaka.

CHAPTER I
VASUBANDHU
21
A. Life and Date
A.1 Life
1
According to Paramartha’s ’’Life of Vasubandhu,”
Vasubandhu was born the second son of a Brahmin family
named Kau&ika, in the city of Puruâpura in the Gandhara
region. All the three sons of the Kaufsika family9
received the customary Brahmanic education, but
later all of them turned to Buddhism. Asanga °
MJ| )» 'til® eldest of the three, first became a monk in

_ 4
the Barvastivadin school , studied the doctrine,
and practised meditation. When he was unable to
comprehend the "significance of Voidness”( ), an
Arhat named Pinôla( ) helped him understand
the Hinayana conception of Voidness. According to the
mythically embellished story of his encounter with
Maitreya, Asanga ascended to the Tusita heaven to
hear Maitreya expound on the Mahayana teaching, came
back to this world and, in deep meditation, he fully
comprehended it. After his conversion, he frequently
visited the Tusita heaven by using his mystical powers.
He devoted himself to spreading the teaching so that
many others would appreciate its profound truth, believe,
and follow the path. Asanga wrote many treatises and
commentaries to clarify the Mahayana teaching. The
youngest brother VirihcivatsaCLU ) was

2*
apparently a monk in the Sarvastivadin school, little

6
else is known about him or his work.
As for Vasubandhu, he, too, initially joined and
established his fame in the Sarvastivadin school. It
seems that the 'Sarvastivadin school was one of the
dominant Buddhist schools of the time, influential

8
throughout Ka^mir and Gandhara. After a thorough study
of Garvastivadin doctrines, Vasubandhu composed, in a
verse form, a work on its philosophy. Through it was
well received at first, the meaning was unclear and ,
doubts were expressed among the masters of the school.
On their request, Vasubandhu wrote a commentary on
these verses to clarify the meaning. The result was
the famous Abhidharmakoâ~bhasya( 4^5-^ )•
It became clear that the author was critical of Sarva-
stivadin philosophy and that he had incorporated into
it the philosophy of the Sautrantika school($x lg“Ta£ )
which was influential at that time,
Vasubandhu was converted to the Mahayana through
Asanga’s guidance. The details of the circumstances
under which his conversion took place vary according

to different sources. (1) According to Paramartha,^
Asahga sent for his brother on the pretence of serious
illness and that Vasubandhu travelled to Purugapura

‘23
( @ ). On his arrival, Asanga expressed his heart
felt grief about Vasubandhu’s public denunciation of
the Mahayana teaching. He then initiated his younger
brother into its real meaning. Vasubandhu thereupon
realized the profundity of the Mahayana, and was

*10
straightaway converted. (2) According to Hsuan-tsang,
Vasubandhu came to Ayodhya and heard a disciple of Asanga
reciting the Dasabhumika-sutra which described the path
of the Mahayana bodhisattva and the states of spiritual
progress. Deeply moved, he became converted to the

— 11
Mahayana teaching. (5) According to Taranatha, because
Vasubandhu miscomprehended the Yogacarabhumi, he severely
criticized the text and the Mahayana in general. In order
to make him realize his failure to grasp the true meaning,
Asanga recited, together with one of his disciples, two
Mahayana sutras which expound on the true nature of
Mind, the path, and the spiritual journey of the bodhi-

12
sattva.
Whichever was the case, Asanga made him realize
the truth and profundity of the Mahayana teaching. It
is also reported, probably to dramatize the event of
his conversion, that Vasubandhu tried to sever his tongue
out of remorse for his past abuse of the Mahayana. Asanga
consoled and encouraged him to make the right use of

13
his tongue by spreading the teaching.
Vasubandhu lived during the period of the Gupta

14
dynasty which lasted almost three hundred years. The
imperial court of the Gupta dynasty generously sponsored
open, public debates which created the atmosphere of
constant challenge not only for the intellectual life
in the capital but also for the successful survival of
various schools. Vasubandhu seems to have been a very
talented orator, and had a genius for philosophical
systematisation* He wrote extensively and was well-
known even outside Ayodhya. Some scholars believe that

15
his scholarly distinction won .the king’ favour, but
whether he received special patronage or a mere award

is unclear. Until his death at age eighty^ he worked
mostly in Ayodhya as a scholar of great distinction and
famed orator. Though the Chinese sources describe his
death as a peaceful one in Ayodhya, Tibetan sources
report his unhappy death caused by the shock of seeing

17
a corrupt monk m Nepal. This is rather puzzling. But
Chattopadyaya, the editor of the translation of Taranatha's
work, is of the opinion that Vasubandhu died in Ayodhya,
and the other places mentioned were later linked to his

18
life. We will provisionally settle with his solution.
OS'
A.2 The Date
The date of Vasubandhu is highly oontrovertial.
The problem was described by Takakusu at the beginning
of our century as "a question confronted in the history

19
of Indian thought." This is because different sources
refer to different dates, spanning an extraordinarily

20
long period of time, far beyond any human life-span.
For example, the dates of Vasubandhu are: (1) ’’nine
hundred years” A.N. (i.e., after the Buddha’s Nirvana),
according to Paramartha; (2) around one thousand years
A.N., according to Hsuan-tsang; and also according to
other Chinese sources, Vasubandhu became "a bodhisattva"
around eleven hundred A.N.. The difficulty lies also
in the practical problem regarding the year of Buddha’s
Nirvana to which these sources refer. Little Indication
is given in these sources as to how they calculated the
date of Nirvana which they used as the point of reference.
The ambiguity and uncertainty still exist regarding
his dates, and the disagreement among the sources has
not been solved or reconciled. Two dates have been,
nevertheless, established: one, around the middle of
the fourth century and, the other, the early part of

22
the fifth century. Moreover, a great number of works
covering an extraordinarily wide range of intellectual

%
activities are attributed to Vasubandhu. Because of this,
there are suspicions that they could not have been the
achievement of a single historical person, even though
he might have been a genius.
In 1951? E.Frauwallner presented one solution to

23
the problem of Vasubandhu's date. This Austrian scholar
maintained, upon careful re-examination of the available
Chinese sources, the so-called "two Vasubandhu theory."
According to this theory, there were two Vasubandhus.
The earlier Vasubandhu is the brother of Asanga and lived
around 320-380 A.D., and the later Vasubandhu is the

author of Abhidharmako â and lived around ^00-A80 A.D?^
His theory seems to reconcile the conflicting dates of

Vasubandhu. It also explains why **Vasubandhu” could cover
such a wide range of philosophy and the vast amount of
works attributed to him. Since the publication of this
theory, both positive and negative scholarly reactions
were expressed.
p £>
P.S.Jaini argued, in a short 1958 article, for
the one Vasubandhu theory. He attempted, on the basis
of manuscripts found in Tibet( Abhidharmadipa), to
provide support for the one Vasubandhu theory. Jaini
suggested that, there existed a Sarvastivadin "koâkara",
or author of kosa, who was criticized for his interest
in the Mahayana teaching. Jaini thereby gave some support

17
to Paramartha’s description that Vasubandhu, the author
of Abhidharmakosa, was converted to the Mahayana.
L.Scbfflithausen, a disciple of Frauwallner, argued
for the two Vasubandhu theory on the basis of his analysis
regarding the influence of the Sautrantika philosophy

27
in the works of Vasubandhu.
The problem of the date of Vasubandhu still remains
unsolved. The two Vasubandhu theory is not yet convincing;
much needs to be done before it is fully endorsed. A
careful examination of his work is needed, especially
regarding the philosphical and doctrinal development
and differences. In this thesis, I will provisionally
take the traditional one Vasubandhu theory and will not,
therefore, make any attempt to -attribute Vasubandhu’s
works to two persons.

B. Yogacara philosophy of Vasubandhu
The philosophy of Vasubandhu is confusingly complex
because he incorporated various doctrines that were deemed
favourable by him. At times it may appear that he alter
ed his philosophical positions to suit different texts
on which he was commenting. He commented on various
Mahayana texts which belong to different periods in
the historical development of the Mahayana. His intel
lectual activities covered an incredibly wide range of
philosophy. This included the philosophical tenets of
schools such ass the pluralistic Barvastivadin, the pheno
menological Sautrantika, the Samkhya, the idealistic
Yogacara and the essentialistic tathagarfcagarbha philosophy
He left the voluminous Abhidharmako£a-bhagya, many
commentaries on those texts composed by the founders
of the Yogacara (i.e., Asanga and Maitreyanatha). He
also left many treatises on a number of Mahayana sutras.
Moreover, since it is not very unusual, in the Indian
context, to attribute one’s work to a well-known saint
as an expression of reverence to him, it is quite possible
that some of the works attributed to him may have 'been
the composition by someone of a much humbler status
and fame. His versatility and the complexity of his
philosophy have caused great difficulty for those who
set out with the idea of grasping the philosophy of

39
Vasubandhu, The study of his philosophy is, nevertheless,
very important in the history of Mahayana Buddhism, not
only because he left a great number of works but also
because he is a scholarly representative of the Abhi-

29
dharma schools as well as the Mahayana. An attempt will
be made to present Vasubandhu as an. exponent of the
Yogacara school despite all the diversity and complexity
of his philosophy.
The Yogacara school was founded around the fourth-

30
-fifth century in northern India. The teaching of
Yogacara, or Yogacarya, the "path of yoga practices'1,
was transmitted to Vasubandhu by his brother Asahgc\

31
who received it from Maitreyanatha. Because of its
idealistic or ideationalistic standpoint, the Yogacara
was also called the school of ’’Mind-only" or "Conscious
ness-only" (vijnanavada, meaning the teaching of conscious
ness), or "Ideation-only”(vijnaptimatrayada) in its
later form. The basic sutra is the Saifldhinirmoc ana-
sutra. Among others there are the following sutras:
the Avatamsaka, Lahkavatara, and ^rimala-devis inihanada.
The basic texts of the school are those composed by

_ a 32
Maitreyanatha, Asanga, and Vasubandhu. The important
ones are: Yogacarabhumi« Mahay anasu tr alagikar a, Mahayana-
samgraha, Dharmadharma tavibhan ga, Ma dhyanta vi bhaga,
Vi jflaptimatratasiddhi-virgâtika, Vijhaptimatratasiddhi -
trimîka and Tribyabhava-karika .

30
The Yogacara philosophy of Vasubandhu reflects,probobkb
the intellectual trend and cultural climate of the time*,
The inclination was towards a realistic ontology and a
more concrete and practical approach to the realization
of the ideal and salvation. The direction was one
contrary to the transcendental rationalism of the
MSdhyamika school which propagated the philosophy of
Voidness and the dialectic logic of negation. The
doctrines of the ’’Three Natures” and "Store-conscious
ness” (see: chap.Il, D ), the two major doctrines of
the school, present the system of idealistic explanation
of actual existence in the realm of phenomena and
a Yogacara solution to the realization of the ideal
state of "Mind.” Its approach to salvation and to
Enlightenment is concrete and realistic’; the path of
spiritual cultivation involves an infinite process
which is illustrated by the ten bodhisattva stages or
by the five ranks(see: chap.II, D).
It should be noted that there is a significant
difference between the philosophy expounded by Asanga
and that by Vasubandhu. Asanga was fairly consistent
with his monistic idealism revolving around the theory
of Mind and the path of parami ta-s and yoga practices of tnedJMbvff
Vasubandhu’s point of departure in the Mahayana was

31
Asanga’s idealism and the theory of Mind, and his works
mainly consist of systematization and interpretation
of the founders of early Yogacara school. While maintain
ing its idealistic line of thought, Vasubandhu developed
a more inclusive, or amalgamated system of philosophy
by incorporating elements from various schools. For
example, being a convert himself, he was very familiar
with the doctrines of the Barvastivadin school and,
unlike the early Mahayanists , he held a very positive
attitude toward its system. He assimilated them instead
of antagonising, into a synthesis of the Mahayana-
Yogacara. He thereby placed the Mahayana within the matrix,
of the historical development of Buddhism and upon the
philosophical foundation of the earlier teaching.
Moreover, he made commentaries on various Mahayana
sutras which reflect different tenet^ as mentioned earlier,
especially in his upade£a works. He later incorporated
much of the essentialistic philosophy of tat ha gat agarbha
(meaning the ’’womb" or ’’embryo" of Tathagata), which

33
indicated a significant shift in his sotenology.
Vasubandhu interpreted the Yogacara philosophy of
his forerunners with a more epistemological and empirical
bent. Having also a wide knowledge of various philosophies
of his time, he incorporated, at one level or another,

32
some elements from them in the .process of systematisation.
It is believed that he established such important concepts
as "different maturation"(vipaka)
inwanwH,-SunnnwiiiBbiin*
'
and the "transform-
ation of consciousness"(vijâna-paripama).
33
Works of Vasubrtad.hu
A. Major Treatises
1, Abhidharmakoâ, the verses(karika) and his ovm
commentary(bhagya): a)A-p’.i-ta-mo-ohfi-she-
or the "treatise on Abhidharmakoâ^" 30 chiian, tr.,Hsuan-
tsang ). T.No.1338; the verses, 1 chuan,T.No.1360.
b) A-p * i-ta-mo-chu-she-shih-lun(MWtf ). 22
chuan. tr.Paramartha.T’No.1339* c)Also in Tib.(Nos.^089,
^090), and in Skt..
2. Vijnaptimatratasiddhi, Trimîka-karika : a)Wei-shih-
-san-shih-lun-sung or the "Thirty Verses
on Ideation-only Teaching." 1 chiian, tr. Hsiian-tsang.T. No.
1386. (Of .T.No.1387? tr. Paramartha)
3- Vijnaptimatratasiddhi, Virpsatika, the verses and

his ovm commentary: a) Wei-shih-erh-shih-lun (ir^J^P. —.
1 chiian, tr.Hsuan-tsang.T.No. 1390. b) Ta - sh e ng Wei - sh i h-lun
(. 1 chiian, tr.Paramartha.T.No.1389. c)Wei-

”shih-lun( hll* v^lNg). 1 chiian, tr.PrajfifartiLci(^^^ ).
T.No.1388. d)Also in Tib.(Nos.^056-57).
Mahayanasarpgraha-bhagya, Vasubandhu’s commentary on
the Mahayana-sa^graha composed by Asanga: a)She-ta-sheng-
•lun-shih 10 chuan, tr.Hsuan-tsang.

T.No.1597- b) Ibid. 15 chuan, tr.ParamSrtha. T.No.1595*
c)Aliso in Tib.(No.4050).
5. Madhyantavibhaga-îka , the commentary on the Madhyanta
vibhaga attributed to Maitreyanatha: a)Pien~chung-pien-
-lunp^W chuan, tr.Hsuan-tsang. T.No.1600.
b) Ghung-pien-f en-pieh-lun( iTTffT ). 2 chuan, tr.
Paramartha.T.No.1599- c) in Tib. (cf. Dharmadharmata-
vibhangavrtti, No.4027), and in Skt..
33. Treatises on Methodology
1. Karmasiddhi-prakarapa : a) Ta-sheng-ch* eng-yeh-lun
) , or the ’’MahaySna Treatise on the per
fection of actions.’1 1 chuan, tr.Hsuan-tsang. T.No.1609.
b)Yeh-ch*eng-chiu-lun( ).1 chuan, tr.Vimoksa-
praj'ftarsi(^§ ) and Prajharuci. T.N0.IS08. c) in
Tib.(No.4o62).
2 • Pafficasteandha-prakararia: a) Ta-sheng-wu-yun-lun( X-
, or the ’’Mahayana Treatise on the Five Skandhas."
1 chuan, tr.Hsuan-tsang. T.No.1612. 'Cf.Ta-sheng-kuang-

wu-yun-lunQ^J^ ), T.N0I615, is attributed to
Sthiramati( ). b) Also In Tib.(No.4059)•

3S-
3 • Liu-men chiao-shou-hsi-ting-lun(»shih) (
» or the" Treatise on the six kinds of instruction
of the practice of Concentration”: a) Ibid.. 1 chuan,
tr.I-ching(^ ). T.No.1607. b) in Tib.(No.2694).
Cf.T.No.1361•
4. Chih-kuan-men-lun-sungCzh^-KFîtrer fl’l) 1 or the
’’Treatise and verses on the gate of 6amatha and vipagsyana. ”
a) Ibid., 1 ehuan, tr.,. I-ching. - T.No. 1655-
5 • Ta-sheng pai-fa-ming-men-lun(^L^ iHfp ), or
the ’’Treatise on the Mahayana gate of one hundred dharma-
-light": a) J„ ehuan tr.Hsuan-tsnag. T.No*l6l4. b)Also
in Tib.(No.4064, tr. from Chinese ?)•
C.Upadeâ Group
1. Upadegsa on the Lotus Sutra, Saddharmapug.darika-sutra-’
-jipadeâ: a) Miao-fa-lien-hua-ching (-lun) -yu-p1 o-t’i-she
42 chuan, tr. Bo dhiruci et.al..T.
No.1519* b)Ibid. 1 chuan, tr. Ratnamati et.al. T.No.1520.
2. On the Sutra of Infinite Life, Wu-liang-shou-cing
yu-p1o-t1i-she(). 1 chuan, tr.
Bodhiruci. T.No.1524.
36
3. On the Nirvana Sutra, Nieh-p1 an

* (*-ching -lun
* * 6 )7 8 (5^f'^
, 1 chuan, tr. Dharmabodhi( )• T.No.1527.
4. On the Paâbhumika-sutra, Shih-ti~ching-lun (^Mffil:f‘jg>).
a) Ibid. 12 chuan, tr.Bodhiruci.T.No.1522. b) in Tib.(No.
3993» Arya-Da6abhfimi-vyakhyana ).
5. On the Diamond Sutra, Ghin-kanp; pan-jo-po-lo-mi-
-ching-lun(. a) Ibid.. 3chuan, tr.
Bodhiruci.T.No.1511 • b)Neng-tuan chin-kang; pan-,1 o-po-
-lo-mi-to-ching-lun-shih (tl'fc
chuan, tr.I-ching.T.No.1513. c)Also in Tib.
(No.3816, Iryabhagavati-pralffiaparamita-va.iracchedika-
saptartha-t^ka).
6. On the Sutra of the Questions by Bodhisattva
Excellent Thoughts, Sheng-ssu-wei-p* u-sa fan-t1ien
so—wen^ching-lun(fefchje • ^chiian, tr.
Bodhiruci.T.No.1532.
7. On the Sutra of the Questions of Manjusri, Wen-
-shu-shih-li-plu-sa wen-p» u-t.’.i-ching-lun(
). 2 chuan, tr.Bodhiruci. T.No. 1531.
b) in Tib.(No.3991)•
8. On the Sutra of the four elements of the Jeweled

Iiair-knot, Pao-chi-ching ssu-fa yu-p* 0-t1i-she(^F"W
)( Ratnacuda-caturdharma-upade£a ?). 1
chuan, tr.Vimoksaprajharsi. T.No.1526.

27
9* On the Sutra of the Wheel of Dharma, Chuan-fa-lun
ching yu-p1 o-t,»i-she ( ) (Dharmacakra-
pravartana-sutropadeâ ?). 1 chuan, tr.Vimokgaprajnargi.
T.No.1533.
D. Works ascribed to Vasubandhu^ or unclear authorship)
1.Vyakhyayuktl» the "Treatise on the interpretation"
()• In Tib. only (No.^061).
2* Fo-hsing~lun( -fft? 4^ Hfep ), or the "Treatise on Buddha-
-nature." 4 chuan, tr.Paramartha. T.No.1610.
3* Ju-sh ih-lun(^Q || , or the "Treatise on
the truth, or thusness." l/chuan, tr.Paramartha. T.No.1633-
4. San-chu-tsu-ching yu-p1o-t* i-she ).
1 chuan, tr.Vimokgaprajharsi. T.No.153^*
5* -p’u-t*i~hsin-ching-lun( ), or
the "Treatise on the Sutra of arousing the Mind of Bodhi."
2 chuan, tr.Kumarajiva. T.No.1639*
6. Pai-lun( IB), composed by £ryadeva(^|M^h) and
commented by Vasubandhu(). 2 chuan, tr.Kumarajiva.
T.No.1369.
7. Dharmadharmatavibh£nga-vgt ti < or the "Commentary
on the Dharmadharmatayibhanga of Maitreyanatha". In Tib.
($10.^028), and in Skt. (only fragments).

8. Trisvabhava-karika or Trisvabhava-nirdeiâ, or ”0n
the Three Natures of Existence”. Only in Tib^Nos.38zi-3,
4058). Gf. San-wu-hsing-lun). 2 chuan, tr.
Paramartha. T.No.1617*
9. The commentary part of the Prakaranaryavada -âstra
composed by Asanga Cor Maitreyanatha?). Hsien-yang-sheng-
-chiao-lun(ljO , or the ’’Treatise on Upholding
the teaching.” 20 chuan, tr.Hsuan-tsang. T.No.1602.
10. the commentary part in the Mahay anasutralagikara
which is attributed to Asanga. Ta.-she ng chuang-yen-ching-
»lun (. 15 chuan, tr. Po-lo-p’o-mi-to-lo
T. No. 1604. Also in Tib. (No. 4026) .
11. I-chiao-ching-lun(iMIP ). 1 chuan, tr.
Paramartha. T.No.1529*
12. Nieh-p'an-ching pen-yu-chin-wn- chieh-lun(
* 1 ciiaan» tr.Paramartha. T.No.1928.

