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PROCESS & PLANT DESIGN BKC4934
PRODUCTION OF 100,000 METRIC TON OF PROPYLENE CARBONATE

FROM PROPYLENE OXIDE AND CARBON DIOXIDE
FINAL REPORT
GROUP: B06
SUPERVISORS:
DR. ROHAYU BINTI JUSOH
DR. SYARIFAH BINTI ABD RAHIM
DR. NORHAYATI BINTI ABDULLAH
MEMBERS:
TEO WEI CHUNG KA15056
NOORAIHAN BINTI OTHMAN KA15083
ABDULLAH OMAR AL-SHATERI KA14172
MOHD ISYRAF IRFAN I MAT ZIN KA15108
SITI NOR SABIRAH BINTI ANI KUTTY KA15170

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
First and foremost, we would like to express our most heartfelt gratitude to our beloved
supervisors Dr. Rohayu binti Jusoh, Dr. Syarifah binti Rahim, and Dr. Norhayati binti Abdullah
for their endless guidance, advice, motivation and dedication throughout the entire process of
our plant design. We appreciate the constructive criticism that has encouraged us to improve
ourselves in developing the design project. Besides that, we would like to thank each and every
member of our group, Teo Wei Chung, Abdullah Omar Ali Al-Shateri, Mohd Isyraf bin Mat
Zin, Siti Norsabirah binti Ani Kutty, and Nooraihan binti Othman for their efforts and
contribution towards the success of the plant design project.
Moreover, we would like to thank all members of the panel for their comments and insight
towards the plant design project. Their opinions are very much valued and respected. Besides
that, we express our appreciation towards the Faculty of Chemical Engineering and Natural
Resources lecturers as well as our course mates for their support towards the project in terms
of encouragement and knowledge exchange.
Lastly, we would like to thank our family members and friends for their love and support
throughout the plant design project. Their understanding towards the struggle we faced in the
process of completing the project has motivated us with the spirit of perseverance. The study
has indeed helped us to explore more knowledgeable avenues related to our topic and we are
sure it will help us in future.
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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Previous process designs and current world demand on propylene carbonate (PC) have
encouraged the study of feasibility in designing a new process technology with smaller
environmental impact as well as lower production cost. The most common industrial process
for PC production used is through the carbon dioxide (CO2) synthesis route. Besides that, even
though the worldwide market for PC exhibits a steady growth, there is no largescale PC plant
that has been constructed locally in Malaysia. Therefore, the objective of this project is to plan
and design a largescale PC production plant in Malaysia. The proposed design is
environmentally friendly. The raw materials, energy consumptions, and waste disposal are
minimized to a financially justified extent.
Summary of Chapter 1: Introduction
Chapter 1 is the introduction which reviews on the background, application, and market survey
and demands of its PC itself so that a feasible rate of the PC can be concluded. Growing usage
of PC application increases the demand of PC. Therefore, a market survey on PC has been
done to analyse the supply and demand of PC worldwide. Future global market insight,
potential competitors, and its opportunities in various fields have been analysed. A reasonable
production rate for this model plant is then identified based on the survey. Site selection is also
carried out by screening several potential locations in Malaysia which are suitable for plant
construction. Various factors such as raw materials availability, potential customers, labours,
infrastructures, transportations, incentives and land price are considered to identify the best
location for the PC model plant. After the decision-making on site selection, a plant layout is
designed and outlined. It is required to appropriately plan and position employees, materials,
machines, equipment, and other manufacturing supports and facilities to create the most
effective plant layout.
Summary of Chapter 2: Process Screening and Synthesis
Apart from that, analysis and comparison on several process technologies have been carried
out based on their raw materials, reaction steps, operating condition, utilities, as well as safety
and health issues. Profit margin for each route also has been calculated to determine their
feasibility. The synthesis route for this model plant is then selected after considering all the
factors.
This chapter will be divided into three parts, they are Level 2, Level 3 and Level 4 decisions.
In Level 2, the degree of freedom analysis, yield and reaction stoichiometry are listed in which
it enables the economic potential to be calculated for a total conversion of propylene oxide
(PO). In Level 3, the recycle streams are detailed out. The reaction kinetics are derived and a
3
block flow diagram with recycle streams is constructed. The degree of freedom analysis and
material and energy balances are calculated for a maximum achievable PO conversion. The
negligible of pressure drop is proven and the reactor sizing and costing are calculated, so as
economic potential 2 and 3.
Summary of Chapter 3: Process Flow Diagram, Material & Energy Balance
This chapter is mainly about the material and energy balance of the chosen synthesis route to
produce PC from PO and CO2. This chapter ends with the summary of material & energy
balance manual calculations for optimum conditions of the process and the results are
compared with the Aspen Plus simulation results.
Summary of Chapter 4: Utilities and Heat Integration
For this chapter, the concept of heat integration will be applied to find matches between heat
additions and heat removals within the process. In this way, the total utilities that are used to
perform these energy transfers can be minimized or rather optimized. The aim of heat
integration is to reduce the operating cost of the plant by mean of utilities usage to achieve a
feasible economy analysis. The concept of heat integration has been conducted and heat
exchanger network is designed to reduce the energy consumption. The heat integration is
completed using the pinch technology where the maximum energy recovery or total energy
saving can be determined. In this case, the heat integration method adopted is known as the
pinch technology. As for utilities, the electricity, water, steam and cooling water usage are
calculated accordingly.
Summary of Chapter 5: Process Equipment Sizing
This chapter will discuss in detail on the sizing of the major equipment involved in the design
of the plant. Detailed sizing has been done for the reactors, flash drums, pumps, compressors,
turbine, heat exchangers and storage tanks. All the theoretical framework will be laid out in an
understandable fashion and the design procedure will be outlined. Fluid allocation for hot and
cold fluid for each heat exchanger will be determined. The calculated specifications, such as
dimensions and mechanical data for each major unit is tabulated and the estimated price is
determined. All design and mechanical calculations, along with detailed reference to journal
data are attached in the appendix for further understanding.
Summary of Chapter 6: Process Control and Safety Study
This chapter will be divided into three parts, they are hazard identification, process control
studies, and HAZOP. Firstly, the theory of hazard will be thoroughly discussed. Each Material
Safety Data Sheet/ Chemical Safety Data Sheet for each chemical involved will be summarized
and the toxicity of each chemical will be discussed. Dow, Fire and Explosion Index studies
4
will also be done. Secondly, all theories and concepts related to plant and process control will
be discussed. Besides that, the control system for each equipment will be designed, followed
by the preparation of hazard and operability study (HAZOP) of each equipment. HAZOP is
studied to identify and evaluate problems that may represent risks to personnel or equipment.
Lastly, a process and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) is constructed based on the control
system of each equipment.
Summary of Chapter 7: Waste Management and Pollution Control
In this next section, waste management and pollution control will be discussed. All source of
waste or emission is discussed in respect to Environmental Quality Act (EQA) 1974. The
wastewater must be treated until it meets the standard as stated in EQA 1974 before being
discharged into the environment. Therefore, a conceptual design on wastewater treatment plant
is carried out involving the sizing and costing of each treatment unit. Specification sheet of
each unit is prepared. Apart from that, the scheduled waste generated from the plant is
discussed to ensure proper waste management.
Summary of Chapter 8: Economic Analysis
Next, this section deals with the economic analysis of the model plant. Grass root capital, fixed
capital investment, total capital investment and manufacturing cost are calculated. Direct
manufacturing cost is determined by summing up the costs of raw materials, operating labors,
utilities and waste management. Fixed manufacturing cost and general expenses are calculated
based on their respective equations. Cash flow analysis is also conducted to determine the
payback period, net present value (NPV) and rate of return (ROR) of the project. Financial
ratios such as operating margin ratio, gross profit margin, net profit margin and return of
investment (ROI) are calculated to determine the project profitability.
Summary of Chapter 9: Conclusion
This chapter will conclude the feasibility of setting up the plant from Level 1 until Level 4 and
sum up the economic feasibility of the project. Recommendations will be suggested so that the
future feasibility studies can be attempted with better ease.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter 1 Project Background....................................................................................... 17
Overview ................................................................................................................. 17
History of Propylene Carbonate (PC) Production ............................................... 17
Physiochemical Properties of Propylene Carbonate (PC) ................................... 18
Toxicity of Propylene Carbonate (PC) ................................................................ 19
Application of Propylene Carbonate (PC) .......................................................... 22

Overview ............................................................................................................. 22
Solvents ............................................................................................................... 23
Cosmetics ............................................................................................................ 24
Paint Stripper ....................................................................................................... 26
Based Cleaning Composition .............................................................................. 27
Market Survey ....................................................................................................... 28

Overview ............................................................................................................. 28
Global Supply and Demand for Propylene Carbonate (PC) ................................ 28
Asian Region Supply and Demand for Propylene Carbonate (PC) ..................... 31
Supply and Demand for Propylene Oxide (PO) .................................................. 34
History of Global Pricing .................................................................................... 37
Raw Material Availability ................................................................................... 38
SWOT Analysis ................................................................................................... 39
Plant Capacity Decision ...................................................................................... 40
Calculation for Profit Margin .............................................................................. 40
Process Technology ............................................................................................... 41

Ester Exchange Method ....................................................................................... 41
Carbon Dioxide Synthesis Method ...................................................................... 41
Urea Alcoholysis Method .................................................................................... 43
Summary of Synthesis Route Screening ............................................................. 45
Site Selection & Plant Layout ............................................................................... 47

Criteria for Site Selection .................................................................................... 47
Site Selection Screening ...................................................................................... 49
Summary of Site Selection Screening ................................................................. 76
Plant Layout......................................................................................................... 80
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Objective ................................................................................................................. 82
Chapter 2 Process Synthesis and Flow Sheeting ........................................................... 83
Level 1 Decision ..................................................................................................... 83

Synthesis Route Selection ................................................................................... 83
Decision on Synthesis Route ............................................................................... 93
Decision on Process Mode .................................................................................. 95
Level 2 Decision ..................................................................................................... 95

Input: Raw Material Selection ............................................................................. 95
Impurities Management ....................................................................................... 97
Output Materials Determination and Decision of Their Destinations ................. 97
Block Flow Diagram of Carboxylation Reactor .................................................. 99
Level 2 Degree of Freedom ............................................................................... 100
Level 2 Material Balance................................................................................... 101
Economic Potential 2 (EP2) .............................................................................. 102
Level 3 Decision ................................................................................................... 104

Carboxylation Reactor and its Recycle Structure .............................................. 104
Decision on the Reactor Type ........................................................................... 104
Heat Effect Analysis .......................................................................................... 106
Block Flow Diagram of Recycle Carboxylation Reactor .................................. 112
Level 3 Degree of Freedom ............................................................................... 113
Level 3 Material Balance................................................................................... 113
Economic Potential 3 (EP3) .............................................................................. 115
Chapter 3 Process PFD & MEB ................................................................................... 121
Process Flow Diagram ......................................................................................... 121
Material and energy balance .............................................................................. 122

Material Balance ................................................................................................ 122
Energy Balance .................................................................................................. 130
Process Simulation............................................................................................... 143
Comparison Between Simulation & Manual Calculation ............................... 146

Comparison Of Mass Balance ........................................................................... 146
Comparison Of Energy Balance ........................................................................ 146
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Chapter 4 Utilities & Heat Integration ........................................................................ 148
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 148
Heat Integration Network ................................................................................... 148

Construction of Stream Table ............................................................................ 149
Selection of Minimum Approach Temperature ................................................. 149
Construction of Temperature Interval Diagram ................................................ 151
Construction of Cascade Diagram ..................................................................... 151
Heat Exchanger Network Design Based on Pinch Temperature ....................... 152
Maximum Energy Recovery (MER) ................................................................. 155
Utilities .................................................................................................................. 156

Electricity .......................................................................................................... 156
Water ................................................................................................................. 157
Cooling Water ................................................................................................... 158
Steam ................................................................................................................. 160
Total Utilities Cost ............................................................................................ 162
Integrated Process Flow Design ......................................................................... 163
Chapter 5 Process Equipment Sizing ........................................................................... 164
Sizing of Equipment ............................................................................................ 164
Major Equipment Sizing ..................................................................................... 164

Packed Bed Reactor (R-101) ............................................................................. 164
Let-Down Drum (V-102) .................................................................................. 166
Flash Drum (V-103, V-104) .............................................................................. 167
Storage Tank (S-101 to S-104) .......................................................................... 169
Minor Equipment Sizing ..................................................................................... 170

Heat Exchanger (E-101 to E-111) ..................................................................... 171
Compressor (C-101) & Turbine (C-102) ........................................................... 175
Pump (P-101)..................................................................................................... 175
Pressure Reducing Valve (V-101) ..................................................................... 176
Steam Boiler (F-101) ......................................................................................... 178
Cooling Tower (T-101) ..................................................................................... 178
Chapter 6 Process Control & Safety ............................................................................ 180
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Introduction ......................................................................................................... 180
General Safety Procedure .................................................................................. 180
Chemical Storage............................................................................................... 181
Transportation.................................................................................................... 181
Permit Procedures .............................................................................................. 182
General Worker Safety ...................................................................................... 182
Emergency Response Plan ................................................................................ 184
Waste Disposal Operation ................................................................................. 185
Identification of Hazard ...................................................................................... 186

Flammability...................................................................................................... 186
Flammability Prevention ................................................................................... 187
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) ................................................................. 187
Dow’s Fire and Explosion Index (F&EI) .......................................................... 189
Equipment Control .............................................................................................. 199

Introduction ....................................................................................................... 199
Classification of Control Strategies ................................................................... 199
Control System of Major Equipment ................................................................ 201
Control System for Minor Equipment ............................................................... 207
Piping & Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) ..................................................... 211
Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP) ....................................................... 212

HAZOP Process................................................................................................. 212
Objective of HAZOP ......................................................................................... 213
Procedure of HAZOP ........................................................................................ 213
Major Equipment HAZOP ................................................................................ 214
Minor Equipment HAZOP ................................................................................ 219
Chapter 7 Waste Management & Pollution Control .................................................. 223
Introduction ......................................................................................................... 223
Source of Waste ................................................................................................... 225
Summary of Waste Pollution .............................................................................. 226

Solid Waste ........................................................................................................ 226
Liquid Waste ..................................................................................................... 226
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Related Environmental Acts ............................................................................... 227
Environmental Quality Act, 1974...................................................................... 227
Gaseous Emissions and Effluent Standard ........................................................ 230
Water Quality Standard and Parameter Limits of Effluent ............................... 232
Conceptual Design of Waste Treatment and Plant Layout ............................. 233

Waste Treatment Process .................................................................................. 233
Waste Management Hierarchy .......................................................................... 233
Pollution Prevention and Waste Minimization.................................................. 234
Solid Waste Management .................................................................................. 236
Chemical Liquid Waste Management ............................................................... 239
Chapter 8 Economic Analysis ....................................................................................... 248
Equipment Cost ................................................................................................... 248
Fixed and Total Capital Investment .................................................................. 250
Manufacturing Cost ............................................................................................ 250

Direct Manufacturing Cost ................................................................................ 250
Fixed Manufacturing Cost ................................................................................. 252
General Manufacturing Expenses...................................................................... 252
Cash Flow Analysis.............................................................................................. 253

Cumulative Non-Discounted Cash Flow Analysis ............................................ 253
Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow Analysis .................................................... 255
Financial Ratio ..................................................................................................... 257

Operating Margin Ratio ..................................................................................... 258
Gross Profit Margin ........................................................................................... 258
Net Profit Margin .............................................................................................. 258
Rate on Investment ............................................................................................ 258
Chapter 9 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 259
Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 259
Recommendations................................................................................................ 260
REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 262
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LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1-1: Molecular Structure of PC .................................................................................... 17
Figure 1-2: PC as a Solvent. .................................................................................................... 24
Figure 1-3: Application of PC in Cosmetics. .......................................................................... 25
Figure 1-4: Application of PC in Paint Stripper. ..................................................................... 27
Figure 1-5: Application of PC in Based Cleaning Composition. ............................................ 28
Figure 1-6: Global PC Market Share by Countries in 2018 (Management Journal, 2018). .... 29
Figure 1-7: Global Supply and Demand for PC (Market Research Store, 2017). ................... 30
Figure 1-8: Total Value Import to India by Countries (ZAUBA, 2018a). .............................. 32
Figure 1-9: Total Quantity Import to India by Countries (ZAUBA, 2018a). .......................... 33
Figure 1-10: Total Quantity Export by India (ZAUBA, 2018a) ............................................. 34
Figure 1-11: World Consumption of PO in 2017 (IHS Markit, 2017). ................................... 35
Figure 1-12: ICIS Global Supply and Demand Forecast for PO (ICIS Chemical Business,
2011). ....................................................................................................................................... 36
Figure 1-13: Historical Price for PC (ZAUBA, 2018a). ......................................................... 37
Figure 1-14: Global Pricing of PO by Countries (ICIS Chemical Business, 2011). ............... 38
Figure 1-15: European PO Prices (ICIS Chemical Business, 2011). ...................................... 38
Figure 1-16: Distance from Map Ta Phut to TLIC.................................................................. 49
Figure 1-17:The distance from Linde Malaysia Sdn Bhd from TLIC..................................... 50
Figure 1-18:The distance from Sepakat Trading and General Agency to TLIC .................... 50
Figure 1-19: Distance from TLIC to Tanjung Langsat Port .................................................... 52
Figure 1-20: Distance from TLIC to Pasir Gudang Port ......................................................... 52
Figure 1-21: Distance from TLIC to Senai International Airport ........................................... 53
Figure 1-22: Distance from Map Ta Phut to Gebeng Industrial Park ..................................... 56
Figure 1-23: The distance from Linde Malaysia Sdn. Bhd to Gebeng Industrial Park ........... 56
Figure 1-24: The distance from Sepakat Trading and General Agency .................................. 56
Figure 1-25: The Distance from Gebeng Industrial Park to Kuantan Port. ............................. 59
Figure 1-26: The Distance from Gebeng Industrial Park to Kemaman Port. .......................... 60
Figure 1-27: The Distance from Gebeng Industrial Park to Sultan Ahmad Shah Airport. ..... 60
Figure 1-28: Distance of WHA Eastern Industrial Estate from Port Klang. ........................... 65
Figure 1-29: Distance from Linde Malaysia Sdn Bhd to Port Klang. ..................................... 65
Figure 1-30: Distance of Sepakat Trading and General Agency. ............................................ 65
Figure 1-31: Distance of KLIA from Port Klang. ................................................................... 67
Figure 1-32: Distance from Raw Material to Site Location .................................................... 71
Figure 1-33:The distance of Linde Malaysia Sdn Bhd from WHA Eastern Industrial Estate 71
Figure 1-34: The distance of Sepakat Trading and General Agency ...................................... 71
Figure 1-35: : The Distance of Map Ta Phut Seaport for WHA Eastern Industrial Estate ..... 73
Figure 1-36: The Distance of Suvarnabhumi from WHA Eastern Industrial Estate ............... 73
Figure 1-37: Layout for PC Production Plant.......................................................................... 81
Figure 2-1: Block Flow Diagram for PC Production through PO Carboxylation ................... 99
Figure 2-2: Block Flow Diagram of Carboxylation Reactor ................................................. 100
Figure 2-3: Graph of EP2 versus Conversion........................................................................ 103
Figure 2-4: Overall Process for Heat Effect .......................................................................... 107
Figure 2-5: Hypothetical Pathway for Heat Effect ................................................................ 107
Figure 2-6: Levenspiel Plot ................................................................................................... 110
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Figure 2-7: Block Flow Diagram for PC Production through PO Carboxylation with Recycle
Structure. ............................................................................................................................... 112
Figure 2-8: Simplified Block Flow Diagram with Recycle................................................... 114
Figure 2-9: Graph of EP3 versus Conversion........................................................................ 120
Figure 3-1: Process flow diagram for 100 000MTA propylene carbonate production. ........ 121
Figure 3-2: Overall Process for Heat Effect .......................................................................... 131
Figure 3-3: Hypothetical Pathway for Heat Effect ................................................................ 132
Figure 3-4: Process simulation layout ................................................................................... 143
Figure 4-1: Shifted Hot and Cold Composite Curve. ............................................................ 150
Figure 4-2: Cascade Diagram ................................................................................................ 152
Figure 4-3: Grand Composite Curve ..................................................................................... 152
Figure 4-4: Heat Exchanger Network Design Before Analysis. ........................................... 153
Figure 4-5: Proposed Heat Exchanger Network Design After Analysis. .............................. 153
Figure 4-6: Final Process Flow Diagram After Heat Exchanger Network Analysis............. 163
Figure 6-1: Procedure for Calculating the Fire and Explosion Index and Other Risk Analysis
Information. ........................................................................................................................... 191
Figure 6-2: Dow Fire and Explosion Index Calculation Form. ............................................. 194
Figure 6-3: Control System of Packed Bed Reactor ............................................................. 203
Figure 6-4: Control System of V-103 .................................................................................... 205
Figure 6-5: Control System of V-104. ................................................................................... 206
Figure 6-6: Control and Feedback System of Storage tank (S-102). .................................... 207
Figure 6-7: Control and Feedback System for Heat Exchangers. ......................................... 208
Figure 6-8: Control and Feedback System of Compressor (C-101). ..................................... 208
Figure 6-9: Control and Feedback System of Pump (P-102). ............................................... 209
Figure 6-10: P&ID of Propylene Carbonate Production Plant. ............................................. 211
Figure 6-11: Procedure to Determine HAZOP. ..................................................................... 214
Figure 7-1: Hierarchy of Waste Management. ...................................................................... 234
Figure 7-2: Pollution of Prevention Hierarchy (Umich, 1997) ............................................. 236
Figure 7-4: World Consumption of PO in 2017 (IHS Markit, 2017) .................................... 243
Figure 8-2: Cumulative Non-Discounted Cash Flow. ........................................................... 253
Figure 8-3: Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow. ................................................................... 255
Figure 8-4: Net Present Value at Different Discount Rate. ................................................... 257
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LIST OF TABLES
Table 1-1: Physical properties of PC. ...................................................................................... 18
Table 1-2: Non-Human Toxicity Values ................................................................................. 21
Table 1-3: Application of different type of carbonates (Huntsman Corporation, 2018) ......... 22
Table 1-4: Product Formulation Data for Propylene Carbonate ............................................. 25
Table 1-5: Top Worldwide PC Manufacturers (Management Journal, 2018). ........................ 28
Table 1-6: Total PC Supply and Demand (Market Research Store, 2017). ............................ 30
Table 1-7: Total production of PC by companies from China in 2016 (China Supplier
Directory-TradeBIG, 2018). .................................................................................................... 31
Table 1-8: Global PO Capacity Produced by Different Companies in Different Locations
(ICIS Chemical Business, 2006). ............................................................................................ 36
Table 1-9: Availability of PO in the Asia Region ................................................................... 39
Table 1-10: Price of Raw Materials and Product .................................................................... 40
Table 1-11: Summary of Synthesis Route Screening .............................................................. 45
Table 1-12: The Availability and Price of Industrial Land in Tanjung Langsat (Mitula-
Industrial land tanjung langsat, 2018) ..................................................................................... 51
Table 1-13: Facilities near Tanjung Langsat Industrial Complex ........................................... 53
Table 1-14: Tariff for Industrial Activity by Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) (TNB, 2014). 53
Table 1-15: Tariff of Water Supply for various purposes by Ranhill SAJ Sdn Bhd (Ranhil,
2016). ....................................................................................................................................... 54
Table 1-16: Availability of Manpower in Pahang in Various Sectors (PKNP-A Pahang State
Development Corporation Initiative., 2012) ........................................................................... 57
Table 1-17: The Availability and Price of Industrial Land in Gebeng (Mitula, 2018)............ 58
Table 1-18: Facilities near Gebeng Industrial Park ................................................................. 60
Table 1-19: The Tariff of Water Supply for various purposes by SPAN ("National Water
Service Commission ", 2018). ................................................................................................. 61
Table 1-20: Industrial Land Available in Port Klang (iProperty.com.my, 2018). .................. 66
Table 1-21: Facilities around Port Klang. ............................................................................... 67
Table 1-22: SYABAS water tariff in Selangor (Syarikat Bekalan Air Selangor Sdn. Bhd.,
2018). ....................................................................................................................................... 69
Table 1-23: Human Resources Development Institution in Rayong (thailand-property, 2018).
................................................................................................................................................. 72
Table 1-24: The Availability and Price of Industrial Land in Rayong .................................... 72
Table 1-25: Electric Tariff for Industrial Activity in Thailand (Social and Culture-Thailand
into the 2000s, 2000). .............................................................................................................. 74
Table 1-26: Water Tariff for Industrial Activity in Thailand (Social and Culture-Thailand into
the 2000s, 2000). ..................................................................................................................... 74
Table 1-27: Summary of Site Selection Screening.................................................................. 76
Table 2-1: Synthesis Routes Selection .................................................................................... 83
Table 2-2: Price of Raw Materials and Products ..................................................................... 90
Table 2-5: List of CO2 Suppliers ............................................................................................. 95
Table 2-6: List of PO Suppliers ............................................................................................... 96
Table 2-7: List of Prices of MgO Catalyst .............................................................................. 97
Table 2-8: Reaction Outputs and their Destination ................................................................. 97
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Table 2-9: Stoichiometry of Reaction ................................................................................... 101
Table 2-10: Process Specifications (Barendregt et al., 1999)................................................ 101
Table 2-11: Summary for Molar Flow Rate for Output Stream of Reaction Process ........... 101
Table 2-12: Summary for Mass Flow Rate for Output Stream of Reaction Process ............ 102
Table 2-13: Prices of PO, CO2, and PC ................................................................................. 103
Table 2-14: EP2 of various Conversions ............................................................................... 103
Table 2-15: Overview of Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalyst (Barendregt et al., 1999)
............................................................................................................................................... 105
Table 2-16: Characteristics of Reactors (College of Engineering, 2018).............................. 105
Table 2-17: Heat Capacity Constant for each Species .......................................................... 106
Table 2-18: Heat Capacity Constant for CO2 ........................................................................ 106
Table 2-19: Heat of Formation for each Species ................................................................... 106
Table 2-20: Results obtained from Polymath ........................................................................ 109
Table 2-21: Process Specifications (Barendregt et al., 1999)................................................ 113
Table 2-22: Stoichiometry of Reaction ................................................................................. 114
Table 2-23: Summary for Molar Flow Rate of all Streams Involved in Material Balance
Calculation for Level 3 Decision ........................................................................................... 114
Table 2-24: Summary for Mass Flow Rate of all Streams Involved in Material Balance
Calculation for Level 3 Decision ........................................................................................... 115
Table 2-25: Equipment Cost Data for Reactor ...................................................................... 115
Table 2-26: Equipment cost data for compressor .................................................................. 116
Table 2-27:Equipment cost data for pumps........................................................................... 117
Table 2-28: Pressure factors for pumps ................................................................................. 117
Table 2-29: Annualized Cost of Reactor, Compressor, Pump and Catalyst in Respect to
Conversions ........................................................................................................................... 118
Table 2-30: Profit of Product and Cost of Raw Materials in Respect to Conversion ........... 119
Table 2-31: EP2 and EP3 in Respect to Conversion ............................................................. 119
Table 3-1: heat capacity constant for each species ................................................................ 131
Table 3-2: heat capacity constant for carbon dioxide ............................................................ 131
Table 3-3: Heat of formation for each species ...................................................................... 131
Table 3-4: Latent heat (KJ/Kmol) (Smith et al., 2005). ........................................................ 133
Table 3-5: Density (Kg/m3) .................................................................................................. 133
Table 3-6: Simulation result for production of propylene carbonate .................................... 144
Table 3-7: Simulation results (continue) ............................................................................... 145
Table 3-8: Comparison of mass balance ............................................................................... 146
Table 3-9: Comparison of energy balance............................................................................. 146
Table 4-1: Summary of Hot and Cold Streams. .................................................................... 149
Table 4-2: Supply and Target Shift Temperature for Streams. ............................................. 150
Table 4-3: Temperature Interval Diagram. ............................................................................ 151
Table 4-4: Integration of E-103 (A) and E-102 Above Pinch. .............................................. 154
Table 4-5: Integration of E-103 (B) and E-102 Above Pinch. .............................................. 154
Table 4-6: Integration of E-104 and E-101 Above Pinch...................................................... 154
Table 4-7: Integration of E-105 and E-101 Above Pinch...................................................... 155
Table 4-8: Summary of Heat Equipment Duties Before and After MER. ............................ 155
Table 4-9: Summary of Energy Usage. ................................................................................. 155
Table 4-10: Power Consumption of Equipment Used in Plant Design. ................................ 156
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Table 4-11: Tariff for Industrial Activities (TNB, 2014). ..................................................... 156
Table 4-12: Consumption of Water Used for the Plant. ........................................................ 157
Table 4-13: Tariff of Water Supply (SURUHANJAYA PERKHIDMATAN AIR NEGARA
& NATIONAL WATER SERVICES COMMISSION, 2018). ............................................ 158
Table 4-14: Cooling Water Consumption by Equipment. ..................................................... 159
Table 4-15: Cooling Water Utility Cost. ............................................................................... 159
Table 4-16: Steam Consumption by Equipment. .................................................................. 160
Table 4-17: Steam Utility Cost. ............................................................................................. 161
Table 4-18: Utilities Cost Summary. ..................................................................................... 162
Table 5-1: Total Quantity of Each Equipment. ..................................................................... 164
Table 5-2: Specification Data Sheet for R-101. .................................................................... 165
Table 5-3: Specification Data Sheet for V-103. .................................................................... 167
Table 5-4: Specification Data Sheet for V-104. .................................................................... 168
Table 5-5: Specification Data Sheet For S-101 to S-104. ..................................................... 169
Table 5-6: Summary of Heat Exchanger (E-101 to E-106). .................................................. 173
Table 5-7: Summary of Heat Exchanger (E-107 to E-111). .................................................. 174
Table 5-8: Specification Data Sheet for C-101 and C-102.................................................... 175
Table 5-9 shows the design and sizing of P-101 as below. ................................................... 176
Table 5-10: Specification Data Sheet for P-101. ................................................................... 176
Table 5-11: Specification Data Sheet for V-101. .................................................................. 177
Table 5-12: Summary of Pressure Reducing Valve. ............................................................. 177
Table 5-13: Steam Boiler F-101 Design Summary. .............................................................. 178
Table 5-14: Cooling Tower T-101 Design Summary............................................................ 179
Table 6-1: Types of PPE........................................................................................................ 183
Table 6-2: The Summary of MSDS of Each Components. ................................................... 188
Table 6-3: Assessment of Hazard. ......................................................................................... 189
Table 6-4:Material Factor Determination Guide. .................................................................. 193
Table 6-5: Summary of Dow Fire & Explosion Index. ......................................................... 197
Table 6-6: The Toxicity Number (Th) based on NFPA Health Factor.................................. 197
Table 6-7: Penalty Factor ("#) based on Threshold Limit Values (TLV). ........................... 198
Table 6-8: Toxicity Index and Qualitative Hazard Level. ..................................................... 198
Table 6-9: Summary of Toxicity Index. ................................................................................ 198
Table 6-10: Type of Toxicity (Toxtutor, 2016). .................................................................... 198
Table 6-11: Legends Used in P&ID. ..................................................................................... 201
Table 6-12: Table of General Function of Control Element in a Plant. ................................ 201
Table 6-13: Basic Symbols Used to Show the Valve, Instrument & Control Loops. ........... 202
Table 6-14: Control System of Packed Bed Reactor. ............................................................ 204
Table 6-15: Control System of V-103 ................................................................................... 205
Table 6-16: Control System of V-104. .................................................................................. 206
Table 6-17: Control and Feedback System of Storage tank (S-102). .................................... 207
Table 6-18: Control and Feedback System for Heat Exchangers.......................................... 208
Table 6-19: Control and Feedback System of Compressor (C-101). .................................... 209
Table 6-20: Control and Feedback System of Pump (P-102)................................................ 209
Table 6-21: HAZOP Guide Word. ........................................................................................ 212
Table 6-22: HAZOP Study for Packed Bed Reactor. ............................................................ 215
Table 6-23: HAZOP Study for V-103 ................................................................................... 216
15
Table 6-24: HAZOP Study for V-104 ................................................................................... 217
Table 6-25: HAZOP Study for Storage Tank. ....................................................................... 218
Table 6-26: HAZOP Study for Heat Exchanger.................................................................... 219
Table 6-27: HAZOP Study for Compressor. ......................................................................... 220
Table 6-28: HAZOP Study for Pump. ................................................................................... 221
Table 7-1: Summary of Solid Waste. .................................................................................... 226
Table 7-2: Summary of Liquid Waste. .................................................................................. 226
Table 7-3: List of Regulations and Orders under EQA, 1974 (Department of Environment,
2010). ..................................................................................................................................... 227
Table 7-4: Stack Gas Emission from Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations, 1978
(Department of Environment, 2010) ..................................................................................... 230
Table 7-5: Recommended Malaysian Air Quality Guidelines (Ambient Standard at 25 ˚C and
101.13 kPa) (Department of Environment, 2010) ................................................................. 231
Table 7-6: Parameter limits of effluent of Standard A and B (HUI, 1979) ........................... 232
Table 7-7: Solid Waste. ......................................................................................................... 236
Table 7-8: Price for Variety Treatment in Cenviro. .............................................................. 237
Table 7-9: Waste Transportation Fee in Cenviro. ................................................................. 238
Table 7-10: Technology Selection and Comparison. ............................................................ 240
Table 7-11: Operating Conditions and Design of Flash Column. ......................................... 242
Table 7-12: Operating Conditions and Design of Storage Tank. .......................................... 242
Table 7-13: Technology Selection and Comparison. ............................................................ 245
Table 7-14: Operating Conditions and Design of Decanter. ................................................. 246
Table 8-1: Bare Module Cost of Equipment. ........................................................................ 249
Table 8-2: Grass Roots Capital Cost. .................................................................................... 250
Table 8-3: Raw Material Cost. .............................................................................................. 251
Table 8-4: Utilities Cost. ....................................................................................................... 251
Table 8-5: Waste Treatment Cost. ......................................................................................... 251
Table 8-6: Cost of Operating Labour. ................................................................................... 251
Table 8-7: Direct Manufacturing Cost. ................................................................................. 252
Table 8-8: Fixed Manufacturing Cost. .................................................................................. 252
Table 8-9: General Manufacturing Cost. ............................................................................... 252
Table 8-10: Total Manufacturing Cost. ................................................................................. 252
Table 8-11: Total Revenue from PC Production. .................................................................. 252
Table 8-12: Evaluation of Cash Flow and Profits. ................................................................ 253
Table 8-13: Cumulative Non-Discounted Cash Flow. .......................................................... 254
Table 8-14: Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow. .................................................................. 256
Table 8-15: Economic Analysis. ........................................................................................... 257
16
Chapter 1 Project Background
Overview
Propylene carbonate (PC) is a cyclic carbonate that is normally used as a solvent and a reactive
intermediate in organic synthesis (Karnaushenko et al., 2015). This colourless and odourless
liquid is useful as a polar, aprotic solvent. It is being considered as a potential electrochemical
solvent because of its low vapor pressure, high dielectric constant, and high chemical stability.
Also, it has a high molecular dipole moment. The molecular structure for PC is shown in Figure
1-1.
Figure 1-1: Molecular Structure of PC

PC can be synthesized from propylene oxide (PO) and carbon dioxide (CO2). An optically
active form of PC can be prepared from the reaction between CO2 and racemic epoxides. The
chemical equation of synthesis of PC from PO and CO2 is as follows.
CH3CHCH2O + CO2 → CH3C2H3O2CO Equation 1-1
The process is particularly attractive since the production of these epoxides consumes CO2.
Thus, this reaction is a good example of a green process. The corresponding reaction of 1,2-
propanediol with phosgene is complex, yielding not only PC but also oligomeric products. PC
is used as a polar, aprotic solvent, a highly-permittivity component of electrolytes in lithium
batteries used in plasticizer.
History of Propylene Carbonate (PC) Production
Propylene carbonate (PC) as the product of the “alternating” copolymerization of carbon
dioxide (CO2) and propylene oxide (PO) was first synthesized at the end of the 1960s with a
rudimentary catalyst based on water and diethyl zinc (Sugimoto & Inoue, 2004). The
alternation of CO2 and PO moiety in the backbone was and is not always perfect: consecutive
PO units led to ether linkages in the polycarbonate. In the course of time, better catalysts were
found, and known catalysts were optimized. Only very recently with the application of
homogeneous catalysts, has the perfect alternating polymer routinely become accessible
(Darensbourg, 2007). The label “PC” is used for many types of products that result from the
copolymerization of PO and CO2. The composition, region, and stereochemistry of the
17
products, however, may vary in a certain range, and so may the resulting material properties.
In many publications dealing with the material PPC, detailed information on the microstructure
is lacking, making it difficult to compare individual studies and to arrive at “PC properties”.
The commercialization of the product has recently reached volumes of over 1,000 t/year. For
example, a PPC line of 10,000 t/year was commissioned by the China Bluechemical Ltd
(Huihong et al., 2010). In the past, PC was used in binder applications at a volume smaller than
100 t/year (EMPOWER MATERIALS, 2008). The main reason for the current increase in
production and capacities is the smooth biological degradation, which has become of its
importance lately with respect to a general recognition of the need to prevent persistent
pollution by plastic materials. An earlier commercialization was impeded by the “challenging”
material properties, i.e., PC did not fit into any large existing market. Other economic
constraints were tentatively less decisive: raw materials are readily accessible and abundant,
the technology could have been developed or adapted, and an acceptable catalyst was already
available in the 1980s (Soga, Imai, & Hattori, 1981). At the appropriate volume and
technology, the costs of production could thus have been in the range of PO production. The
challenges involved in the material properties of PPC relate to its thermal features, i.e., its
thermal decomposition, and the glass transition temperature (Tg) of about body temperature of
the otherwise amorphous polymer. These have implications for processing and application of
the material.
The use of PC as a solvent in degreasing, paint stripping, and cleaning applications has risen
dramatically in the past few years (Machac, Woodrum, Klein, & Marquis, 2000). In addition,
PC is finding its increased utility as diluents for the epoxy and isocyanate components of 2K
resin systems, and it has become the electrolytes of choice in the production of lithium-ion
batteries. PC also finds its utility as a carrier solvent for topically applied medications and
cosmetics (S. Kim et al., 2016).
Physiochemical Properties of Propylene Carbonate (PC)
Table 1-1 below shows the physiochemical properties of propylene carbonate (PC).
Table 1-1: Physical properties of PC.
Names
IUPAC Name 4-Methyl-1,3-dioxolan-2-1
18
Cyclic carbonate
Carbonic acid propylene ester
Cyclic 1,2-propylene carbonate
Other Means of Identification
4-methyl-1,3-dioxolan-2-one
1,2-Propanediol carbonate
4-Methyl-2-oxo-1,3-dioxolane
CAS No 108-32-7
Properties
Chemical formula C4H6O3
Physical state Liquid
Color Colorless, transparent
Odor Odorless/weak fruitiness
Solubility in water Completely soluble
Solubility in organic solvents Poorly soluble
Molar mass 102.09 g·mol−1
Appearance Colorless liquid
Density 1.205 g/cm3 at 20 °C
Melting point −48.8 °C (−55.8 °F; 224.3 K)
Boiling point 242 °C (468 °F; 515 K)
Flash point 132 °C
Ignition point 454 °C
Explosion limits 1.9-14.3%
Vapor pressure 0.04 hPa at 20 °C
Viscosity 2.8 mPas at 20 °C
Refractive index(nD) 1.4189
Toxicity of Propylene Carbonate (PC)
19
Toxicological Information
In human toxicity excerpts, undiluted propylene carbonate (PC) can cause moderate skin
irritation, whereas 5 and 10% PC in aqueous solution produces no skin irritation or sensitization
from clinical studies (Cosmetic Ingredient Review, 1987). Cosmetic products or gels
containing 0.54-20% PC are non-sensitizing and, at most, moderately irritating to human skin.
Products formulated with 1.51-20% PC are non-photo toxic and non-photo sensitizing.
However, one product containing 20% PC may have produced a low-level photoallergic
reaction in 1 of 25 subjects tested (Cosmetic Ingredient Review, 1987).
Whilst, in non-human toxicity excerpts, acute exposure/In an acute dermal toxicity study, slight
erythema was noted on the abraded skin of rabbits treated with 2 mg/kg of undiluted propylene
carbonate (PC); however, no lesions were observed at necropsy (Cosmetic Ingredient Review,
1987). Acute Exposure/Inhalation of concentrated/PC/ vapor for 8 hours was not lethal to rats.
The undiluted material was a slight irritant to the skin and a moderate irritant to the rabbit eye.
Subchronic or Prechronic Exposure/Daily application of 10.5 or 17.5% PC in physiological
saline to the skin of rats for 1 month produced hyperkeratosis and an increase in the number of
basal epithelial cells at the treatment site (Cosmetic Ingredient Review, 1987).
Subchronic or Prechronic Exposure/Sprague-Dawley rats were given 1,000, 3,000, and 5,000
mg/kg/day of PC by gavage for 90 days. A control group was given deionized water. In
addition, a high-dose recovery group was included to determine the persistence and
reversibility of any toxic effects. The recovery group was followed from Day 90 of the study
through Day 118. Thirty rats per group (15 of each sex) and 20 rats in the recovery group were
studied. An interim sacrifice of 10 rats per group, excluding the recovery group, was conducted
on Day 30. At sacrifice, all animals were necropsied and grossly examined. The blood sample
was collected for clinical chemistry and hematology measurements, and an ophthalmological
examination was performed. A full screen of potential target organ tissues was fixed for
histopathological examination. No consistent dose-related findings were reported following
necropsy or histopathological examination. Results of the test showed that PC at concentrations
of up to 5,000 mg/kg/day did not induce any significant toxic effects (Toxicology Data
Network, 2016).
Subchronic or Prechronic Exposure/Fisher 344 rats were exposed to 100, 500, or 1,000 mg/Cu
mg of aerosol PC over a 90-day period. Negative controls were exposed to filtered air on the
same exposure regimen. Groups consisted of 30 rats (15 per sex) ... Hematology, clinical
chemistry, and urinalysis were normal in all test groups. No other significant signs of toxicity
20
were noted, with the exception of some periocular swelling in the high- and mid-dose groups.
No systemic toxicity was reported (Toxicology Data Network, 2016).
Developmental or Reproductive Toxicity/27 dams (Sprague-Dawley rats) per group were
orally exposed by gavage to 1,000, 3,000, and 5,000 mg/kg/day of PC on Day 6 through 15 of
gestation. A control group was given deionized water. The study was terminated on day 20 of
gestation with a complete examination of the uterine contents. It was found that exposure to
PC at concentrations up to 5,000 mg/kg/day did not induce developmental toxicity; however,
some maternal toxicity was observed in the high-dose group (decreased body weight gain and
food consumption (Toxicology Data Network, 2016).
PC was negative for mutagenicity in the Ames Salmonella/Microsome Liquid Pre-incubation
Assay and negative for genotoxicity in the Rat Hepatocyte Primary Culture/DNA Repair Test
(Cosmetic Ingredient Review, 1987). Table 1-2 summarizes the non-human toxicity values
explained above.
Table 1-2: Non-Human Toxicity Values
Non-human toxicity values
LD50 Rat oral 29,100 uL/kg
LD50 Mouse oral 20,700 mg/kg
LD50 Rat sc 11,100 mg/kg
LD50 Mouse sc 15,800 mg/kg
LD50 Rabbit oral 20 mL/kg
Safety and Hazard Properties