In preparing the above list, I have consulted the
following materials: SJ, pp.^-1^-, STK, pp.20-5^, the
Catalogue (Mokuroku) of âisho Tripitaka, Kaidai., and
Hobogirin. The Tibetan numbers given are the Tohoku
numbers provided in SJ and STK, both of which were
based on the list prepared by Enga Teramoto in his
book, SaiaSbun SeshinzS Yuishikiron.
This list is by no means an exhaustive one. It is quite
clear that a considerable alterations and additions will
be necessary by a thorough examination of Tibetan cannon,
and other historical materials.
CHAPTER II
THE DEVELOPMENT OF
BODHISATTVA IDEAL
4/
II. A The "bodhisattva"
The Skt. word ’’bodhisattva" is the key-term in
the Mahayana Buddhism. The "bodhisa1tva-yana" was
used almost synonymously with the Mahayana and the
"bu4dha-yana". The bodhisattva is the image of man
who aspires and proceeds towards Buddhahood by follow
ing the Buddha’s path. The great bodhisattvas were
worshipped and were even ranked equally with the Buddhas.
The bodhisattva concept was greatly developed in the
"northern transmission" of Mahayana Buddhism and became
popular in such countries as China, Korea, Japan and
Tibet. In Tibet, the bodhisattva is reported to be
well-known as the "heroic being." In China and Japan,
he is known as the "seeker-aspirant" of the Mahayana
ideal and as the "follower" of the path which leads
to Buddhahood. In Japan the bodhisattva concept received
considerable academic and popular attention, and various
aspects of bodhisattvahood were examined in connection
with a wide variety of sutras from different viewpoints.
In the West, however, the bodhisattva concept has
not received the proper attention it deserves. Apart
from what appeared in the form of translated texts,
notably by L.de la Vall6e Poussin, and brief remarks

4-2
in general survey books on Mahayana Buddhism, Ear Dayal’s
The Bodhisattva Doctrine in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature
is probably the only substantial book specifically
dedicated to the subject.
Without understanding the ideal and the path of
the bodhisattva, the profundity of the Mahayana teach
ing cannot be fully appreciated. The grandeur of
Mahayana Buddhism will be at risk if it is reduced to
a merely rational system of philosophy or psychology,
or to a body of highly imaginative literature. In the
study of Mahayana Buddhism, further research on this
important concept cannot be overvalued, and the study
of the bodhisattva in the West is much overdue.
Attempts are made to clarify, in this chapter,
firstly, the development of the bodhisattva concept and
bodhisattva ideal in different periods and, secondly,
the development of the bodhisattva path which leads to
the realization of the highest bodhisattva ideal, the
ultimate realization of great Compassion and guidance
as the path beyond the attainment of Wisdom.

râ-e word ’’bodhisattva”
Etymologically speaking, the word consists of two
elements, vis., bodhi and sattva. Bodhi clearly means
’’Enlightenment” whose content is the perfect Wisdom of
the Buddha. There is a wide variety of interpretations

1
regarding the meaning of sattva. The word sattva means:
(i) essence, nature, character; (ii) any living being,
creature, sentient being, rational being; (iii) spirit,
soul, mind, sense, consciousness, also used as a synonym
for citta; (iv) 'embryo or latent potential; (v) mind,
intelligence, thinking principle (in the Yoga-sutra);
(vi) strength, energy, vigour, courage etc..
Despite the diversity, as shown above, the meaning of
bodhisattva has been generally accepted as the ”bodhi-
being” or the ’’being of bodhi”. On the basis of this mean
ing, the following interpretations appeared: the ’’being
who possesses bodhi,” the ’’being whose existence is
penetrated by the essence of bodhi,” the "being who is
destined to attain bodhi and become Buddha,” and the ’’be
ing who is an aspirant of bodhi,” hence the”aspirant of
Buddhahood.”
The origin and formation of the bodhisattva concept
R.Hikata pointed out that the term ’’bo-dhisattva”
originated among those who revered and adored the great

44
2
Buddha and his Wisdom of Enlightenment. Har Dayal lists
six cultural factors which may have contributed to the

3
formation of the bodhisattva doctrine:
(1) the natural tendency, especially the element of
devotion, bhakti, towards the development of the concept
within the Buddhist Church
(2) the influence of other Indian religious sects.
(3) that of Persian religion and culture.
(4) the influence of Greek art.
(3)the necessity of propaganda among the new semi-bar-
barious tribes.
(6) the influence of Christianity.-
Dayal stresses the human need for concrete objects of wor
ship, or the need for some mediator to bridge the distance
between the transcendental being and finite man. He states,
’’The bodhisattvas were thus chosen for worship and adoration
in order to satisfy the needs of the devout and pious Bud
dhists. The bodhisattva doctrine may be said to have
been the inevitable outcome of the tendency towards bhakti
and the new conception of Buddhahood.”
I find it difficult to fully endorse this statement.
It is very true that the bodhisattva concept was connected
with the element of pious devotion to the Buddha and the
new conception of Buddhahood, but less true that it was

the ’’inevitable outcome of the tendency towards bhakti,"
especially in the initial phase of its development- For,
in the first place, the original use of the term was to
glorify the Wisdom and the spiritual virtue ("merits”)
of âkyamuni Buddha, and not to glorify, or express
devotion to the bodhisattva themselves. The central
position as the object of devotion was definitely occupied
by the Buddha, and not the bodhisattvas (See, Pranidhana
Bodhisattva, J[,B and JBD)„
Secondly, the cultural phenomenon of the cult of
devotion to certain special bodhisattvas only occurred
after the Mah&y&na conception of bodhisattva had evolved
into a conception of almost equal status to that of the
Buddhas. This followed the increased significance attach
ed to the resolutions, or Vows, of a number of great
bodhisattvas; it was only after the Praiiidhana Bodhi
sattvas of soteriological importance had been fully develop
ed and popularised that devotion to great bodhisattvas

5
with their saviour image flourished. This is the popular,
lay-oriented, devotional side of bodhisattva concept. There
is, in the development of the concept, another side which
is characterised by the formation of a highly developed
bodhisattva doctrine with a complex scheme of practices

- x 6
and stages(bhumi) of spiritual attainment.
Thirdly, those two special bodhisattvas Dayal pointed
out (Maftju^rx and Avalokite&vara) do not exactly fit the
image of "intercessors" or the "object of human desire
for devotion." They represent the necessary qualities for
the realization of Buddhahood; they are the personifications
of the Wisdom of insight into the truth and the warm heart
of Compassioôr pity, both of which were regarded as the

7
foundation and the content of Buddhahood. It was at a
much later period that they became objects of passionate

g
devotion on the popular level.
Dayal’s statement, or assumption, may, therefore,
possibly involve some chronological confusion, probably
due to his overemphasis on the role of "innate human
tendency for devotion." ^he development of the conceptions
of bodhisattva, the bodhisattva ideal and the path of
practice will be examined below.

B. The conception of Bodhisattva before the
Mahayana
There has been an inherent ambiguity in the concep-

9
tion of the term "bodhisattva" and its use. Initially,
it signified the content of the Buddha-to-be, the perfect
one whom all followers praised and glorified. Later in
the Mahayana, the bodhisattva became the ideal vision
which all Mahayana followers should strive to follow
and aspire to.
B.1 Bodhisattva in the Jatakas
The term "Bodhisattva" originally designated the
period of life of Gautama Siddhartha before he attained
Enlightenment, ^his Buddha-to-be stage of Gautama included
a) the lay period of his life as a prince to the king
ûddhodana of the âkya tribe and, b) the period before
Enlightenment, or the period of his quest for deliverance
as an ascetic amd meditator.
The use of the word itself is quite old. The original
use can probably be traced back to the second century

10 -
B.C.. It appears m the Pali Nikaya in which the Buddha
referred to himself as a "Bodhisattva" when he mentioned
the earlier period of his life(Ibid.).
The Jataka stories became popular and various
figures (both human and animal) in the Jatakag were

4#
identified, with the Bodhisattva, the former life-forms
of the Buddha. In those fantastic stories, these figures
performed numerous acts of virtue which revealed the
highest degree of compassion, self-sacrifice, forbearance
or wisdom. They were regarded as the reincarnations of
the Bodhisattva in his countless series of lives. These
popular figures in the Jatakas contributed greatly to
the formation of the Mahayana. They functioned in at
least two ways, a) for the glorification and admiration
of the greatness or the perfection of the Buddha and,
b) for the praise of social virtues and compassion.
Firstly, the Jatakas illustrated the immeasurable
length of the Bodhisattva’s path of practice. He
had practised for a long time, extending over aeons in
numerous reincarnations and had accumulated a vast
amount of spiritual virtue("merits"). The last life
of the Bodhisattva as Gautama i&akyamuni was considered

11
to be the fruition of all the merits he had accumulated.
The fact that he attained Enlightenment and became a
Buddha was regarded as the natural result and consummation
of all the merits he had accumulated and the insight
which he had cultivated. His Buddhahood can be,therefore,
nothing less than perfect.

Secondly, the Jatakas promoted appreciation of the
value of altruistic concern and compassion among Buddhists
at large, both lay and monastic.
It should be borne in mind that the depiction of
those beings in the parables was intended to glorify
the Buddha. Whenever the word, Bodhisattva, was applied
to the figures in the Jatakas, the moral of the story
was to praise and to glorify the great Enlightened One,
âkyamuni Buddha. Therefore, before the Mahayana, the
devotees and disciples were not urged to follow the
example of self-sacrifice, forbearance etc. set by these
figures. The conception of the term ’’bodhisattva” at
this stage was, therefore, clearly an expression of
reverence and admiration for the great One, and it
remained so until the rise of its Mahayana counterpart.
Horner rightly states that the Bodhisattva in the Jatakas
was merely the ’’epithet used to denote Gotama in his

12
myriad re-births before he attained enlightenment.”
The term Bodhisattva simply denoted, at this stage, the
’’Buddha-to-be” and the process of his spiritual culti
vation through preparatory practices for tAe final attain
ment of Enlightenment and Buddhahood. In this sense,
the next group of Bodhisattva^ the Buddha-to-be stage

50
of the past and present Buddhas, may be considered as
belonging to this category, as a development from
the conception of Bodhisattva in the Jatakas.
B.2 Resolutions (prapidhana) and Buddha Lands
The word pranidhana means ’’wish, longing, resolution,
vow, or aspiration.” Dayal states,the idea underly
ing prapidhana is that of an earnest wish, and not
strictly that of a vow or resolve.” The conception
and the meaning of prapidhana, however, changed in
different contexts and different intellectual, doctrinal
raillieu(see:chap.II,D); in certain contexts, the term
did mean ’’resolutions” or ’’vows”. Despite the signifi
cance of prapidhana as one of the important characteristics
of Mahayana bodhisattvas, there remains a great deal that
awaits further research, especiallîth regard to its
origin.
In the Original Buddhism,, prapidhana meant the
’’longings" or ’’wishes" which belong to the material realm
as well as those belonging to the immaterial, or spiritual
realm. Therefore, it was considered to be a kind of '

14
attachment. In the Early and pre-Mahayana Buddhism,
the term had the special meaning of "vow” or "resolution"'

with the notion of firm determination . These resolutions
revealed the altruistic task and the ideal of the Bodhi-
sattva who aimed to realize the salvation of sentient
beings in the world* The origin of prapidhana in this
sense can be traced back to Mahavastu which describes
the ’’path of Resolution11'(prapidhana-carya, )
as one of the four paths of the Bodhisattva (i.e., the

"IS -n
Buddha-to-be). The Bodhisattva made a Vow that he may
eventually acquire various qualities and powers of the
Buddha in this path. His goal is to become the light
or the lamp of this world by turning the wheel of Dharma

16
for the sake of the multitude.
In the Mahayana Buddhism, prapidhana became a
significant term. It is mentioned in many of the early
Mahayana sutras, such as:.Wisdom (Prajna-paramita ),
the Botus (Saddharmapugdarika),Pure Land (Sukhayativyuha),

17
and the Garland (Avatarsaka, or Gandhavyuha).( It also
18
appears frequently in the Yogacara texts. The.dif
ferent types of prapidhana may be classified into three
groups, corresponding with the different conceptions
of Mahayana bodhisattvas. The first is the "Original
Vows" or "Original Resolutions" group which slightly
overlaps the one mentioned above (in the pre-Mahayana)•

It belongs to the Bodhisattvahood of various pa^t and
present Buddhas who reigned or now reign in their
respective Buddha Lands(buddha-kgetra, l^^Jjor ,
e.g., Aksobhya, Amitabha etc.. This prapidhana was
often combined with the '’prediction” (vyakaraâ, &)
which was granted as assurance by a teacher-Buddha.
The second prapidhana group is that of the
great Mahayana bodhisattvas of Compassion. The
bodhisattvas of Compassion (such as Avalokitesvum •
and other bodhisattvas of soteriological importance)
are characterized by their compassionate aspiration
to save and deliver the beings who suffer in their
samsaric states. Instead of entering the peaceful
and tranquil Nirvana,

a these bodhisattvas have chosen
to remain in this world of phenomena (see:the 4 kinds
of /Virv'ana? chap.II,D) so that they can perform their
self-imposed task, the work of salvation of all
beings. The bodhisattva Avalokitesvara Is the ideal
vision for Mahayana bodhisattvas as well as being

the ”saviour”^9for Mahayana devotees. He exempliffeS
"file bodhisattva of pr ajna-karupa combination,
not only because he is the embodiment of the Wisdom
of insight into the true reality but also because he
is characterised by pitying eyes with which he

53
compassionately looks on and observes all the suffering
beings in sa^sara. It was believed that he was equipped
with thirty-three transformation-bodies in order to

20
carry out the work of salvation in the world.
The third group of prapidhana is define# as
"determination” or "aspiration." The application of
the term was no longer limited to the great bodhisattvas,
and» later it was incorporated into the path of the
aspirants as one of requirements of higher bodhisattvas.
In the Yogacara school, the prahidhana was established
as the eighth of the ten paramita-s (see, chap.II, D ).
Its significance gradually shifted to Indicate another
point of departure., a new beginning of a bodhisattva
who has adopted the highest goal (anut tarasamyaksaiflbo dhi)
and who is about to start the infinite path. The
prapidhana used in this sense was often identified with

_ 21
cittotpada.
54
Chapter II, C The bodhisattva in-the
early Mahayana
C.1 Mahayana versus Hinayana
The Mahayanists severely criticised their opponents
and called them the followers of Hinayana, clearly with
a derogatory meaning and connotation of inferiority.

The Hinayana is identified with sravakayana(/tfl ),
the ’’vehicle of listeners, or disciples”, and with
pr a tyekabu d dhayana ( or , the ’’vehicle
of solitary saints” or the ’’vehicle of the independently
enlightened ones.” Though Hinayana is often wrongly
identified with the ‘southern transmission” of Buddhism,
or Theravada Buddhism, Hinayana should not be readily
identified with schools or systems. This is because
the Mahayanist criticism of their opponents in calling
them Hinayana was based on their disagreement over the
latter’s goals and the method, together with the
fundamental attitude.
Yana originally meant "that which carries one across”
the river td the other shore. It was often used metaphor
ically in the Original and Early Buddhism. The most
famous one is probably the parable of the raft. Yana
is also likened to a boat or a ship that ferries beings

21
across the ’’flood of samsara” to the place ’’beyond.”
55
The term , yana, presupposes two elements: a) the direction
of the goal or the ideal and, b) the path of_-practice
and the process of realising that ideal* Firstly, yana
involves the aim. The ideal or the goal of the Mahayana
is the Buddhahood which was defined in terms of the
Wisdom of BnlightenmentCprajna). Mahayanists considered
the ideal of Arhatship as a "lesser" and "smaller" China)
goal and claimed that deliverance from samsara by oneself
alone was not enough for the highest ideal. Secondly,
yana involves the method of realization of the ideal,
the "means" to the "end." The Mahayana path of the six
paramita- practices is the path of spiritual develop
ment which is open to all sentient beings. One can
follow the path in accordance with one's spiritual
capacity and ability for comprehension. Thus one can
gradually cultivate oneself towards spiritual maturity.
This gradual process is explained in terms of "merits"
(pupyai or gupa, ) and "good-roots"(kuâla-
-mula, ). The ideas of "merits" and "good roots"
were later incorporated, developed and systematized as
a part of the system of "consciousness" in the Yogacara
school, and they played very significant roles, especially
in the doctrine of the Btore-conscionsness.

The sharp criticism of their opponents made by the
Mahayanists arose not only from their fundamental dis
agreement regarding the interpretation of the teaching
but also from the frustration with the actual condition
of monastic institutions. It is probably a mistake to
reduce the reasons for the formation of the Mahayana
group to merely intellectual or ideological factors
or to metaphysical interpretation.-,of the teaching. The
formation of the Mahayana was a much more complex
religious phenomenon which needs to be related to the
whole historical matrix of socio-cultural and institu
tional factors, as well as to doctrinal claims. The
problem of interpretation of the Vinaya, for example,
was a far more complicated matter than simply a liberal
interpretation versus a strict, literal adherence to
commandments and regulations. Mahayanists pointed out
the ethical fallibility of human ’’saints11 and blamed
the self-righteous ethicism of the seemingly saintly
Elders of the Order. They also criticized those hypo
crites who indulge themselves in the pursuit of mundane
interests and sensual pleasures under the guise
monk's robe as well as those who are preoccupied with

2.2.
finding faults of others.
$7
There are at least three grounds on which the
Mahayanists criticised their opponents. They are:
(1) the latter’s indifference and unconcerned attitude
toward those who suffer in samsara, or their lack of
altruistic elements in their teaching, (2) the tendency
towards escape and isolation from the mundane, worldly
realm, and (3) exclusive elitism and self-righteousness.
Firstly, the Mahayanist criticism was against their
opponents* attitude of detached indifference toward the
laity and those who suffer in their world. The lack of
altruistic concern for the spiritual well-being of others
is considered by eminent Japanese scholars such as Ui
and Kimura to be the major issue. For the most part,
those in the Order apparently held out no hope of deliver
ance to those in the mundane world, outside their monastic
establishment. Even though they received donations and
special patronage from wealthy lay devotees with whom

23
they sometimes associated closely, there was clearly
a sharp division between the members of the Order and
those outside. This division applied not only to the
rules of conduct but also to doctrines regarding spiritual
attainments.
The ideal or the highest aim of the followers of
orthodox schools of Early Buddhism was the state of

complete deliverance from samsara, from the suffering
of transmigration, the chain of birth and death. This
static goal was called the "Nirvana of Extinction,"
the attainment of which meant the complete extinction
of conditioned elements which produce yet another
birth, it meant,therefore, eternal no-birth, no-suffer
ing, hence eternal non-existence. The goal which the
disciplesC i. e. , monks bhik£U -s , and nuns bhikigu%i-s)
sought and strived to attain was, however, not this
Nirvana, but the attainment of Arhatship. It meant
striving to achieve the highest degree of suppression
of those elements which enslave men to samsara.

• O The
path of those followers who had this ideal of Arhatship
was called sravakayana The following is a somethat
lengthy, but very good description of Arhat and Arhat-
ship by I.B.Horner;
” . . .to the disciples of Gotama the arahan came to
mean not only the Founder of the creed, or the revealer
of the religion, as it did in Jainism, not only the
person worthy of reverence and gifts, but the man or

woman who, with mind always alert, having attained
the freedom of heart and mind, to insight and
knowledge is an adept(as e kha), is perfect, a finished
product; one who has crossed over the flood andgone
beyond(paragata); who has rooted out craving and cut
off desire; who has destroyed asavas; who is versed
in the threefold lore(tevija); who has won excellence
in the thirty-seven things associated with enlighten
ment; who has attained nibbana; the man or woman
who has completed many other attainments, all of them
implying finalityr The arahan has, in a word, achieved
some static condition, where he is beyond the workings
of what is now called the Law of Causation. He has
no nedd of further development, of further progress.n
Seconlly, there were those who did not remain in
the monastic institutions. There was, among the saintly
ones, an increasing tendency towatds isolation and escape
from any direct contact or involvement with the mundane
world. The path of those solitary saints were called
pr a tyekabuddhayana. They maintained, in natural surround
ings, eremitic life away from villages and habitation.
Some of them became increasingly inclined to ascetic
rigorism. They were in sharp contrast to the tendency
of decadence and corruption within the institutionalized
affluenct Order, for there were frequent reports of monas
tery-dwellers who were there only to secure the easy

. 25
subsistence the Order offered..
60
The tendency towards isolation and ascetic practices
increased even to the extent of an ’’almost complete
solitude” and some lived like real ascetics in "terrify-
ing places in jungles and mountains.”
Thirdly, the Mahayanists criticized the exclusivism
of their opponents. There was an official ceremony of
full ordination(upasagipada, ) through which a
novitiate was officially accepted as a full member
of the Order. The conservative group used it as an
established qualification and as the criteria for a
Buddhist monk "proper.” Those who had not been ordained
in this manner, including Mahayanists and other mendicants,
were therefore, excluded from the official monkdom and
privileges. The. status of the Mahayanists was not’
accepted as Buddhist disciples and, in some cases, they

27
were badly treated by those m the Order. The orthodox
group of conservatives thus maintained a facade of rigid
ethicism and elitistic orthodoxy. They also held a mono
poly on salvation, because, according to their doctrines,
the attainment of final salvation or deliverance was
limited only to those who stayed away from the mundane
world —either ■ .to the semi-ascetic saints or to those
within the territory of the monastic Order, which theoreti-

28
cally guaranteed a pure and non-worldly life.
6
C«2 The bodhisattva in the Mahayana
The rise of the Mahayana heralded a new vision,
a more universalized concept of bodhisattvahood.
The term bodhisattva was no longer limited to various
life™forms of the Buddha Sakyamuni as was the case
of the Bodhisattva in the Jatakas or to those of
other Buddhas* Instead, the bodhisattvahood became
theoretically open to all sentient beings, provided
they aspire to realize the ideal of Enlightenment
and follow the same path as that of the great
Bodhisattva* The term bodhisattva was used by a
growing group of liberal Buddhists as a synonym
for the ’’one who is a seeker of Enlightenment”,
hence an ’’aspirant of the ideal of Buddhahood,”
pursuing the supreme path toward its realization*
It became the general term for describing the '
MahSyana vision itself as well as describing the
ardent follower of that vision. Initially the term
was not applied to concrete individuals or to oneself.
If one identified oneself with this vision, it was
only within one’s self-awareness as an aspirant
of that vision. One had to strive and spiritually
cultivate oneself so that all aspects of one’s

£2
existence may eventually comply with the vision
and become identical with it. The term came to
include a wider range of aspirants who already
aroused the ’’aspiration for Enlightenment”, the
profound experience of Mind.
The Mahayana bodhisattva was characterised
by two elements: a) the ideal of Buddhahood, or
the attainment of the highest Wisdom of Enlighten
ment (prajha) as the highest goal, and b) the prac
tice of the path of six paramita practices, with
a sustained effort to continue a long and hard
path of spiritual cultivation and perfection.
C.2 a) The aspiration for Enlightenment
The two requirements of Mahayana bodhisattva
is, firstly, the ’’aspiration for the Enlightenment”
(bodhic i ttotpada, cittotpada, )
and, secondly, the path of the Six Paramita practices
(sat-paramita, 7^ ) - The significance of
the ’’aspiration for Enlightenment” (bodhicittotpada,
literally meaning the "arising of the Bodhi-Mind")
was well established among early Mahayanists as
the vital element of a bodhisattva, probably by
the first or the second century A.D.. In a work

&
attributed to Ndgarjuna,, a Mahayana bodhisattva was
defined, in terms of this aspiration, as the one
who has already raised the Mind toward the supreme

path?9
The term bodhicit totpada, or cittotpada, has
been translated differently, for example: ’’arousing
the thought (that is, aspiration) for supreme, perfect

30
Enlightenment” , ’’the production of the thought of
31
Enlightenment” , or ’’initiation or conception of the
32
thought of Bodhx.” Before proceeding to its actual
significance, the meaning of citta and utpada shall
be briefly examined. Citta is generally translated
into English as ’’thought” or "idea” in the compound
cittotpada. Dayal claims and recommends to do so
on the grounds that it is ’’derived from the root
cit, meaning 'to perceive, to form an idea in mind

33
etc.*” . What he failed to realize was that, in
the general Buddhist context, human sentient existence
was described by the word ”Mind”(citta, |I3 ). There
are three terms which describe the sentient existence,
each indicating different functional aspects. The
three are: (i) ’’Mind” (citta, /IS ), the totality of
sentient existence? (ii) ’’Will” or "Volition” (manas, ),
the volitional aspect and the function of conceptualization;

&
(iii) ’’Consciousness" (vi j nana, )» the empirical
and cognitive side of sentient existence, Citta
indicates the sum total of the sentient existence
as opposed to the material, physical aspects of
human existence with which it holds mutual relation™

3zl-
ship. In the context of Buddhism, it is understood
as the basis of spiritual aspirations, practices
and progress. Citta is, therefore, of utmost impor
tance in the process of spiritual development.
Utpada is the term used frequently in Buddhism
to indicate the notion of "coming into existence,"
and it is used interchangeably with the word denoting

35
"birth." But we need not go into details at this
point except to bear in mind that the idea of existence
is phenomenologically understood as "coming into
existence" or "arising". The idea of "arising"
should be grasped as a point in a flux of process,
and it is inseparable from the idea of inter-dependent
co-origination (pratityasaûtpada ).
Bodhicittotpada, or simply cittotpada, points
to an event that takes place as a phenomena of Mind,
in the form of a fixed orientation of Mind and the
firm determination to realize the goal of Enlightenment.