Under National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) hazard classification, from the health
aspect, materials that, on exposure, would cause irritation, but only minor residual injury,
including those requiring the use of an approved air-purifying respirator. These materials are
only slightly hazardous to health and only breathing protection is needed (National Fire
Protection Association, 2010). Whilst, from the flammability aspect, this degree includes
materials that must be preheated before ignition will occur, such as Class IIIB combustible
liquids and solids and semi-solids whose flash point exceeds 200 oF (93.4 oC), as well as most
ordinary combustible materials. Water may cause frothing if it sinks below the surface of the
burning liquid and turns to steam. However, a water fog that is gently applied to the surface of
the liquid will cause frothing that will extinguish the fire (National Fire Protection Association.,
n.d.).
21
To prevent that, there are measures that must be practiced by the workers who are dealing with
propylene carbonate (PC) to protect themselves from its hazardous. Like for example, avoid
contact with skin and eyes and avoid inhalation of vapor or mist. Also, handle in accordance
with good industrial hygiene and safety practice. Wash hands before breaks and at the end of
the workday. Besides, use proper glove removal technique (without touching glove's outer
surface) to avoid skin contact with this product. Moreover, disposing of contaminated gloves
after use in accordance with applicable laws and good laboratory practices. And for eye
protection, use safety glasses with side-shields conforming to EN166. Use equipment for eye
protection tested and approved under appropriate government standards (SIGMA-ALDRICH,
2018).
Application of Propylene Carbonate (PC)
Overview
Propylene carbonates (PC) have been widely utilized in various fields such as cosmetics, paint
stripper, cleaning composition and act as a solvent. Table 1-3 illustrates the applications of
carbonates such as ethylene carbonate, propylene carbonate, butylene carbonate, carbonate
blends, and ultrapure carbonate.
Table 1-3: Application of different type of carbonates (Huntsman Corporation, 2018)
Ethylene Propylene Butylene Carbonate Ultrapure
Application
Carbonate Carbonate Carbonate Blends Carbonate
Safe Solvents
✔ ✔ ✔
Electrochemical
Ag ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Cosmetics and personal
✔ ✔ ✔
care
Cleaners / Degreasers
✔ ✔ ✔
Industrial and Consumer
Paint Strippers /
✔ ✔ ✔
Removers
Chemical Intermediates ✔ ✔ ✔
Wood-binder Resins ✔ ✔ ✔
Urethane (Reactive
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Diluent)
Foundry Sand Binders ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
22
Lubricants / Greases ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Photochromic ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Plasticizer ✔ ✔ ✔
Gas Treating ✔ ✔ ✔
Epoxy Resins (Reactive
✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Diluent)
Water Scavenger ✔ ✔ ✔
Antipilling ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Textile Dying ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔
Superabsorbent
✔ ✔
Polymers
Tail Solvent (Bake
✔ ✔ ✔
Enamels)
Based on Table 1-3, PC is the most widely used in the listed application compared with
ethylene carbonate, butylene carbonate, and carbonate blend and for ultrapure carbonate, it is
the lowest consumption in the application.
Solvents
PC is one of the sustainable solvent options for a chemical reaction that called as the Green
solvent which can reduce the environmental impact for usage of the solvent in the chemical
production and increase in the optimization of the chemical process with low cost. The green
solvents have high yield, high selectivity, easy conducting, a small amount of toxicity, has the
potential to recycle, biodegradability and simple for isolation and purification process. Organic
carbonates are contemplated as green which are diesters of carbonic acid compared to the
others organic solvents. These esters are suitable to use in chemical industries and academic
applications because of its firm. PC is convenient to apply in the application that requires
contact with the human because it has characteristics of decreasing the amount of toxicity,
odourless and colourless substance, low vapor pressure and high boiling point. PC is a
prominent solvent for numerous organic and inorganic substances that mostly use in various
applications and compositions such as gallant for clays, cosmetic, cleaners, degreasers, fibres,
plastics, and batteries (S. Bello Forero, A. Hernández Muñoz, Jones Junior, & M. da Silva,
2016).
23
Figure 1-2: PC as a Solvent.
Cosmetics
Propylene carbonates (PC) are most widely used in cosmetics such as lipstick, skin cleanser,
antiperspirants, mascara, hair conditioner, and others cosmetics product. The polar additive for
montmorillonite or bentonite clay gallants is acted as in those cosmetics. The range
concentration 0.1 % to 5% of PC that is a no viscous, clear liquid was used in cosmetics and
usually 20 % of PC is contained in cosmetic products that irritating to human skin, no
phototoxic and no photosensitizing (Cosmetics Info, 2016).
As reported by Busch, 1987, a total of 295 registered cosmetic product that used PC as a basic
ingredient, the result was submitted by cosmetic firms to the Food and Drug Administration
(FDA). There are 3 products which are lipstick (95 products), mascara (34 products) and
eyeshadow (42 products) that are most often utilize PC and the concentrations that were
contained in this cosmetic formulations are > 1-5% (212 products), > 0.1-1% (80 products) and
0.1% (3 products). Table 1-4 shows the product formulation data for propylene carbonate.
From Table 1-4, lipstick is the highest number of product formulation within each
concentration range of PC which is 85 for concentration <1-5 0.1 %, 9 for > 0.1-1 and 1 for
0.1 of PC compared to other cosmetic product. According to Busch, 1987, a small amount
of ingredient could be ingested from lipstick and the cosmetic products has a potential to in
contact with skin, eyes, hair (scalp) and nails. Uses of PC in cosmetic products are expected
can be used once a week to several times a day and keep remain in contact with body surfaces
for a few hours or a few days (Busch, 1987).
24
Figure 1-3: Application of PC in Cosmetics.
Table 1-4: Product Formulation Data for Propylene Carbonate
No. of product
Total no. of Total no.
formulations within each
Product Category formulation containing
concentration range %
in category ingredients
>1-5 >0.1 -1 ≤0.1
Bath oil, tablet and salts 237 1 1 - -
Eyebrow pencil 145 6 6 - -
Eyeliner 396 17 17 - -
Eye shadow 2582 42 26 16 -
Eye lotion 13 1 1 - -
Mascara 397 34 1 33 -
Other eye makeup preparation 230 9 8 1 -
Colognes and toilet waters 1120 5 5 - -
Perfumes 657 4 4 - -
Hair conditioners 478 1 1 - -
Other hair colouring preparation 49 3 3 - -
Blushers (all types) 819 13 9 3 1
Face powders 555 1 1 - -
Makeup foundations 740 11 10 1 -
Lipstick 3319 95 85 9 1
Makeup bases 831 13 - 13 -
Makeup fixatives 22 1 1 - -
Other makeup preparation (not eye) 530 9 8 1 -
Nail creams and lotion 25 1 1 - -
Other personal cleanliness products 227 4 2 1 1
Skin cleansing preparation 680 9 9 - -
25
Face, body and hand skin care preparation 832 1 - 1 -
Moisturizing skin care preparation 747 2 2 - -
Night skin care preparation 219 4 4 - -
Skin fresheners 260 1 - 1 -
Suntan gels, creams and liquids 164 6 6 - -
Other suntan preparation 28 1 1 - -
1981 TOTALS 295 212 80 3
Paint Stripper
Propylene carbonate (PC) is highly demand in the paint stripper/remover industry such as
stripping paint from airplane fuselages, furniture, automobile, boats, trains, and military
vehicles. Traditionally, methylene chloride, phenol and caustic are the compositions of paint
remover. However, there is some limitation while consuming these chemicals in paint remover.
For methylene chloride, it is a beneficial chemical as paint removal, but it contains a high
amount of volatile material where can be considered as toxic, which the characteristic is same
as phenol. Meanwhile, caustic cause bums and attack aluminium. The new paint remover
compositions are highly recommendable to replace the conventional composition of paint
remover because of its deficit and disadvantages (Machac et al., 2000).
The new development of paint stripper needs to have these criteria such as low toxicity, low
odour, low evaporation rates, high solvency, high boiling points, low cost, eco-friendly
environment and biodegradable materials (Huntsman Corporation, 2018). There are some
compositions of paint remover were discussed such as alkylene carbonate, hydrogen peroxide,
dialkyl carbonate, and water.
According to Marquis, 2000, compositions of propylene carbonate, hydrogen peroxide, and
water is effectual in removing the paint and coating. Furthermore, the compositions have
complied to the criteria needed such as low toxicity, eliminate the paint and coating effectively,
have neutral pH (slightly acidic or slightly basic pH) and environmentally safe compared to
chlorinated hydrocarbon (Machac et al., 2000).
26
Figure 1-4: Application of PC in Paint Stripper.
Based Cleaning Composition
Propylene carbonate (PC) also is applied in a based cleaning composition. The function of the
cleaning composition is to wash the soil from hard surfaces such as shower stalls, metallic car
bumpers, wheels, countertops, tiles, fixtures, faucets, sink, and bathtub. Propylene carbonate,
a glycol ether, water, and acid activator are the component of the cleaning composition. An
aqueous composition either in a foamed or non-foamed is utilized to the soiled surface in a
cleaning process. The scrub brushes, towels, and other cleaning equipment are contacted with
the soil. Next, rinsed off the surface by water, and the surface is dried by wiping by using a
suitable utensil. Cleaning composition was used in most industries such as in household and in
the cleaning department (school, university, rest and service area, companies and shopping
complex).
The best composition for making the cleaning materials are about 2% to 25% of propylene
carbonate, 2% to 25% of the glycol ether, water less than 95% and 10% of hydrogen peroxide.
According to JRH Co, 2013, PC gives outstanding volatile organic compound (VOC) and
reduction of toxicity in a few solution and application (J R Hess Co., 2018). Acid activator is
known as an acidic material that gives the productiveness of the formulation that contained
from the group of citric acid, maleic anhydride, and maleic acid. The cleaning composition is
the most preferable cleaning agent compared to soap scum because it a starting point to make
the surface dulling and streaking, and tough to evacuate the stain without the aid of the cleaning
composition (Machac et al., 2000).
27
Figure 1-5: Application of PC in Based Cleaning Composition.
Market Survey
Overview
A market survey is one of important thing that needs to be completed before running a project.
The market survey will give the information of supply and demand for a product and it will
help to estimate the production rate for the plant capacity. The production rate depends on the
demand of the product to ensure the process is ongoing and it will give benefits to the suppliers.
The price for raw material also needs to be considered and surveyed because if the raw material
is more expensive than the product, the production may not be continuing. It is because
suppliers will experience losses rather than gaining profits from the production.
Global Supply and Demand for Propylene Carbonate (PC)
The petrochemical industry is one of the industries that growing effectively because products
from petrochemical have been used for the various application. Propylene carbonate (PC) also
a petrochemical product that has been used in a various application, for example in
pharmaceutical. PC has been produced by several countries and it will be exported to other
countries or used in their own countries. Table 1-5 and Figure 1-6 below show the top
worldwide PC manufacturers and global PC market share by each country.
Table 1-5: Top Worldwide PC Manufacturers (Management Journal, 2018).
Company Country
BASF Germany
Huntsman Corporation United states of America
LyondellBasell Netherlands
Shida Shenghua Chemical China
Daze Group China
Shandong Depu Chemical China
Hi-Tech Spring Chemical China
28
Linying Evergreen Chemical China
Shandong Feiyang Chemical China
Lixing Chemical China
Taixing Fengming Chemical China
Global PC Market Share by Countries in 2018

4%
12%
Germany
14% US
UK
70% China
Figure 1-6: Global PC Market Share by Countries in 2018 (Management Journal, 2018).
Table 1-5 shows the top manufacturers that produce PC and their locations. From Table 1-5,
we can see that China is the top PC manufacturer in the world because there are many PC
companies located in China compared to other countries. From Figure 1-6, it shows that China
produces most of the product that gives a percentage of 70%, followed by the United States,
Netherland, and Germany. There is a total of eight companies from China that contribute to the
percentage of 70%. They are Shida Shenghua Chemical (9%), Daze Group (5%), Shandong
Depu Chemical (6.5%), Hi-Tech Spring Chemical (7.5%), Linyi Evergreen Chemical (6%),
Shandong Feiyang Chemical (11%), Lixing Chemical (10%), and Taixing Fengming Chemical
(15%). All these companies are top manufacturers that produce PC in China Region. Whilst,
in Germany, BASF Petronas produces PC that represents the 4% of the total percentage of the
production. For LyondellBasell in Netherland, it contributes a percentage of 14% of the total
production and the remaining 12% of PC is produced by Huntsman Chemical in the United
States of America.
From the percentage of global PC production, we would be able to estimate the global supply
and demand of PC. Each company produces a specific amount of PC every year and from that,
it shows the value of global supply for PC. On the other hand, for global demand, it has to be
calculated from the value of the Cumulative Annual Growth rate (CAGR) for each year. Figure
29
1-7 and Table 1-6 show the global supply and demand for PC that has been forecast from the
year of 2013 until 2022.
Global Supply and Demand for PC

600000 10
500000 8
(metric ton/year)
6
Amount of PC
400000
CAGR value
4
300000
2
200000
0
100000 -2
0 -4
2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
Production time (year)
Global supply Global Demand CAGR value
Figure 1-7: Global Supply and Demand for PC (Market Research Store, 2017).
Table 1-6: Total PC Supply and Demand (Market Research Store, 2017).
Year Total supply (metric ton/year) Total demand (metric ton/year)
2013 220056.07 311242.43
2014 228631.41 321519.96
2015 237564.25 324098.87
2016 246870.13 318596.00
2017 256565.28 329746.86
2018 266666.67 358434.84
2019 277192.00 389618.67
2020 288159.79 423515.50
2021 299589.35 460361.34
2022 311500.91 500412.78
According to Figure 1-7, it shows that the total supply of PC is lower than that of the total
demand. For the business reason, demand must be higher than supply to ensure the stability of
production. As stated in the Market Research Report, 2017, due to the slowdown of economic
growth, PC industries suffered some impacts in which the CAGR decreased by 2.5% each year
from 2013 until 2017 (Market Research Store, 2017). Due to that occasion, PC industries faced
30
their downtime. According to the Business Analyst, 2017, it was estimated that the CAGR
value of PC will grow by 8.7% each year from 2018 to 2022 (Business Analyst, 2018). From
these statements, we can simply forecast the annual production of PC from 2013 until 2022.
The estimated value of total supply and demand are shown in Table 1-6. It is significant to
learn the global supply and demand for PC because this will help in determining the target
amount of production for the new PC plant to be built.
Asian Region Supply and Demand for Propylene Carbonate (PC)
Asian petrochemical industries develop well due to the demand of a particular product. Based
on the ICIS, 2017, China and India will be leading the petrochemical industries due to certain
developments. In China, propylene capacity is rising from 23 million tonnes per year in 2016
to 28 million tonnes per year in 2020. That indicates the increasing trend for the petrochemical
industries. Besides, India also indicates a certain rising in their petrochemical industries. Their
production of LDPE achieves 400,000 tonnes per year and mono-ethylene glycol achieves
800,000 tonnes per year. Propylene carbonate (PC) is one of the petrochemicals that produces
from propylene oxide and it has been used in many applications for example in pharmaceutical
and cosmetics.
In China, it is one of the top countries in the petrochemical industries. Many companies from
China become the big manufacturer for the petrochemical product, for example, polyethylene
and polypropylene. The information released by the China Petroleum and Chemical Industry
Federation in 2017 showed an increased value for petrochemicals that the income obtained was
US$2.27 trillion while benefits hopped by 30% to US$130 billion. Based on the Oil Voice,
2018, China's Petrochemical Industries in 2017 gave an overall revenue of US$2.27 trillion,
overall international trade (export/import) gave a value of US$560 billion and overall profits
gave a value of US$130 billion. PC is one of the petrochemical products that China produces
and it has been used worldwide. China becomes the top manufacturers for PC and exports their
products to many countries. The CAGR increases 4.6% every year to fulfil the world demand
(Research, 2013). Based on the Global Market Share, China involves 70% of world production
of PC. Table 1-7 shows the total production of PC by companies from China in 2016.
Table 1-7: Total production of PC by companies from China in 2016 (China Supplier
Directory-TradeBIG, 2018).
Company Total production (metric ton/year)
Shida Shenghua Chemical 21935.53
Daze Group 12186.40
31
Shandong Depu Chemical 15842.32
Hi-Tech Spring Chemical 18279.60
Linyi Evergreen Chemical 14623.68
Shandong Feiyang Chemical 25591.44
Lixing Chemical 24372.80
Taixing Fengming Chemical 36559.19
In India, it becomes one of the biggest regions in Asia that imports PC from other countries.
The uses of PC for various application make the product actively to be imported to the country.
According to the Zauba Technologies & Data Services, the total quantity that India import is
3,850,219 metric ton that gives the values of $19,720,433 and this value is calculated starting
from February 2013 until November 2016 (ZAUBA, 2018a).
Total Value Import to India by Countries

Germany
2% Others
1%
United States
3%
China
94%
China United States Germany Others
Figure 1-8: Total Value Import to India by Countries (ZAUBA, 2018a).
32
Total Quantity Import to India by Countries
Germany Others
6% 1%
United States
8%
China
85%
China United States Germany Others
Figure 1-9: Total Quantity Import to India by Countries (ZAUBA, 2018a).

From Figure 1-8 and 1-9, India imports most of PC from China, followed by the United States
of America and Germany. India imports 3269.437 metric tons of PC from China which cover
85% of the total quantity that has been imported. The United States of America exports 318.723
metric tons and Germany exports 224.483 metric tons to India. The value that China gets from
exporting PC to India is $18,606,432. It gives 94% of the total value of PC import in India.
In Malaysia, it also has a demand for PC. Malaysia imports PC from other countries as it does
not produce its own PC. According to the Zauba Technologies & Data Services (2016),
Malaysia imports a significant amount of PC from India. Figure shows the total quantity that
India export to several countries. Malaysia is one of the countries that imports PC from India.
Malaysia imports 50,000 metric ton that covers 33% of total export of PC by India. This has
showed that Malaysia demands PC for its own country (ZAUBA, 2018a).
33
Total Quantity Export by India
Others
16%
Pakistan
United Arab 34% Pakistan
Emirates
17% Malaysia
United Arab Emirates
Malaysia
33% Others
Figure 1-10: Total Quantity Export by India (ZAUBA, 2018a)

Supply and Demand for Propylene Oxide (PO)
Propylene oxide (PO) is one of the raw materials that has been chosen to produce propylene
carbonate (PC). PO has many applications in the industries, for example, production of
propylene glycol and propylene carbonate. PO is widely used because it can help in the
manufacture of polyether polyol, polyurethane, propylene glycol, and propylene carbonate.
Based on the IHS Markit, 2017, PO is the second-largest derivative of propylene that takes part
8% of global propylene market (IHS Markit, 2017). Figure 1-11 shows the world consumption
of PO in 2017.
34
World Consumption of PO in 2017
Middle East
6%
Southeast Asia
11%
Northeast Asia
Northeast Asia Western Europe
35% North America
Southeast Asia
North America Middle East
25%
Western Europe
23%
Figure 1-11: World Consumption of PO in 2017 (IHS Markit, 2017).

Based on Figure 1-11, Northeast Asia becomes the largest consumer of PO with 35% of the
world percentage. Western Europe also one of the largest consumers with 23% of the total
consumption and followed by North America with 25%. Other regions like Southeast Asia and
the Middle East also consume PO but in low percentage. According to the ICIS Chemical
Business, the overall growth of PO in 2006 is expected within 3-3.5% and it gives a similar
value of growth in 2005. Global demand for PO is expected to grow at 6% per year that India
and China are assumed to have the highest growth. Whilst, in European countries, they will
also rise around 3.5% per year. The capacity of production will keep increasing because
Dow/BASF will start up a new plant in Belgium and South Korea (ICIS Chemical Business,
2011).
35
TOTAL PRODUCTION AND QUANTITY Global Supply and Demand forecast for PO
20 90
18 88
PERCENTAGE RATE (%)

16 86
(METRIC TONNES)
14 84
12 82
10 80
8 78
6 76
4 74
2 72
0 70
2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022
TIME FRAME
total production Total Quantity Capacity Utilisation Rate
Figure 1-12: ICIS Global Supply and Demand Forecast for PO (ICIS Chemical Business,
2011).
Based on Figure 1-12 given by ICIS, the total production of PO is projected to increase starting
from 2012 until 2022. It shows that the supply of PO will keep increasing which will then
improve the production of PC. If the raw material is not enough to supply, the production of
PC cannot proceed. It would be difficult for a new plant to produce PC if due to the shortage
of raw materials. Table 1-8 below shows the global PO capacity (tonnes per year) produced by
different companies in different locations.
Table 1-8: Global PO Capacity Produced by Different Companies in Different Locations
(ICIS Chemical Business, 2006).
Company Location Capacity (Tonnes/Year)
Asahi Glass Kashima, Japan 110,000
BASF Ludwigshafen, Germany 125,000
Shell Petrochemical Huizhou, China 250,000
Dow Chemical Aratu, Brazil 250,000
Ellba Moerdijk, Netherland 250.000
Ellba Eastern Seraya, Singapore 250,000
Huntsman Port Neches, Texas, US 240,000
Ineos Olefins Cologne, Germany 210,000
Jin Hua Chemical Huludao, China 130,000
36
Lyondell Bayer Maasvlakte, Netherland 285,000
Lyondell Chemical Bayport, Texas, Us 600,000
Nihon Oxirane Sodegura, Japan 180,000
Repsol YPF Puertollano, Spain 70,000
History of Global Pricing

For propylene carbonate (PC), its global pricing is illustrated in Figure 1-13 based on the Zauba
Technologies and Data Services starting from January 2015 until November 2016.
Historical Price for PC

8000
Cost (USD/Metric tons)
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
Mar-15
Apr-15
May-15
Jul-15
Aug-15
Nov-15
Dec-15
Mar-16
Apr-16
May-16
Jul-16
Aug-16
Nov-16
Jan-15
Feb-15
Jun-15
Sep-15
Oct-15
Jan-16
Feb-16
Jun-16
Sep-16
Oct-16
Time Frame
Figure 1-13: Historical Price for PC (ZAUBA, 2018a).

Figure 1-13 shows the trend for PC price obtained in the India region. The reason why India
has been chosen because India has been known as PC hub where most PC imports and exports
happen there. The trend for PC was fluctuating starting from January 2015 until November
2016. The highest price for PC within this time frame was in January 2016, in which the PC
value that time was 6950 USD per metric tons. The lowest PC value came in July 2016 which
was 2240 USD per metric tons. The price trend for PC was not stable because PC suffered a
significant impact during that time frame based on the Market Research Store, 2016 (Market
Research Store, 2017).
Whilst, for propylene oxide (PO), its prices are different across the world as shown in Figure
1-14 and 1-15. For the price of PO in China and Singapore, they remained stable from April
37
2007 to July 2008 but the price dropped after that until January 2009. Moreover, the price in
the Netherlands and the United State fluctuated as the trend increased suddenly and after that
decreased. Based on the ICIS, 2011, the price for PO in January 2010 in Europe was around
€1300 per metric tons and the value fluctuated until it reached the highest value in July 2011
that was around €1700 per metric tons. Global PO price trend fluctuated because the world
economy is unstable and the PO price is hard to maintain as usual (ICIS Chemical Business,
2011).
Global Pricing of PO by Countries

2500
2000
Price (USD / Metric Ton)
1500
1000
500
0
2007 2008 2009 2010
Time Frame (Year)
NETHERLANDS UNITED STATES CHINA SINGAPORE
Figure 1-14: Global Pricing of PO by Countries (ICIS Chemical Business, 2011).
Figure 1-15: European PO Prices (ICIS Chemical Business, 2011).

Raw Material Availability
38
Raw material availability is one of the most important things that need to be considered. The
plant production cannot be continued if the raw material is not available. For the production of
propylene carbonate (PC), its raw material is propylene oxide (PO). The availability of PO is
important because when deciding the location of PC plant, the location must be near to the
source of its raw material for transportation ease. Table 1-9 shows the availability of PO in the
Asia region.
Table 1-9: Availability of PO in the Asia Region
Countries Details
Plant Owner: SCG-DOW Group
Plant location: Ma Tha Phut, Thailand
Capacity: 390,00 tonnes per annum PO
Thailand
Commissioning: January 2002
Process: HPPO technology that produces PO
using hydrogen peroxide.
Plant Owner: Ellba Eastern
Plant location: Seraya, Jurong Island,
Singapore Singapore
Capacity: 250,00 tonnes per annum PO
Commissioning: September 2002
SWOT Analysis
STRENGTH WEAKNESS
Growth in Asia Raw material is
demand helps the not available in
PC production. Malaysia.
THREAT
OPPORTUNITY
Prediction for
Development of competitive
product application locations for PC
helps to grow the production.
Asia demand.
39
Plant Capacity Decision
The propylene carbonate (PC) production plant is estimated to run its production in 2021.
Basically, it will take 3 years to build a complete plant starting from 2018 until 2021. The
capacity of the plant is aimed to produce 100,000 metric ton of PC per year. This value is
estimated based on the global supply and demand of PC. The total global PC supply that has
been estimated in 2022 is 3111500.91 metric tons and the total global PC demand in 2022 is
500412.78 metric tons. The yield between these two values will show how much we require to
stabilize the supply and demand. From what we have forecast in our global market survey, the
yield between the supply and demand is about 200,000 metric tons. We plan to produce 50%
of the total amount, that is 100,000 metric ton of PC per annum.
Calculation for Profit Margin
Table 1-10: Price of Raw Materials and Product
Price Molecular Weight
Raw Material and Product
MYR/kg USD/MT (kg/kmol)
Propylene Oxide 7.23 1736 58.08
Carbon Dioxide 0.6672 160 44.01
Propylene Carbonate 21.33 5120 102.09
C& H( O + CO+ → C- H( O& Equation 1-2

This process does not have side products, hence, Equation 1-2 represents the chemical reaction
of the process. Based on the stoichiometric ratio, 1 kmol of propylene oxide (PO) reacts with
1 kmol of carbon dioxide (CO2) to produce 1 kmol of propylene carbonate (PC). It is assumed
to achieve 100% conversion.
For calculating the profit margin, the cost of product must be deducted with the cost of raw
materials. To produce 100,000 metric ton/year of PC,
100000MT 1000kg 1kmol 979527.87 kmol PC
× × =
Year MT 102.09 kg PC Year
Number of moles for PO required,
979527.87 kmol PC 1kmol PO 979527.87 kmol PO
× =
Year 1kmol PC Year
Number of moles for CO2 required,
979527.87 kmol PC 1kmol CO+ 979527.87 kmol CO+
× =
Year 1kmol PC Year
40
Economic Potential 1
= [1- (Cost of PO + Cost of CO2)/[Cost of PC– (Cost of PO + Cost of CO2)]] x 100%
= [1
979527.87 kmol PO RM7.23 58.08 kg 979527.87 kmol CO+ RM0.6672 44.01 kg
GH × × K + H × × KN
Year kg kmol Year kg kmol
− ]
979527.87 kmol PC RM21.33 102.09 kg 979527.87 kmol PO RM7.23 58.08 kg 979527.87 kmol CO+ RM0.6672 44.01 kg
OH × × K − GH × × K + H × × KNP
Year kg kmol Year kg kmol Year kg kmol
× 100%
= 74.0044%
This profit margin is not covering things such as the cost of side products, catalysts, processing,
utilities, equipment, and labour. This profit margin will be recalculated once all the relating
cost have its value.
Process Technology
There are mainly three types of synthetic methods of propylene carbonate (PC), they are ester
exchange, carbon dioxide synthesis, and urea alcoholysis methods. The explanation of each
method is as follows.
Ester Exchange Method
Ester exchange method is a reaction between propylene glycol (PG) and dimethyl carbonate
(DMC) to synthesis propylene carbonate (PC). It can be also indirectly synthesized from
propylene oxide (PO). The chemical equations can be written as follows.
CH₃CHCH₂O + H+ O à C& HU O+ Equation 1-3
C& HU O+ + OC(OCH& )+ à CH& C+ H& O+ CO + 2CH& OH Equation 1-4
Equation 1-3 shows the production of PG by hydration of PO. The reaction occurs at a
temperature of 200 oC and 12 bar pressure. The reaction mixture is dehydrated through the
evaporation process and various PG is separated by distillation (ICIS, 2007). After that,
followed by the transesterification between PG and DMC as shown in Equation 1-4 under the
catalysis of trace strong base and dibutyl tin dilaurate (DBTL). Then, the products are pre-
polymerized and depolymerized at very high temperature in the same reaction system. The
product, PC obtained will recrystallize into a high purity polymerization grade cyclic carbonate
monomer with a yield of more than 75%. Although the one-pot synthetic process can greatly
increase its yield and shorten the reaction time, the raw materials are expensive and the organic
tin catalyst is toxic with low catalyst activity and selectivity. (Pengfei Qi, Xuemei Wang,
2018).
Carbon Dioxide Synthesis Method
Carbon dioxide (CO2) is the one of the most significant greenhouse gases that lead to the
increase of global temperature and climate change (D. Kim & Na, 2018). Every year, we
41
accumulate around 3500 million tonnes of CO2 worldwide, but the usage of CO2 as a feedstock
is only around 3%. Hence, there is a growing interest in developing chemical processes for
harnessing CO2 for the production of cyclic carbonate and polycarbonate, which have a large
global demand annually (Demire, 2015). Today, the reaction of CO2 with PO to synthesize PG
is the most common method for industrial synthesis of PG. Its chemical equation can be written
as follows.
CH₃CHCH₂O + CO+ à CH& C+ H& O+ CO Equation 1-5
Equation 1-5 shows the reaction between PO and CO2 to produce PG. PO, as a cyclic ether,
has a large ring tension between carbon and oxygen bonds and is susceptible to the nucleophilic
attack of CO2 to produce a cyclo-carbonate by a cycloaddition reaction. The reaction between
PO and CO2 synthetizing PG is an exothermic, volume reduction reaction. From the
thermodynamic point of view, low temperature, high pressure conditions are conducive to the
reaction. Whilst, from a dynamic point of view, the increase of the reaction temperature
promotes the activation of the reactants’ speed and can speed up the reaction rate.
Comprehensively elaborated, the selection of the right catalyst is the key of the success of the
reaction (Pengfei Qi, Xuemei Wang, 2018).
Yaşar Demirel designed an ionic liquid-1-n-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride (EMlmCl) as
a catalyst for the synthesis of PC through carboxylation of PO. Among the ionic liquid
catalysts, 1-n-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride shows a good performance. The process
based on the chemical reaction in Equation 1-6 utilizes the rate constant in the form of the
Arrhenius equation as follows.
Z (^(__
k = k V exp Y− [\] = 17452614exp (− [\
) Equation 1-6
where ko is the pre-exponential factor, E is the activation energy in J/mol. The reaction occurs
under mild conditions at 100 oC and 7.9 bar in a stirred reactor using EMlmCl . Its best yield
of a continuous process can be achieved around 91% with a residence time of 30 minutes.
Although it has short reaction time, solvent-free conditions, and is an easy separation of
catalyst system, the catalyst is expensive, requires pretreatments, and is not completely
recyclable (Demire, 2015).
Jin et al. used an ion exchange resin catalyst with basic functional groups for the carboxylation
of PO with CO2 to PG in a semi-batch slurry reactor. In the presence of the catalyst, the
selectivity of the reaction can be achieved around 99.9%. From the studies, it is believed that
free PO molecules react with adsorbed CO2 on the catalyst surface and form PC. The optimum
temperature and CO2 pressure for the reaction are 95 oC and 23 bar. The advantages of using
42
such catalyst are the catalyst can be recovered easily and reused over five runs without
significant loss of activity. But, there is an uncertainty of scaling-up from lab scale because it
is still in the laboratory research and development stage. Yet, there is no effective catalytic
system and chemical process that can promote real industrialization. On the other hand, this
method requires supercritical CO2. This involves a high capital cost for batch processes and the
engineering hardware technology for a continuous operation involving supercritical CO2 is still
under research (Jin et al., 2017).
Barendregt, R., Neut, & Velde proposed using magnesium oxide as a heterogeneous catalyst
for the production of PC from CO2 and PO. From the chemical reaction in Equation 1-7, it
utilizes the rate constant in the form of the Arrhenius equation as follows.
Z `U-__
k = k V exp Y− [\] = 12.5528exp (− [\
) Equation 1-7
where ko is the pre-exponential factor in 1/m2s , E is the activation energy in J/mol. The process
is carried out in a trickle bed reactor with random packed magnesium oxide catalyst bed at
135 oC and 50 bar. The leaving of PC from the reactor is purified by just using flash drums.
The process PC can be produced with a purity of 99.8 w% and a conversion of 90%. The
advantages of this method are that, MgO is a robust, cheap in price, slow degradation catalyst.
It does not dissolve during the reaction. But, through this method, the reaction is less selective
and slow at 135 oC (Barendregt, R., Neut, & Velde, 1999).
Urea Alcoholysis Method
Urea alcoholysis method is a reaction between urea and propylene glycol (PG) to synthesize
ammonia and propylene carbonate (PC). It is a method of indirect alcoholysis of urea, where
propylene oxide (PO) will react with water to produce PG, followed by reacting with urea to
synthesize PC. This reaction route provides many benefits, such as cheap and easy available
raw materials, mild reaction conditions, safe operations, and environmental friendly chemicals
(Shi et al., 2018). But, homogeneous catalyst separation is complex and recovery is difficult.
Moreover, the activity, selectivity and cost of the catalyst cannot meet the requirements of
industrial production (Pengfei Qi, Xuemei Wang, 2018). Two reaction steps of indirect
alcoholysis of urea synthesizing PC are given as follows.
CH₃CHCH₂O + H+ O à C& HU O+ Equation 1-8
C& HU O+ + CO(NH+ )+ à CH& C+ H& O+ CO + 2NH& Equation 1-9
In Equation 1-8, PG is produced by reacting PO and water. Then, PG will be reacted with urea,
producing PC and ammonia in Equation 1-9. Wang et al. suggested using zinc oxide as a
catalyst for the synthesis of PC from urea and PG in a stirred tank reactor. Zinc oxide is found
43
to be the precursor of homogenous catalyst for the reaction. From the studies, zinc oxide might
change to other species and dissolve into the liquid phase during the reaction. This allows zinc
oxide to exhibit an active homogenous intermediate for the conversion of urea and PG to PC.
In fact, zinc oxide has the similar catalytic pattern with the other zinc salts and its catalytic
performance is well correlated with its concentration dissolved in the liquid phase. In this
method, the reaction occurs at 180 oC and 0.1 bar, having a urea conversion of 86.9% and PC
yield of 82.3% (Wang, Zhang, Cheng, Wu, & Xue, 2014).
44
Summary of Synthesis Route Screening
Table 1-11 shows the summary of synthesis route screening.
Table 1-11: Summary of Synthesis Route Screening
Method Reaction Reactor Conditions Advantages Disadvantages Source
The one-pot
Temperature: 200 oC The raw materials are
CH₃CHCH₂O + H( O à C) H* O( synthetic process (Pengfei Qi,
Pressure: 12 bar expensive and the
Ester C) H* O( Microwave can greatly Xuemei
Catalyst: Trace strong base organic tin catalyst is
exchange + OC(OCH) )( à CH) C( H) O( CO reactor increase its yield Wang,
and dibutyl tin dilaurate toxic with low catalyst
+ 2CH) OH and shorten the 2018).
(DBTL) activity and selectivity.
reaction time.
Temperature: 100 oC
It has short
Pressure: 7.9 bar
reaction time,
Catalyst: Ionic liquid-1-n- The catalyst is
Stirred solvent-free
ethyl-3-methylimidazolium expensive, requires pre- (Demire,
tank conditions, and is
chloride treatments, and is not 2015)
reactor E an easy
CO2 CH₃CHCH₂O k = k 0 exp 4− 9 completely recyclable.
RT separation of
synthesis + CO( à CH) C( H) O( CO
67600 catalyst system.
= 17452614exp (− )
RT
The catalyst can Uncertainty of scaling-
Semi-batch Temperature: 95 oC
be recovered up from lab scale, no (Jin et al.,
slurry Pressure: 23 bar
easily and reused effective catalytic 2017)
reactor Catalyst: Ion exchange resin
over five runs system and chemical
45
without process that can
significant loss of promote real
activity. industrialization, and
require supercritical
CO2
Temperature: 135 oC MgO is a robust,
Pressure: 50 bar cheap in price,
The reaction is less
Trickle bed Catalyst: Magnesium oxide slow degradation (Barendregt
E selective and slow at
reactor k = k 0 exp 4− 9 catalyst. Does not et al., 1999)
RT 135 oC.
dissolve during
98400
= 12.5528exp (− ) the reaction
RT
Cheap and easy
Homogeneous catalyst
available raw
separation is complex,
materials, mild
CH₃CHCH₂O + H( O à C) H* O( and recovery is
Stirred Temperature: 180 oC reaction
Urea C) H* O( difficult. The activity, (Wang et al.,
tank Pressure: 0.1 bar conditions, safe
alcoholysis + CO(NH( )( à CH) C( H) O( CO selectivity and cost of 2014)
reactor Catalyst: Zinc oxide operations, and
+ 2NH) the catalyst cannot meet
environmental
the industrial
friendly
requirements.
chemicals.
46
Site Selection & Plant Layout
Criteria for Site Selection
In designing a petrochemical plant, the location of the plant plays a huge role to ease the process
and marketing well beings. Thus, site selection needs to be done and must be decided carefully
ahead of plant construction. Four industrial sites have been shortlisted to compare the
compatibility of the locations for the set-up of propylene carbonate (PC) production plant,
which are Tanjung Langsat Industrial Complex, Gebeng Industrial Park, Port Klang, and WHA
Eastern Industrial Estate. These locations have been evaluated according to several criteria:
i. Raw material availability
ii. Market potential
iii. Labour supply
iv. Reasonable land price
v. Strategic location
vi. Transport facilities
vii. Utilities
viii. Regulations and policy
ix. Waste and disposal facility
x. Politics and economics
The availability of raw material usually affects the selection of the site. Plant is good to located
near to the source of raw materials to reduce the transportation and storage charges. However,
in this particular plant design project, the raw materials such as propylene oxide (PO) would
be purchased from foreign countries which supply them in industrial grade such as Thailand.
PO production plant owned by PTT Global Chemical and its joint venture partners Sanyo
Chemical and Toyota Tsusho located in WHA Eastern Industrial Estate (Map Ta Phut),
Rayong, Thailand seemed to be the nearest PO supplier to Malaysia. This plant is scheduled to
operate in second quarter of 2020 and they are targeting PO marketing in Asia pacific and
India. ("PTT explores possibility of propylene oxide, polyether polyols complex in Thailand",
2017). Carbon dioxide supplies will be purchased from Linde Malaysia Sdn Bhd that located
at Hicom Industrial Estate in Shah Alam while magnesium oxide catalyst from Sepakat Trading
and General Agency in Kota Kinabalu, Sabah.
Market Potential
The highest demand for propylene carbonate (PC) was recorded in India followed by the United
State of America and Germany. Since PC has a wide range of applications such as in the
47
cosmetic, pharmaceutical and petrochemical industry, sales and exports of PC are expected to
increase in the future, leading to its exploitation of the market locally as well as globally.
Labour Supply
The labour supply highly depends on the number of population in the specified area. The higher
the population, the higher the labour supply for employment. To maintain the operation in the
plant, both skilled and unskilled labours are required. Besides skilled labours contribution in
various departments such as marketing, finance, legal activities, engineering, R&D and human
resource, unskilled labours are also important in handling the operations at the plant. The
labour supply may be of local or foreign nationality.
Reasonable Land Price
It is important to survey the prices of land in the selected areas as a large amount of capital is
required for its investment. In addition, the land and property serve as a permanent operational
base. Besides the price, it is also crucial to determine the expiration year if the property is on
leasehold.
Strategic Location
The land should be an approved industrial area which is of a decent distance away from
residential areas as the manufacturing process would be in constant operation. However, there
should be basic facilities nearby such as clinics, restaurants, banks, and schools.
Transport Facilities
Transportation in an industrial area is crucial as there is a supply of raw materials to the factory
as well as the delivery of the products to the customers. Proper transportation prevents
unnecessary delays and disrupts in the production process. Besides that, it is important that the
factory is accessible. The various forms of transportation include highways, railways, shipping
vessels, and airlines.
Utilities
Electricity and water supply are important in an industrial area. Without electricity, equipment
and machinery would fail to function. The source of electricity may be of fossil fuels such as
coal and gas as well as from renewable energy such as hydroelectric, solar, wind and biomass.
Water supply may be from the sea or rivers.
Regulations and Policy
The regulations and policies on industrial investments may be different in terms of taxation,
environmental and licensing.
48
Politics and Economics
Political and economic stability are important considerations when setting up a factory in a
particular area because they may affect the sustainability and profitability of an organization.
Site Selection Screening
Tanjung Langsat Industrial Complex (TLIC), Johor
The availability of raw material always the important point to be considered in choosing site
for production plant. Site selection for plant should be located to the place where the raw
materials are easy to be accessed. For propylene carbonate production, the raw materials
required are propylene oxide and carbon dioxide. As mention previously, the nearest raw
materials supply used to produce propylene carbonate are imported from Thailand. Therefore,
all the raw materials need to be supplied through air or water transportation from Thailand. Map
Ta Phut is located 1,996 km away from TLIC. It takes 4 hour 55 minutes by flight and 23 hour
45 minutes by land transportation to travel from Map Ta Phut to TLIC, Linde Malaysia Sdn
Bhd is 369km away, about 3hour 55 minutes by road or 55 minutes by flight from TLIC.
Sepakat Trading and General Agency is located 3,423km from TLIC and need 2hour 5 minutes
flight. Figure 1, 2 and 3 shows the distance from TLIC to raw material supplies.
Figure 1-16: Distance from Map Ta Phut to TLIC
49
Figure 1-17:The distance from Linde Malaysia Sdn Bhd from TLIC
Figure 1-18:The distance from Sepakat Trading and General Agency to TLIC
Market Potential
According to the market demand discussed, India, the United State of America and German
are the countries with the higher demand of propylene carbonate (PC), which are 3269.437
metric tons, 318.723 metric tons and 224.483 metric tons respectively. Throughout these years,
Malaysia has been importing PC from India. Malaysia imports 50,000 metric tons of PC which
cover 33% of the total PC quantity exported by India. It is the second largest import quantity
following Pakistan that imports 34% of India PC supply. Therefore, PC produced needs to be
supplied in the local market, as well as exported to foreign countries like the United State of
America, German, Pakistan, Ghana, and the United Arab Emirates.
Labor Supply
A federal government statutory body named Iskandar Regional Development Authority
(IRDA) is responsible to develop the Iskandar Development Region (IDR) into a strong and
sustainable metropolis of international standing. IDR covers a land size of 2,217km2.
According to the IDR record, there are 1.35 million residents in the covered area representing
50
43% of Johor’s population. About 66% of the population is of working age (Khazanah Nasional
Berhad, 2007). Tanjung Langsat is one of the targeted regions under the IDR with 4000-acre
industrial land can be leased on a 60 years term. The labour availability in Tanjung Langsat is
high and skilled workers can be easily found in the local area. Besides that, fresh graduate
engineers can be easily hired due to a lot of universities located in Johor states, such as
Universiti of Technology Malaysia (UTM), Universiti Tun Hussein Onn Malaysia (UTHM),
Sunway College and others.
Sufficient space and low-price land must be available for the plant site to make sure the land
able to have high commercial values. The cost of the land is usually depending on the location
and varies between rural and industrial area not to mention the geography of the land. Table 1-
12 shows the availability and price of industrial land in Tanjung Langsat.
Table 1-12: The Availability and Price of Industrial Land in Tanjung Langsat (Mitula-
Industrial land tanjung langsat, 2018)
Distance Selling price