The term essentially implies the activation of Mind
as the result of that event. It is the initial point
of departure in a bodhisattva’s long career and in
his pursuit for the ideal by following the path.
The Mind is from this point onwards "set in motion".
Dayal describes it as the "conversion" event that
makes an ordinary person into a bodhisattva. How
ever, in using the English word conversion, which
is charged with certain connotations, one should
be mindful of the fact that cittotpada was never
a merely psychological or mental change. One should
beware not to reduce it to any notion which may
imply a mere "thought" or a purely mental, psycho:- '
luteal event. Cittotpada involved, on one hand, the
aspiration or determination of Mind and, on the other,
actual, strenuous practice of the spiritual discipline
for a long period of time, whether the path be the
rules of conduct or paramita practices. The sig
nificance of cittotpada should therefore be under
stood in functional terms, as the basic source of
zeal which sustains the effort in the practise and
in the pursuit of the bodhisattva path.

The significance of cittotpada is better clarified
if we take into account the social and institutional
millieu out of which the Mahayana evolved. As mentioned
earlier, there was a ceremony which was established for
the novitiates’ official entry into the monastic Order.
This rite of full ordination was called upasa%ipada(
It had two elements: Firstly, the candidate had to have
a mentor or a tutor who presents him into the scene
of this ceremony. The teacher then publicly pronounces
the candidate's faith in the Three Tr ensures (triiratna)
and his acceptance of the Vinaya in the presence of
other Elders of the Order, asking for their consent.
Secondly, the candidate had to be accepted by the silent

38
consent of these Elders. Upon successful completion
of this ceremony the candidate was granted the status
of an officially accepted member of the Order, hence
a Buddhist disciple "proper”. He was then provided
with the visible outward fittings of a monk^-a robe,
a begging bowl etc.( Ibid»).
The follower of early Mahayana clearly did not
go through this ceremony. Probably for this reason,
they were ignored by those in the Order, and were
badly treated as outsiders of sangha or as unquali-

39
fied monks. The harshness with which early Mahayanists
criticised their opponents may be thus explained
in terms of social and historical circumstances
under which they-suffered.
Though officially denied of their disciplehood,
most of these Mahayanist monks^devoted to their
cause and to the»spirit of Buddhist teaching. They
followed the path diligently in their own way, and
gradually formulated their own scheme of entry into
a genuine Buddhist disciplehood to replace the
traditional rite of full ordination. They rejected
external, established authority for entry into the path.
They rejected the necessity of institutional authori^ti-
•jYo'rz - as well as the importance of merely external
appearance of a monkhood. The formality of the
ceremony and approval of Elders were thus replaced by
an inner element, the aspiration for the realization
of Enlightenment and the firm determination for carrying
out the pursuit. Under these circumstances the
cittotpada or bodhicit totpada was emphasized and highly
valued by the Mahayanists as the spiritual, inner
qualification which distinguishes bodhisattvas from
those who were Buddhist monks only by virtue of their
external appearances as well as from ordinary men and

40
heretics. They .thus re-defined the essence of
68”
genuine Buddhisthood and the nature of religious

41
ethics. Some of the metaphysical interpretations
of this aspiration are probably the product of later
reflections.
The cittotpada is the initial point at which
one turns to and orientates oneself toward the ideal
of Enlightenment to which all the strivings are
directed. It is the beginning of a long spiritual
journey toward the realization of the highest wisdom
of Enlightenment, pr a jna-parami t a. This point of
departure of a determined aspirant is the first and
vital step in the long spiritual journey of a bodhisattva’s
career. It was never enough for early Mahayanists to
praise the importance of the cittotpada. Their claim
was such that the sutras are abundant with passages
which emphatically praise it. Among them, the most
famous is the passage in the Dasabhumika-sutra.
It is well-known particularly because of its pro
clamation of the utmost importance of cittotpada
for the whole process of spiritual development of

zi Qi
an aspirant.
In the course of time, however, cittotpada
gradually lost its close relationship with the

69
spiritual disciplines and inner force, hence lost
the intensity and awareness with which it initially

A-3
arose in the historical and social context. This
was coupled with the rise of new conceptions of
Buddhahood and Enlightenment. A formulation of
another point of departure was already on its way
for the Mahayana bodhisattvas who were highly moti
vated and spiritually developed. This development
was characterized by the stages of spiritual progress
and levels of awareness in the practice of the

— - , 44
Mahayana bodhisattva path(see chap. IX,D).
C.2 b) The path of six paramita-s leading to
the Wisdom of Enlightenment (prajha)
The practice of Six Paramita-s emerged as the
Mahayana path for all bodhisattvas. It is a path
involving a long process of spiritual cultivation
by accumulating ’’merits” and by developing the
wisdom of insight. The six are:
(1) dana-parami ta (-4/7 77'tg ); charity, generosity,
giving.
(2) îla-p. ( Iffe ) jraorality, good conduct.
( j'SL )j forbearance, patience.
zeal, energy.
(TTsfl )? meditation, concentration.
(6) prajna-p. ( Jyrj 5 wisdom, intuitive knowledge#

I/O
The socially beneficial qualities were highly
valued and were considered to be "meritorious",
hence condusive to salvation and deliverance.
One accumulates "merits" or "good roots" through
these actions or practices. The merits accumulated
eventually brings about a happier re-birth or a
more fortunate and better conditions--such as
higher states of existence or a birth into a good
family. By thus acquiring better conditions, one
attains states which are better equipped with
external conditions for the cultivation of spiritual
insight.
Ihe path of paramita-practices was not limited
to those Bodhisattvas who have accomplished their
task or to the great Mahayana bodhisattvas of Com
passion; this Mahayana path which ultimately leads
followers to the highest Wisdom (prajna-paramita)
beca-me open and available to all sentient beings.
The Mahayanists claimed that whoever follows this
path with the aspiration for Enlightenment "is" a
bodhisattva. In the scheme of this path, the contrast
ing elements of existence (e.g„, conditioned-un
conditioned, pure-impure etc.) were no longer conceived

as dipolarity but as points within the whole continuum
of one reality. This implied that the relationship
between the contrasting spheres of existence (e.g.,
the unenlightened-enlightened, nirvana-samsara) also
came to be located within the continuum. ‘The finis
of all the six paramita practices signified the
enlightened sphere, the realm of the Buddhas, perfect
in merit as well as profound spiritual Wisdom of
insight.
C.2 b) The path of six paramita-s leading to the
Wisdom of Enlightenment (prajSta)
The word paramita is etymologically explained

46
in three ways-*- But since Dayal explains it m
detail(p.6f>), we shall only mention the following
three meanings: (i) the state of having reached the
other shore or the beyond, (ii) the highest condition,
best state, or perfection, and (iii) highest virtue.
The significance of para in the context of
Early Buddhism is well explained by Horner in Arahan..
She reports that the word para allegorically indicated
the state of the beyond or the other shore of samsaric

47 o
existence. It was frequently used metaphrically in
72
connection with the notion of the "flood” (Ibid.,
p.2'79)* I't meant the further bank of the river, the
bank beyond the stream of transmigration, hence
the words such as the "one who is going beyond”
Horner
also reports that the word para became increasingly
identified with the "notions of the work completed,
the task done, and the struggle over" (p.^01). In
the context of Early Buddhism, speculations regarding
the nature of the "beyond” was refrainedând para
as the realm of Arhats and above are simply left
untouched by verbal descriptions.
The Jataka stories became increasingly popular
among the lay followers. The Bodhisattva was highly
praised and his virtuous deeds of self-sacrifice,
forbearance, and wisdom became objects of admiration.
These virtuous qualities came to be so highly valued
as qualifications of great Bodhisattvahood, the stage
of preparation of the Buddha. The greatness of^Bodhi-
sattva was understood as the inevitalbe outcome, as
the natural function of immeasurable merits he had
accumulated in his past lives by performing good
and virtuous deeds. The impact of the Jatakas over

V3
the doctrines of the orthodox schools( the Elders’
group) is observed from the fact that it is referred
to and even, in some cases, assimilated the paramita-s

48
into their doctrines* It is also reported that,
in the Mahavastu, the three factors (dana, sila, and
prajna) are mentioned as the practice through which
the Bodhisattvas in the past have attained their

49
Enlightenment and Buddhahood* It is, therefore,
highly likely that the MahSyana path of six paramita
has its origin in the pervasive popularity of the
Jatakas
D. The bodhisattva in the Yogacara
D.1 The philosophy of Mind in the Yogacara doctrines
An extensive system of monistic ontology was developed
in the Yogacara school in terms of philosophy of Mind,
the teaching of "Mind-only” or "Consciousness-only".
The conception of Mind is very important in understand
ing the Yogacara view of existence which serves as the
ontological foundation for the bodhisattva path and the
stages of spiritual progress.
The soteriological significance of Mind is traced
back to the Da&abhumika-sutra in which the teaching of
"Mind-only"(cittamatra, ) was expounded. The early
theory of "Mind-only" developed probably inconnection
with the idea of "Luminous Mind" which purported that
the Mind is originally pure and luminous even though
it is clouded in ordinary states, covered by hindrances
and defilements. The process of uncovering these
hindrances—i.e. , revealing the original purity of Mind—
was, therefore, the path for the deliverance of Mind.
In the Yogacara, the three aspects of Mind mentioned
earlier—that is, "Mind"(citta, /£? ), "Volition"(manas,
), and "Consciousness"(vijUana, )—were analyzed
in greater detail and systematized as the eight kinds

<1$
of consciousness (vijnana, ) in the theory of the
” S t or e - c o ns c i o u sne s s”(alay a-vi .jâna, ). The
eight are:'
(D ’eye-consciousness” ( cakgur-vi,jnana, )
(2) ’ear-cons.” (ghrapa-v., X )
(3) ’nose-cons.” (£rotra-v., jt )

....... ~
(4) ’tnngue-cons.” (,-jihva-v., -jy )
(3) ’body-cons.” (kaya-v., )
(6) ’thought-cons.” (mano-v», ^'f^' )
(7) ’Ego-cons.” (manas, —also called kligla-manas
(8) ’Store-cons.” (alaya-y., (other names are
adana, aliya, amala, indicating different states)
Though originally neutral, the Store-consciousness is
’’defiled” in ordinary states, because of the mental
function of manas which has the tendency toward ’’defile
ment”. Manas is, therefore, called kjigfca-manas, the

ss
’’defiled manas. In the system of the Store-conscious
ness, the soteriological process is described as the
’’conversion, or transformation, of the basis”: (^raya-
-paravrtti, or -parivrtti, » the fundamental
transformation which leads one to the purified, perfected

4
mode of existence. This process is describeîn terms of
attaining the four kinds of Wisdom (see:the list below).

The idealism of early Yogacara is primarily based
on the philosophy expounded in the âgidhinirmocana-
sutra and in the works attributed to Maitreyanatha
and ‘Asanga. One of the major doctrines of the Yogacara
is the doctrine of "Three Natures"(trisvabhava, „g 'I’at) .
The doctrine of Three Natures expounds three kinds of
svabhava( meaning, "substance," "own-nature" or "own
being"). The first para ta n tr a -svabhava (,
or the "nature of dependent origination," is the true
state of all things in phenomena. It is "real" in that
it has come into existence by the unity of elements
and conditions. But it is "not real" in the absolute
sense. It is relative and provisional in that it is a
conditioned state and does not have an independent ..
nature of its own.
The second parikalpita-svabhava (,
the"universally attached nature", is an illusory and
imaginary nature in which reality is perceived by way
of mental projections or illusory constructions (abhuta-
parikalpita). It is the nature, svabhStva , pervaded by
ignorant attachments which are caused by conceptual dis
crim i na t i o n s (v i kal pa, ) and basic ignorance (avidya,
)• Mind is thereby bound to illusions and
objects of external reality because of these attachments.

<7'7
The third. parinigpanna-svabhavaC HO ) is
the "fully realized nature" or the ."nature in which the
truth is perfectly accomplished*" It is the highest and
perfected nature, and hence absolute. V/hen "hindrances"
(i.e., greed, attachments, discrimination and ignorance)
are altogether extinguished, the true nature of existence
is revealed in its highest state. It points to the highest
mode of existence of a Mind, fully accomplished and
perfected. It signified the state of a Mind which has
realized the Wisdom of the truth, and in which the true
1 * dharma-na t ur e"(dharma ta) is accomplished and revealed
in its fullness and perfection.
The understanding of paratantra-svabhava Is probably
the most important in this doctrine. This is because it
provides the objective basis for the illusory nature
as well as for the perfectly realized nature? The three
kinds of svabhava should not be conceived as three
separate entities that exist by themselves. Though
translated as "nature", they all point to the relation
ship one holds with the empirical, external reality.
Reality is one but appears differently because it is
perceived and cognized differently by beings of diverse
spiritual capacities. All the three "natures" are, in
this sense, essentially insubstantial, hence the three

kinds of "non-nature" (nibsvabhava, ~$L- >)-.£ )•
The theory of Three Natures, together with that of
Store-consciousness, served as the mainstay of the
Yogacara philosophy and, especially as the ontological
foundation for the path of practice and the schemes of
spiritual progress* The doctrine of Three Natures
explained the process of spiritual development, through
which the true and perfect nature is uncovered and
realized* The theory of the Store-consciousness
explained the soteriological process in which the pure,
or undefiled, "seeds'1 (til 3 a , are cultivated and,,
the "defiled" seeds extinguished.
Later among the Yogacara-vij'hanavadin commentators—
e.g., Dignaga, Sthiramati, Dharmapala—the epistemological
side of Mind philosophy was highly developed, including
the analyses of psychological and cognitive processes.
The two schools, the ôgacara-vijnanavada and the
Madhyamika became influential and competitive. They
not only stood in opposition to each other but also
mutually influenced by assimilating doctrines. The issue
regarding later schisms is beyond our present topic and
will not be therefore discussed here.

79
fi
D.2 The bodhisattvsyideal of Wisdom-Compassion
The Yogacara school established the compassionate
ideal of Mahayana bodhisattva, the ideal which combines
Wisdom (prajna), Compassion(kapup.a or maitri) and
Expedient means (upaya). ^he .element of Compassion
had existed in the bodhisattva path and ideal since the
early Mahayana in which the goal of bodhisattva was
characterized by the attainment of the highest Wisdom
of Enlightenment.
In the Yogacara, the attainment of Wisdom alone
was no longer considered sufficient, and a combination
of Wisdom, great Compassion and the perfection in
guidance was doctrinally and philosophically systematized.
The Wisdom was re-interpreted as the spiritual
insight with a rational and intellectual notion, as
the profound insight into the truth of ’’dharma-nature”
(dharmata, of Equality. It was also called the
undefiled Wisdom of Mon-discrimination(avikalpa-jhana,
$£^80 ilj On attaining this insight, the bodhisattva
attains ’’purity" by virtue of having conquered and ex
tinguished "defilements” and of having attained the
undefiled Wisdom. He thereby enters the pure realm of
dharmadhatuC^^- ). From this moment onwards, ■

80
the bodhisattva is in the higher stage; , and he practises
a higher level of bodhisattva path, the path of Compassion.
The goal aimed at * 'in this spiritual level is the ultimate
ideal, the supreme Enlightenment of Equality which is
characterised (in the Yogacarq2, by the perfect realization
of great Compassion and guiding activities as well as

i
the realization of Wisdom. The following concepts and
theories were systematized and established as descriptions
of the ideal in the Yogacara.
(1) the four kinds of Nirvapa
(i) the pure Nirvana( nirvapa, )
(ii) the Nirv&pa w^th residue (sopadhi-£ega-n. ,
(iii) the N.without residue (nirupadhi-sega-n.
(iv) the N. of No-abode (apratistfoita-n., )
(2) the three kinds of Buddha's body (trikaya,^^ )
(i) the Dharma-body , or Essence-body (dharmakaya, )
(ii) the body of Recompense (or Paradise-body)(sambhoga-
kaya, or )
(iii) the transformation-body (nirmapa-kaya, 'fLJf' , ,
or>M0
(3) the ten paramita-s, the six paramita-s of the

’7
early Mahayana and the following four:
(i) the Expedient means (upaya, )
(ii) the resolution, or the great aspiration (prapidhana^g )

21
(iii) the power or special abilities (bala, ft )
(iv) the knowledge(jnana, )
(4) the four kinds of Wisdom, acquired as the result
of the "conversion or transformation of the basis”
(asraya-paravytti,
(i) the great mirror^/isdom(31dar 6a-" jnana, )
--by transforming the eighth alaya-vijnana
(ii) the Wisdom of Equality(samata~jnana, 'W )
--by transforming the seventh manas
(iii) the Wisdom of excellent Discernment(pratyaveksagta-»
jnana,.-#^ ) —~by tranforming the sixth mano-v.
(iv) the Wisdom of accomplishing activities, or the
Wisdom of accomplishing metamorphoses (kgtyanuig^hana"
jnana, )—by transforming the first five
vijnana-s
The shift of emphasis in the interpretation regarding
that which chracteriaes the ideal is reflected in all
the above descriptions.

£2
I1 ^z
Tê highest Nirvana of Wo-abocLe indicates the ideal
of the highest bodhisattva stage in which the bodhisattva
remains in this world in order to perform the work of
salvation, instead of entering the realm of extinction
or tranquility. *L’he bodhisattva in this spiritual level
is neither attached to pure and tranquil realm of

detachment nor is he boundjbo "defilements” of sanisara.
He thus performs the guiding activities of the path at
the highest level, and his actions are without any "hindrance
The bodhisattva in this highest state is, therefore,
equal with a Buddha and identical with a Tathagata, hence he
is sometimes called the "dharmakaya bodhisattva.”
The content of Buddhahood also changed: from the
entry into the realm of peaceful Nirvana of Extinction
and the Wisdom of Enlightenment to the Compassion and
guidance in the world. The trikaya theory which only
vaguely existed before was doctrinally established
in the Yogacara. The significance of the third "trans
formation-body” lies in that it reveals the importance
of functional and practical guiding work of the Buddha,
Buddhahood thereby acquired, philosophically and
doctrinally, the means for the active manifestation in

I
I £3
I
the world and for the performance of actual guidance.
I The new ideal of the bodhisattva of great Compassion
is the one who guides* , enlightens and saves other
I sentient beings. The highest bodhisattva stage, therefore,
signifies the work of guidance as an active and creative
mode of being in the empirical realm of phenomena. The
I work of guidance became very important,
means (upaya,
and the Expedient
) or the Skillful .means(upaya-kau<alya,
I came to be considered as vital for the higher
bodhisattvas. The higher bodhisattvas were supposed to

I become well acquainted and skilled i;n all kinds of
I expedients with which he can educate and instruct the
multitude by gradually guiding them to deliverance
I and to Enlightenment.
8
According to Dayal, "...the object of upaya-
I kau6alya is stated in the B o dh i s a 11vabhum i to be the
I conversion of those who are hostile or indifferent to
the path, and development and liberation of those who
I already profess Buddhismf,(p.248) • He also says that
it is "especially related to a bodhisattva’s work as
I a preacher and teacher.... The Bodhisattvabhumi declares
that it is a bodhisattva’s duty to be an effective
preacher"(lbid.).
I
I
$4
It is ''generally exercised in order to gain access to
the people, to win their sympathy, to explain the
principle of religion in a popular manner and facilitate
propaganda"(Ibid.). Yogacarins in this way took a very
realistic approach toward guiding activities^ and also
toward the empirical and relative existence in phenomena.
The ideal of purity and tranquility in the absolute realm
of Nirvana was gradually taken over by the ideal of
Compassion and guidance in the world^ while?at the same
time;? assimilating those elements which belonged to the
former ideal (seej the four kinds of Nirvapa^ above).
The practical side of salvation work was thus em
phasised, especially by the term upaya-kausalya which
meant the "skillful means” or the "skillful application
of Expedient means." A bodhisattva in higher stages are
required, as mentioned earlier, various practical
knowledges(jffana),skills, alibities(bala)etc.. A wide
variety of these practical means, or expedients, were
therefore formulated to "embrace" diverse spiritual
capacities, hence diverse needs and longings of sentient
beings. These "means" included special skills (e.g. in
oration), scientifc or medical knowledge and arts. They

The bodhisattva in higher spiritual level makes
use of all these means, educate the multitude to accumulate
’’merits” by teaching them to perform meritorious actions
and to follow the path. He thereby guides them to
deliverance. He also guides other bodhisattvas to higher
levels of practice, teaching them the highest bodhisattva
ideal and leading them gradually to the highest MahaySna
path of great Compassion.
In this way, the new ideal not only emphasized the
necessity of practical and realistic means of guidance
but also shed light on the social dimention of empirical
existence. The considerations, or accommodations> for
the diversity in the spiritual capacity of sentient
beings were also assimilated into the path--In order that
the task might be successfully accomplished. They were
especially necessary in teaching and guiding the simple^
pious people who are not so spiritually advanced as the
bodhisattvas. In this context, it is noteworthy what
Dayal says, by quoting passages from the Bodhisattvabhumi-
(pp.248-2^9)J
“A bodhisattva should always adapt his teaching to the

■ . capacity of the audience. He is like a physician, who
describes different remedies Bor different diseases
and different-persons. He speaks only of heaven to
those who desire a happy re-birth. He does not lay
£6
heavy burdens on his congregation. He does not ask

them to keep long fasts, but shows an easier way to
the simple, pious folk, who try to increase their
’Merit,’ He does not frighten them with the profound
teaching of Emptiness, which he reserves for more
advanced aspirants.”
III. D.3 The Yogacara path
a) Five Ranks and ten bhumi-s : twofold nature and
gradualism
The importance of actual practice of the path
was highly emphasized and complex systems which
describe various spiritual levels were established,
probably by incorporating elements from outside the
Mahayana. The two well-known schemes which may be
considered as representative are the five "Ranks"
(marga or yogabhumi ) and the ten "bodhisattva
stages" (bodhisattvabhumi )a
. 10
The five Ranks are:
(i) the Rank of great assemblage( d’X ), or
(iii) the Rank of Insight( darsana-m. ok )
(iv) the Rank of Practice(bhavaha-m,, 'iit )
(v) the highest Rank (asaik§a-m., or

8%
(3) the Illuminating (prabhakari, )
W the Radiant (arcigmatx, )
(5) the Invincible (sudur ;j ay a, )
(6) the Revealed (adhimukhi, )
(7) the Far-going (durangama, CT )
(8) the Immovable (aoala, TF-ijpJ )
(9) the Good Ones (sadhumati, M JS- )
(10) the Cloud of Dharma (dharmamegha, )
In the Yogacara,the path of spiritual practice
is essentially twofold. The bodhisattva path in this
school is a combination of two distinctly different

12
path of practice which is combined with the two
fold ideal of purity and compassion. It consists
of the path of meditative (in the general sense of
the term) practices at various leve3£, on one hand,
and the Mahayana path of paramita-s (the later ten
as well as the six paramita-s of the early Mahayana)
and of Merit-transference, on the other. In the
Yogacarabhumi, these two kinds of spiritual paths
are expounded in separate sections next to each '
other. The state aimed by the meditative practices
is tranquility and purity—the attainment of the
undisturbed and still state of mind. It indicates

the state of Mind, which is free, or "separated", from
two kinds of ’’defilements" or "hindrances"—*i.e.,
ments, and to) vikalpa( ), the mental function
of. "discrimination" which arises from ignorance
(avidya, ejp. The ideal of Compassion, the Mahayana
ideal, was exemplified toy the importance of guidance
and guiding activities which were considered to toe
the highest goal and aim of higher bodhisattvas.
This twofold nature of the path and ideal is
reflected in the schemes of the Yogacara bodhisattva
stages mentioned above.
The path of practice in the Yogacara signify
the process of gradual development of "Mind" which
is led to spiritual progress and attains higher and
higher spiritual levels, eventually realizing the
twofold ideal of purity and Compassion. This process
may toe roughly classified into two :
(1) the initial path and the path leading to Wisdom
(2) the path beyond Wisdom, the path of Compassion
These are explained separately below.