Name of Lease period
from Johor Area (Acres) (RM/ square
Industrial Land (years)
Bahru (km) feet)
Heavy industrial
land, Tanjung
39 4 46 60
Langsat, Pasir
Gudang, Johor
Industrial land,
Pasir Gudang, 39 120.58 55 60
Tanjung Langsat
Tanjung Langsat
Heavy Industrial 39 20 39 55
Land
There are two seaports and one airport located around Tanjung Langsat. Two seaports include
Tanjung Langsat Port (3.0 km) and Pasir Gudang Port (12.9 km) while the only airport is Senai
51
International Airport which is about 55.4 km from Tanjung Langsat Industrial Complex. As
for the land transport, Tanjung Langsat is connected by Senai-Desaru Expressway. Figure 1-
17, 1-18, and 1-19 show the distance from TLIC to Tanjung Langsat Port, Pasir Gudang Port,
and Senai International Airport.
Figure 1-19: Distance from TLIC to Tanjung Langsat Port
Figure 1-20: Distance from TLIC to Pasir Gudang Port
52
Figure 1-21: Distance from TLIC to Senai International Airport
Strategic Location
Social facilities in certain areas could maintain social stability and population’s well-being.
Tanjung Langsat is facilitated with clinic, primary school, secondary school, and bank.
Table 1-13: Facilities near Tanjung Langsat Industrial Complex
Facilities Name Distance (km)
1) Klinik Desa Tanjong Langsat 4.6
Clinic
2) Klinik kesihatan Pasir Gudang 12
Sekolah Kebangsaan Tanjung
Primary school 4.8
Langsat
1) SMK Kota Masai 2 6
Secondary school
2) SMK Tanjung Puteri Resort 7
1) Hong Leong Bank 13
2) Public Bank 20
Banks
3) OCBC Bank 29
4) RHB 28
Utilities
Electricity supply available 24 hours from Tenaga Nasional Berhad with transmission voltages
at 257kV, 132kV, and 66kV while distribution voltages at 33kV, 11kV, 6.6kV and 0.415kV
and three phases or 0.39kV. Several IPPs will also make their presence here to support the
supply (TPM Technopark Sdn Bhd, 2018).
Table 1-14: Tariff for Industrial Activity by Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) (TNB, 2014).
53
TARIFF CATEGORY CURRENT RATE
TARIFF D: LOW VOLTAGE INDUSTRIAL TARIFF
For the first 200kWh (1-200kWh) per month
38.00sen/kWh44.10sen/kWh
For the next kWh (201kWh onward) per month
The minimum monthly charge is RM7.20
TARIFF E1: MEDIUM VOLTAGE GENERAL INDUSTRIAL
TARIFF
For each kilowatt of maximum demand per month RM29.60/kW
For all kWh 33.70sen/kWh
TARIFF E2: MEDIUM VOLTAGE PEAK /OFF- PEAK
INDUSTRIAL TARIFF
For each kW of maximum demand per month during the peak
period
RM37.00/kW
For all kWh during peak period
35.50sen/kWh21.90sen/kWh
For all kWh during off-peak period
TARIFF E3: HIGH VOLTAGE PEAK /OFF- PEAK
INDUSTRIAL TARIFF
For each kW of maximum demand per month during the peak
period RM35.50/kW
For all kWh during the peak period 33.70sen/kWh20.20sen/kWh
For all kWh during the off-peak period
Water supply is usually used in the general process and cooling process. Production site is
needed to locate to the location where the water can be supplied either from the river, well or
local authority. In Johor state, Ranhill SAJ Sdn Bhd. is responsible to supply the water to
consumers. The tariff of water supply for a different type of activities in Johor state is shown
in Table 1-15.
Table 1-15: Tariff of Water Supply for various purposes by Ranhill SAJ Sdn Bhd (Ranhil,
2016).
Rate per cubic Minimum Rate
Type of Use Utilization
meter (RM) (monthly, RM)
Domestic 0m3 – 20m3 0.80 7.00
54
21m3 – 35m3 2.00
>35m3 3.00
Religious
institutions/ Welfare Average rate 1.60 7.00
Approved
Domestic Bulk Average rate 1.60 16.00
0m3 – 35m3 2.80
Non-Domestic 30.00
>35m3 3.30
Shipping Average rate 7.00 50.00
Water Treatment
Company (Water Average rate 7.00 50.00
Kiosk)
Iskandar Malaysia divided Johor into five key economic zones, Zone A: Johor Bahru City
Centre, Zone B: Greenfield of Nusajaya, Zone C: Western Gate Development, Zone D: Eastern
Gate Development, and Zone E: Senai-Skudai. Zone D, there is a mixed development with the
City of knowledge in Seri Alam, a Regional Distribution Centre in Kim-Kim, Pasir Gudang
Industrial park, Tanjung Langsat Industrial Park, Pasir Gudang Port, and Tanjung Langsat Port
(Iskandar Malaysia, 2018).
Johor acts as the industrial corridor for the world’s manufacturing hub at the south-east Asian
region. Johor is the international metropolis for investment provided with political and social
stability, fully-developed industrial parks, a growing English-speaking workforce, supportive
government policies with attractive tax incentives and low inflation rate.
Gebeng Industrial Park, Pahang
Air and water transport to be used for raw material supply from Thailand. Despite being closer
to Map Ta Phut (1739km) compared to Tanjung Langsat, travelling from Map Ta Phut to
Gebeng Industrial Park by flight requires 19 hours 35 minutes and 22 hour 44 minutes by land
transportation. Carbon dioxide is from Linde Malaysia Sdn Bhd which is 287km from Gebeng
Industrial Park, 3hour 51 minutes through road or 40 minutes of flight. Whereas MgO will be
purchased from Sepakat Trading and General Agency located 3,778km away that requires
4hour 15 minutes flight journey. Figure 7, 8 and 9 below show the distance from raw materials
supplies to Gebeng Industrial Park.
55
Figure 1-22: Distance from Map Ta Phut to Gebeng Industrial Park
Figure 1-23: The distance from Linde Malaysia Sdn. Bhd to Gebeng Industrial Park
Figure 1-24: The distance from Sepakat Trading and General Agency
56
Market Potential
The demand will create a market for the product. So that means the global market demand for
the product is important in establishing the plant. Besides that, area which has a lot of industries
or companies which have a high demand for the product that produced is another advantage
for the plant to be established. The transportation cost can be considered negligible and
maximum profit can be created. There is a less demand for propylene carbonate (PC) in
Malaysia but India, United State of America and German are the countries with the higher
demand for PC.
Labor Supply
Human resource is one of the main factors that should be considered in site selection. The
constant technical manpower is very important in the continuous operation of the plant and the
production of the product. Pahang has always been actively involved in human resource
training. The Pahang Skills Development Centre (PSDC), and University Malaysia Pahang
provide courses designed to meet the manpower requirements of investors to the state. For
instance, the Industrial Training Institute of Kuantan (ILP) has located a training centre within
Gebeng to facilitate the provision of the highly-skilled workforce to the requirement of various
industries. In order to ensure that the necessary labour skills are readily available for operations
at the Gebeng Industrial Park, the courses offered are related to the industries set up within
Gebeng such as general machining, welding, metal structural preparations and erection, sheet
metal fabrication, electrical wiring, industrial and consumer electronics as well as architectural
draughtsmanship. So, the site located near to universities and colleges which produces
technical graduates and undergraduates to serve the industry is a plus point for the plant. Table
1-16 shows the availability of manpower in Pahang area.
Table 1-16: Availability of Manpower in Pahang in Various Sectors (PKNP-A Pahang State
Development Corporation Initiative., 2012)
Agencies/ Institutions Fields of Study
International Islamic University of Medical Science, Pharmacy, Allied Health
Malaysia (IIUM) Sciences, Nursing and Dentistry
Known for its “teaching factory” concept –
Universiti Malaysia Pahang Engineering, Technology, Industrial Sciences,
Computer Science
57
Mechanical Engineering, Electrical
Industrial Training Institute of Kuantan Engineering, Civil Engineering and Information
Technology Engineering
Process Plant’s Safety and Health, Automotive
Manufacturing (Plant Operation and
Maintenance), Process Instrumentation and
Pahang Professional Development Control Technology, Robotic and
Institute Automotation, ICT-Fibre Optic and Mobile
Communication Network, Wireless and Data
Communication, Creative Content Development
Technology, Application Developer
Prepare youths for employment in various
Vocational and technical schools,
trades, mechanical, electrical, building and
polytechnics
printing trades

For the proposed plant and plant expansion, an economic, sufficient land must be available.
These include the cost of the land and premise. The land site must be suitable for the plant and
several factors should be considered too such as the land should be in a distance from the
residence and public area, the land also has to be designated for industrial activities. We also
need to consider the price of the land while keeping in track with our company budget.
Table 1-17: The Availability and Price of Industrial Land in Gebeng (Mitula, 2018).
58
Selling price
Distance from Area Lease period
Name of Industrial Land (RM/ square
Kuantan (km) (Acres) (years)
feet)
Gebeng Industrial Park, Not

31 3 to 250 22
Gebeng, Kuantan, Pahang mentioned
Jalan Gebeng, Kuantan,

31 25629 40 66
Pahang
Kawasan Perindustrian
Not
Gebeng, Phase II, 26080 31 51 13.50
mentioned
Kuantan, Pahang
There are two seaports and one airport located around Gebeng Industrial Park. Two seaports
include Kuantan Port (7.6 km) and Kemaman Port (45 km) while the only airport is Sultan
Ahmad Shah Airport, Kuantan which is about 36 km from Gebeng Industrial Estate. The road
facility I covered by the new Gebeng By-Pass. The By-Pass will directly link with East Coast
Expressway to connect Kuala Lumpur as well as Kuantan town and Kuantan Port. This will
provide a cost-effective means of transportation and greater accessibility in the transfer of
freight and raw material to and from Gebeng Industrial Estate to the domestic and international
markets. Figure 1-21, 1-22 and 1-23 show the distance from Gebeng Industrial Park to Kuantan
Port, Kemaman Port and Sultan Ahmad Shah Airport.
Figure 1-25: The Distance from Gebeng Industrial Park to Kuantan Port.
59
Figure 1-26: The Distance from Gebeng Industrial Park to Kemaman Port.
Figure 1-27: The Distance from Gebeng Industrial Park to Sultan Ahmad Shah Airport.
Strategic Location
Social facilities are necessary to sustain the labour supply in the plant. Labour supply is highly
related to the population around the plant. The social facilities should be good enough to satisfy
and attract population to the plant area. Gebeng Industrial Park has facilitated with clinic
primary school, secondary school, and banks.
Table 1-18: Facilities near Gebeng Industrial Park
Facilities Name Distance (km)
1) Klinik Syed Badaruddin 20
Clinic
2) Klinik kesihatan Balok 8.6
Primary school Sekolah Kebangsaan Pelabuhan 3.4
Sekolah Menegah Kebangsaan 3.9
Secondary school
Pelabuhan
60
1)CIMB Pelabuhan Kuantan 6.4
2)Maybank Petronas Balok 2.5
Banks
Makmur
3)Affinbank 4.3
Utilities
Malaysia is blessed with ample electricity supply by the national utility company, Tenaga
Nasional Berhad (TNB), which supplies power to the whole of Peninsular Malaysia. As such,
generation, transmission and distribution of electricity in the state of Pahang lie under the
responsibility of TNB. Table 1-14 shows the tariff’s category and corresponding rate
accordingly.
Whilst, for water supply, National Water Service Commission or Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan
Air Negara is the water supply services provider to supply quality potable water to customers
in the state. The department is also responsible for the planning, development, management of
water supply as well as billing and collection of payment. In Pahang, water supply comes
mainly from rivers and streams. There are about 79 water treatment plants located in various
districts in Pahang such as in Bentong, Bera, Cameron Highlands, Kuantan, Rompin, Raub,
Jerantut, Lipis, and Maran. Investors in Pahang are assured that each industrial area in Pahang
will receive continuous water supply. The rate for water supply for a different type of usage in
Pahang state is shown in Table 1-19.
Table 1-19: The Tariff of Water Supply for various purposes by SPAN ("National Water
Service Commission ", 2018).
Type of Charges Charge
DOMESTIC SUPPLIES
RESIDENTIAL/ INDIVIDUAL METER
Consumption:
0 – 18 m3 @
Band 1
RM0.37/m3
18 – 45m3 @
Band 2
RM0.79/m3
Band 3 >45m3 @ RM0.99/m3
Band 4
Band 5
61
Water conservation surcharges n.a
Minimum Charge RM3.00
BULK METER
Residential
Consumption n.a
Minimum Charge
APARTMENT/ CONDOMINIUM WITH BULK FACILITIES
Consumption RM 0.52/m3
Minimum Charge RM 30.00
MILITARY COMPLEXES, HOSTELS, FLATS AND
RM 0.55/m3
CONDOMINIUMS, OFFICE
NON-DOMETIC SUPPLIES
GOVERNMENT BUILDINGS, INSTITUTION AND
RM 0.55/m3
STATUTORY BODIES
INDUSTRIAL
Consumption:
0 – 227m3@
Band 1
RM0.92/m3
Band 2 >227m3 @ RM0.84/m3
RM30.00
Minimum Charge (Use in the Approved
Industrial Zones)
PART-TRADE
Consumption RM0.99/m3
TRADE
PORTS RM1.45/m3
TRADE (Normal)
Consumption:
n.a
Band 1
Band 2
62
Band 3
Band 4
Minimum Charge
TRADE (Special)
Consumption n.a
Minimum Charge
CONSTRUCTION As per Trade
SWIMMING POOL
SCHOOL n.a
SPECIAL RATE
RELIGIOUS INSTITUTION
As per Special Rate
CHARITABLE ORGANISATIONS
(Religious Institutions)
Ships and Water Boats
SHIPPING (Commercial)
@ RM4.00/m3
Ships and Water Boats
Consumption (Fishing Boats)
@ RM3.00/m3
WATER REPROCESSING INDUSTRY
Consumption n.a
Minimum Charge
PUBLIC STANDPIPES n.a

All industrial activities developments are supervised by Pahang State Development
Corporation (PKNP), PKNP was incorporated on 27 December 1965 through the LKNP
Enactment Bill 12/65 with its core responsibility to increase, drive, provide facilities as well as
63
conduct economic and social development works especially in the rural areas (PKNP-A Pahang
State Development Corporation Initiative., 2012). Industrial Development Division acts as the
One Stop Investment Service Agency or better known as OSA. The OSA is created to subsist
and increase attractive investment climate to prospective and existing investors to set up
manufacturing plants within the industrial estates developed by PKNP.
The state of Pahang is the biggest in Peninsular Malaysia, with a size of 3.6 million hectares,
which comprises 27% of the 13.2 million hectares total size of the Peninsular. With its size,
Pahang is also the third largest state in the country after Sarawak (12.5 million hectares) and
Sabah (7.4 million hectares) or 11% of the 32.9 million hectares total size of Malaysia. The
dense forest appears to be the biggest land use in Pahang, which covers 2.03 million hectares,
or 56.31% of the total size of the state. This is followed by agriculture covering 1.22 million
hectares, saturated zones covering 129 thousand hectares, infrastructure and roads covering
180 thousand hectares, bodies of water covering 32 thousand hectares and mines covering 13
thousand hectares. In the preparation for land used for development, 306 thousand hectares or
8.5% has been identified as suitable for development. The selected size takes into consideration
forested areas that have been gazette, bodies of water and main agricultural areas that need to
be maintained, which altogether covers an area of 3.186 million hectares.
Port Klang, Selangor
The availability of raw material always the important point to be considered in choosing a site
for the production plant. Site selection for the plant should be located in the place where the
raw materials are easy to be accessed. For propylene carbonate (PC) production, the raw
materials required are propylene oxide (PO), carbon dioxide (CO2), and MgO catalyst. All the
raw materials used to produce PC from Thailand, Shah Alam, and Sarawak, which involves
export and import. The only criteria need to be considered is to allocate the plant where
resources and products can easily transfer to the plant. Therefore, all the raw materials need to
be supplied through air or water transportation from foreign countries and Borne. Map Ta Phut
is located 1,649km away from Port Klang and requires 2 hours flight journey, Linde Malaysia
Sdn Bhd is 24.8km and 28 minutes away by road from Port Klang. While Sepakat Trading and
General Agency is 3,758km and 2hour 20 minutes traveling by flight from Port Klang. Figure
1-24, 1-25 and 1-26 show the distance between the source of raw materials and Port Klang.
64
Figure 1-28: Distance of WHA Eastern Industrial Estate from Port Klang.
Figure 1-29: Distance from Linde Malaysia Sdn Bhd to Port Klang.
Figure 1-30: Distance of Sepakat Trading and General Agency.
65
Market Potential
Connectivity is the hallmark of a successful port. As one of the major ports in the world thanks
to its strategic location along Straits of Malacca which handles 25% of global maritime trade,
it is not surprising that Port Klang is continually developing to be the national load centre and
trans-shipment hub for the region. Port Klang was recently announced as the World’s Top 12th
Container Port, a testament to the port’s intrinsic strengths in its vision to become the region’s
preferred logistics hub. Today, the port and has trade connections with over 180 countries and
dealings with more than 500 ports around the world. As propylene carbonate demands are
increasing in global scale, supply and demand of propylene carbonate could be fulfilled easily
as Port Klang do have maritime trade with European Union countries. Thus, Port Klang is
capable to become the logistics hub for propylene carbonate’s export and raw material’s import.
Labor Supply
Port Klang is part of the metropolitan area of Klang that has a population of about 631,000
people. The labour source problem should not be a problem in this location as Klang area is
equipped with a lot of universities and colleges which have more than thousands of fresh
graduates every year in a different field. Besides, foreign workers also can help in fulfilling the
labour requirement in the site.
In Port Klang, the area is populated with heavy industries such as chemical, electrical, logistics,
and other industries. There are three main industrial parks: North Port, West Port, and South
Port. The land price differs due to the distance to the port, facilities, and utilities. Table 1-20
below shows the available industrial in Port Klang for plant construction.
Table 1-20: Industrial Land Available in Port Klang (iProperty.com.my, 2018).
Selling price
Distance from Area Lease periods
Name of Industrial Land (RM/ square
Klang (km) (Acres) (years)
feet)
50 Acres Industry Land, West
22.9 50 50 99
Port, Klang
Bandar Sultan Suleiman
Industrial Land for Sale, North Not
8.2 3.5 65
Port, Klang mentioned
North Port, Selangor
66
West Port, Port Klang
17.2 12 65 79
West Port, Selangor
Port Klang is linked to Kuala Lumpur by three highways which are New Klang Valley
Expressway (NKVE), KESAS Highway and Federal Highway. The main road is the Federal
highway but it is always in congestion until 8 p.m. for every day. New Klang Valley
Expressway (NKVE) is at the north of Federal Highway while to the south is KESAS Highway.
Among these three highways, the smoothest and fastest to go to Port Klang is the NKVE which
is usually clear from Kuala Lumpur and Petaling Jaya. For water transportation, Northport is
known as the most relevant for import and export activities in or out of Malaysia. Most of
Malaysia’s containerized import or export flow through Northport. But still, Westport as the
newest port which is growing rapidly to catch up Northport in containerized cargo. For
importing and exporting of raw materials and products, the nearest airport, Kuala Lumpur
International Airport (KLIA) is 67.2km, 1hour 3 minutes journey away. Figure 1-27 shows the
distance of KLIA from Port Klang.
Figure 1-31: Distance of KLIA from Port Klang.

Strategic Location
Port Klang is a city and the largest port in Malaysia. Located on the western shores of Selangor
state on the Kelang River off the on the Strait of Malacca, Port Klang is about 6 km southwest
of the city of Klang and about 38 km southwest of Kuala Lumpur. The nearest social facilities
around Port is displayed in Table 1-21.
Table 1-21: Facilities around Port Klang.
67
Facilities Name Distance
(km)
Clinic 1) Klinik Mediviron 1.1
2)Klinik Kesihatan Pelabuhan Klang 0.25
Primary school 1) Sekolah Kebangsaan Pelabuhan Klang 1.2
2) Sekolah Rendah Kebangsaan Methodist 2.7
Pelabuhan Klang
Secondary school 1) Smk Pandamaran Jaya 4.1
2) Smk Bandar Baru Sultan Suleiman 5.7
Bank 1) Affin Bank 0.9
2) Bank Rakyat 22.5
3) RHB 6.9
Utilities
As for electrical supplies, Tenaga Nasional Berhad (TNB) Malaysia is the main electrical
energy supplier in the country. For Klang region, Connaught Bridge Power Station is a gas
turbine and coal-fired power station located near Connaught Bridge in Klang, Selangor,
Malaysia. It is one of the oldest power station in the country. The station has an installed
generation capacity of 895 MW, the third largest of seven sister TNB power plants in the
country. The power is produced through a combined-cycle block producing 315 MW, and 4 x
GT13E1 open cycle gas turbines of 130 MW each. The energy produced by the power plant
able to support the energy demands in the Klang area as most of the industries depending on
the same source. According to the Peninsular Malaysia Electricity Supply Industry Outlook
2016 report, SJ Jambatan Connaught 362MW was retired from the system in 2016 and
predicted to expire by December 2018 (Suruhanjaya Tenaga Energy Commission, 2018). The
NEM scheme is opened to all domestic, commercial and industrial consumers with a total target
capacity of 500MW and maximum allowable installed capacity of a 1MW peak for commercial
and industrial consumers. More consumers can now participate in the scheme as the annual
capacity is capped at 90MW (Peninsula) and 10MW (Sabah) for the period between 2016 to
2020. However, based on the initial response, certain requirements will need to be revisited to
boost consumer participation. Thus, in terms of electrical energy supply, TNB is able to keep
up with energy demand if propylene carbonate plant will be built in Port Klang area. Table 1-
14 shows tariff’s category and corresponding rate accordingly in Port Klang area.
68
Water is supplied from Syarikat Bekalan Air Selangor (SYABAS) Sdn. Bhd. SYABAS is
responsible to supply clean water to the industry, housing area, and buildings in the Selangor
region. As for the industrial tariff on clean water supply, the price is RM 2.28/m3 for subsequent
usage of water (Syarikat Bekalan Air Selangor Sdn. Bhd., 2018). Table 1-22 shows the water
rate under the management of SYABAS in Selangor.
Table 1-22: SYABAS water tariff in Selangor (Syarikat Bekalan Air Selangor Sdn. Bhd.,
2018).
Usage Tariff Price (RM/m3) Min. Payment
Code (RM)
Domestic Usage 10
0-20m3 0.57
6.00
21-35m3 1.03
35m3 and above 2.00
Commercial 11
35m3 2.07 36.00
35m3 and above 2.28
Government Department 12 1.61 17.00
Religious Places 13 0.46 6.00
Ship 14 4.23
Charitable Organizations 15 0.58 6.00
*Condominium / Apartments 17 1.38 173.00
*Low Cost Flats/ Apartments 18 0.80 35.00
*Army Camps/ Estates/ Govt. 21 1.00 12.00
Quarters
*Applicable to bulk meter only

The Port Klang Authority (PKA) is a statutory corporation established on 1st July 1963, to take
over the administration of Port Klang from the Malayan Railway Administration. In tandem
with the Government policy to infuse private sector management and discipline in various
Government owned/controlled undertakings in the country, the first privatization of major port
facility took place in Port Klang. In 1986, the container terminal facilities operated by Port
Klang Authority was privatized to Klang Container Terminal Berhad. The Authority maintains
69
a 20% equity in the new company. Since the establishment of PKA, most of the marine
transportation management is fully control by PKA. With the divestment of the operational
facilities and services of the port to three distinct entities under three separate privatization
exercises, the Authority has taken on an enhanced role of a trade facilitator, regulator, and
landlord. The core functions of the Authority under the reshaped role are as follows:
• Trade Facilitation
• Port Planning and Development
• Regulatory oversight of privatized facilities and services.
• Free Zone Authority
• Asset Management
In order to keep up with Malaysia’s economic growth, there are many plans for development
to anticipate the rise in maritime transportation. Based on Malaysia works with World Bank to
develop national ports strategy article by IHS Markit, according to the World Bank, the primary
aim of the study is to define the role of government in planning, regulating, managing, and
empowering the ports sector as a driver of economic development, as well as economic activity
in its own right. (IHS Markit Maritime Portal, 2018)the ongoing development that Port Klang
is going through is known as the five-year Ninth Malaysian plan, which is meant to increase
capacity and efficiency in the port. The government allocated RM 1.29 billion into the
expansion of the ports, the 45 projects will allow Northport alone to handle 18 million Twenty-
Foot Equivalent Units (TEU) a year. These port developments are conducted in anticipation of
the increase in demand as Malaysia’s economy grows. Port Klang is a Load Center, its growth
and development are obviously more related to economic growth. Port Klang has been growing
as fast as Malaysia’s economy. Therefore, economic stability is secured and politically, the
government involves directly with the Port Klang Authority thus political stability is assured.
WHA Eastern Industrial Estate (Map Ta Phut), Thailand
When comes to propylene oxide availability WHA Eastern Industrial Estate is the best location
for plant site as propylene oxide supply is from the same industrial area as well. Therefore,
propylene oxide can be supplied through road transportation. The distance from the propylene
oxide supply to site location is12.3 km. Linde Malaysia Sdn Bhd is 1,029km (2 hour) and
Sepakat Trading and General Agency is 5,361km (6hour 25 minutes) from WHA Eastern
Industrial Estate. Figure 17,18 and 19 shows the distance from raw materials to WHA Eastern
Industrial Estate.
70
Figure 1-32: Distance from Raw Material to Site Location
Figure 1-33:The distance of Linde Malaysia Sdn Bhd from WHA Eastern Industrial Estate
Figure 1-34: The distance of Sepakat Trading and General Agency

Market Potential
Based on the market survey done, the demand for propylene carbonate (PC) is almost
insignificant. There is not much that can be earned in the local market. The lack of local market
demand on the product is good enough to reconsider the site selection.
71
Labor Supply
Great quality human resources are capable of building a system that promises the best quality
product. The great quality labours born from outstanding training. Human resources
development is a must in creating a keen petrochemical industry. Table 1-23 shows the human
resources development institution in Rayong.
Table 1-23: Human Resources Development Institution in Rayong (thailand-property, 2018).
Institution Fields of Study
Viyadsirimedhi Institution of Science and Biomolecular Science and Engineering (BSE),
Technology Energy Science and Engineering (ESE),
Information Science and Technology (IST),
Molecular Science and Engineering (MSE).
Panyapiwat Institution of Management Information Technology, Computer
Engineering, Industrial Engineering,
Automotive Manufacturing Engineering,
Robotics and Automation Engineering.

A large piece of land would be required in order to build the factory. The factory would be a
permanent operational base consisting of the plant, office, cafeteria, R&D laboratory, quality
control, packaging, warehouse, raw material storage area, and logistics. Therefore, a reasonable
land price is an important factor for consideration. Table 1-24 shows the land area and land
price in Rayong from various sources.
Table 1-24: The Availability and Price of Industrial Land in Rayong
Area Selling price (RM/ square
Name of Industrial Land Source
(Acres) feet)
Industrial Land in Map Ta DDProperty,
6.4 33.53
Phut 2018
Industrial Land at Map-Ta-
73.77
Phut 130.472 CBRE Thailand
Eastern Seaboard - Rayong
There are one seaport and one airport located around WHA Eastern Industrial Estate. Seaport
nearest to the site is Map Ta Phut Deep Seaport (50km) while the nearest airport is
Suvarnabhumi Airport (100km). The local road connected to highway 3138 and 3245. ("Land
72
for sale in Rayong - Rayong", 2018). Figure 1-29 and 1-30 show the distance of Map Ta Phut
Deep Seaport and Suvarnabhumi Airport from WHA Eastern Industrial Estate.
Figure 1-35: : The Distance of Map Ta Phut Seaport for WHA Eastern Industrial Estate
Figure 1-36: The Distance of Suvarnabhumi from WHA Eastern Industrial Estate
Strategic Location
There is a Map Taphut Clinic located 9.3km away from the site. There are apparently 3 schools
nearby WHA Eastern Industrial Estate, which are Maptaputh School (4.9km), Ban Map Ta
Phut School (6.6km) and Map Ta Phut Pan Pittayakhan School (9.5km).
Utilities
The electrical tariff in Thailand is divided into 8 categories; residential, small general service,
medium general service, large general service, specific business service, the non-profit
organization, agricultural pumping, and temporary service. Industrial activities such as
propylene carbonate (PC) production lies in large general service group which applicable to
businesses, industries, government institutions, local authorities, state enterprises, embassies,
73
establishments related to foreign countries or international organizations, including compounds
with a maximum 15-minute integrated demand of over 1,000 kW or applied energy
consumption over the last 3 consecutive months that exceeds 250,000 kWh per month on a
single demand meter. Table 1-25 shows the electrical tariff applied.
Table 1-25: Electric Tariff for Industrial Activity in Thailand (Social and Culture-Thailand
into the 2000s, 2000).
Demand
Service
Charge (per Energy Charge (per kWh)
Time of Use Charge
kW)
Rate (TOU) (per month)
Peak Peak Off Peak
Baht RM Baht RM Baht RM Baht RM
At voltage level
74.14 9.42 4.13 0.52 2.61 0.33 312.24 39.68
69kV and above
At voltage level
between 12-24 132.93 16.89 4.21 0.53 2.62 0.33 312.24 39.68
kV
At voltage level
210.00 26.68 4.36 0.55 2.66 0.34 312.24 39.68
less than 12kV
Whilst, the water rate in Thailand differs according to its purposes. Table 1-26 shows the water
tariff in Thailand for commerce, government agency, state enterprise, and industrial uses.
Table 1-26: Water Tariff for Industrial Activity in Thailand (Social and Culture-Thailand into
the 2000s, 2000).
Water rate per cubic meter

Volume (cubic meters)
Baht RM
9.50 but not less than 90.00 1.21 but not less than
0 - 10
Baht RM11.44
11 – 20 10.70 1.36
21 – 30 10.95 1.39
31 - 40 13.21 1.68
41- 50 13.54 1.72
51 - 60 13.86 1.76
74
61- 80 14.19 1.80
81 – 100 14.51 1.84
101 – 120 14.84 1.89
121 – 160 15.16 1.93
161 – 200 15.49 1.97
Over 200 15.81 2.01

The Office of the Board of Investment is a government agency under the Office of the Prime
Minister. Its core roles and responsibilities are to promote valuable investment, both
investment in Thailand and Thai overseas investment. According to KPMG, over the next
decade, the Asia-Pacific is expected to drive two-thirds of global petrochemical demand due
to the rapid modernization taking place in the region and the region's robust economic growth,
which together with increasing domestic consumption offers tremendous investment
opportunities.
In the August 2018 Monetary Policy Report, the Thai economy was projected to expand further,
recording 4.4 and 4.2 percent in 2018 and 2019, respectively. The upward revision to the
previous forecast was on account of a continued improvement in merchandise exports and
tourism. The population of Thailand, estimated at 65.93 million in 2016, includes ethnic
Chinese, Malays, Cambodians, Vietnamese, Indians, and others. Immigration is controlled by
a quota system. Thailand is the 21st-most populated country in the world and the average
annual population growth rate is estimated to be around 0.32% (2016). It is projected to reach
a stable population of 70.2 million by 2025. Bangkok alone is home to anywhere between 8
million and 10 million people, and it is by far the biggest city in the country. In Thailand, the
King is head of state, while the leader of the government is the Prime Minister. Other chief
executives also include cabinet members and ministers, together with high-ranking
government officials in ministries, bureaus and agencies. As head of state, the King has the
authority to exercise sovereign power through the National Assembly, the Council of Ministers,
and the Courts. The Prime Minister functions in the name of the King and is responsible for all
royal commands regarding the affairs of the State (Social and Culture-Thailand into the 2000s,
2000).
75
Summary of Site Selection Screening
Table 1-27 shows the summary of site selection screening.
Table 1-27: Summary of Site Selection Screening
Tanjung Langsat Industrial WHA Eastern Industrial
Site Gebeng Industrial Park Port Klang
Complex Estate.
Thailand, PTT Global
Thailand, PTT Global Thailand, PTT Global
Thailand, PTT Global Chemical; Linde Malaysia
Chemical; Linde Malaysia Chemical; Linde Malaysia
Chemical; Linde Malaysia Sdn Bhd, Shah Alam;
Raw material Sdn Bhd, Shah Alam; Sdn Bhd, Shah Alam;
Sdn Bhd, Shah Alam; Sepakat Trading and
availability Sepakat Trading and Sepakat Trading and
Sepakat Trading and General Agency
General Agency General Agency
General Agency
The nearer to the source

of raw materials, the 2 2 3 1
higher the rating.
Good connection and Good connection and Good connection and Weak connection and
Market potential pathway for products pathway for products pathway for products pathway for products
shipping shipping shipping shipping
higher the rating.
76
Reasonable land price
55 40 50 73.77
(RM/square feet)
higher the rating.
High availability of local High availability of local High availability of local Low availability of local
Labour supply
labour force labour force labour force labour force
higher the rating
Availability of Land
120.58 25629 50 130.472
(Acre)
The more sufficient of
land available, the higher
2 3 1 2
the rating.
Tanjung Langsat &Pasir

Seaport facilities Gebeng & Kuantan port Klang port Map Ta Phut Deep Seaport
Gudang port
The more available of
seaport facilities, the 3 3 2 1
higher the rating
77
Kuala Lumpur International
Airport facilities Senai International Airport Sultan Ahmad Shah Suvarnabhumi Airport
Airport
seaport facilities, the
3 2 2 1
higher the rating
New Klang Valley

Expressway (NKVE),
Road facilities Senai-Desaru Expressway East-Coast Highway Highway 3138and 3245
KESAS Highway, Federal
Highway
road facilities, the higher
3 3 3 3
the rating
Clinic. primary school, Clinic. primary school,

Clinic, primary school, Clinic, school
Strategic location secondary school, banks secondary school, banks
secondary school, banks
The more the facilities,

2 3 3 1
te higher the rating
78
Electricity Generating
Electricity Utilities TNB TNB TNB Authority of Thailand
(EGAT)
The better the source of
power, the higher the 3 3 3 2
rating
Water Utilities in Term
RM2.80/m3 RM0.84/m³ RM2.28/m3 RM1.21/m³
of Water Rate
The cheaper the source of
water, the higher the
2 3 2 2
rating.

Stable Stable Stable Stable
Stability
The more stable the
politics and economics,
3 3 3 3
the higher the rating.
Total Ratings 31 34 30 21
*Rating: 1-Good 2-Better 3-Best
79
Plant Layout
The layout of the production plant will be planned and drawn in this section. Plant layout is
known as the arrangement of physical facilities in the most effective manner in order to have
maximum and effective utilization of available resources at minimum costs. An efficient plant
layout should be able to provide enough production capacity, place the equipment and facilities
in the right place, allow ease of maintenance and high machine or equipment utilization, reduce
material handling costs and hazards or accidents to personnel, provide proper and efficient
utilization of available floor space and also make sure the employee safety and health and
productivity in production. Among the buildings and specified areas required in the plant are:
i. Security
ii. Parking area
iii. Assembly point
iv. Control Room
v. Warehouse and Workshop
vi. Production area
vii. Control room
viii. Plant utilities
ix. Laboratory
x. Loading bay
xi. Emergency water
xii. Administration office
xiii. Canteen
xiv. Expansion area
xv. Gate 1: Staffs (not related to production), visitor
xvi. Gate 2: Production teams
xvii. Gate 3: Special occasions (TAR, shutdown)
80
Figure 1-37 shows the layout of the PC production plant.
Figure 1-37: Layout for PC Production Plant
81
Objective
After a comprehensive market survey on propylene carbonate (PC) was completed as shown
in 1.3 Market Survey, our plant design study is performed to produce 100,000 MT/yr of
industrial grade PC by a continuous exothermic PO-based process involving propylene oxide
(PO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) with the help of heterogeneous MgO-catalyst. The production
of 100,000 MT/yr PC meets 50% of the year of 2022 global demand prediction in the market
survey as we are entrusting other companies to occupies the rest of demand. According to
Worldwide Public Relations, 2018, the market research analysts believe that in the next few
years, PC market size will be further expanded, we expect that by 2022, the market size of the
PC will reach 482.36 Million$ (openPR-Worldwide Public Relations, n.d.). Thus, the rising
market of PC will attract the interest of the other petrochemical manufacturing companies.
BASF have shown their interest in producing PC by increasing the price of PC worldwide by
€120 per tonne in Europe and $170 per tonne in NAFTA and Asia. This action is taken as an
ongoing effort to assure the highest levels of product and service quality to its customers
globally in times of continued increases in raw materials and energy costs (Urethanes
Technology International, 2017). 50,000 MT of PC will be supplied in the local market while
the rest of the product is targeting the global market. The optimal location for the construction
of the PC production plant is identified as Gebeng Industrial Park, which resided in Pahang.
In order to assess the feasibility of this project, we carry out studies, complicated calculations,
and attentive evaluations on all the crucial elements of PC production plant such as its process
synthesis and flow sheeting, utilities and heat integration, process equipment sizing and costing,
process control and safety studies, waste management and pollution control, and economic
analysis.
82
Chapter 2 Process Synthesis and Flow Sheeting
Level 1 Decision
Synthesis Route Selection
In this section, it will focus on the process selection in which the most feasible synthesis route will be chosen according to the certain aspects.
Table 2-1 shows the screening of several synthesis routes for the production of propylene carbonate (PC).
Table 2-1: Synthesis Routes Selection
Route 1 2 3 4 5
Method Synthesis of PC from Synthesis of PC from Synthesis of PC from Urea Alcoholysis Ester Exchange
PO and CO2 by using PO and CO2 by using PO and CO2 by using (Synthesis of PC and (Synthesis of PC from
ionic liquid 1-Ethyl -3 Ion Exchange Resin Magnesium Oxide ammonia from PG PG and DC by using
Methylimidazolium catalyst catalyst (Barendregt and urea by using trace strong base and
chloride catalyst (D201) (Jin et al., et al., 1999) zinc oxide as catalyst) dibutyl tin dilaurate)
(Demire, 2015) 2017) (Wang et al., 2014) (Pengfei Qi, Xuemei
Wang, 2018)
Reaction equation Complete Complete Complete Complete Complete
(main reaction) The more informative the reaction equation, the better the rating.
3 3 3 3 3
Type of Catalyst Homogeneous Heterogeneous Heterogeneous Homogeneous Homogeneous
The easier the catalyst can be separated from the products, the better the rating.
1 3 3 1 1
Catalyst Preparation Simple Simple Simple Simple Simple
83
The simpler the catalyst preparation, the better the rating.
3 3 3 3 3
Cost of catalyst US$185000/tonnes US$3000/tonnes US$150/tonnes US$2000/tonnes US$791250/tonnes
The low price of catalyst, the better the rating
1 2 3 2 1
Type of reactor Stirred tank reactor Semi-batch slurry Trickle Bed Reactor Stirred tank reactor Microwave reactor
reactor (TBR)
The more compatible reaction with different phases of raw material, the better the rating
3 1 3 3 1
Cost of reactor US$6800 US$1500 US$1131 US$1500 US$10000
The low cost of reactor, is the better rating.
1 2 2 2 1
84
Yield (%) 91 58 - 82.3 >75
The higher the yield, the better the rating.
3 1 0 2 2
Selectivity (%) - 99.9 - 82.3 -
The higher the selectivity, the better the rating.
0 3 0 2 0
Conversion (%) - 33.6 90 86.9 -
The higher the conversion, the better the rating.
0 1 3 2 0
Purity (%) - - 99.8 - -
The higher the purity, the better the rating.
0 0 3 0 0
Raw material Carbon Dioxide, Carbon Dioxide, Carbon Dioxide, Propylene Glycol, Propylene Glycol,
Propylene Oxide Propylene Oxide Propylene Oxide Urea, Water, Dimethyl Carbonate,
Ammonia Water
The availability of the raw material, the better the rating.
3 3 3 3 3
85
Raw Material Cost Low cost carbon Low cost carbon Low cost carbon High cost of urea, Low cost of water,
dioxide, high cost dioxide, high cost dioxide, high cost low cost of water, high cost of
propylene oxide propylene oxide propylene oxide high cost of propylene glycol, low
propylene glycol and cost of dimethyl
ammonia. carbonate
The low cost of raw material, the better the rating.
3 3 3 1 1
Operating 373 368 408 453 473
temperature (K) The lower the temperature, the better the rating
2 2 1 1 1
Operating pressure 7.9 23 50 0.1 12
(bar) The lower the pressure, the better the rating.
2 2 1 3 2
Safety and health Propylene oxide is Propylene oxide is Propylene oxide is Acute hazard of urea Propylene glycol
issue moderately toxic, moderately toxic, moderately toxic, may cause cough, may cause irritate the
inflammable, very inflammable, very inflammable, very difficult to breathe, skin when frequently
reactive and reactive and reactive and sore throat, redness exposure to the skin.
explosive with explosive with explosive with of skin and eyes, Dimethyl carbonate
oxygen, cause cough, oxygen cause cough, oxygen cause cough, headaches, vomiting, may cause skin
sore throat, redness sore throat, redness sore throat, redness nausea and irritant, eye irritant
of skin and eyes and of skin and eyes and of skin and eyes and convulsion. and irritating to
86
pain in eyes. Acute pain in eyes. Acute pain in eyes. Acute Propylene glycol respiratory system.
exposure to carbon exposure to carbon exposure to carbon may cause irritate the Propylene carbonate
dioxide may result in dioxide may result in dioxide may result in skin when frequently may cause skin
inhalation, skin, eyes, inhalation, skin, eyes, inhalation, skin, eyes, exposure to the skin. irritant to human and
and ingestion. and ingestion. and ingestion. Ammonia may cause eye irritant.
Propylene carbonate Propylene carbonate Propylene carbonate lung injury, severe
may cause skin may cause skin may cause skin respiratory tract
irritant to human and irritant to human and irritant to human and irritant and very
eye irritant. eye irritant. eye irritant. flammable at high
temperature.
Propylene carbonate
may cause skin
irritant to human and
eye irritant.
The lower the safety health issue, the higher the rating.
3 3 3 1 2
Technology Established and Established and Established and Established but not Established but not
commonly used commonly used commonly used commonly used commonly used
The commonly method use, the better the rating.
3 3 3 2 2
87
Advantages Low cost of raw Low cost of raw Low cost of raw Cheap and easily The one-pot
material and easy to material and easy to material and easy to available raw synthetic process can
obtain. It has short obtain. The catalyst obtain. Magnesium materials, mild greatly increase its
reaction time, can be recovered oxide catalyst is a reaction conditions, yield and shorten the
solvent-free easily and reused robust, cheap in safe operations, and reaction time.
conditions, and is an over five runs price, slow environmentally
easy separation of without significant degradation catalyst. friendly chemicals.
catalyst system. loss of activity. Does not dissolve
During production, During production, during the reaction.
less effect of less effect of Less amount of by
environmental environmental product. During
pollution and pollution and production, less
commonly utilized in commonly utilized in effect of
large scale industrial large scale industrial environmental
production. production. pollution and
commonly utilized in
large scale industrial
production.
The more the advantages, the better the rating.
3 3 3 1 1
88
Disadvantages The catalyst is Uncertainty of The reaction is less Homogeneous The raw materials are
expensive, requires scaling-up from lab selective and slow at catalyst separation is expensive, and the
pre-treatments, and is scale, no effective 135 ˚C. complex, and organic tin catalyst is
not completely catalytic system and recovery is difficult. toxic with low
recyclable chemical process that The activity, catalyst activity and
can promote real selectivity and cost of selectivity
industrialization and the catalyst cannot
require supercritical meet the industrial
CO2. requirements.
The lower the disadvantages, the better the rating.
1 1 3 1 1
Total rate 35 39 43 33 25
*Rating: 1- Good 2-Better 3-Best
89
Synthesis of Propylene Carbonate (PC) by CO2 Synthesis with Magnesium
Oxide Catalyst.
Table 2-2 shows the price of raw materials and products for the synthesis for determining its
profit margin.
Table 2-2: Price of Raw Materials and Products
Raw Materials and Price in Price in Molecular Weight Sources of
Products (RM/kg) (USD/tonnes) (kg/kmol) Price
Propylene oxide 7.23 1736 58.08 (ICIS, 2014)
(Linde
Carbon dioxide 0.67 160 44.01 Worldwide,
2018)
Propylene (ZAUBA,
21.33 5120 102.09
Carbonate 2018c)
Equation 2-1
From Equation 2-1, to produce 100,000 MT/year of PC,
Number of moles for CO2 required,
Cost of PC – Cost of raw material
=RM 21,330,000,000/year – RM 4,113,217,749/year -RM 284,519,541.6/year