qo
Firstly the path before the attainment of Wisdom
consists of two phases: a) cultivation of piety and
firm belief, ^'he practice provided for this spiritual
level consists of ”good"(kuâla) actions which
lead followers to happier re-birth and higher level
of the faithful, b) cultivation of Mind towards the
spiritual "ripening" • The practice at this level
consists of various levels of meditative activities
and meditative perception. The meditative practices
are called yoniô-manaskara ( or yoniô-manasikara ,
which revolve around the teaching,
the Dharma. When one comes to arouse the
"aspiration for Enlightenment" ox/the "excellent belief"
(adhimukti, ), one is then called a "bodhisattva."
The aspirant, a bodhisattva, then proceeds to a higher
meditative practice of âmatha, or "cessation".
Through the repeated practice of samatha, one comes
to extinguish all forms of attachment and, eventually
attains the profound insight into the truth. This
insight was called the undefiled Wsidom of Non
discrimination (avikalpa-jnana). The bodhisattva
thereby enters the undefiled, pure realm

The attainment of this Wisdom of insight corresponds
to the Rank of Insight and to the eighth bodhisattva
bhumi which is often characterised by a) the attain
ment of the highest level of forbearance, the "patient
acceptance of the non-arisen, or non-arising, nature
b) the, realisation of Voidness of all things
) or, c) the realisation of the "nature of
"Ideation-only"(vijftaptimatrata,
Secondly, the path beyond Wisdom* It is essentially
the path of Compassion of the bodhisattvas in higher
and ultimate stages, and Is also twofold : a) cultiva
tion of Compassion and, b) the highest path of great
Compassion and unhindered guidance. The bodhisattva
perceives the "reality" of suffering beings in samsara,
and gives rise to the resolution(prapidhiana) , or the
higher aspiration, to save and deliver them --by guid
ing them to the truth and to Enlightenment. The practice
at this level is often described in terms of Merit-
transference and ten paramita-s.
The highest path of great Compassion is the path
of pure altruism without even the subject-object dualism.
It corresponds to the tenth bodhisattva stage, and

the practice at this level is often described as the
’’practice which is in .accordance with the truth of
Dharma” ( f dharma--} anudharma-pratipatti, )
(see: chap.IV, D )•
The goal is far beyond, and the path gradual
and endless. The Yogacara path is,therefore, infinite
and endless with regard to time and practice. It
was believed that it takes at least three dsa&khyeya-
-kalpa-’S from the initial point to the realization
of the goal in the Yogacara path.
b) The initial path
The initial path is the stage before one becomes
a bodhisattva and Is essentially a preparatory stage
leading to bodhisattvahood. It is described in the
Mahayanasutr alaiflkara as the ’’Sank of great assemblage”
meaning the path through which a mass of ordinary
sentient beings flock together and form an assemblage

15
in order to hear the teaching. It is better known
as the "Rank of Provision” , the path in which an
ordinary being collects, or accumulates, ’’provision”

(safflbliara, Mby forming habits of good conduct
and piety. He thereby accumulates "merits"(pupya,
or ) and "good-roots"(ku&ala-mula, )
which are condusive not only to happiness but also,
eventually, to deliverance.
The devotees, by following the path, gradually
acquire spiritual conditions which are suitable
for the attainment of firmer faith and deeper com
prehension of the teaching. Through this path, they
are guided to prepare for and proceed to the practices
of concentration and contemplation. The path consists
of various practices of duties which belong to the
world-realm such as, for example, good conduct of a
moral, filial nature, and acts of devotion and
worship. It is also referred to as the practice of
the six paramita-s at a lower level. All these
actions lead the followers not only to their
salvation but also to attaining bodhisattvahood.
The objective of this initial path is, therefore,
twofold. The path leads the devotees to happier states
of deliverance from evil states of suffering by virtue
of their following the path, on one hand, and it leads
them to become an aspirant of the Wisdom of Enlighten
ment, a bodhisattva^ on the other. Later, a sizable

list of practices were incorporated into the initial
path in the Vi tj naptimatra tas i ddhi -âs tr a ( ffc,

Zj £
) and the Fa-hsiang school lists, such practices
as "ten kinds of dwelling"( "h ),"ten kinds of
(dharma-)actions"( -t or and "ten kinds
of Merit-traxisference"( fSV )•
c) The path leading to Wisdom
In the scheme of the five Ranks, the second
Rank corresponds to the path leading to the real
ization of Wisdom. It was known in the Fa-hsiang .
school as the "Rank of Added Practice"( '/7D j''OL ) •
In another context, it was described as the "path
of Expedient means"( 7? ), meaning the path
of practice which was established as the method, or
as the causal factor for the education of sentient
b e ings( pra.,j nap ti, [S 7}&(*
This path was characterized by the process called
yoniso-manaskara ( or yoni&o-manasikara, )•
It is described as "attempts at 1 experiencing' the

*| Q
truth of the teachingCDharma)." ' It signifies the
deepening process of "knowing" the truth, or the
"existential understanding" of the teaching. An

aspirant gradually remolds his thought-process by
20
means of meditative activities, by concentrating
on certain objects which represent and reveal the
teaching of the truth. This includes such practices
as mindfulness(smyti and anusmyti), fixation and con-
centration(y oni6o-manaskara, see also chap.IV} $
cessation (£amatha), the practice of visualization,
and meditative perception (vipa^yana and samadhi).
The process of spiritual progress by yoniô-manas-
kara is explained in terms of the four phases of
spiritual ’’ripening", ^hey were also called the
four "good roots" (nirvedha-bhagiya,
). The four are
(2) "summit" (murdhana, )
(3) the "patient acceptance" (kganti, )
(4) the ".highest in the world" ( laukikagrya-dharma,
These four phases indicate the gradual process
through which an aspirant transcends the worldly mode
of existence in which one is bound to external objects
of desire and greed because of attachment and clinging.

%
In the process of realizing "purity", two kinds
of meditative practices are frequently mentioned.
They are esamatha, ’’cessation”, and vipasyana,
’’meditative perception”, and they are together called
the "yoga practices’^ ). Some Japanese
scholars identify them with the practice of bhavana-
-manga (see: the five Ranks above). The practice
of &amatha is to tranquilize various mental activi
ties and to attain the still state of Mind. It
consists of controling the sense-organs which tend
to be attached to external objects and suppressing

23
illusive activities of Mind. In this Way, one
gradually comes to eradicate attachments to external
objects and extinguish the mental function of
’’discrimination. ” He thereby realizes the undisturbed^
concentrated and still state of Mind which is no
longei’ bound to ’’defilements".
When the bodhisattva has separated himself from

f/
’’defilements”, his Mind is ’’undefiled, and he is then
called the ’’bodhisattva of Pure Mind” ,
see: chap.IV, D). His perception of external reality
is no longer defiled by illusory constructions
(abhu ta-pa.r ikalpita); his Mind has attained the still

itnd amoved stofe „
<?'7
The attainment of the Wisdom of Non-discrimina
tion is characterized also by the realization of
the insight into tfre "dharma-nature” of Equality.
On attaining this insight, one transcends the
self-centered system of universe which existed in
one’s fundamental conceptual framework. Because of
the detached objectivity attained by virtue of having
conquered "hindrances”, or those which hinder the

S'
true perception of reality, the Pure Mind sees or j’Ctcei
all things "unpervertedly" or "correctly"
without any distortions. It is likened, therefore,
to an unclouded mirror which clearly reflects objects
of perception and phenomena as they are (see: the
four kinds of Wisdom in D.2). Thereupon, the true
reality presents itself to the Pure Mind, and this
represents the bodhisattva’s entry into the undefiled,
pure realm of the truth, the dharmadhatu.
It may be mentioned here that, in the Chinese
Fa-hsiang school, the process of realization of
Wisdom was explained in terms of twofold insight into
Voidness, the insubstantiality, of all things. Firstly,^
one attains the insight into the insubstantiality
of all external objects ( ), and realizes the

relative and provisional nature of conceptual cate
gories (such as names and words of objects) which
are "grasped” and attached to as the result of
discrimination or objectified conceptualisation.
One thereby attain^bhe intuitive insight that all
external objects are merely illusory images created
by the ,,defiled,, function of Mind. This marks a
spiritual awakening, and this process is called
the "entry into the nature of ’Ideation-only’
(vij jaaptimatrata)", the sphere of subjective idealism.
Secondly, one attains the insight into the in-r.^
substantiality of consciousness, or Mind, itself
( of )• The consciousness (i.e., alaya-
-vijnana) is wrongly conceived and grasped as "self"
or "I" in unenlightened states, as distinct from
"others", because of the discriminating function of
the "defiled manas", the defiled Ego-consciousness.
Vipasyana
The practice of vipasyana is meditative percep
tion and phenomenological observation. The word
consists of the prefix vi-, indicating division

2zf-
and distinction, and the verb fpas, meaning "to see."
One perceives and discerns objects in their diversity
and multiplicity* BD explains that it is !'to reflect
clearly the image of the object on the stilled state
of Mind,” or ”to see freely with the tranquil Mind

25
attained by meditation.”
There seems to be differentêvels at which
vipasyana is practised. Firstly, the practice at
a lower level consists of concentration and visualisa
tion of certain visual objects--such as the images
of Buddha and adorned bodhisattvas etc.. This
practice is for those who have not yet realised the
profound insight or purity, and it probably corresponds

\\ (/
to the Bank leading to the realization of Wisdom
and to that spiritual level. Secondly, the practice
of vipasyana at a higher level is the practice of
perceiving objects in an unobjectified manner. Those
bodhisattvas in higher stages perceive phenomena
as they trully are without illusion and without dis
tortion. Vipasyana at this level is a clear and un
hindered perception of reality with a phenomenological
perspective, with no. duality of subject-object.
Through the meditative perception of phenomena
at a higher level, the bodhisattva perceives the
’’reality” of suffering beings who are in their states

IN)
of woe, being enslaved by their own passionate attach
ments and delusions. Deep compassion is thereby stirred
in the bodhisattva in his samadhi state, moving him
to aspire for their deliverance. With resolution^
the bodhisattva then sets out on a higher Mahayana
path of guidance out of great Compassion. The prap.i dhana, or
resolution in the Yogacara context is, therefore,
a higher and determined aspiration, a strong inner
urge which arises in an already enlightened bodhi
sattva, out of his great Compassion for the suffering
multitudes in the world (see: ” egress', chap.IV, C).
d) The path beyond Wisdom: the p&th of Compassion
The bodhisattva then begins the higher Maha
yana path of Compassion. The higher level of bodhir,
sattva path corresponds to the eighth bodhisattva
bhumi, and it is described in terms of practices such
as ’’Merit-transference”(paripamana, ) and
the practice of ten paramita-s as the ’’practice which
is in accordance with the truth (of Dharma)” (fdharma-J
-anu dharma -prat ipa 11 i, )*
In the path of Merit-transference the bodhisattva
transfers, or re-directs,all the merits he has accumu-

lot
lated towards the realization of altruistic goal,
the salvation of other suffering beings.
The term anudharma-pratipatti is frequently
mentioned in the Yogacara texts, especially the

Jfie _ ., —
Bodhisattvabhumi and.Madhyanta-vibhaga . Anudharma
means "to comply with, to follow or to accord with
the teaching, the -^harma, or the Way which was
expounded and taught by Buddhas and Tathagatas.
Pratipatti (tr. as jfy or ) means the
"method of practice" or the path as a means ^p.105).
Anudharma-pratipatti means, therefore, "to follow
and comply with the path of practice as a means, or
as method." Sakurabe says that the term covered
various practices which are the Buddha's path^-prayna-*'

_ /ea^
-paramita and cultivation of elements whichAto the
29 - _
realization of Wisdom. In the Madhyanta-vibhaga,
the path^ten paramita-s is expounded as the highest
Mahayana path, the "highest vehicle") which

30
all bodhisattvas should practise.
Ten paramita-s
The path of ten paramita-s was established, in
the Yogacara as the highest bodhisattva path. It is
described as the "practice which is in accordance with

{02-
31
the truth’1. The objective of this path is no
longer characterized by the quest for the transr.
cendental Wisdom as was the case in the early Maha
yana. Its objective, or goal, is the perfect real
ization of guidance and great Compassion. It is
the path beyond Wisdom and the path of activities
for the guidance of all beings in the world.

__ _ 32
The significance of the four additional paramita-s-
is sometimes disregarded on the assumption that the
increase in number from six to ten was only to match

the ten which indicated "wholeness” and perfection.”"^
The fact that they increased in number is not so
important as the meaning which underlies the existence
of these four. All the four additional paramita-s
reflect the new Yogaoara emphasis'on the actual
work of guidance—of educating, spiritually "maturing”
other sentient beings, and leading them gradually into
following the path.
The seventh upaya- or upaya-kausaly.a-paramita
is explained by Dayal as "skillfulness or wisdom in
the adoption of the means or expedients for convert
ing others or helping them"(p.248). The eighth
pr api dhana-parami ta indicates the re-orientation of

/P3
Mind toward the highest ideal, indicating the clear
shift from earlier ideal. The bodhisattva perceives
in meditation the suffering multitudes, then, moved
by pity and compassion, he aspires far their salvation.
The bodhisattva thereupon resolves to save them from
their suffering, instead of dwelling in the tranquil
realm of purity in the state of transcendental
detachment from the "defiled11 world of phenomena
and attachments (see: chap.IV, C). The bodhisattva
sets out on an endless task, the salvation of all
suffering beings. His task is infinite, and his
mind; unhindered and boundless.
The two last paramita-s, "mystical powers" and
"knowledges" of various practical nature, are for
the effective application of Wisdom in the world-
realm. They indicate the practical bent and "catholicity"
which was probably closely related with the socio
cultural millieu in history.

/£></
II,E. She bodhisattva in the Pure Land teaching
E.1 The Pure Land Teaching
Until recently, Pure Land teaching received little
attention in the West, even though it has historically
exercised a far-reaching influence in the Ear East,
notably in Japan. The Skt.texts of the two major Pure
Land texts were published in 188j5 by F. Max Muller and
B. Nanjo. The event stimulated Japanese scholars in the
field and led them to take interest in the existence
of the Pure Land teaching outside Far East, viz. in
Indian context. Some attempts were made to trace the
connections between the Pure Land teaching in Japan and
the Original Buddhism in India. K.Fujita’s book, Genshi
Jodo shiso no kenkyu, Is a very fine example.
In the west, however, the knowledge of the Pure
Land teaching was mostly limited to a kind of theistic
soteriology. The general tendency was to identify it
with devotional Amidism or with doctrines of faith and

2
salvation m general survey books. The Pure Land teach
ing was introduced to the West, in many cases, as Amidism.
It was frequently identified with the Shin doctrine of
salvation through total reliance on the compassionate
Buddha Amida and on the saving power of his Vows. This
is called the teaching of absolute uother-power,f(tariki,
in Jap.). The salvation-oriented teaching of the Shin

{05
school was presented to the West in a manner which was
so misleadingly clear-cut with theocentric connotations.
This may have also contributed to discouraging the
general intellectual curiosity of orientalists,
especially when theistic Christianity itself has been
suffering from the cultural problem of irrelevancy in
the secularized Western world in general.
Moreover, the Shin school, being the major■Buddhist
school in Japan, has generally established foothold in
America as well as in Europe. The school has not only
established its branches but also published translations
of many of their texts and related materials for intro-
ductxon. This also contributed to the tendency of
identifying the religion of faith with the Pure Land
teaching. As a result, very little has been explored
regarding the origin and historical development of the
Pure Land teaching ; still less is known about the
lofty bodhisattva ideal and the path of practice expounded
in the Pure Land sutras and texts.

i&6
E.1 a) Sutras
A number of sutras in Chinese refer, in one way
or other, to the Amida Buddha and his Land# Fujita
provides us a list of two hundred ninety Chinese
texts, sutras as well as treatises, and thirty-one
texts which mention only the name of either the Buddha

Z|.
or his Land. This shows the extensive nature of the
influence of the Amida cult and the teaching of his
Buddha Land. Traditionally it was believed that there
were twelve sutras and that, among them, the seven
were lost. The five sutras in Chinese which specifically
describe the story of the Amida Buddha and his Land
Sukhavati are as follows:
(1) Fo-shuo a-mi-tt o-san-yeh-san-fo-sa-lou-fo-t7an kuo-
-tu jen-tao-ching(4j&ilfc
2 chuan, tr.Chih-ch* ien(^_^^ ). T.No.362. (abbreviated
). E chuan,
tr. Chih-lou-chia-ch’en( ). T.No.361.
(abtor. "LBy.")
(3) Wu-1i ang- sho u ju-lai-hui(4»i? ). 2
chuan, tr.Bodhiruci.T.No.310. (abbr. "LNy.")

(A) Fo-shuo ta-sheng wu-liang-shou c huang-ye n-c hi ng
(5) Fo-shuo Wu-liang-shou-ching(^jy ).
2 chuan, tr# K’ang-seng-k’ai( ). T.No.
560. (abbr. "LSy.’Q
Traditionally, in the Japanese Pure Land schools,
only three were mentioned as the basic sutras of the
Pure Land schools. They are:
(1) the Larger (S ukhavatjvyuha) Sutra. Fo-shuo wu-liang-
-shou-ching(i^l$ ). 2 chftan, tr.K’ang-seng-
k’ai. T.Ko.360.
(2) the Amida Sutra, or the Smaller Sutra, Fo-shuo
a-mi-t1 o-ching( ^"§55 ). 1 chuan, tr.
Kumarajiva. T.Ko.366.
(5) the Meditation Sutra, Fo-shuo kuan-wu-liang~shou"
-ching( Wb )• 1 chuan, tr. Kalayaâs.
T.No.365.
Honen(^#fc , 1133“'I212) first used the idea of the
’’three basic sutras of the Jbdo school”(Jodo-sambukyo
in Jap.) in his Senjaku (or Senchaku) Hongan Nenbutsu-
shu( Apparently it was a

!Q%
common practice of Buddhist schools of the time to select
three texts and declare them as the three basic texts of

6
their sects as a basis of authority. In founding the
Jodo school(, Honen adopted this method and
selected the above three, to which he added the PLT as
the fourth text. Since then the idea of the "three basic
sutras of the Pure Land teaching" was established, and
the three are popularly known in Japan. Among the Buddhist
scholars, however, it is generally established that these
three belong to different periods and are not, histori
cally , considered as a set <bf three. They belong to dif
ferent geographical areas, and different aspects of the
Pure Land teaching, revolving around the theme of the
Buddha of Infinite Lif e( Ami t ay us, ) and/or
the Buddha of Infinite Li ght(Amit abha,).
E.1 b) Buddha Land
The idea of Buddha Land was not at all limited or
unique to that of Amida Buddha. It was very common in
the period of pre- and early Mahayana. The term buddha-
-kgetra(4feS) means the "territory belonging to
Buddha." It was originally applied to this world in
which the Buddha &akyamuni appeared, taught and guided
sentient beings to deliverance. For the disciples,

109
there was only one Buddha, the Gautama ^'akyamuni, hence

7
only one Buddha Land. Later, however, a number of past
Buddhas appeared, including the Buddha Dxparakara who
gave a ’'prediction” to âkyamuni.
In the early Mahayana sutras a great number of
Buddhas and Buddha Lands are mentioned. This included
not only the past Buddhas but also those Buddhas who
are presently reigning in their respective Buddha Lands.
Various Buddhas are in the present teaching and guid
ing beings to deliverance by "turning the wheel of
Dharma" )• A Buddha Land then came to be con
ceived as the Land in which a particular Buddha exists
and guides sentient beings by preaching the Dharma,
hence the idea of Buddha Land as a "world or sphere
in which a Buddha Is engaged in his work of guidance

and salvation." The popular mythology of Cakravartin(g^
) may also be one of the factors incorporated

g
into the conception of Buddha Land. Though descriptions
of Buddha Lands vary, they generally project the image
of a Land which is equipped and glorified with the
ideal qualities, both spiritual and worldly. The idea
of lokapala('ggr ) 1 or the "protector of the world,"
was also referred to in connection with Buddha Lands

/io
In the sense of ’’protector of Pharma" or the ’’one who

9
protects Dharma for the sake of beings in the world.”
The Tugita heaven of Bodhisattva Maitreya is
another ’’Pure Land.” Maitreya is the future Buddha,
but his Land is not called Buddha Land because he has
still one more life before attaining Buddhahood. His
Land, Tugita heaven, is an ideal realm for those who
aspire for deliverance and Enlightenment. His Land is
suitable for the followers of the path as it is equip
ped with favourable qualities for spiritual develop-

. 10
ment.
The development of Pure Land Buddhism is unique

to the "northern transmission"(4^- ), the Buddhism
which spread from north-western India to China-Korea-
-Japan and to Nepal-Tibet. The northern transmission
of the Mahayana is generally characterized by the
compassionate ideal of the bodhisattva and the path
of practice for its realization. In it developed the
idea of "resolution" for the greater goal of universal
salvation. The social concern for the world of suffer
ing beings was developed in this way as the task of
bodhisattvas whose ideal is the full realization of
Wisdom and Compassion. The great bodhisattvas of Com
passion became, on the popular level, objects of worship,

ill
and devotional cults of those great bodhisattvas flour-

q
ished—e.g., the cults of Avalokitesvara and Maitreya.
E.2 The Bodhisattva Dharmakara
a) The story of his resolutions
The teaching of Pure Land Buddhism which flourished
in the Ear East was mainly based on the story of Bodhi
sattva Dharraakara who attained Buddhahood as Amida, by
fulfilling his r e s o1u ti ons(prapidhana) and who now
reigns in his Buddha Land named Sukhavati. Two Skt.
equivalents of the name Amida or Ami ta( ^150^ P’S )are:
(i) Amitayus, or ’’Infinite Life” and
(ii) Amitabha, or "Infinite Light” •
The story of Bodhisattva Dharmakara appears in
early parts of all the five sutras in Chinese. The
story describes how the Bodhisattva established the
Buddha Land, in terms of the resolutions and practices
which he had gone through for an immeasurable length
of time. His name, Dharmakara, means: the "source of
Dharma,” the "accumulation of Dharma,” and the "mine,

12
or store, of Dharma."
According to the brief introductory passage in
LSv., Dharmakara rejoiced on hearing the Dharma which

13
the Buddha Loke&vararaja preached. Aspiring to pursue
14
the highest path toward Buddhahood, he renounced his
/|2
15
worldly life and left his kingship. Dharmakara paid
homage to the Buddha and praised him in verses. Under
the guidance of this Buddha, he meditated and observed
the ’’features” (i.e., characteristics) of various
visions and the beings of numerous (210 million in LSv.)
Buddha Lands.
After a long period of meditation practices (5
kalpa-s in LSv.), he decided upon his vision of Buddha
Land and embraced the pure practices which adorn the

16
Buddha Land. In the presence of the Buddha Lokesvara-
raja,Dharmakara declared his resolutions, or Vows • A
voice in the sky gave him assurance, hinting the idea
of ’’prediction” (vyakarapa). After a long period of
time, he fulfilled his Vows, realised his vision and
established his Buddha Land. He became Amida Buddha
(10 kalpa-s ago, according to LSv.), and now re,igns
in his Buddha Land which is called SukhavatT, the
’’Land of Peace and Happiness” or the ’’Land of Bliss”

17
m the western region.
His resolutions are also called the ’’Original Vows”
(purva-prapidhana , or ) • It means the
•’Vows declared in the past” during the Buddha-to-be

18
stage. This term was commonly used to indicate the
(13
past resolutions and aspirations of all the Buddhas
who have already accomplished their task and established
their Buddha Lands.
The prapidhana of Bodhisattva Dharmakara listed
in the sutras differ in number. They are twenty-four
in LAm. and LBy., thirty-six in LSy., forty-eight in
LSv. and LNy., forty-seven or forty-eight in Skt.