= RM 16,932,262,709/year
Profit Margin
90
#$%& $( )*+ ,*&-).*/
=1 − #$%& $( 0#1#$%& $( )*+ ,*&-).*/
23345366278 592:37:23.<
=1 − 5344=======1 23345366271592:37:23.< %
=74.02%
The profit margins for CO2 synthesis with catalyst ionic liquid 1-Ethyl -3 Methylimidazolium
chloride catalysts and Ion Exchange Resin catalyst are similar to that of Magnesium Oxide
which are RM16932262709/ year or 74.02% since they have the same raw materials and
products.
Synthesis of Propylene Carbonate (PC) by Urea Alcoholysis with Zinc Oxide
Catalyst
profit margin.
Raw Materials Price in Price in Molecular
Sources of Price
and Products (RM/kg) (USD/tonnes) Weight (kg/kmol)
(Chemicalbook,
Water 0.20 18.02
2017)
Urea 9.04 2166 60.06 (Sunsirs, 2012)
Propylene
21.33 5120 102.09 (ZAUBA, 2018c)
Carbonate
Equation 2-2
C4 H9 O5 + CO(NH5 )5 à CH4 C5 H4 O5 CO + 2NH4 Equation 2-3

From Equation 2-2 and 2-3, to produce 100,000 MT/year of PC,
Density of water = 1000kg/m3= 1tonnes/m3
Price of water =
91
Number of moles for urea required,
Cost of PC – Cost of Raw material
= RM 21,330,000,000/year– RM 4,113,217,749/year – RM 14,826.92/year - RM

5,318,272,113/year
= RM 11,898,495,311/year
#$%& $( )*+ ,*&-).*/
=1 − #$%& $( 0#1#$%& $( )*+ ,*&-).*/
23345366278 3295<.758 :43956533

=1 − 5344=======1 23345366271 3295<.751 :43956533 %
=20. 73%
Synthesis of Propylene Carbonate (PC) by Ester Exchange with Trace Strong
Base and Dibutyl Tin Dilaurate.
profit margin.
Raw Materials Price in Price in Molecular
Sources of Price
and Products (RM/kg) (USD/tonnes) Weight (kg/kmol)
(Chemicalbook,
Water 0.20 18.02
2017)
Dimethyl
6.51 1560 90.08 (ZAUBA, 2018b)
carbonate
Propylene
21.33 5120 102.09 (ZAUBA, 2018c)
Carbonate
Equation 2-4
92
C4 H9 O5 + OC(OCH4 )5 à CH4 C5 H4 O5 CO + 2CH4 OH Equation 2-5
From Equation 2-4 and 2-5, to produce 100,000 MT/year of PC,
Density of water = 1000kg/m3= 1tonnes/m3
Price of water =
Number of moles of DMC required,
Cost of PC – Cost of Raw Material

=
= RM 213,300,000,000/year – RM 4,113,217,749/year – RM 14,628.92/year –RM

5,744,155,157/year
=RM 11,472,612,267/year
#$%& $( )*+ ,*&-).*/
=1 − #$%& $( 0#1#$%& $( )*+ ,*&-).*/
23345366278 3295<.758 :6223::3:6

=1 − 5344=======1 23345366271 3295<.751 :6223::3:6 %
=14.08%
Decision on Synthesis Route
There are five synthesis routes producing propylene carbonate (PC), they are carbon dioxide
synthesis with 3 different catalysts (ionic liquid 1-Ethyl -3 Methylimidazolium chloride
catalyst, ionic exchange resin catalyst, magnesium oxide catalyst), ester exchange process, and
urea alcoholysis process. Based on Table 2-1, we select the synthesis route of carbon dioxide
synthesis with magnesium oxide catalyst because it collects the highest rating among the
93
others. As follows are the reasons why we choose carbon dioxide synthesis as our production
route.
There are two types of catalysts that can be used to speed up the reaction by lowering down its
activation energy (Chemicool Dictionary, 2017), they are homogeneous and heterogeneous
catalysts. The heterogeneous catalyst is a catalyst that has the different phase with the reactants,
meanwhile, the homogeneous catalyst is a catalyst that has the same phase with the reactants
(Chemguide, 2013). According to Jin et al., 2017, the heterogeneous catalyst is quite famous
in chemical processes nowadays because of its easy separation process from the reaction
mixture compared to the homogeneous catalyst (Jin et al., 2017). Furthermore, the price of
magnesium oxide catalyst (heterogeneous) is cheap (US$150/tonnes) (ExportersIndia.com,
2013) while the price of homogeneous catalysts such as ionic liquid 1-Ethyl -3
Methylimidazolium chloride catalyst, and trace strong base and dibutyl tin dilaurate catalyst
are expensive which cost US$185,000/tonnes and US$791,250/tonnes respectively (Made-in-
China.com, 2018). Therefore, the heterogeneous catalyst is preferred for this production.
Packed bed reactor is compatible with the synthesis of PC because the reaction involves
different phases due to the vast difference in boiling point of each species involved. But, for
stirred tank reactors, they are only for the liquid phase, gas-liquid or solid-liquid reactions.
Whilst, for semi-batch reactors, they are only suitable for liquid phase reactions (Umich.Edu,
2000). Hence, both stirred tank and semi-batch reactors are not recommended for the reaction.
As reported by Barendregt et al., 1999, the advantages of using packed bed reactor are that,
there is no attrition; high catalyst amount installation; and low cost of reactors compared to
stirred tank reactors, semi-batch reactors, and microwave reactors which are very expensive in
cost (Barendregt et al., 1999). In fact, its highest conversion and purity of PC are recorded as
90% and 99.98% respectively.
From all the synthesis routes, the raw materials such as PO, CO2, water (H2O), propylene glycol
(PG), urea, and dimethyl carbonate (DMC) are easy to obtain. The total cost of raw material
for CO2 synthesis is the lowest, that is US$1757.56/tonne, followed by urea alcoholysis
synthesis (US$2043.03), and ester exchange synthesis (US$3296.2). Furthermore, the range of
operating temperature and pressure for carbon dioxide synthesis is from 368K – 408K and 7.9
bars – 50 bar. Meanwhile, for both urea alcoholysis and ester exchange synthesis, the reactions
operate at the high temperatures which are 453K and 473K, but with low pressure at 0.1 bars
and 12 bar. Moreover, from the safety and health aspect, the less quantity of the hazardous raw
materials, the less the hazard effect. Based on Table 2-1, carbon dioxide synthesis has the
lowest quantity of hazardous raw materials compared to the others.
94
As calculated, the profit margin for CO2 synthesis is the highest in percentage, that is 74.02%,
followed by 20.73% from urea alcoholysis synthesis and 14.08% from ester exchange
synthesis. To conclude, CO2 synthesis using magnesium oxide catalyst is chosen with its
highest rating from Table 2-1.
Decision on Process Mode
For the production of PC, we choose continuous process mode. This is because it is more
economical for a large-scale production which is more than 10x lb/year (kg/hour) compared to
batch processes which are basically for chemical production of fine chemical and API
manufacturing in a small-scale production that is less than 10x lb/year (kg/hour) (Mouljin, J.
A.; Makkee, M.; Diepen, 2001). Based on our product demand, we plan to produce 100,000
MT/year of PC (with 8000 operating hours per year) and the production rate is compatible with
the continuous process mode. Since our reaction involves multiple phases, the continuous
process is probably safer for such reaction that involves gases with a maximum rate of gas
evolution limited by the rate at which the reagent is pumped. Besides, high-pressure (>40 bar)
reactions are recommended to be carried out in continuous process mode, where the pressure
within the reactor can be controlled using the back-pressure regulator (BPR) (Vapourtec,
2018).
Level 2 Decision
Input: Raw Material Selection
In the propylene carbonate (PC) production via carbon dioxide (CO2) synthesis using
magnesium oxide catalyst, the raw materials to be used are propylene oxide (PO) and CO2.
CO2 is a greenhouse gas and occupies the top position in the overall emissions amongst other
gases such as carbon monoxide (CO), methane (CH4), chlorofluorocarbons (CFC’s)
(Sankaranarayanan & Srinivasan, 2012). Increase in the emission of greenhouse gases makes
significant climate changes and will lead to consecutive effects such as an increase in global
temperature and changes in wind patterns. CO2 as a raw material in PC production will lead to
an environmentally friendly system. We change the perspective toward CO2 from climate-
changing waste into a beneficial Go Green supporting raw material. Although CO2 is slightly
expensive, it is abundantly available in Malaysia or even neighbouring countries such as
Thailand. Table 2-5 shows the list of CO2 suppliers.
Table 2-5: List of CO2 Suppliers
Price
Country Company Address
(RM/ton)
95
Malaysia Air Product Air Products Malaysia Sdn Bhd
Malaysia Sdn Bhd Level 6, Horizon Tower 2A
Avenue 5 Bangsar South 668.00
8 Jalan Kerinchi Bangsar
59200 Kuala Lumpur
Thailand Praxair (Thailand) Praxair (Thailand) Company Limited
Company Limited Premier Place building, No.2, 4th floor,
668.00
Soi Premier 2, Srinakarin Road, Nongbon,
Prawet, Bangkok 10250 Thailand
Malaysia Linde Malaysia Linde Malaysia Sdn Bhd, Gas Company,
Sdn Bhd Hicom Industrial Estate, 40400 Shah Alam, 668.00
Selangor
From Table 2-5, Linde Malaysia Sdn Bhd is chosen as our CO2 supplier considering its close
distance from our plant site.
PO is used in the production of propylene glycol, polypropylene glycol, propylene glycols
ethers, and propylene carbonate. Its major industrial application is as a monomer for the
production of polyether polyols for use in making polyurethane plastics. Advantages of using
propylene oxide as a raw material for propylene carbonate production is that it promises a short
reaction time, solvent-free conditions, and provides an easy separation of a catalyst system.
Table 2-6 shows the list of PO suppliers.
Table 2-6: List of PO Suppliers
Country Company Price (RM/ton)
Thailand Dow Chemical Thailand Ltd. 7230.00

SCG-DOW Group
Singapore Ellba Eastern Pte Ltd 7230.00
Thailand PTT Global Chemical 7230.00
From Table 2-6, PTT Global Chemical is chosen as our PO supplier since both Dow Chemical
Thailand Ltd and Ellba Eastern Pte Ltd do not supply their products in Asia Pacific.
MgO is the chosen catalyst for the process. MgO offers great qualities that other catalysts could
ever offer. MgO is in solid form, making it a heterogeneous catalyst, it is quite a cheap catalyst
and easy to obtain. The best part of using MgO as a catalyst is that it does not dissolve in
96
reaction and very economic since MgO degrades very slowly. Table 2-7 shows the list of prices
for MgO catalyst.
Table 2-7: List of Prices of MgO Catalyst
Country Company Price (RM/ton)
Malaysia Sepakat Trading and General Agency 629.46
China Xuzhou Tianchang Chemical Co. Ltd 880.92
China Heibei Meishen Technology Co. Ltd 2839.00
From Table 2-7, Sepakat Trading and General Agency is chosen as our catalyst supplier
because it is available in Malaysia and offers the best price.
Impurities Management
Both feedstocks of PO and CO2 contain no impurities. The feedstock were purchased at purity
of 100%.
Output Materials Determination and Decision of Their Destinations
The output material from the reaction is propylene carbonate (PC). PC is separated from the
unreacted carbon dioxide (CO2) and propylene oxide (PO) in flash drums. PC is then cooled to
reach the suitable condition for storage, 25˚C at 1bar in the liquid state.
Both unreacted PO and CO2 from flash drums are compressed and heated to reach the reaction
condition and for CO2 is recycled back to the reactor while for PO is store in the tank at 35 ˚C,
1 bar. Bear in mind that choosing CO2 as a raw material in the production is to reduce the
composition of this gas in the atmosphere, purging the unreacted CO2 back into the atmosphere
does not sound wise. As for PO, purging it into the atmosphere is way too far from an option
to be considered. It will be illegal to do so since PO vapor can cause irritation of the eyes and
upper respiratory tract. Rather than spending money on treating the PO gas before purging,
recycling the CO2 while selling PO to other company which is Daicel which produce PO in
their production (Kahlich & Republic, n.d.) to seems more economical and beneficial. Table
2-8 shows the output material of propylene oxide carboxylation and their destination.
Table 2-8: Reaction Outputs and their Destination
Chemical
Output material Description Destination
formula
Propylene carbonate C4H6O3 product Storage tank
97
Unreacted Recycled into
Unreacted carbon dioxide CO2
reactant reactor
Unreacted propylene Unreacted
C3H6O Storage tank
oxide reactant
98
Block Flow Diagram of Carboxylation Reactor
Figure 2-1: Block Flow Diagram for PC Production through PO Carboxylation
99
Level 2 Degree of Freedom
. − input
0 − output
+,-$ , .
+/, , 0
Carboxylation reactor
+/- , . +/- , 0
+,-$ , 0
Figure 2-2: Block Flow Diagram of Carboxylation Reactor
For the incoming material balance calculation, molecular species balances are preferred over
the other two possible methods, which are atomic species balance and extent of reaction. Since
molecular species balances are used to determine unknown stream variables for the input-
output structure of the overall reaction process, the balances on reactive species must contain
generation and consumption terms (Felder & Rousseau, 2005). Hence, the degree of freedom
(DOF) analysis of the overall reaction process is performed based on the algorithm for the
method of molecular species balances.
Degree of Freedom (DOF) of Overall Analysis:
+5 unknown labelled variables (F"#$ , i; F)# , i; F)" , O;F)# , O; F"#$ , O)
+1 number of independent reactions
-1 molecular species balance of PC
-1 rate law of reaction
-1 feed ratio CO2/PO
-1 production rate of PC
-1 operating condition (temperature & pressure)
-1 conversion
= 0 DOF (solvable)
100
Level 2 Material Balance
Propylene oxide + Carbon dioxide à Propylene carbonate
PO + CO2 à PC Equation 2-6
For the calculation example, the material balance for level 2 decision will be performed for the
overall reaction process of propylene oxide (PO) carboxylation as shown in Equation 2-6 where
90.00% conversion of PO into PC is achieved.
Using Molecular Species Balance,
From Equation 2-6,
1mol of PO à 1mol of PC
1mol of PO à 1mol of CO2
1mol of CO2 à 1mol of PC
In stoichiometry, our limiting reactant is PO. The stoichiometry of the reaction is shown in
Table 2-9.
Table 2-9: Stoichiometry of Reaction
Species Symbol Initial Changes Remaining
PO A F78 −F78 X F7 = F78 (1 − X)
CO2 B F>8 −F78 X F> = F78 (1.5 − X)
PC C - +F78 X F" = F78 X
As mentioned in our objective, the design targets to produce 100,000 metric tons of PC per
annum. The plant will be operating for 8000 hours in PC production each year. With the
selectivity of 100% and the feed ratio of CO2 to PO of 1.5, the material balance is calculated
and summarized in Table 2-10, Table 2-11, and Table 2-12.
Table 2-10: Process Specifications (Barendregt et al., 1999)
Process specifications Values
Conversion 90.00%
Product flowrate 979,527.8676 kmol/yr
Selectivity 100%
Feed ratio (CO2/PO) 1.5
Table 2-11: Summary for Molar Flow Rate for Output Stream of Reaction Process
Conversion PO (kmol/yr) CO2 (kmol/yr) PC (kmol/yr)
0.1 9795278.676 14692918.01 979527.8676
101
0.2 4897639.338 7346459.007 979527.8676
0.3 3265092.892 4897639.338 979527.8676
0.4 2448819.669 3673229.503 979527.8676
0.5 1959055.735 2938583.603 979527.8676
0.6 1632546.446 2448819.669 979527.8676
0.7 1399325.525 2098988.288 979527.8676
0.8 1224409.834 1836614.752 979527.8676
0.9 1088364.297 1632546.446 979527.8676
1 979527.8676 1469291.801 979527.8676
Table 2-12: Summary for Mass Flow Rate for Output Stream of Reaction Process
Conversion PO (MT/yr) CO2 (MT/yr) PO (MT/yr)
0.1 568909.7855 646635.3218 100000
0.2 284454.8927 323317.6609 100000
0.3 189636.5952 215545.1073 100000
0.4 142227.4464 161658.8304 100000
0.5 113781.9571 129327.0644 100000
0.6 94818.29758 107772.5536 100000
0.7 81272.8265 92376.47454 100000
0.8 71113.72319 80829.41522 100000
0.9 63212.19839 71848.36909 100000
1 56890.97855 64663.53218 100000
Economic Potential 2 (EP2)