19
texts, and forty-nine m Tib. text. It is generally
assumed that the increase in the number of resolutions,
or Vows, indicate later elaborations which occurred

20
in the course of development, even though the trans
lation dates, especially that of LSy., do not exactly

21
fit the chronological order.
These resolutions are important in that they
describe Dharmakara’s vision of ant ideal Land, the real
ization of which was his self-imposed task before attain
ing his Buddhahood. All the five Chinese texts mentioned
earlier as well as the Skt. and Tib. texts invariably
begin with the resolution in which Dharmakara declares
that, in his Land, there will be no evil states of exist-

22
ence, or the three ©r four lowest gati-s of suffering.
In this way he rid his Land of samsaric states of severe
suffering. His resolutions, therefore, describe the

114
characteristic features which the Bodhisattva selected
in meditation and accomplished through practices.
Throughout his resolutions, the theme of salvation, or
the deliverance, of all sentient beings from their
states of suffering is of paramount importance.
E.2 b) SukhavatT, the Buddha Land of Amida
The sutras describe SukhavatT, in all its wondrous
glory, beauty, and happiness. SukhavatT means the ’’place
where there is sukha," "possessing ease and comfort,"

24
or "full of joy and happiness." In Chinese translations,
it was rendered as the Land of an~le(j£A ), or "Peace
and Happiness, " an-yangt%r Jj$> ), "cultivation of peace
and tranquility", and chi-le(. Chi-le means the
"extreme joy or utmost pleasure" and it appears in the
translations of the Smaller Sutra and in the Meditaion
Sutra.
The meaning of sukha may be better explained in
terms of its contrasting relationship with duhkha ),
or suffering. The latter is often translated as "Suffer
ing" or "pain", but in fact it indicates negative states

25
of mind. Thxs included states of mind such as uneasy,
disquieted, uncomfortable, unpleasant, miserable,
distressed, painful etc.. Etyfckha was considered the major
feature of samsaric states and of those who suffer in

115
the realm of desire(kamadhatu) that revolve around

26
desire and clinging* The deliverance from dufrkha
was the goal of both the Original and Early Buddhism
as exemplified in their conception of Nirvana, Their
ideal state, Nirvapa, was described in terms of the
negation of dufokha, the samsaric suffering; it is the
state in which all causes of suffering (i.e., all forms
of attachment to things and to life) are completely
extinguished and uprooted.
Sukha, on the contrary, indicated dufokha*s opposite,
positive and agreeable qualities. It indicated the state
of mind being at ease, comfortable, pleasant, contented,

27
happy, peaceful, tranquil etc. Fujxta reports
that the word sukha was used in the Original Buddhism
to denote the happiness of both worldly and non-worldly
or spiritual nature—the defiled sukha of householders

28
and the undefiled sukha of the monks. Sukha is,
therefore, a comfortable and pleasant state of mind at
ease, which is the tacit sign of being on the path of
deliverance . from du^tkha. It did not mean any explicit
satisfaction of desire or gain. SukhavatT is the Land
in which sukha (happiness, comfortable, pleasant, peaceful,
and tranquil state) is abundant; it is the Land of deliver™
ance from suffering. Sukhavati, therefore, indicated

neither the Land of delight and pleasure nor the promised
Land of heavenly utopia but, instead, the realm in which
there is no state of samsaric torment or suffering.
It is the Lan(j in which the minds of sentient beings
are at ease, peaceful, and comfortable.lt is the Land
of happiness in this sense. In the Chinese context,
however, the term an-le was interpreted with connotations

of a highly positive state or quality, since le(^tf‘ )
in Chinese means not only "joy and happiness” but also

29
"delight or pleasure”? of even an ecstatic kind. This
probably contributed to the understanding of Sukhavati
as oL.i-le(yt^ , gokuraku in Jap.), the "place of

30
utmost happiness and delight.”
A number of Buddha Lands bear in their names the
affix meaning "possessing" or "being equipped
with" (j^. or^). For example, there are: DSpavati'
of the Buddha Dipa$kara, Ratnavatx of the Buddha
Ratnakara, PadmavatT of the Buddha Samantakusuma, and

— 31
Gandhavatx of the bodhisattva Dharmodgata.
H7
E.3 The Pure Land, teaching in a work attributed to
Nagarjuna
The path of salvation through attaining birth in
Amida’s Land is mentioned in the Da6abhumika-vibhasa~
-sastra( -Hl: ) which is attributed to
Nagarjuna. The author clearly states that the Pure
Land teaching is a form of Expedient-means (upaya )

£of salvation) by faith( Alg TdifL ). He calls it
the”path of sukha”(for those who are
spiritually inferior and weak, while the true bodhi
sattva must be courageous enough to pursue the strenuous
path. It was a compromise and accomraocation for those
who are neither capable of arousing the mind of En
lightenment (bodhicittotpada ) nor pursuing the path

34
for Buddhahood. It is a teaching of salvation,in
the Amida*s Land,in order to guide those who are sunk
deeply in the ocean of samsaric suffering. The teach
ing of salvation in this context is a promise of hope*
It is likened to a boat which enables even a heavy
stoned.e., a sinful man) to float; otherwise it would
sink immediately.
E.4 The Pure Land teaching in Vasubandhu’s Treatise
on Pure Land
In the PLT, the teaching of Amida’s Pure Land was

lift
re-interpreted as the Mahayana bodhisattva path from
a totally different perspective from the one above.
The Pure Land was transformed from the idea of a -
heavenly Land of happiness and salvation into the
realm of truth and guiding activities. The path of
practice and the highest ideal of the bodhisattva
were incorporated into the teaching, including the
highest bodhisattva ideal of the supreme Enlighten
ment of Equality which combines the perfect Wisdom with
the great Compassion, and the highest bodhisattva stage
of free and unhindered activities of guidance. The
path of the five spirtual practices was taught as
the method for the spiritual education of all kinds
of sentient beings. It is presented as the path which
one can practise in accordance with one’s capacity
and wishes. The path included the following: higher^
bodhisattva path of Merit-transference by skillful-
-means, meditative practices of igamatha and vipasyana,
practices visualization, fixation of mind, and mindful
practices, together with the devotional practices of
worship and praise. One is to perceive the vision of
the transcendent s'yQnderrf which is described in terms of
glorious adornments, and aspire to be born there.

IH
The Land and the Buddha were re-defined essentially
in terms of purity and Wisdom-light, the functional
activity of Dharma, operating in the world of relativ
ity and phenomena. The Pure Land took a variety of ■
features in accordance with diverse degrees of insight
which beings lack or are endowed with.
(i) For the higher bodhisattvas who already dwell
in the realm of purity, the Pure Land is a sphere of
guidance, or the guiding activities which are to take
place in the world.
(ii) For those bodhisattvas who have not yet attained
purity, it signifies the realm of purity, and their
goal of the blissful, tranquil state of Nirvana.
(iii) For those of lower spiritual capacities, various
characteristics of the Pure Land were presented
through descriptions of couptless desirable attributes
as the excellent merits which glorify and adorn the
Land. . Thus > accommodations are made to suit the

35
wishes and longings of various beings. The verbal
and visual descriptions function as the means which
are provided for the guidance of multitudes in order
that they may desire to be born there and aspire to
enter the pure path of faith and practice.

120
The PLT expounds the path of Pure ând bodhisattvas
(the first in the above list)* They are the bodhisattvas
who dwell in the pure realm but who, out of Compassion,
and without discrimination, participate in the dynamic
movement of purity and ^harma. The Pure Land in this
sense is generated from the undefiled Wisdom and sustain'
ed by the Buddha’s Original Vow. Their transformation-
-bodies penetrate all corners of the universe and
perform the work of guidance by educating and leading
the ignorant, suffering beings in the world to salva
tion.The Pure Land bodhisattvas are, therefore,
identified with the ’’light”. They do so through the
manifold practices of Merit-transference by skillful-
means and practise the five spiritual actions. They
thereby lead suffering beings to tie pure and right path,
hence to salvation.
The conception of Pure Land bodhisattvas has
not received proper attention, especially in the West.
Careful examination of the conception of this bodhi
sattva ideal will surely reveal a new facet of Pure
Land Buddhism. Though its analysis is interesting and
illuminating, it shall not be discussed in detail,at
this point, since it will be dealt with later in the
following chapters.
CHAPTER III
THE TREATISE ON
THE PURE LAND

122
A.1 The authenticity
Suspicion was raised very recently regarding
the authorship by Vasubandhu, hence a doubt about
the authenticity of the PLT. Umehara, for example,
speculates on the possibility of Bodhiruci or
T*an-luan being the author of the text. Corless
suggests that the text may have been composed by
an anonymous ’’wise man” who was totally unrelated

2
either to Vasubandhu or Bodhiruci.
Briefly, there are two reasons for their
suspicion: (1) They interpreted the fact that
there is no other extant translation as indicating
the lack of supporting evidence, hence its authen
ticity is doubtful; (2) The philosophical tenet
of the text appeared to them different from those
in the major texts of the ’’Consciousness-only ”
or ”Ideation-only” school for which Vasubandhu
is generally known in the Sino“Japanese Buddhist
world. Below is an attempt to refute the above
two points.
As for the first point, their speculations
may be easily discredited by the fact that
there exists considerably reliable historical

1^3
sources. At least three records of translation
works of Buddhist texts mention the translation

3
of the PLT by Bodhirucr. The superior credibility
of these records as opposed to their free specu
lation is clear. Moreover, the fact that there
is only one translation may indicate the following
possibilities: a) that the transmission of other
copies of the text was severely affected by the
social or political situation at that time; and
b) that the text was not popular in the place of
origin of the translators or, simply, not preferred
by other translators who came to China.
As for the second point, it is again hardly
conclusive. Because, so far, the whole picture
of Vasubandhu’s philosophy has not yet been
fully clarified. The diversity or the complexity
of his philosophy, together with the problem of
his date, is still one of the big questions in
the history of Indian Buddhism . Moreover, since
these scholars have not presented their own inter
pretation of the "philosophy of the PLT", it is
highly likely that they speak of the traditional
one--i.e., the interpretation of the PLT based on

T1 an-luan1 s Lun-chu, If this is the case,
then it is hut natural that the ’’philosophical
tenet of the PLT” should differ from those
expounded in other well-known Yogacara works
by Vasubandhu.
The suspicion regarding the authenticity
of the text and the authorship by Vasubandhu
mentioned above was presented merely as a
speculation arising from uncertainty, and not
as a well-founded theory. In the absence of
conclusive evidence to the contrary, the author
ship by Vasubandhu will, therefore, be accepted.
The question of authorship in connection with
the ’’two Vasubandhu theory” is another issue
which is outside the present topic.
A.2 On the identification of "source materials”
The title of the text indicates that it
is an upadeâ work on what is called the "Sutra
on Infinite Life”(4^^^ ? "but as to which
sutra, the author left little indication. Because
of this, there exists a wide variety of opinions
regarding this matter.

12!?
Traditionally, it was maintained that
the text was ’’based” either on all three of the
"basic sutras” of the Pure Land schools or only

4
on the Larger Sutra. The former theory, though
traditionally entertained in the Shin school,
is on chronological grounds unlikely, because
it was not until Honen in the twelfth century
that the three were associated together as a
set (see chap.II, E.1). J.Kudo suggests the
Smaller Sutra,, or Amida Sutra. He attempts
to prove that Vasubandhu was acquainted with
this sutra, by quoting some highly relevant

5
passages^
In passing, it may be mentioned that the
"reconstructed” or "restored” Skt. title of
■the text is given in Hobogirin 1524 as
Sukhavativyuhopade£a and in Nanjio 1204 as
Ami tayus-sutropade6a or Aparamitayus-sutra-
sastraC fedkss ? TC^p' )•
Recent studies regarding the PLT mainly
revolve around attempts to trace, among the
Yogacara texts, the passages which indicate
some similarity with the text. Thus the fol
lowing list of sutras and texts were suggested

J2L
as ’’possible source materials” for the com
position of the text: Sagidhinirmocana-sutra
( , Dasabhumika~sutra ( -+--£•& ,
Bmddhabhumi-sutra( ^$7 F&’sL ), Mahayanasu tr alaiBkar a
( ) , Mahay anasatggr aha (-4^r ,
Yogac ar abhumi( ) 7 Dharmadharma ta-
vibhanga-vytti( )
Madhyantavibhangafrika( ^Q-''7J~%Q "TtffT ) etc*.
The trouble with this approach is that
one can collect an almost unlimited number of
relevant passages from many voluminous texts
belonging to the Yogacara school. The fact
that these passages indicate some resemblance
to those in the PLT, at one level or another,
does not necessarily mean that they were the
’’source materials" which the author either
made use of or received inspiration from. If
we take into consideration the fact that
Vasubandhu was great systematizer of the
Yogacdra philosophy, then we may expect his
philosophy to be reflected, in one way or
another, in all of his writings. One cannot,
therefore, make conclusions about the source
material merely on the basis of resemblance

|2’7
of some passages quoted without context.
What is more necessary is, probably, a clear
and more systematic understanding of the text
itself'--instead of looking for a solution
elsewhere.
Further research will help clarify the
date and the philosophy of Vasubandhu, together
with the historical, social, cultural, and
intellectual millieu in which he lived and
worked. Xn the meantime, however, we must leave
aside this question regarding the "source
material", without readily committing ourselves
to identifying it with specific sutras or with
a number of passages randomly collected from
a wide variety of Yogacara texts. Moreover,
in speaking of the sutra with the theme of
Buddha of Infinite Life, we should not exclude
the possibility that there might have existed
others which may be called the "Sutra on the
Infinite Life" at the time when Vasubandhu
composed the text.
A.3 Relevant works and translations
Because of the importance of the text in

[78
China. . and, especially, in Japan, a number
of commentaries and ”sub-commentaries"(meaning,
the ’’commentaries on the Lun-chu) were written.
The commentaries which were traditionally
considered as authoritative in the Japanese
Pure Land schools are T’an-luan’s Lun-chu
(for details, see: Introduction) and Tsugel
Kudo provides a detailed list of relevant works

8
written in Chinese and Japanese. Among those
numerous materials in Chinese, the Ching-t*u-lun
( -d- ) of Chia-ts' ai( ) and the
Ching-t’u-ch’ un~i~lun( of
Huai~kan(>h|| ) are notable?
Among the studies by modern scholars,
there is a tendency towards interpreting the
text from Yogacara perspective. To list a few
which are in book-form,: Seshin kyogaku no
taikei-teki kenkyu(”STK”) by J.Kudo, Seshin
no JodoronC”SJ”) and an article "Ryuju Seshin
ni okeru Jodo shisd” in Bukkyo no Konpon Shinri
(’’Konpon.”) by S.Yamaguchi, not to mention many
small articles published in various Buddhist-
-related journals in Japan.

/2-9
As for the commentaries on the Lun-chu,
there are: Kaidoku J'odoronchu(Tokyo, 1955)
by Shiro Uesugi, Tsuge., and many others.
For more informations of relevant works on
the lûn-chu, Corless suggests the "Life and
Teachings of T’an-luan” by Ching-fen Hsiao.
There are three English translations of the
text. Firstly, a translation of the whole text
by Nishu UtsUki, secondly, a partial trans
lation by Koshd Yamamoto in the Holy Scriptures
of Shinshu(Shinshu Seiten) and, thirdly, it
appears scatteredly in R.Corless’ translation
of the Lun-chu. It should be mentioned that
all three of these translations of the PLT
are based on the text which appears in T’an-luan*s
Lun-chu(see: Introduction).
B. The Content 130
The text consists of the ’’Verses (gatha) of
Aspiration for Birth" ) and the treatise
in prose with a more detailed exposition. The author’s
purpose in composing the text is: a) to expound
the Verses of Aspiration in a condensed form and,
b) to comply with the Buddha’s teaching. The
verses are traditionally said to consist of twenty-

10
-four lines, each consisting of four pleases.
It is likely that the verses were composed in
the form more easily memorized. The prose part
expounds the profound meaning of the verses which,
because of their condensed nature, are laden with
allusions to the complex philosophy and doctrines.
At the beginning of the verses, the author ex
presses his own aspiration for "birth in the Sukha
va ti,” and takes refuge in the "Tathagata of Un
hindered Light". The rest of the verses describe
the excellent features and qualities of "that Land"
which consists of the Buddha Land and its inhabitants.
The inhabitants are those who dwell in "that Land"—
i.e., the Buddha and the bodhisattvas. The verses
end with the "aspiration" of the author, stating his

|3l
own altruistic aspiration for the "birth together
with all others in that Land” and seeing the Buddha
Amida.
The prose part begins as follows:
"What significance do the verses reveal ? They
reveal the significance of visualizing in medita
tion the Land of Peace and Happiness, Sukhavati,
and seeing the Buddha Amida by virtue of arousing
’aspiration for birth* in that Land.”
The purpose of the verses is, as the title indicates,
to arouse the "aspiration for birth" in "that Land".
The verses function as means in that they provide
the material for the meditative vision. The meditation
consists of a twofold process: a) visualization
and perception (kuan) of the Land of Peace and Happi
ness, and b)seeing the Buddha Amida, or seeing the

11
manifest appearance of that Buddha. The latter
involves a very profound "seeing", as it is the
practice of the bodhisattvas, those who have and have
not yet realized the Pure Mind.
Traditionally in the context of the Japanese
Pure Land schools, the PLT was interpreted mainly
on the basis of T’an-luan’s commentary. The Lun-chu

132.
divided the text into two: the general exposition”
( [°r #&] ) in verse form, and the ’’exposi
tion of the significance”( ) in prose.
T’an-luan divided the prose part into ten sections, and
his division has been traditionally utilised as a
guideline for understanding the text. T*an-luan1s
tenfold division of the Treatise is as follows:
I. The main purport of the Verses of Aspiration
( A )
II. Arousing Faith by practising meditations
( fc fg, >
III. The meditation practice: its essence and feature
IV. Entering Purity by virtue of Aspiring Mind
(x )
V* Salvation by skillful guidance ( )
VI. Separation from hindrances to Enlightenment
VII. Compliance with the path of Enlightenment
<)
VIII. The mutually embracing nature of the Name
and its significance (
IX. The realisation of that which is aspired for

133
X. Complete fulfillment of beneficial practices
( 45 5^ )
The above division has been adopted traditionally

13
in most commentaries on the PLT in Japan, because
of the long established authority of the Lun-chu,
It should be borne in mind that it reflects T’an-luan*s
interpretation. In this thesis, this division will
be referred to only occasionally.
The prose part is the treatise which systematical
ly expounds the method of salvation in the Land of
Amida, and the profound ontology of the bodhisattva
path which underlies this teaching of the Pure Land.
The path of five gates of Mindful Practices (Wu-nien-
-men, 3z. ) is presented as the actual method
of salvation to the prospective aspirants who are
called ’’good men and women”. The five gates refer
to the five kinds of spiritual actions. The five
gates of Mindful Practices are:

(1) the gate of Worship (4^ n )
(2) the gate of Praise ( £ ■ pi >
C 3) the gate of Aspiration ( j ® pi )
(k) the gate of Meditation (
& pi 5
(5) the gate of Merit-transferenc
The term ’’good men and women" (kulaputra and
kuladuhi ty, ^^3" originally meant "sons
and daughters of a good family”, but later within
the Buddhist context came to mean the ’’supporters
of the Mahayana”, the devotees and the bodhisattva
candidates—i.e., all the Mahayana followers at

1ij.
the intial stage. The purpose of these five kinds
of practices is : a) to attain the meditative
vision ) and, b) to arouse belief ( /C? )
and aspiration for birth. Upon completion of these
practices, they are assured of their final salvation
and Enlightenment through attaining birth in that

15
Buddha Land and seeing the Buddha,
Of the five, the two last practices are of
special importance. The author later explains them
separately. The practice of meditation is explained
by citing the verses. The vision is described in
terms of altogether twenty-nine characteristics.
These characteristics, or features, of ’’that Land”
are called the ’’merit-adornments ” ( -I# )
or the excellent merits which adorn and glorify
’’that Land.” These excellent qualities belong to

three elements of the vision—i.e., the Buddha Land,
the Buddha and the Pure Land bodhisattva.
The Buddha Land is equipped with the perfection of
the seventeen merits which adorn the Land, Sukhavati.
The seventeen perfect merits are those of:
(1) Purity (3^j )
(2) Expansion ( )
(3) Nature ( )
GO Appearance (^>/}H )
(3) Manifold Things
(6) Excellent Form (^4*^, )
(7) [objects ofj Contact ()
(8) Adornments ( )
(9) Rain ( jzfy )
(10) Light ( )
(11) Sound ( )
(12) Lord ( 3= )
(13) Retinue ( M, )
(1^) Enjoyment ( )
(13) No-hardship (OM" )
(16) Cthe teaching ofJJ Great Significance ()
(1?) £the fulfilment ofj All Wishes (—'£77 )

The Buddha is adorned with the perfection of eight
kinds of merit-adornments* ^‘hese adornments are:
(1) Seat ( )
(2) Body ( t )
(5) Mouth ( a )
(4) Mind ( IB )
(5) Retinue ('/ft )
(6) Superior Beings ( -t- )
(7) Lord ( 3: )
(8) Unfailing Sustenance ( 7FZjj?43 )
The perfect merit-adornments of the Pure Land
bodhisattvas refer to the perfection of their
activities in the pure realm. The practices of the
Pure Land bodhisattvas are called the four kinds of

the ’’true or right practice" ( lE4^4j , pratipatti ?)
The Pure Land bodhisattvas perform the following
four ::
(1) the practice of Buddha’s work ( i.e., salvation)
constantly as the "practice which is in accordance
with the truth"( )
(2) the practice of guidance by various Expedient
means ( )
(3) the practice of worshipping, revering and prais
ing the Buddhas and Tathagatas (Am

j3'Z
(*0 the practice of showing and teaching the
^practice which is in accordance with the truth”
In this way, the vision of the Land, the Buddha, and
the Pure Land bodhisattvas are to be visualized and, in
meditation, perceived by way of these descriptions
of the excellence of that Land*
After the description of the ision, the onto
logical explanation from the viewpoint of the Mind
philosophy and the bodhisattva path follows. First
ly, the adornments of the vision are explained in
terms of "Aspiring Mind" ( )* Then, the real
ization of the vision of "that Land” is expounded
in terms of “Purity”( J ), which is briefly
explained as the "One Dharma” ( —) and
the "unconditioned dharmakaya of true Wisdom”
Two kinds of "world” (loka or loka-dhatu, ft )
are distinguished in Buddhism: a) the "container-
world” (bhajana-1oka, FeFl ) which is the natural
and material surroundings and which functions as the
"container for the existence of sentient beings, and

138
b) the "world of sentient beings” (sattva-loka or
sa 11va-dhatu, '^k'£ R=H ) which here refers to
conscious beings that are sentient, cognitive
and volitional. In the ordinary states, these
two ’’worlds” are problematic and incongruous, being
full of faulty aspects, and are characterized by
the universal presence of suffering. In the Pure
Land, however, these two ’’worlds” are not only
free from faults but also characterized by ’’purity”.
The constituents of the Pure Land-^-ihe Land as well
as beings—are ’’pure” and ’’undefiled.” The ’’container™
-world” in the Pure Land Is ’’pure” because it is
the Buddha Land equipped with the perfection of
excellent merits, and so is the ’’world of beings”
there because of the merit-adornments of the Buddha
and bodhisattvas, with their presence and functions.
One Dharma
Purity
'the purity of the "container-world”
=x±he Buddha Land
—the purity of the "world of sentient
beings'7— the Buddha and the Pure Land
bodhisattvas
J3Q
The author explains that the ’’One Dharma” thus "embraces"
( ), or includes, the twofold purity*
Hai.vxng thus explained the "One Dharma” and
"Purity" as the foundation of the Pure Land, the
author then proceeds to what is .clearly the bodhi
sattva practice. It should be noted, at this point,
that the spiritual level of the audience for whom
the teaching of the path is expounded shifts, as
the author goes on expounding. To illustrate: The
five gates of Mindful Practices were meant for the
"good men and women" ; After the disaourse on the
One Dharma and Purity, bodhisattvas appear as those
who practise the meditative practices of âmatha
and vipasyana and cultivate purity of the twofold
"world" ; then appear those who cultivate Compassion
through the practice of "Merit-transference" and
"Merit-transference by skillful means".
Through the practice of samatha and vipasyana,
the bodhisattvas realize the "Pliant Mind"(Jj|_|^ /(J )
and comes to know all things as they really are.
Thereupon begins the exposition of the path
of practice of "Merit-transference (parinamana) by

skillful means (upaya-kauâlya) ”( 3^5 )•
This is clearly the practice of the higher bodhisattva
path, characterized by a) compassion and concern
for the suffering others, and b) by the higher

a
aspiration of Abodhisattva: •—x.e., the ’’aspiration
for birth together in that Buddha Land'* so that
all others may also be delivered from suffering.
Out of Compassion, the bodhisattva transfers, or
re-directs, all the merits he has accumulated towards
the realization of the higher goal. The actual content
of the path is the guidance of other beings by teach
ing them the aforementioned five kinds of spiritual
practices.
In performing the practice of Merit-transference
by skillful means, the bodhisattva cultivates and
develops these three inner attitudes:
(1) He does not seek happiness or joy for himself
alone ( 7^ S ;
(2) He desires to remove the suffering of all .
sentient beings ( );
(5) His aspiration is to be born together,
embracing the multitudes, in that Buddha Land,

J4I
Sukhavatx (i\ IB]§§ ).
By cultivating and perfecting these three inner
factors, the bodhisattva attains perfection in the
practice of Merit-transference by skillful means.
The author then expounds the profound signifi
cance of accomplishing these three inner attitudes
in relation to the process of realaing the highest
ideal. The process in which the bodhisattva gradually
comes to realise the highest Mahayana ideal is
clarified in terms of accomplishing various excellent

aspects of Pure Mind ( ^0 ).
The three inner attitudes, or mental factors,
play very important roles in the higher level of
soteriology in the PLT. Firstly, the bodhisattva
thereby develop© the three excellent Mahayana factors
of Wisdom, Compassion, and Expedient means. Secondly,
the bodhisattva thereby separates the Mind from three
kinds of ’’hindrances’1, or these which are contrary
to the realisation of Mahayana Enlightenment. The
three ’’hindrances” are:
(1) ego-attachment ( /(3 13 )
(2) lack of concern for the well-being of others,

ft-2.
or self-centreness ( -^r 7^ /Li )
(3) arrogance, self-glorification, or the idolatry
of self ( ^5C )•
Thirdly, the bodhisattva realizes the three kinds
of Pure Mind, by equipping himself with the three
excellent attributes of Mahayana mentioned above.
He realizes :
(1) the Undefiled Pure Mind ()
(2) the Pure Mind of Peace ( )
(3) the Pure Mind of Happiness ( )
Through the practice of Merit-transference by
skillful means, the bodhisattva comes to attain
separation from ’’hindrances” and acquires excellent
qualities; moreover, in doing so, he also makes
great spiritual progress towards realizing the
supreme Enlightenment. This is explained by the
author as follows:
(1) By cultivating the three inner factors of the
Mahayana, the bodhisattva embraces prajha ),
the perfect Wisdom which is inclusive of the Expedient
means Cupaya, )•
(2) By developing separation from the negative
mental factors, the bodhisattva achieves separation

/40
from those elements which hinders the "Bodhi Mind”
), the Mind of Enlightenment.
(5) By the realization of the three kinds of Pure
Mind, the bodhisattva perfectly realizes the ’’Mind
of excellent happiness and supreme truth"
/& ) •
The bodhisattva equips himself with the following
four aspects by cultivating the excellent attributes
of Pure Mind of the Mahayana:
(1) the Mind of Wisdom ( /Ml )
(2) the Mind of Expedient means ( )
(3) the Unhindered Mind (-dlOf, /tD )
(4) the Mind of supreme Truth ( )
The bodhisattva thus realizes the excellent Mahayana
Mind, and thereby attains "birth .in the Pure Buddha
Land." The bodhisattvas at this higher spiritual
level are referred to as the "bodhisattvas and maha
sattvas." Their actions are fully in accordance with
the "Dharma-gate" (dharmaparyaya, including
not only the bodily, verbal, mental actions but also
the actions of Wisdom and of Expedient means. By
complying with the five kinds of "Dharma-gate", the
bodhisattvas and mahasattvas attain the perfect freedom
of actions which are unhindered and accords with what they

M
will or wish
Lastly, the author expounds the five gates of
Merit-perfection. They refer to the five paths through
which those who practise the aforementioned five
spiritual actions attain, in five ways, the realize-
tion of merits. The five gates of Merit-perfection
and the five kinds of ’’merits” which are realized
through.the practices are :
(1) the gate of. Approach )
•—to attain birth in the Sukha va tl
(2) the gate of Great Assemblage Z3^ )
--to join the great assemblage
(3) the gate to the Residence ()
— to enter the realm of the Lotus-store(

sft O )
(4) the gate to the Inner Room ( Z31^ )
--to enter the ’’yonder”
(5) the gate to the stage of ’’playing” in the
Garden ( § tfafi gjj )--to reach the
stage of Guidance < Js&b )
The actual content of practices of these ’’gates" are
described in the text as follows, respectively:

/4£
(1) the practice of worshipping the Buddha, in
ordep4;o attain birth there;
(2) the practice of praising the Buddha, comply
ing with the name-content and reciting the name
with the foundation of the practice in the Tathagata’s
light;
(3) the practice of samatha and the tranquil
samadhi, with the concentration of Mind and with the
aspiration for birth;
(4) the practice of vipasyana, perceiving in
meditation the excellent adornments;
(5) the practice of unhindered guidance in samsara,
out of great Compassion, by revealing transformation-
-bodies, and by using various extraordinary skills
and abilities.
Of these five, the first four [gate-practicesj
perfect the ’’merits of entry”( A. r/j )9 and the

last perfects the ’’merit of egress”( £& 4^, ). The
bodhisattvas gradually attain ’’entry’^ or ’’birth”,
into the pure realm. He re-enters ) the
defiled realm of samsara, out of Compassion for the
suffering beings, and performs the practice of Merit-
transference by skillful means in order to guide them

lt&
to deliverance by teaching them to aspire for "birth"
in the Sukhavati.
The practice of Merit-transference by skillful
means is, therefore, the path of higher bodhisattva
practice which is beneficial in two ways--for the
deliverance of others and for the realization of
the bodhisattva’s higher aspiration. By practising
the five gate-practices, the bodhisattvas in higher
stages thus benefit both themselves and others, and
thereby speedily attain the perfect realization of
the supreme Enlightenment.

CHAPTER IV
SALVATION IN THE TREATISE
ON
THE PURE LAND

/4^
A. Complexity of "salvation"
The major theme of the PLT lies in the
guidance of all sentient beings to "salvation"
by leading them to arouse "aspiration for
birth" in the Land of the Buddha Amida. The
text not only provides the vision of that Land,
but also presents the Mahayana teaching which
embraces, ripens, and perfects all sentient
beings. This process is briefly explained
by the author in terms of "Mind" and mind-
-attributes of Mahayana bodhisattva ideal,
such as purity, Wisdom, Compassion, and Ex
pedient means. The approach of the PLT to
its theme of salvation is concrete and practical.
It presents salvation mainly by describing "how"
and "what", while leaving the theoretical "why"
only to a bare minimum. The "how", or the
method of salvation is the path of five kinds
of spiritual practices. The "what", or the
content of salvation, is described in the five
gates of Merit-perfection, as the four kinds

/4Q
of "entry", or birth, in that Land and as the
"egress”, leaving the tranquil "yonder" realm
for the salvation of others.
The complexity and manifold nature of the
path of practice resulted in an intriguing
and highly mystifying effect on later interpre-ftv-
Hon of the text. Below is an attempt to
understand the complex theory of salvation
expounded in the text in the light of the
bodhisattva ideal.
A.1 The method
The path of five kinds of spiritual practices
plays the central role in attaining various states
of salvation—i.e., "birth in that Land" of Amida
Buddha. The five kinds of practices are : worship,
praise, aspiration, meditation, and Merit-trans-
ference(see chap.Ill,B). The path of five
religious actions are initially called the five
gates of Mindful Practices and later, the five
kinds of actions which are in compliance with the
"Dharma-gate". The path includes, therefore, not
only devotional actions of piety but also the

150
path of Mahayana bodhisattvas at different
spiritual levels. It is the path which spiri
tually guides all kinds of sentient beings,-
at one level or another, to deliverance, to
Wisdom, to Compassion, or to the supreme
Enlightenment.
A.2 Men, the ’’gate"

The significance of the ugatetl(men, d)
should be first pointed out. Its importance
in the PLT is deal” in that it frequently
appears throughout the short text in diverse
forms. To list:
(1) the five gates of Mindful Practices( I315! );
(2) the three kinds of "Bodhi-gate”( ),
or the gate of Enlightenment, which is inclusive
of the gates of Wisdom, Compassion, and Expedient means
(5) the nDharma~gate”( ;
the five gates of Merit-perfection
These are all described as men( ). Men in
Chinese means: door, gateway, an opening; family,
a sect, a school; a profession, a skill; the key,

the turning point etc.. The Skt. equivalents
of men sere: (1) dvara, a ’’gate”, (2) paryaya,
a ’’teaching as a method”, (3) mukha, ’’surface,
face or mouth”. Among them, the second paryayi
appears frequently in such Yogacara texts as

__ _ _ 2
Mahayana.su tralapkara and Bodhisattvahhumi.
The ’’Dharma-gate” (dharmaparyaya, is
explained as: doctrines or the Wisdom of the
Buddha, the door to Enlightenment, a method,
a sect. As beings have eighty-four hundred
delusions, so Buddha provides eighty-four

3
hundred methods. It is, therefore, highly
likely that men in the PLT means the ’’teaching
as a method", or the path of practice taught
as a method for spiritual development.
A variety of "gates” are described in
the text as follows:
(1) The five gates of Mindful Practices
is the path for "good men and women”, for the
cultivation of mindfulness. This path is
expounded as the method to give rise to belief
through perceiving and observing "that Land"
in meditation.
(2) The ’’Bodhiygate" is the path for the
bodhisattvas. This path consists of cultivation
of the three factors of Enlightenment, viz.,
Wisdom, (prajna), Compassion(karuna), and
Expedient means (upaya). Through this path -they
they cultivate Mahayana Compassion, teach and
lead others to follow the five spiritual practices.
(3) The ’’Dharma-gate” is the path of the
teaching of the truth for the ’’bodhisattvas
and mahasattvas” who are already born in the
Pure Buddha Land and who have fully attained,
in their actions, the unhindered state and
perfection.
(4) The gates of Merit-perfection refer
to practices for a variety of sentient beings
who have different spiritual capacities. The
five signify the diversity with regard to the
spiritual states attained as the results of
five kinds of practices—i.e., different kinds
of ’’birth” in that Land. The Buddha Land is
also conceived differently by each being according
to his wish, expectation, or aspiration. The pracbc.es
reveal, therefore, five different ’’merits”,
or excellent qualities which are gradually

/53
attained and perfected by following the five
spiritual practices* They also show how
different wishes of all sentient beings can
be fulfilled in that Land through attaining
"birth”*
B. Five Gates of Mindful Practices:
Wu-nien-men
B.1 Translation of the passages (T.No.132^, Vol.26,
p.23'0
How does one perceive in meditation ? And how
does one give rise to belief ? If good men and women
practise the five gates of Mindful Practices, when
(the practice isj perfected, they will, finally, attain
birth in the Land of Peace and Happiness, fGukhava ti).
and see that Amida Buddha. What are the five gates of
Mindful Practices ? (They are :J
(1) the gate of Worship
(2) the gate of Praise
(3) the gate of Aspiration

(^4-) the gate of Meditation
(5) the gate of Merit-transference
(1) How does one worship ? With bodily actions,
one worships Amida the Tathagata, Arhat, the Perfectly
Enlightened. One thereby gives rise to the thought
of birth in that Land.
(2) How does one praise ? With verbal actions,
one recites the name of that Tathagata, which
represents his Wisdom-light--in compliance with the
content of that name. One thereby comes to wish to
conform to the practice which accords with the truth,
(3) Ho w does one aspire ? One aspires constantly
in the mind; with one mind and with thoughts fixed,
one finally reaches and is born in the Sukhavatf.
One thereby wishes to practise iâmatha in accordance
with the truth.
(M How does one meditate ? One meditates and
perceives with Wisdom ; with the right mindfulness,
one meditates that CLandX One thereby wished to
practise vipasyana in accordance with the truth.
There are three kinds of meditation of ’’that ClandtH’s

a) the meditation on the merit-adornments of that
Buddha Land, b) the meditation on the merit-adornments
of the Buddha Amida, and c) the meditation on the
merit-adornments of the bodhisattvas in the Pure
Land .
(5) /7ow does one transfer merits ? One does not
forsake all suffering beings; one constantly aspires
in mind to transfer merits. By making this practice
of Merit-transference the prime concern, one thereby
realizes the mind of great Compassion.
B.2 Nien, smyti and manaskar a
Nien
Wu-nien-men ( ) is translated here as
the five gates of Mindful Practices. All the five
practices are covered by the word nien, and its im
portance is tacitly revealed by the description of
the practices, ^he meaning of nien is examined below.
Nien ( -& ) means in Chinese: recollection,
memory, thought; to think on or of; to read out aloud,

A
to intone. Nien generally covers mental functions
related to continuous mental attention to something

1st
which serves as an object. In the Pure Land sutras

in chinese, mien frequently appears in compounds.5
It means '’thoughts’1 or ’’activity of mind or heart”
and it often implies the notion of ’’desiring or wish"
ing”, or ”longing”--indicating the orientation and
inclination of mind towards certain objects. Objects

6
of nien includes bad things as well as good.
Nien-fo ( ) , or ” contemplation of or
meditation of the Buddha”, is described in the
Meditation Sutra as a practice higher than that of
invocation or recitation of the name of the Buddha:
"If one is unable to think of the Bud dha (^3^? ), one
should recite the name of the Buddha .... One should
sincerely utter and intone "Namas Amida Buddha” for
at least ten nien (i.e., ten times or ten thought-
moments)..." (S, p.65).
Smjti and manaskara

n
The Skt. equivalents of nien are:' (1) smyti
(or sometimes/ anusmyti), meaning "to be mindful of,
to remember, recollection, or not to forget”: (2)
manaskara (or manasikara), meaning "paying attention
to, concentration, contemplation etc."; (3) citta
which is a more general term, meaning "thought, mind

I’fl
etc."a It is generally assumed that the Skt.equivalent
of nien in the context of the Wu-nien-men is smyti.
Smyti is a very important terrfl in Buddhism. It
frequently appears with such meanings as ''paying

g
attention to", "to think on or of in mind." In
the Early and Original Buddhism, it concerned, the
mental function which was related to the things of
the past, especially the Buddha’s teaching or doctrines
which one heard or read. In the Abhidharma Buddhism,
smyti was considered to be one of the most important

9
mental functions in the spiritual path.
In the Yogacara, smyti was considered to be the
'preventive method against forgetting, or losing, the

10
sacred words of the teaching". The purpose of the
practice of smyti was to destroy the distraction of
mind so that one’s mind may be "fixed" firmly on the
teaching, which eventually enables one to contemplate
on the real significane of the teaching and hence,
to realize its truth. Smyti is the opposite of : (i)
"forgetfulness" (mugita-smyta, ) and (ii)
"distrac tion"( vikgepa,

Iff
In some cases within the ’’northern transmission”,
the word smyti was used in the sense opposite of
’’losing”, and meant ’’not to lose”, hence, "maintain”,
often used in connection with words meaning ”to ex-

11
plain or to clarify”.
Manaskara
Manaskara(rffe ) is explained in MW as the
’’consciousness, especially of pleasure and pain”,
"attention of mind” and "devotion", and manasikara,

12 __
simply as "taking to heart.” Manaskara, consisting
of manas- /kr , is the activity of manas whose function
signifies the fundamental response of the cognitive
subject toward objects of external, empirical

13 - _
reality. In the Yogacara manaskara played a
significant role; The soteriological significance of
manas was developed and systematized in the theory
of the "Store-consciousness”, and the spiritual path
leading to the attainment of insight into the truth
was described by the four phases which indicate the
gradual process of spiritual development, yoniô-
■manaskara (see: Chap.II, D.3).

i$q
B.J> The vision of '‘that Land”
a) The merit-adornments
The text provides the vision of ’’that Land” by-
listing item by item the characteristics, or excellent
merits which belong, to each of the three constituents--
i.e., the Buddha Land, the Buddha, and the Pure Land
bodhisattvas (see: Chap.III^). The vision is described
by citing the ’’Verses of Aspiration for Birth”. These
excellent merits are called "kung-te chuang-yen ch’eng-

-chiu ( tf ) .^
Though the term ch’ eng-chiu (y/^TfOG ) was ' '
traditionally understood simply as "perfection”, it
has a wide variety of meanings: (i) to embody, or
to be equipped with...on one’s body (yukti, or yukta);
(ii) accomplishment, completion, to fulfill (siddhi,
samanvaya); (iii) the realisation of aims, resolutions

15
or aspirations (kyta-artha ) etc..
Japanese scholars point out that the description
of merit-adornments of the Land in the PLT resembles
the eighteen "perfections”(sampad, (j] or/^] )

*16
listed in the Mahay anasajpgr aha. Many have concluded,
on the basis of this resemblance, that the author of
the PLT was inspired by .this text and that the

phrase ch1 eng-chiu means the '’perfection". The
similarity between the passages is noteworthy, the
easy identification, however, should be avoided.
Kung-te( xX)) is translated as "merit, virtue,
excellence or power." It corresponds to such Skt.
words as gupa, pupya and sambhara. Pupya means the
"virtue of good deeds and the blessedness as their

i7
fruit”. Gupa means: (i) the excellent, good quality
which is acquired by the accumulation of food ddeds;
(ii) a sensation-data; (iii) an attribute. In the
context of the PLT, kung-te indicates those excellent
characteristics or qualities with which that Land

is equipped, /yence guna //^ be -tk wort It'ty
. j+- 121= » ,
Ghuang-yen( pi- ) is an important^whcih ap
pears in the early Mahayana sutras and in those sutras

18
with mystical elements. Its Skt. equivalents are:
(i) vyuh-a meaning formation, distribution, orderly
arrangements, and (ii) a , meaning to prepare,

19
to make ready, to decorate or adorn.
b) The vision
The Buddha Land is presented in the text in
terms of the seventeen symbolic descriptions of

(61
excellent "features”, with the use of similies and

20
analogies--such as treasure and light. Despite the
manifold diverse descriptions, the essential
feature of the Land is described by the author
in the first "merit of Purity" : "When I perceive(kuan)
the feature of that Land, it surpasses the Three Realms
of existence "(PLT, p.2J0). "That Land", therefore,
essentially transcends this samsaric world with - '
regard to /‘^s feature , and is free from "defilements"
of this world. ^'he merit-adornments of the
Buddha Land are explained by the author in the
following expressions:
(1) the power which is beyond conceptual understanding
); (2) the nature of that wish-fulfill
ing jewel, qintamafli < >p£ )? (5) the
semblant and relative dharma ( );
(4) the concrete things in phenomena ( ); and
(^) the excellent realm which belong^ to the highest

truth (^- A' 'tariff CtB] )-22
In connection with the meditative vision, the
following suggestion may be noteworthy. It was suggested
by K.Hayajima that the idea of "faith in the Buddha"
( ) an£ the cult of "seeing the Buddha"( )

are probably those elements which contributed in form-
ing the development of the Pure ând teaching.
While referring to the well-known practice of the
’’meditation on impurity”( , he also suggests
that the meditative practices described in the
Meditation Sutra belong to the same category as the

■tiui . , .
"meditation onApurity(parisuddhi)of Buddha’s body
and "contemplation on the Buddha”(buddhanusrnpti,
F&fe >■
c) Four levels of meditative practices
Four levels in meditating the vision of Amida,
or Amita, are described by J.F.Pas. The four levels
of meditative activities are:
(1) visualization or imagination (hsiang)
(2) inspection (kuan, ti-kuan, kuan-ch* a)
(3) vision (chien)
(4) samacLhi
They are explained by Pas, respectively:
(1) hsiang--creation of mental image or mental
construction (p.101); (2) kuan--”once the mental
image is formed, ...study it in'all details”, or
’’with concentration of the attention, to look closely

at the visualized object, to analyze it mentally,
or to inspect it”(pp.101-102); (3) chien—"conscious
vision”, ’’after artificially constructing a mental
object and impressing it on the mind through close
inspection, the object suddenly or slowly manifests
itself, appears (mentally) in front of the meditator,
as if it were really present”(p.103)? (^) the explana
tion of samadhi is not given in detail, except that
it is the ’’supreme experience”, ’’inexpressible in
words” etc..
In the PLT itself, the vision of ’’that Land”
is described by the author in diverse expressions,
which may indicate different levels of understanding
the vision. They are ( see ; chop, <
(1) the "Land of Peace and Happiness”(ûkhavatl,
or the realm of sukha
for those who^zish and long for deliverance from
samsaric sufferings.
(2) the ’’yonder”, the realm which transcends the
three kinds of .worldly existence in samsara. It
is the realm of purity and tranquility, free from
the ’’defilements” of ignorance and attachments.
This realm is for those who aspire to atf/u/1 ■ the

non-worldly and spiritual dharma-sukha( ) of
higher meditative states.
(3) the "Pure Buddha Land"( ) w It is
the sphere of undefiled Wisdom of Equality and guid
ance. It is the sphere of activity,of those bodhi
sattvas who have realized the highest Mahayana Mind
of great Compassion and Expedient means. This realm

ihfc
is, therefore, the sphere ofAhighestbodhisattva^stage.
This vision of "Pure Buddha Land" no longer bears duahiy
25
"thatness" , for the bodhisattva has perfectly
realized the Wisdom of Non-discrimination and Equality.
In this way the author tactfully incorporates
into the text considerations for the diversity of
spiritual capacity of beings in the world. As different
beings desire, wish, or aspire to attain different
stages as the "end"(finis) of their actions and
practices, the vision of "that Land", too, differ
greatly. This is explained in the descriptions of
the five gates of Merit-perfections, which is
examined below.
!<&
C. Five gates of Merityperfection
C.1 Translation of the passages (T.Vol.26, p.233)
Again, one should know that there are five kinds
of gates through which {(followers} gradually perfect
five kinds of merits. What are the five ?[They are:]
(1) the gate of Approach (i’T' l3£| )

(2) the gate of great Assemblage ( 'ilM^ )
(3) the gate of the Residence ( )
(4) the gate of the Inner Room )
(3) the gate of the stage of ’’playing” in the
Garden and woods( (JJ )
(see: Chap.Ill, B).
Through the first four gates, (followers and
bodhisattva^ perfect the merit of ’’entry”, and
through the fifth, [the bodhisattvas^ perfect the
merit of ’’egress”.
(1) the entry by the first gate: One worships
the Buddha Amida, wishing to attain birth in that
Land. One will thereby attain birth in the Land of

Peace and Happiness, ^SukhavatiJ. We call this the
entry by the first gate.
(2) the entry by the second gate: One praises and

I&h
adores the Buddha Amida. One recites the Tathagata’s
name in accordance with the signficance of the name,
and practises in reliance upon the Tathagata’s
[Wisdom-J light. One thereby attains entry into the
great assemblage. We call this the entry by the
second gate.
(3) 'the entry by the third gate: One aspires to
to ibe born there—with one mind and v/lth the mind
fixed--and practises samatha and^samadhi of tranquility.
One thereby attains entry into the realih of the Lotus-store.
We call this the entry by the second gate.
the entry by the fourth gate: One perceives
in meditation—with thoughts fixed—those excellent
adornments and practises vipasyana. One thereby
reaches the ’’yonder” and enjoyi the taste of various
dharma-sukha ( ), the taste of meditation.
We call this the entry . . by the fourth gate.
(5) the egress by the fifth gate: One perceives
all suffering beings with great Compassion; With
transformation-bodies, one re-enters the Garden of

samsara amidst the woods of ignorani^ttachments.
Through {the free and spontaneous^! unhindered activities,

using the supernormal abilities, one reaches the
stage of gauidance. One thereby transfers, or re
directs, the power of Original Vows. We call this
the egress by the fifth gate.
One should know that, through the four gates
of entry, the bodhisattva fulfills and perfects
the practices which benefit himself. One should
also know that, through the fifth gate of egress,
the bodhisattva perfects the practice of Merit-
-transference, which benefits others. In this
way, the bodhisattva benefits others as well as
himself through the five spiritual gate-practices,
and thereby speedily attains the supreme Enlighten
ment of Equality (anutta.rasamyaksagtbodhi ).
C.2 Entry-Egress
Traditionally, the idea of ’’entry-egress1’ was
metaphorically understood in terms of T’an-luan’s
interpretation in the Lun-chu. It is clear from the
context that T’an-luan interpreted the ’’gates”

only from the meanings of men( F*2! ).^
The five
$
gates of Mindful Practices and those of Merit- perfection
were understood to be of a linear, cause-result

27
relationship. Because of this, the five gates of
Merit-perfection were traditionally called the ’’five
gates of result”( :£l f3^ , gokamon in Jap.). . The
four ’’merits of entry” and the ’’merit of egress” as
described m the text will be examined below in the
light of the Mahayana bodhisattva ideal which combines
Wisdom and Compassion (see: Chap.II, D).
’’Entry” ( Sfe© :chap
The attainment of the four kinds of spiritual
levels are referred to in the text as the four kinds
of ’’entry” or Ubirth” into ’’that Land.” The four .
are those of : (1) acquiring ’’birth” in the Land of
Sukhavati; (2) attaining entry into the great
assemblage; (3) attaining entry into the realm of
the Lotus-store; (4) reaching the ’’yonder” and
enjoying various tastes of meditation. They Indicate
the gradual process of spiritual elevation, or., the
process in which the followers of the path gradually
proceed, to higher spiritual levels.
When the bodhisattva has attained the Wisdom
of insight into the truth, the undefiled Wisdom of

/M
Non-discrimination and Equality, he reaches the
"yonder1’-, the realm of absolute tranquility and
Equality attained in the highest level of medita-

28
tion-. The bodhisattva then dwells in the undefiled
pure realm, and acquires the enjoyment of meditation
in his samadhi state. The text mentions two of these
states: a) the "Nirvana of Equality" ()
and, b) the "samadhi of tranquility" ( .
"Egress"
The x>merit of egress" refers to the merit of
reaching the stage of unhindered activities in the
world out of Compassion. It is explained, symbolic
by going out of, or leaving ("egress")
the "yonder realm" of purity and tranquility, and
re-entering sarps'ara, the world defiled by
attachmens (klesa, jgy )« The path or the method
of achieving this merit.is as follows: The bodhisattva
perceives in meditation multitudes of sentient beings
who suffer in their states of illusions in samsara.
Out of Compassion, the bodhisattva transforms himself
diversely to spiritually educate and lead them to
deliverance. His transformation-bodies re-enter

I'7V
samsara by leaving the realm of Equality and tran
quility, and actually engage in the work of guidance
amidst those unenlightened beings who dwell in the
darkness of ignorance and tormenting passions. The
actions of these transformation-bodies are unhindered
and spontaneous, being free from discrimination
or attachments| they teach and show the Mahayana
path. This is described in detail in the vision of
the Pure Land bodhisattvas who are equipped with
the perfection of the merits of four kinds of ’’right
practices1^ .
The bodhisattvaîn the realm of purity, functions
as the "light” or the "Wisdom-light” of the TathSgata

Ortd
in the world, teaching^the Buddha’s ^harma which
guides the multitude away from the samsaric suffer
ing and leads gradually to the realm of peace and
purity.
/7/
D. Diversity and Complexity
D.1 Diversity in the spiritual levels
The relationship between the descriptions of
the practising agents of the five spiritual practices-™
viz., ’’good men and women” and ”bodhisattva"--resulted

29
in some doctrinal controversy in the Shin school.
The problem regarding the nature of practising sub
jects in the PLT is very complex and confusing.
It is, however, a very important issue in order to
better understand the theory of salvation expounded
in the text.
The text mentions different categories of sentient
beings, indicating different spiritual levels, or
the qualitative differences in the performance of
the five spiritual practices. An attempt is made '
below to examine the diversity in the spiritual level
or capacities of beings who practise the Mahayana
path of five actions.
a) Good men and women
Those who follow the path of five gates of
Mindful Practices are called ”good men and women”
(kulaputra and kuladuhity, A. )(see:

J72
chap.Ill, B). The phrase originally' referred to the
persons of Brahmin origin, and was commonly used
in the filial, secular context. According to A.
Hirakawa, it was rarely mentioned in Pali texts

30
except m the secular sense. in the Abhidharma
schools, the term kulaputra came to acquire a
special significance with the meaning of "one
who aspires to leave household life” or an ’’aspirant
for the monkhood.” In the Early Buddhism, therefore,
the term was no longer applicable once the aspirant
joined the sangha (Ibid.).
In the early Mahayana sutras, the ’’good men
and women” came to acquire greater importance. They
were regarded as officially accepted Buddhist followers.
They were described as lay followers and devotees
who were encouraged to "accept and believe” (% ),
"to accept and maintain"( $ ) the Mahayana teach-

_ 31
ing and Mahayana sutras. They were listed as an
important category of people among the audience of
the Buddha who preaches the Mahayana doctrine.
Their importance grew so great that the demarcation
line between them and the bodhisattvas became unclear
in the course of development of the Mahayana. This is

t'73
exemplified by the appearanae of the lay bodhisattvas,
or the ^householder81 (gyhapati) bodhisattvas (yfe
b) Three grades of bodhisattvas
The PLT mentions three grades, or spiritual
levels^ of bodhisattvas: (1) the bodhisattvas who
have not yet attained the Pure Mind (
)--those who are still on their way toward
the realization of Wisdom and purity; (2) the
bodhisattvas of Pure Mind ()--those
who have . ctttained the Wisdom of insight , realized
the Pure Mind through meditative practices, and now
dwell in the pure realm; (5) the bodhisattvas of
higher stages( /^|| )“-those who perform
the work of guidance, out of great Compassion, as
the highest level of the Mahayana path.
The goals to which they aspire and the level at
which they practise the path are described in the
text, respectivelyâs follows :
(1) ^hey aspire to realize the undefiled 'Wisdom and
Pure Mind, by means of meditative practicesîncluding
the practice of samatha.
(2) They develop Compassion and the altruistic aspira

m
tion for the deliverance of suffering others, by
means of meditation and the practice of Merit-
-transference by skillful means. *£hey gradually
equip themselves with the Mind-attributes of
Mahayana Compassion on their Mind which has
attained purity.
(3) '^heir aspiration is directed toward the
realisation of the highest goal, the supreme
Enlightenment of Equality, by pracitsing the
unhindered guiding activities of the highest
Mahayana path-as the ’’right practices”. In
doing so, they realize the highest Mahayaha Mind
of excellent happiness and supreme truth (the
self-benefit aspect),and at the same time,
they give peace and happiness to others by their

bX
activities of salvation andAsustaining the Buddha’s
Dharma in the world for the multitudes (see: chap.
Ill, B, the visiorôf the bodhisattvas in the Pure
Land).
It may be noteworthy that the text has three
descriptions of the practice of Merit-transference,
the path of Mahayana Compassion. It is described,
firstly, as a practice of Mindfulness, then as a

IK
practice of skillful means (upaya-kausalya, see:chap.
II, D ) and, lastly, in terms of transferring the
power of the Original Vows . This probably indicates
the qualitative difference in the performance of
the practice of Merit-transference.
When bodhisattvas practise the meditation on
the adornments of the Buddha, they will come to "see
that Buddha’f( ), that is, to "see”(chien, JL>)

32
the Buddha appear and manifest before them. They
will then finally attain the "dharmakaya of Equality”

( % ) or the "Nirvana of Equality”(
T ’ dePen<3-in&’ on their spiritual level
and whether or not they have realized the pure Mind.
Those who have not yet realized the Pure Mind attain
the former, and those who have, the latter.
The bodhisattvas of Pure Mind are characterized
by the attainment of the eighth bodhisattva stage,
the "immovable” (acala, Tpjijtp ’ which is also called
the "stage of undefiled, pure Wisdom” (
They have attained the undefiled Wisdom of Non-dis
crimination (see: chap.II,D ). They are also described
in terms of realization of the highest kganti, the

/76
patient acceptance of the non-arisen nature of all

3^
things”. They ares therefore, no longer attached
even to the goal or purpose. It may be mentioned
here that the Pure Mind is often identified with
’’faith” or ’’firm belief” in Japan. Yamaguchi, for
example, identifies it with ’’pure faith or belief"
are those in the ninth and the tenth bodhisattva
stages, and are characterized by their activity
of guidance out of great Compassion( see: chap.II,
D ) : In the ninth ’’stage of the Good Ones”, the
bodhisattva enters the ocean of Buddha’s Dharma,
and participates in the propagation of the teaching
(Dharma) to deliver and enlighten others. He also
acquires various super-normal abilities in
this stage. In the tenth, highest ’’stage of the
Cloud of Dharma”, a bodhisattva . ’’receives the
great cloud of Dharma which rains upon and equally
benefits all”. He is ’’likened to the rain which
lays the dust of passion of sentient beings and
produces the growth of harvest of merits”, and hence

<1
he is considered to be identical with a Tathagata
37
and equal with Buddhas”.
D.2 diversity in ’’that which is sought”
In an attempt to propagate the Mahayana path,
the author has tried to accommodate various expecta
tions, hopes, and wishes which actually exist in the
world and are entertained among sentient beings. In
the vision of ’’that Land” and in the nature of
practices, a variety of ’’that which is sought")
are incorporated, by using a symbolic language. The
complex and manifold nature of the vision (see; chap.
IV, B.^ ) and the path indicates the diversity of
"ends", or the states which are longed for and aspired
to by various sentient beings at different spiritual
levels. This included not only the realm of the ”defi3edj’
worldly aukha and spiritual dharma-sukha, but also the
realm of Wisdom and the sphere of great Compassion
and guidance.
The path of practice as the method may be
divided into four phases of development in the light

of different spiritual capacities and the levels of
"that which is sought".
a) "Desire or Wishes"
The path before attaining bodhisattvahood is
characterised by the cultivation of piety and belief
by orientating the "desire" or "wish" ( ) toward
higher levels of practice# Followers (i.e., good men
and women ) develop the fixation and the purposive
ness of mind through the path which revolve around
the teaching# Their thoughts are directed toward •
certain aspects of the teaching (e.g., the name, the
features ), and they thereby come to attain various
degrees of mindfulness, which in turn leads them to
wish to conform to, of correspond with higher bodhi
sattva practices that accord with the truth ( i.e.,
M-f/D ).
It may be noteworthy, in this context, that the
"desire"(chanda, ) is explained as something
that arises from the "intention or the inclination
of mind to do something" and that "desire" or "wish"
( M ) is explained also as "to desire to do something"
( ) * and as "that which serves as the causal
factor for zealous efforts (virya,

/'/<?
b) ’’Aspiration”
The purposiveness of bodhisattvas is no longei’
called ’’desire” but, instead, the ”aspiration"( ftXJ )
and the ’’Aspiring Mind”( /IS ). This is (probably)
because the content of bodhisattva’s purposive mind
is the undefiled Wisdom and Compassion.
(OThe goal of Wisdom and purity is for those bodhi
sattvas who have not yet realised the Wisdom of
insight or Pure Mind, Their aspiration is directed
to practices which lead to Wisdom and into the realm
of purity and tranquility. This level of practice
is one that "conforms to or corresponds with” (hsiang-
-ying, jjzg ) the higher practice. It is likely
that the practice at this level corresponds with the
aforementioned prayoga-marga, the second of the five
hanks of the Yogacara path (see: chap.II, D ).
CH)Compassion, the goal beyond purity, Is for
those bodhisattvas of Pure Mind, They practise the
path of Merit-transference by skillful means, and
benefit thereby both self and others. In this way,
they accomplish the highest state, gradually and
eventually (i.e., "finally”, atyanta, jp. ), the
"Mind of excellent happiness and supreme truth”

f80
They cultivate the altruistic aspiration to attain
"birth” in that Land together with all others.
(jii) The ultimate goal of the highest Mahayana bodhi
sattvas, the supreme Enlightenment of Equality, is
for the bodhisattvas in the higher stages. It is
the aspiration to perfectly realise the "Mind of
great Compassion" and unhindered guidance performed
as a "play”. They practice the "right practice" with
the perfectly unhindered Mind, free from any form
of attachment or discrimination /& , see:
chap.Ill,B on the vision of the bodhisattvas in the
Pure Land ).
c) "Hsiang-ying" *to be iry6onf ormity
with the practice which accords with
the truth/7
The term hsian-ying (40 ) was here trans
lated as "to conform to or to correspond to." Its
Skt.equivalents are yukta, yoga, prayoga and sara-
prayoga, meaning theMunion of the tallies, one agree
ing or uniting with the other" or "response, cor
respondence, agreement it indicates, Lin the context
of the Yogacara-vijhanavada, the relationship between

JS7
mind and the object of perception or between mind

39
and mental functions. In the context of the
mantra-yana, the teaching of the ’’holy, or true,
word”, the term acquired a great significance that
the school was called hsiang-ying-zung ( sooshfi <"
the ’’sect of yoga” or the "sect of mutual response”
between man and his object of worship, resulting in
correspondence, or agreement in body, mouth, and
mind—i.e., deed, word, and thought (Ibid.).
T’an-luan understood hsiang-ying, from its Chinese
meaning, to indicate sincere and authentic nature of
the recitation practice which, if followed properly,
reveals the efficacy of the Buddha’s name and,, hence

ho ' ‘ ■
satisfies all wishes. The name was thus interpreted
as an infallible magical formula of the all-saving
Buddha, and the recitation practice acquired a
special significance. In the Japanese Pure Land
schools, especially, it has traditionally enjoyed
the central status in the soteriological doctrine
of absolute ”other-power"(tariki in Jap.). Nien-fo
(/^ 30 , nenbutsu in Jap.) became popular as the
"recitation or invocation of the Buddha’s name” or
“calling on Him by the name.”

d) The higher bodhisattva practice:
"to practise in accordance with the truth”
The phrase .ju-shih-hsiu-hsing^D ) was
translated, here as the 'practice which accords with
the truth” or ”to practise in accordance with
the truth.” The phrase was ’’reconstructed” by H.
Sakurabe as anudharma-pratipatti (tr.in Chin.as
)» after a careful examination of other

i|.1
translation works by Bodhiruci. It is an important
term in the Yogacara, describing the higher .bodhJs#tCy&
path (see: chap. II,B ).
It may be suggested, therefore, that the
three terms, a) ytT hsiang-ying(^^ ), b)
hsiang-ying( ) and, c) ju-shih-hsiu-hsing
(-$3 *|| , indicate the qualitative dif
ferences in the performance of the path of practice^
They signify the three succeeding spiritual levels
which followers are instructed to proceed step by
step. It is highly likely, as already mentioned
earlier, that they correspond, respectively, with
the following three spiritual levels:
(a) the level of practice before arousing the
bodhisattvas' aspiration for Enlightenment, hence

the level before the attainment of bodhisattvahood*
(b) the level of bodhisattva practice-—the path
of practice leading to the realization of the un
defiled Wisdom, hence the level of practice leading
to Wisdom and purity;
(c) the level of higher .bodhisattva practice
of Compassion, and guidance-- the path beyond the
realization of Wisdom and purity. It is characterized
by the undefiled, or undiscriminating Mind and by
the unhindered activities which revolve around the
^harma, the teaching of the truth.
Conclusion : The Mahayana path
In summary, the salvation is described,in the
PLT, In terms of attaining ’’birth” or "entry” into
"that Land”, which gradually reveals its more profound
( and possibly, esoteric) meanings as the treatise
proceeds. The significance of the text lies in that
it has incorporated a wide variety of "ends" which
vary according to different sentient beings of dif
ferent spiritual levels. This complexity greatly
contributed to the mystifying and almost confusing later
pictures of the text, which underwent a considerable
acculturation and doctrinal mystification.

The text has incorporated the manifold vision
of ’’that Land” which is perceived at various spiritual
levels,, This includes : a) the Land of salvation,
b) the undefiled realm of meditative state, and c)
the sphere of Mahayana Compassion and guidance which
is the highest bodhisattva ideal and the vision of
the ’’Pure Buddha Land”,
The method expounded in the text is the Mahayana
path of the five spiritual practices. Everyone can
follow this path, each according to his spiritual
capacity. The path thus embraces all sentient
beings, by leading them gradually to the Enlighten-
ment and, at the^time, "fulfilling” the spiritual
content of their wishes and aspirations.
This Mahayana path of the five practices can
accommodate different "depths” of practice by allow
ing qualitative differences in its performance.
Through this path, a) some are led to the realm of
sukha, being delivered from acute samsaric suffer
ings; b) some are led to the realm of purity and
tranquility, being delivered from "defilements” and
enjoying the mental ease of higher meditative states;

|S5
c) others are led. to the altruistic sphere of Maha
yana Compassion; and c) still others perform the
path as the skillful means to guide the multitude
and to "sustain the treasure of Buddha's Dharma*"
In this way, all beings are gradually led to higher
and higher spiritual levels by following the path.
The path of the five spiritual actions are, there
fore, abundant with various significances and
involves a very complex ethical ontology in various
shades and levels. By following this path, one is
led to bodhisattvahood, to the realization of the
undefiled Wisdom, Compassion and even to the
perfect realization of guidance, which ultimately
leads the bodhisattva to the supreme Enlighten
ment of Equality.
The PLT, therefore, not only provides an
intelligible ethical ontology but also presents us
with a significant insight into the nature of the
Mahayana path of practice and the role of "aspira
tion" in the spiritual pursuit.

ise
Notes and References
Introduction
1 T.Vol.26, pp.230-233. (Nanjio, No.1204). Note
that T.No.i960 is also titled Ching-t * u-lun, but it

is by Chia-ts’ai( ).
2
This is the traditionally accepted date (see:
Kaidai., p.143). Osuga reports that there are two
possible dates: (1) 529 A.D., according to a reliable
record of translation works, and (2) 53 "1 A.D.. See:
S.Osuga, ”Jodoron no yakuhon ni tsuite”, Bukkyo Kenkyu,
Vol.8, No.4, pp.511-525.
Two dates of his translation work in China are

given: 503-533 A.D., and 508-535 A.D.. The latter is
more widely accepted.
The /ater Wei dynasty is also written as:

or •
S, pp.269-278. See also: SJ, pp.189-206.

6 T.Vol.40, pp.826-844; S, pp.279-349.
Chapter I Vasubandhu
T.No.2049, ’’The Life of Vasubandhu” by Paramartha.

Though Paramartha is described as "translator”, it is
generally assumed that it is his accout of the life of
Vasubandhu.
2
Puruâpura is presently Peshawar in the northern
part of West Pakistan, while Ayodhya is situated in
the. 71071k-' western pQ.ro of -Xjijca
A
According to Paramartha, all of them were called
"Vasubandhu.”
A . .
Another source reports (see: STK, pp.3-19) that
Asanga first joined the Mahxâsaka school ).
** The historical existence of Maitreya is unclear

and controversial. He is generally called "Maitreya
natha” which can coverr all the three possibilities
regarding his identity. See: Kajiyama, "Kaisetsu”,
Seshinronshu, Button, Vol.15, pp.416-422 ; M. Hattori,
Ninshiki to Ghoetsu, BS, Vol.4, pp.13-14.
6
Kudo says (STK, pp.7-9) that the name of this
brother is also written as tygffi .
7
The characteristics of the Sarvastivadin school
are, firstly, its strong emphasis on minute analysis
of existence-into various elements and, secondly,
systematic classification of those elements.
8 _
C. Yamamoto, ”Gandhara koki no josei to nyujikuso
tachi no kiroku”, HKR, pp.157-169•
9 -
' Paramartha, op.cit*.
10 STK, op.cit..
11
Taranatha, History of Buddhism in India, ed.D.
Chattopadhyaya(Simla, 1970)» pp.149-175; 395-398.
12 z
One of them is said to be the Dasabhumika-sutra,
see: STK,,. p^9.
13 STK, pp.7-8.
14
From the fourth to the sixth century. It was
destroyed by the invasion.
15
J.Takakusu tr., '’Paramartha’s Life of Vasubandhu
and the date”, JPAS, 1905, pp.7-11. Takakusu suggests,
concerning this imperial recognition, the king Vikrama-
ditya who was succeeded by the king Baladitya. But this,
too, is uncertain.
16
The reports by Paramartha and Taran'atha agree
on this point.
17 _ <s
In the Taranatha, itAa monk living like a layman,
having a house and ploughing the field etc.; in Bu-ston,
History of Buddhism, tr. E.Obermiller (Heidelberg, 1931)
pp.142-145, a monk with a pot of wine.
18
D. Chattopadhyaya, in Taranatha’s History., p.175»
19 / \
J.Takakusu (op.cit., p.7) stated the problematic
situation as follows : ’’Since not a single work of
Vasubandhu is as yet published in the original, the
date of his literary activity can only be settled by
the evidence adduced from Chinese authorities. All the
dates hitherto assigned to him must be either reconst
ructed or modified....”
See: STK, pp.10-19*

21
Ibid.
22
Ibid. Also H. Sakurabe, Sonzai no bunseki: Abi-
daruma, BS, Vol.2, pp.157-159•
O’**
J E.Frauwallner, ”0n the date of the Buddhist
master of the Lav; Vasubandhu”,(Serie Orientale Soma)
Is.M.E.O. 1951, pp.l-69.
24
Ibid.
IM
25
P.S. Jaini, n0n the theory of two Vasubandhus”,
BSOAS, Vol.21, 1958, pp.48-53.
26
The MSS are: Abhidharmadipa, together with a
commentary, the Vibhaga-prabha-vptti .
27
Y.Kajiyama, op.ext*
28 „ „
T.Kimura, Dai30 bukkyo shis^ron in Kimura Taiken
Zenshu, Vol.6, p.142.
29
Takakusu, op.cit., p.5*
Asanga is considered as the founder of the

Yogacara school, with Maitreyanatha as a co-founder.
31
The historical existence of ’’Maitreya has not
been endorsed. See: tfie note 5 above.
The Chinese Fa-hsiang ( ) school adds,

to this list, the works by followers of Vasubandhu,
such as Sthiramati, Dignaga, and Dharmapala.
33
The following works are believed to reflect the
influence of this philosophy: Fo-hsing-lun ),
Shih-ti-ching-lun ).
Chapter II The Development of

Bodhisattva Ideal (A, B, and C only)
For details, see: Dayal, pp.4-9; L.de la Vallee

Poussin, ERE, Vol.2, p«739.
R.Hikata, nBosatsu shiso no kigen to tenkai”,

Konpon,, pp,224-225*
3 Dayal, pp.3Q-L0.
Ibid., p.35.
See: Conae, Thirty., pp.33-47; Dayal, pp.46-49.

Also see: chap.XI, D .
6
BR, p.54. Robinson is of the opinion that the
doctrinôf the bhumi-s was originally introduced
between 130-300 A.D..
7
Recently, however, some scholars have begun to
contemplate the possibility of certain historical
personalities who might have been the kernel of the
idea of these bodhisattvas. But this is still
uncertain and unconvincing.
® The upsurge of the cult of saviour bodhisattvas
had probably much to do with certain historical

situations of instability and misfortune.
Dayal, pp.4j5-49•
R.Yamada, Dai,jo bukkyo seiritsuron Josetsu(Kyoto,

1965), pp.145-150 ; Dayal, p.43.
11
See: Dayal, pp.292-31? on Last Life and Enlighten
ment”.
12
Horner, Arahan., p.192.
Dayal, pp.64-6?.
G, pp.402-411.
See: G, pp.402-413; R.Yamada, op.cit., pp.291-

293; W.Dutt, Early Monastic Buddhism, Vol.2 (Calcutta,
1945), p.305 ff.
fll
16
G, pp.408-414. See also: Dutt, op.cit., p.217
f f.; âyal, p.65*
17
f G.Nishi Bosatsudo., pp.2-5*
Dayal, pp.64-65*
Robinson, BR, pp.58~63; Conzie, Thirty., pp.33-47?

Schumann, Buddhism: An. Outline of its Teachings and
SchoolsCLondon, 1973), pp.127-137*
2^ See: Dayal, pp.46-49*
2^ Dayal, pp.64-67*
22 Hoshakubu kyoten, Butten., Vol. 7 (Tokyo, 197*0,
pp.154-155*
23 Ibid., pp.85-86. 153-160.
oft
Horner, Arahan., pp.98-99*
25 Hirakawa, "introduction" in Kaidai., pp.8-12.
26 Horner, pp.189-191*
27 Butten., op. cit., pp.153-177.
28 Ibid., pp.89-98.
29 Hirakawa, "Daijo bukkyo no kyodanshi-teki seikaku",
Seiritsushi., (pp.447-482), p.454.

^0 Robinson, BR, p.5**-*
Dayal, p.50*
32 Poussin, ERE, Vol«2?, p*7*f-9.
Dayal, p.59«
BD, pp.762-763. Of. rupa(g ), kaya( )

35 BD, pp.705-706.
IW
Dayal, p.62.
3? Hirakawa, op.cit., in Seiritsushi.; Robinson, BR,
p.45; Prebish, art. in Perspective., p.45.

38
Hirakawa, op.cit..
39 Ibid., Also see: Butten, V0I.9, pp**153,177*
40
Hirakawa, op.cit..
See: Dayal, pp.58-59*

42 " £ f-itosf Af jSJE-^ "
43
It came to be identified with "faith” or ’’belief”
(4raddha, adhimukti)•
44
Various levels of bhumi-s and lcsanti-s were
established in the Yogacara. See: chap.II, D.
For details, see: Dayal, pp. 165-2.69*

4^
Dayal, pp. 165-167; R.Hikata, "Bosatsu shiso no
kigen to tenkai" in Konpon, (pp.219-240), p.233.
47
f Horner provides us with a helpful description
of the concept of the ’’beyond”. See: ’’Para: Beyond",
Arahan, pp.282-312.
48 - -
K.Miauno, "Buha bukkyo yori daijo bukkyo e no
tenkai”, Seiritsushi., pp.271-273*
49
' R.Yamada, Dai j o Bukkyo seiritsuron Josetsu.
pp.150-158.
/?3
Chapter XI, D The bodhisattva in the Yogacara
For the details of Mind philosophy, see: M.Hattori,

Ninshiki .fco Ghoetsu: Yuishiki, BS, Vol.4 (Tokyo, 197®)»
pp.26-45; Y.Kajiyama, "Kaisetsu", Butten., Vol.15
(Tokyo, 1976)» pp.410-428.
2
Kajiyama(op.cit.) says that the appearance of this
idea can be traced as early as in the passages of
Dhammapada.
3 See: Mv.Nos.2016-2026.
h.
See: G.M. Nagao, ’’Tenkan no ronri", Tetsugaku
Kenkyu, No.405, Vol.35» 1952 ; J.Takasaki, ’’Ten’e”,
Nihon Bukkyogakkai Nenpo, Vol.25» 1959*
^Nagao, in ’’Alayashiki to sansho”, Chudkoron (May,

1974), pp.320-333.
6 In the Chinese Fa-hsiang () school, the
perfect Wisdom was described as twofold : the fundamental

Wisdom of Non-discrimination ( ) and
the Wisdom of discernment (/J^? )•
ry
‘ See: Nagao, in Seshinronshu, Butten., Vol.15,
p.391* The four are described as the ”world-wisdom”.
Also, H.Ui, Shodaijoron Kenkyu (Tokyo, 1966), pp.634-
640.
& Dayal, pp.248-249.
9 See: Dayal, pp.248-269; Mv.Nos.759-7^0, 1554-
1559
m
For details, see: Katsumata. ’’Bosatsudo to yui-

shiki-kan no jissen”, Bosatsudo,,pp.599-432.
11
See: L.de.la Vallee Poussin, ’’Bodhisattva”,
EKE, Vol.2, pp.747- 748; Dayal, pp.270-291.
12
Katsuraata, op.cit..
The term kuâla meant "that which is condusive

to sukha, and hence, did not imply any notion of etfferrwl
’’judgement” in the Buddhist context. See: I.Funabashi,
Genshi Bukkyo shiso no Kenkyu (Kyoto, 1952, 1975), pp.
229-248.
See: Hattori, op.cit., pp.45-60.

15
Katsuraata, op.cit..
16
T.No.1585, 10 chuan. The text is attributed to
Dharmapala by Hsuan-tsang.
17
The idea of these-sets were probably latex* in
corporated.
18
Katsumata, op.cit..
19
It is also described in terras of ’’purifying” or
’lneutralising” the mental function of the defiled
Ego-consciousness (raanas). Through meditative practices,
one gradually rids his Mind of greed, attachment, dis
crimination, and hence, ignorance. See: Hattori, op.
cit., pp.108-156, 4-9-69-.
20
Ibid.
21
Mv.Nos.1210-1215- They are listed as those which
are condusive to the attainment of £the wisdom}of
/?5
discerning the truth.
See: SJ, pp.76-81. Cf.S, p.516 ; Tsuge, pp.142,

202.
25 Hattori, op.cit., pp.48-49-
24
MW, p.116.
25
BD, p.1155.
26
It is also tr. as "Transfer of Merit” (Dayal,
pp.57~.88) and "Turning-towards" (Corless, from the
Chinese meanings, TC, p.509 ff.).
27 H.Sakurabe, BgK, pp.99-109-
28 BD, p.1061; BgK, p.106.
29 BgK, pp.105-104.
Nagao, Butten., Vol.15, pp.520-558.

51 Ibid.
^2 Dayal, pp.248-269-
N. Dutt, ârly Monastic Buddhism. Vol.(2 (Calcutta,

1945), pp.275-515.
Chapter II E. The bodhisattva in the Pure Land

teaching
1 G, PP-5-9.
2
See: Conze, Buddhism: Its Essence and Development,
(Oxford, 1955), pp.205-2074 B{?, pp.105-104 ; Takakusu,
Ess., pp.166-175$ A. Bloom, Shinran1s 2Gospel of Pure
Grace (Arizona, 1965).
For the list, see: K. Yamamoto, The Introduction
to Shin Buddhism (Ube, Japan, 1963)i The Other-Power
(Ube, 1965).
G,pp.139-164.
S, P*931. T.No.2608. It is read as ''Senjaku" in

the JcJdc^chool founded by Honen, and "Senchaku" in
the Shin school.
6 s, pp.929-932.
? The texts belonging to Sthavira schools O77ly mention
the past Buddhas, and not the present and future Buddhas>
G, pp.361-376.
8
G, pp.484-491. Fujita lists the Buddha Lands and
illustrates this with the Buddha Aksobhya’s Land
which is named Abhirati ). Other factors are
also mentioned.
See: art. by H.Nakamura, K.Fujita et.al., "Bukkyo

no seiji shiso", Seiritsushi, pp.561-393.
10
The .cult of Maitreya and his Pure Land was at
one time very popular in China, notably in connection
with T*ao-an ( , 312-385, A.D.). Z.Tsukamoto, et.al.
Fuan to gongu :Chugoku Jdo(Tokyo, 1968), pp.41-44.
11
The cults of these two bodhisattvas are of different
character: Avalokite^vara because of, pity and compassion,
Maitreya as the future Buddha in the Tusita heaven.
12
G, pp.349-353. Fujita also gives as the meaning,
the "one who spreads the Dharma." His name was diversely
translated into Chinese as follows ° 5^ " 5^^
$.• - ss < - s? 3i>
(See 5 S, pp.6,75, 135, 187, 217) In Tib., it was
tr. into words meaning the "place of origin of Dharma"

(Chos kyi hbyuii gnas).
The Chin, trans, of the name of this Buddha are :
iM/fe 3E and , meaning the "one Cwho actsj
freely in the world" and the "one who benefits the
world." Though the origin of this name is unclear
(G, p.351), it indicates the theme of guidance in the
world.
1(|' S, p.6. Cf. S, p.?5 (LBy.).
ibid.. In LNy and LSy., he is described as a

monk, one of the bhiksu-s in the assemblage of the
Buddha (S, pp. 187, 217).
16 S, p.7 (LSv.)
The Mahayana accepts the idea that there are many

universes, hence many Buddhas and Buddha Lands. It is
unique to the Mahayana. The Sthavira school accepted
only certain past Buddhas who appeared before the
Buddha Sakyamuni. G, pp.361-376.
18 s, pp.379-391.
Ibid. ( 47 in the Skt. Muller edition. ; 48 in

the Ashikaga edition)•
20
Ibid. ; art/by Kaswgai and Todo," Jodo kyoten
no keisei", Konpon., pp.513~5l6.
21
~ LSy. is considered to be the newest tr. and
it lists 36 resolutions.
22
The lowest three gati-s are the.states of hell,
animals, and hungry ghosts. To those,. the state of
fighting spirits is added in LNy.,and in the Skt. and
Tib. texts.
IW
23 See :G, pp.431-440.
24
I4W, p.1221.
25
MW, p.483.
26
BD, p.265.
27 MW, pp.1220-1222.
28
G, p.439.
29 T’u ng-yung., p.376
50
G, p.431 ff.
51 Ibid.
T.No. 1^21, 17 chuan, tr. KurrfarajTva. Only a section

listed in S, pp.253-265.
S, p.254. It is traditionally understtd as the

"easy path" or "easy practice" as opposed to "hard and
strenuous path of practice"( ). See, also: the
Lun-dhn, S, p.279 ff..
34
Ibid.
See: chap.IV, D.
36
Traditionally in the Shin school, the bodhisattvas
of 0so( ^3^^© ) and genso ( Klt_^© ) were mentioned.The
latter,being the "bodhisattva who returns", points to
the idea of the bodhisattva of Compassion. Tsuge,,
PP.473-476.
fW
Chapter III The Treatise on the Pure. Land
T.Umehara, Part III of Kuan to gongu: Chugoku Jodo,

BS, Vol.8.(Tokyo, 1968), pp.261-264.
2 R.Corless, TC, pp.15-20.
See: art. by Osuga, op.cit..

k
See: Tsuge., pp.279-283 5 STK, pp.212-220, 261-
272.
5 STK, pp.269-282.
6
Ibid. Also see: Kaauya Hasegawa, ’’Seshin Jodo
ron ni okeru Jujikyo teki yoso", IBK, Vol.6, No.2,
p.182; S.Yamaguchi, art. In Konpon., pp.6o8~63O. Yama
guchi refers to an art. by K.Todo, "Seshin no
Jodo-kan, Muryojukyo no yugaha-teki rikai", Bukkyo
Kenkyu, No.4, pp.117-125*
' "Jodoron tsuge", pp.153-244; "Jodoron-chu tsuge",

pp.245-777.
Q STK, pp.220-260.
9 Respectively, T.N0.I963 (composed in 627 A.D.)
and T.N0.I96O (composed at the end of the seventh century)

They might have been of great help, regrettably, however,
they were unavailable to me at the time of writing.
10
See: SJ, p.24; R.Yuki, art. in Kaidai., p.143.
11 NP, Nos.5499, 5481. See also :Chap.IV, D.
12 S, p.280; Tsuge, pp.256-277.
13
For the divisions, see: S, pp.279-348 ; SJ, pp.
189-206; Tsacje9
20V
nA — - ,
A. Hirakawa, "Shoki daijo bukkyo no shijisha to
shite no zennanshi zennyonin," HKR, pp.213-2^8.
15 —
The cult of visualization and samadhi was popular
in connection with the Pure Land teaching. For details,
see : G, pp.3^3-563, see also, chap.IV, B.
Chapter IV Salvation in the Treatise on the

Pure Land
1 NP, No.6529.
2 BD, p.1369.
5 Soothill, p.273.
A ' n '
Ibid., p.238; NF, No.1518. In some cases it may
designate a "thought-moment”, as the tr. of the Skt.
term ksana.
For example, in LSv. , ft> (S,

pp.8-9) 5 in the Amida Sutra, ^7^ - 5%, - l&ff/t/e.
(S, pp.68-69).
6 s, pp.30-39.
7 Q, pp.558-562.
8
Ibid. ; also MW, pp.1272-1273. It also meant,
outside the Buddhist context, "that which is remembered
by human teachers", or the "whole body of sacred or
legal tradition."
9
' See: Ii.Sakurabe, Sonzai., BS, Vol.2, p.9Oi K.Mizuno,
Bukkyo no kiso chishiki (Tokyo, 1971), p.24A ff.
20
SJ, p.81. Cf.G, pp.559-562.

11 G, p.558 ; BD, p.1076.
12 MW, pp.785-784.
See: BgK, pp.157-140. Aoeording to Sakurabe,

manaskara is explained as the orientation or the
motivation of mind toward the object of perception
(p.138). Gf.SJ,p.77.
"1 it
Cf. S, p.3'17 ff. In the Lun-chu, the phrase
appears in a different order as: chuang-yen kung-te
ch* eng-chiu.
BD, pp.744-745i Soothill, p.257.

16 See: STK, pp.279-281 ; SJ, pp.92-100 ; S.
Mochizuki, Jodokyo no Kenkyu (Tokyo, 1914), pp.572-

584.
17 Soothill, pp.570, 426, 151, 187, 241 etc.:
BD, p.260.
18 BD, p.747. Of.Soothill, p.565.
19 MW, pp.1041, 94.
£-fpA very good art. by ûsho Miyasaka on ’’Vidya no

gogi", HKR, pp.249-265. He points out that the Buddhist
conception of the light( vidya). has its origin in
Brahmanism, and that it was likened tp the ’’eye” that
sees the truth, to the ’’light” (aloka), the ’’wisdom”
etc.. Also see: Issai Kunabashi, Genshi Bukkyo shiso
no Kenkyu (Kyoto, 1952, rpt.1975), p.95>f£*
21 Cf. S, p.516.
202
22 PLT, T.Vol.26, p.231.
23
K. Hayajima, "Jodokyo no shojo gossho-kan ni
tsuite", HKR, pp.231-248.
2! J.F. Pas, "Shan-tao’s interpretation of the
meditative vision of Buddha Amitayus," History of

Religion, Vol.14, No.2 (Nov., 1974), pp.96-116.
2^ P.L. Berger,A Rumor of Angels (N.Y*, 1970), p.2.
26
BgK, pp.108-109 ; S, p.313. Sakurabe points out
that T’an-luan’s interpretation of certain terms in
the PLT was mainly based on the literal meanings of
the Chinese text.
27 See: Tsuge., pp.239-244, 743-758. Cf. S£, p.179.
2& Soothill, p.278 ; BD, pp.325-526, p.746.
?q
J See: Tsuge., pp.717-720 ;Yamaguchi, Konpon.,
pp.622-623. This is because the school maintained
that its Pure Land teaching is for all the sinful and
unenlightened "ordinary beings" (bonbu, in Jap.) in
this defiled world.
30
A Hirakawa, art. opcit. in HKR, pp.213-248.
31 Ibid.See also: R.Mitomo, "Hokkekyo ni okeru
juji ni tsuite", IBK, Vol.24, No.1 (Dec.,1975),

pp.190-195.
^2 J.F. Pas, op.cit., pp.102-103.
BD, pp.752-753.
L. de la Vallee Poussin, ERE, Vol.2, pp.739-753.
SJ, pp.129-137; Konpon., pp.617-619. Cf. Tsuge.,

pp.215-218.
2q3
Dayal, p.291.
37
Poussin, op.cit..
58 BgK, p.159.
Soothill, p.3'10 ; BD, p.865.
Bee: S,,pp.314-315 J Tsuge, pp.538-564. Cf.BgK,

pp.137-138.
Ad „ n
Bgk, pp.99-109 ; SJ, pp.76-81.
Selected Bibliography
Bloom, Alfred. Shinran’s Gospel of Pure Grace. Tuscon,

Arizona: The TJniv. of Arizona Press, 1965» rpt.,
1968.
Bukkyo no Shiso ("BS") series of 12 vols.. Tokyo, Kado
ka wa shoten.
Bu-ston. History of Buddhism (Chos-hbyung). tr.
from Tib. by E. Obermiller. Heidelberg^ 1931;
rpt., Tokyo: Suzuki Research Foundation, 1964.
Conze, Edward. Buddhism: Its Essence and Develop
ment. Oxford: Bruno Cassier, 1953^ -2nd GcL,
—• Thirty Years of Buddhist Studies, Selected Essays.
Oxford: Bruno Gassier, 1967.
Corless, Roger Jonathan. "T’an-luan’s Commentary on
the Pure Land Discourse : An Annotated Trans
lation and Soteriological Analysis of the
W ang-sheng-lun Chu”( "TC").,Ph.D. dissertation,
Hniv. of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis., 1973.
Dayal, Har (or Haradayalu). The Bodhisattva Doctrine
in Buddhist Sanskrit Literature. London:Kegan
Paul, 1932.
de la Vallee Poussin, Louis. La Morale Bouddhique.
Paris : Kouvelle Librairie Rationale, 1927-
— "Bodhisattva", ERE, Vol.2, pp.739-753.
—Bouddhisme : Opinions sur I’Histoire de la
Dogmatique. Paris : Gabriel Beauchesne, 1909.
—— Nirvana. Paris: Gabriel Beauchesne, 1925.
205
Dutt, Nalinaksa. Aspects of Mahayana Buddhism and its

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Study of Vasubandhu Treatise

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” A Study of Vasubandhu’s Treatise on Pure Land :

with special reference to his theory of salvation

in the light of the development of

the bodhisattva ideal ”

Thesis submitted for the degree of

School of Oriental and African Studies

The present thesis is threefold: Firstly, a brief

study of Vasubandhu, to point out the issues and

problems involved regarding the author of the text;

secondly, a study of the development of the ideal and

the path of practice of the Mahayana bodhisattvas, with

special emphasis on the ideal of Compassion and guid­

ance in the world; and lastly, a re-examination of

the text itself, -from the perspective of ethical

ontology and in the light of the above ideal and the

The text, though very short, reveals a complex

vision of ’’that Land” and the path which function

as the means to realize that vision. The vision is

manifold as it incorporates various "ends” which are

wished for or aspired to by beings of diverse spiritual

capacities. It includes not only the Land of salvation

and the tranquil, undefiled realm of meditative states

but also the sphere of Mahayana Compassion and guidance.

The latter is the highest bodhisattva ideal described

by the vision of the "Pure Buddha Land."

The text thus combined a) the popular, devotional

cult of Amidism and its soteriologioal teaching of

attaining ’’birth” in Amida’s Land with b) the bodhi-

sattva ideal and the path for its realization. In

doing so, the text not only upgraded the former, by

providing the philosophical.-ontological foundation,

but also presented a practical means whereby all

sentient beings, including even beginners, might

approach the Mahayana path. The path of the five

spiritual practices ’’embraces” all sentient beings

of diverse spiritual levels, leading them gradually

to higher levels of practice while, at the same time,

fulfilling the spiritual content of their wishes

and aspirations. The difficulty of the text has much

to do with the hermaneutic approach the author adopted

in propagating the Mahayana teaching and the path.-

Introduc tion —------------------------------- ------ 12

Chapter I. Vasubandhu----- --- -------- —---------- -20

A. Life and Date —-—------------ ------- --- ——-—

B. Yogacara philosophy of Vasubandhu ———■———

C. Works of Vasubandhu----——------- ;---------

Chapter II* The Development of Bodhisattva Ideal-—ilO

A.1 The word "bodhisattva”

A.2 The origin and formation of

the bodhisattva concept

B. The conception of Bodhisattva before

the Mahayana----- —-------------- ——-------- 47

B. 1 Bodhisattva in the Jatakas

B. 2 Resolutions (prapidhana) and

C. The bodhisattva in the early Mahayana :

Seeker of Enlightenment------- -------------- £4

C. 1 Mahayana versus Hlnayana

C.2 The bodhisattva in the Mahayana

a) The aspiration for Enlightenment

b) The path of six paramita-s» leading

to the highest Wisdom of Enlightenment(prajna)

p„ The bodhisattva in the Yogacara--- —------ — qty

D. 1 The Yogacara philosophy of Mind---------- '7^

special emphasis on the ideal of Compassion and guid