The practical values of the design variables depend on the process economics, so the costs are
calculated as all of the costs of all raw materials and product streams equated in term of design
variables. The potential of economics at the second level decision is shown in Equation 2-7.
EP 2 = Product (Propylene Carbonate) - Raw material (Propylene Oxide + Carbone Dioxide)
Equation 2-7
From the chosen synthesis route, the raw materials which contribute to the cost are propylene
oxide (PO) and carbon dioxide (CO2) whereas the primary product that contributing to the
revenue is propylene carbonate (PC). The prices of PO, CO2, and PC are summarized in Table
2-13.
102
Table 2-13: Prices of PO, CO2, and PC
Product to sell MYR/kg (RM)
Propylene Carbonate 7.23
Propylene Oxide 21.33
Carbone Dioxide 0.09
The EP2 of various conversions is shown in Table 2-14 and the graph of EP2 versus conversion
is illustrated in Figure 2-3.
Table 2-14: EP2 of various Conversions
Conversion EP 2 (MYR/yr) EP 2 (USD/yr)
0.1 -2,411,652,835.73 -579,089,039.08
0.2 -139,326,417.87 -33,544,519.54
0.3 618,115,721.42 148,303,653.64
0.4 996,836,791.07 239,227,740.23
0.5 1,224,069,432.85 293,782,192.18
0.6 1,375,557,860.71 330,151,826.82
0.7 1,483,763,880.61 356,130,137.27
0.8 1,564,918,395.53 375,613,870.11
0.9 1,628,038,573.81 390,767,884.55
1 1,678,534,716.43 402,891,096.09
Graph of EP2 versus Conversion

2,000,000,000.00
1,500,000,000.00
1,000,000,000.00
500,000,000.00
EP2 (MYR/yr)
0.00
-500,000,000.00 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
-1,000,000,000.00
-1,500,000,000.00
-2,000,000,000.00
-2,500,000,000.00
-3,000,000,000.00
Conversion, X
Figure 2-3: Graph of EP2 versus Conversion
103
Based on Figure 2-3, EP2 increases gradually as the overall conversion increases. Therefore,
the higher the overall conversion, the higher the EP2. From the graph, it can be justified that
the overall conversion of 100% generated the highest EP2. At this point, the annual EP 2 is
RM1,678,534,716.43.
Level 3 Decision
Carboxylation Reactor and its Recycle Structure
Most of the discovered chemical reactions do not completely convert the reactants into
products due to equilibrium, kinetic, or transport-limited conversion (Ulrich & Vasudevan,
2004). In other words, the reactants will either have converted to products via chemical reaction
or remain unconverted and leave with the product stream (Felder & Rousseau, 2005). There
are two distinct ways to manage these unreacted reactants, which includes its complete removal
from product mixture via a series of separation processes or its reemployment in the reactor as
raw material via recycling streams (Felder & Rousseau, 2005).
Prior to recycling, it is always desirable to separate unconverted reactants from product mixture
before recycling because recycling desired products are rarely advantageous as side reactions
such as decomposition may have occurred at certain temperature or pressure (Felder &
Rousseau, 2005). Therefore, the major drawback for recycling is an extra capital cost incurred
due to additional separation and recycle equipment (Felder & Rousseau, 2005). However, the
capital cost spent might possibly be compensated by the lower need for purchasing of fresh
reactant and easier subsequent post-reaction separation processes (Felder & Rousseau, 2005).
Amongst the various greenhouse gases emitted into the atmosphere, carbon dioxide emission
is the highest in terms of tonnage and has been identified as a predominant source contributing
to climate change (Sankaranarayanan & Srinivasan, 2012). Owing to its abundance through
anthropogenic sources, it is highly desirable to recycle CO2 to produce propylene carbonate
(PC). Propylene oxide (PO) is used as a less environmentally-toxic reactant. It is not harmless
and finding a safe disposal method for PO can present a difficult task. The best solution is to
reuse it, improper disposal of PO will contaminate groundwater, aquifers and cause problems
in municipal water facilities. To conclude, having a recycle structure for the production of PC
annually is a must for cost-saving and green environment.
Decision on the Reactor Type
In the production of propylene carbonate (PC), there are three catalysts that are recommended
for the process, carbon dioxide (CO2) synthesis, a heterogeneous reaction where the liquid
phase propylene oxide (PO) will be by catalysed by magnesium oxide (MgO) catalyst, ion
exchange resin, and ionic liquid-1-n-ethyl-3-methylimidazolium chloride in the presence of
104
CO2. Whilst, for ester exchange process, it is catalysed by trace strong base and dibutyltin
dilaurate (DBTL) and for urea alcoholysis process, it is catalysed by zinc oxide (ZnO) where
both processes are homogeneous reactions that occur in the liquid state. Table 2-15 shows the
advantages and disadvantages of the homogeneous and heterogeneous catalyst. Here, we
choose to use heterogenous catalyst due to its easy separation from the product mixture.
Table 2-15: Overview of Homogeneous and Heterogeneous Catalyst (Barendregt et al., 1999)
Catalyst Advantages Disadvantages
Homogeneous Effectual, simple and quicker work Difficult to separate the catalyst
Heterogeneous Easy for catalyst separation Low effective
Since the raw materials are in liquid states, and the catalyst is solid state, we decide to use
Packed Bed Reactor (PBR) of our process instead of stirred continuous reactor, the semi-batch
reactor, and microwave reactor. This is because PBR can operate for the processes that involve
catalytic process, perform at high temperature and pressure, use low consumption of total
energy because solid is stagnant and do not suspend slurry (College of Engineering, 2018). As
mentioned earlier in Section 2.1.2, PBR will be operated in the continuous mode as it can load
a huge amount of catalyst that compensates the production of PC for 100,000 MT/year. Table
2-16 illustrates the characteristics of certain reactors.
Table 2-16: Characteristics of Reactors (College of Engineering, 2018)
Type of reactors Advantages Disadvantages
Stirred Ø Good in temperature
Continuous control. Ø Attrition occur
Reactor Ø High heat transfer rate
Semi Batch
Ø Reduce the side product Ø Small scale production only
Reactor
Ø Operating involve
catalytic process.
Ø Undesired thermal gradients
Ø Performed at high
Packed Bed may exist.
temperature and
Reactor Ø Unit may be difficult to
pressure.
service and clean.
Ø Can load huge amount
Ø Channelling may occur
of catalyst.
Ø Low operating cost.
105
Ø Continuous operation
Heat Effect Analysis

Heat effect will be calculated to determine whether the process is exothermic or endothermic.
Exothermic is a chemical reaction that heat is released to the environment while endothermic
is a chemical reaction which heat is absorbed. To determine the heat effect, the following
formula is used to calculate the heat effect.
Table 2-17: Heat Capacity Constant for each Species
Heat capacity constant
Species References
(BC/(EFGH))
Propylene oxide 122.19 (Domalski & Hearing, 1996)
Propylene
167.4 (Vasil’ev et al., 1976)
carbonate
IJ
K
= A + BT + CT P + DT RP Equation 2-8
Table 2-18: Heat Capacity Constant for CO2

Species Heat capacity constant (kJ/mol)
A B C D
Carbon dioxide 5.457 1.045 × 10RV - −1.157 × 10X
Table 2-19: Heat of Formation for each Species

Species ∆Z°\ ]^_ (BC/EFG)
Propylene oxide -117.10
Carbon dioxide -393.474
Propylene carbonate -613.00
106
T = 135 ˚C P = 50 Bar T = 135 ˚C P = 50 Bar
Overall process
Figure 2-4: Overall Process for Heat Effect
u0(v)
∆"
uw(v)
w0P (x)
T= 408.15 K
T= 408.15 K
∆"# ∆"#
u0(v)
uw(v)
w0P (x)
T=298.15 K
T= 298.15 K ∆"#,298
Figure 2-5: Hypothetical Pathway for Heat Effect

∆HK
= C) ∆T
= C),)# ∆T + C),"#$ ∆T
kJ
= a(0.12219) h (298.15 − 408.15)
mol. k
Plm.nX
+ jk ((5.457) + ((1.045RV )T) + (−1.157 × 10X )T RP ) dTr
opm.nX
= (−13.4409) + (−536.2791)
107
= −549.7200 kJ/mol
∆H°y,Plm
= ∆H°y (product) − ∆H°y (reactant)
= (−613.00) − (−117.10 − 393.47)
= −102.43 kJ/mol
∆H)
= C),~I (∆T)
kJ
= a167.4 h (408.15 − 298.15)
mol. k
= 18.414 kJ/mol
∆H
= ∆HK + ∆Hy,Plm + ∆H)
= (−137.7109) + (−102.43) + (18.214)
= −633.936 kJ/mol
Based on this calculation, it shows that the process is an exothermic reaction. It can be
concluded that the heat is released during the reaction. Since the reaction is exothermic, a
cooling jacket will be required to equip in the reactor to maintain the reaction in an isothermal
state.
Reactor Design
To calculate the volume of packed bed reactor (PBR), the design equation is used as follows:
PO + COP → PC
A + B → C
Limiting reactant = A
ÇÉ
Mole Balance: F7Å ÇÑ = - r7 Ö
Rate law: −r7 Ö = k Ö C7
k
kÖ =
ρáà#
ρáà# = 3585 kg/mV
−38900
k = 7940.1793 hr Rn exp
8.314T
108
nRç ) í
Stoichiometry: C7 = C7# åné ∈çê å) ê ( íë )
ë
íë
Assume isothermal reaction, í
=1
P
= y = î(1 − βW)
P#
)
Since the calculated β is very small (9.04 × 10RnP kg Rn ) , ) = y ≈ 1
ë
)
When ) = 1, the pressure drop can be neglected, ε = 0
ë
Hence,
C7 = C7# (1 − X)
ÇÉ
Combine, F7# ÇÑ = k Ö C7# (rx)
1 kÖ
In = W
(1 − X) V#
V# 1
W = In
kÖ (1 − X)
Using Polymath, Levenspiel plot can be performed and the results are as follows.
Table 2-20: Results obtained from Polymath

Initial molar flowrate of species A, F7# Rate Law, F7# Conversion, X
(kmol/s) r7 Ö r7 Ö (%)
136.046 -0.019 7160.29 0.1
136.046 -0.0164 8312.54 0.2
136.046 -0.0141 9650.12 0.3
136.046 -0.0126 10792.80 0.4
136.046 -0.0105 13005.80 0.5
136.046 -0.0081 16886.42 0.6
136.046 -0.0062 21925.14 0.7
136.046 -0.0041 33048.02 0.8
136.046 -0.0021 64675.80 0.9
109
136.046 -0.0002 681590.68 1.0
LEVENSPIEL PLOT
800000
700000
600000
500000
FA0/-R'A
400000
300000 y = 2561.5e3.9338x
R² = 0.7236
200000
100000
0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
CONVERSION
Figure 2-6: Levenspiel Plot

From Figure 2-6, we can obtain the equation of the curve, y = 2561.5eV.lVVmç . The equation
will be used to calculate weight of catalyst by integrating from 0.1 to 0.9 of conversion, X.
Weight of catalyst, W
p.l
= ∫p.n 2561.5 × eV.lVVmç dx
=21487.62 kg
Volume of catalyst, V
W
=
ρI (1 − ∅)
21801.46
=
3085(1 − 0.45)
= 10.89 mV
Where,
V = Volume of catalyst, mV
W = Weight of catalyst, kg
ρI = Density of catalyst, kg/mV
∅ = Porosity of catalyst
110
By following rules of thumb, the volume reactor is 3 times catalyst volume. Therefore the
volume of reactor is 32.69 mV .
111
Block Flow Diagram of Recycle Carboxylation Reactor
Figure 2-7: Block Flow Diagram for PC Production through PO Carboxylation with Recycle Structure.
112
Level 3 Degree of Freedom
Similar to the non-recycle structure, the degree of freedom (DOF) analysis has to be performed
before we complete the material balance calculations with the recycle structure for Level 3
Decision. The DOF analysis is very important to ensure that every unknown variable in the
block flow diagram could be determined if and only if the number of degrees of freedom equal
to zero. Table 2-15 shows the reaction specification considered in computing the number of
degrees of freedom.
Table 2-21: Process Specifications (Barendregt et al., 1999)
Process specifications Values
Conversion 90%
Product flowrate 979527.8676 kmol/yr
Selectivity 100%
Feed ratio (CO2/PO) 1.5
Degree of Freedom (DOF) of Overall Analysis:

+5 unknown labeled variables (F"#$ , i; F)# , i; F)" , O;F)# , O; F"#$ , O)
+1 number of independent reactions
-1 molecular balance of PC
-1 rate law of reaction
-1 feed ratio CO2/PO
-1 production rate of PC
-1 operating condition (temperature & pressure)
-1 conversion
= 0 DOF (solvable)
Since the degrees of freedom for the overall recycle structure equals to 0, indicating every
unknown variable in the block flow diagram can be configured and is possible to perform the
material balance.
Level 3 Material Balance
Propylene oxide + Carbon dioxide à Propylene carbonate
PO + CO2 à PC Equation 2-9
Similar to Level 2, the material balance calculation decision will be performed for overall
reaction process of PO carboxylation.
Using Molecular Species Balance,
113
From Equation 2-6,
1mol of PO à 1mol of PC
1mol of PO à 1mol of CO2
1mol of CO2 à 1mol of PC
In stoichiometry, our limiting reactant is PO. The stoichiometry of the reaction is shown in
Table 2-16.
Table 2-22: Stoichiometry of Reaction
Species Symbol Initial Changes Remaining
PO A +,- −+,- / +, = +,- (1 − /)
CO2 B +4- −+,- / +4 = +,- (1.5 − /)
PC C - ++,- / +8 = +,- /
Similarly, from our objective, the design targets to produce 100,000 metric tons of PC per
annum. The plant will be operating for 8000 hours in PC production each year. With the
selectivity of 100% and the feed ratio of CO2 to PO of 1.5, the material balance is calculated
at 90% conversion and summarized in Table 2-17 and 2-18 based on Figure 2-4.
S
5
S S S S
1 2 3 Separation & 4
Reactor
Purification
Figure 2-8: Simplified Block Flow Diagram with Recycle.

Table 2-23: Summary for Molar Flow Rate of all Streams Involved in Material Balance
Calculation for Level 3 Decision
Molar flowrate of stream (kmol/hr)
Stream
PO CO2 PC Total
1 122.4409834 122.4409834 0 244.8819669
2 136.0455372 204.0683057 0 340.1138429
3 13.60455372 81.6273223 122.4409834 217.6728595
4 0 0 122.4409834 122.4409834
5 13.60455372 81.6273223 0 95.23187601
114
Table 2-24: Summary for Mass Flow Rate of all Streams Involved in Material Balance
Calculation for Level 3 Decision
Mass flowrate of stream (MT/yr)
Stream
PO CO2 PC Total
1 56890.97855 43109.02145 0 100000
2 63212.19839 71848.36909 0 135060.5675
3 6321.219839 28739.34763 100000 135060.5675
4 0 0 100000 100000
5 6321.219839 28739.34763 0 35060.56747
Economic Potential 3 (EP3)

For the economic potential of Level 3 Decision (EP3) with recycle structure, it is almost similar
to EP2, except that the annualized cost of reactor, compressor, pump and catalyst have to be
included. There will be reduction in CO2 and PO consumption costs due to recycling. The
calculations are shown as follows.
Cost of Reactor
The cost of reactor will be determined using the calculation as follows. Given that the
conversion of PO carboxylation is 90%.
Table 2-25: Equipment Cost Data for Reactor
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Reactor Jacketed non-agitated 3.3496 -0.2765 0.0025
Using the equation,

log<= C°) = K< + K A log<= A + K C (log<= A)A
where A is volume of the reactor.
For carboxylation reactor, the volume is been calculated as follows.
A = 32.69mC FIJ = 4.0
log<= C°)
= 3.3496 + (−0.2765) log<= 32.69 + (0.0025)(log<= 32.69)A
C°) = $864.17
(P + 1)D
+ 0.00315
2[850 − 0.6(P + 1)]
F) =
0.0063
115
Where D is diameter of reactor and P is operating pressure. For packed bed reactor the diameter
is 2.4491 m and the operating pressure is 50 bar.
(T-UV)$.WWXV
$[YT- Z-.[(T-UV)]
\=.==C<]
F) = =.==^C
= 12.5979
CIJ = C) FIJ F) = ( $864.1674)(4.0)(32.69)(12.5979) = $ 1423544.80

The formula below is to calculate the purchased equipment cost in year 2019. The Chemical
Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2019 is 626.80 (Ulrich & Vasudevan, 2004),
and for the CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 391.
`
CIJ,A=<_ = `$-VX × CIJ,A==<
$--V
^A^.b=
CIJ,A=<_ = C_<
× $ 1423544.80 = $ USD 2, 282, 040.62
Cost for reactor is RM 9,335,910.13.

Cost of Catalyst
Cost of catalyst also important and for this process catalyst that been use is magnesium oxide.
The cost can be obtained by calculating price of catalyst and weight of catalyst.
Weight of catalyst = 21,487.62 kg (21.4876 ton)
Price of MgO catalyst = $150/tones
Cost of catalyst = Weight of catalyst x price of catalyst
Cost of catalyst = 21.4876 tones X $ 150 /tones = $ 3223.14 = RM 13, 166.20
Cost of Compressor
∆P = −49 bar
Vs = 0.00084954 mC /s
Power = change of pressure × volumetric flow rate × 100
0.00084954mC
P = 49 bar × × 100 = 4.162746kW
s
This show the energy required for compressor is 4.162746 Kw
Cost of compressor:
Table 2-26: Equipment cost data for compressor
Equipment Description K1 K2 K3
Compressor Rotary 5.0355 -1.8002 0.8253
The cost of compressor will be calculated based on equation below:
116
where A represent power,
log<= C°) = 5.0355 + (−1.8002) log<= 4.162746 − 0.8253(log<= 4.162746 )A
C°) = $ 4562.398
CIJ = C°) FIJ
For rotary compressor, the FIJ value is 5,
CIJ = ($ 4562.398 × 5)
CIJ = $ 22811.99
The formula below is to calculate for purchased equipment cost in year 2019. The Chemical
Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2019 is 626.80 (Chemical Engineering, 2013).
As for the CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 391.
`
CIJ,A=<_ = `$-VX × CIJ,A==<
$--V
626.8
CIJ,A=AC = × $ 22811.99
391
CIJ,A=AC = $36569.20
Thus, the cost for the compressor is RM 153,042.10
Cost of Pump
In this process, one pumps will be use and the location of the pump are been show in our
process flow diagram. The power for the pump will be calculated to determine the cost for the
pump use.
Table 2-27:Equipment cost data for pumps
EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION K1 K2 K3
Pump Positive 3.4711 0.135 0.1438

displacement
Table 2-28: Pressure factors for pumps
EQUIPMENT DESCRIPTION C1 C2 C3
Pump Positive -0.245382 0.259016 -0.01363

displacement
The equation below will be used to calculate the cost for pump
117
log<= F°) = C< + CA log<= P + CC (log<= P) A
CIJ = C) (B< + BA FJ F) )
Power = change of pressure × volumetric flow rate
P = ∆P × V#
0.003648mC
= 49 × × 100
s
= 17.8752 kW
log<= C°) = 3.4711 + (0.135) log<= 17.8752 + 0.1438(log<= 17.8752)A
C°) = $7339.244
log<= F°) = C< + CA log<= P + CC (log<= P) A
log<= F°) = −0.245382 + 0.259016 log<= 49 + (−0.01363)(log<= 49)A
F°) = 1.42386
CIJ = C) (B< + BA FJ F) )
= (7339.244)|1.89 + (1.35)(2.6)(1.42386)}
CIJ = $ 50930.581
The formula below is to calculate for purchased equipment cost in year 2019. The Chemical
Engineering Plant Cost Index (CEPCI) for year 2019 is 626.80 (Chemical Engineering, 2013).
As for the CEPCI for the base year 2001 is 391.
`
CIJ,A=<_ = `$-VX × CIJ,A==<
$--V
626.8
CIJ,A=AC = × $ 50930.581
391
= $ 81645.24
Cost of pump is RM 341,685.33
Summary
Equation 2-10 is used for calculating EP3 is shown as follows. Table 2-29 shows the annualized
cost of reactor, compressor, pump and catalyst for recycle structure respect to conversion and
Table 2 shows the annualized propylene carbonate profit and raw material costs respect to
conversion.
EP3 = EP2 − Catalyst (MgO) − Reactor (Packed Bed Reactor) −
Compressor & Pump installation Equation 2-10
Table 2-29: Annualized Cost of Reactor, Compressor, Pump and Catalyst in Respect to
Conversions
118
Packed Bed Reactor Compressor Pump Catalyst
Conversion
(RM/yr) (RM/yr) (RM/yr) (RM/yr)
0.1 46684.69335 1692776.774 2549124.606 433.2369864
0.2 87714.11294 882103.5507 1964988.826 1037.518775
0.3 122265.0792 706752.6533 1741746.155 1641.800375
0.4 145877.6883 648657.2349 1617962.892 2095.011575
0.5 182359.1415 632213.3408 1536967.077 2850.363575
0..6 229281.562 635710.505 1478668.434 3907.856375
0.7 272839.554 650666.8755 1434019.824 4965.349175
0.8 336577.474 673111.1432 1398349.008 6628.2138
0.9 432216.2223 700947.5655 1369140.875 9347.481
1 721483.3804 732972.7479 1345560.098 18883.8
Table 2-30: Profit of Product and Cost of Raw Materials in Respect to Conversion
Conversion PC profit (RM/yr) CO2 cost (RM/yr) PO cost (RM/yr)
0.1 2133000000 431435086.7 4113217749
0.2 2133000000 215717543.3 2056608875
0.3 2133000000 143811695.6 1371072583
0.4 2133000000 107858771.7 1028304437
0.5 2133000000 86287017.34 822643549.8
0.6 2133000000 71905847.78 685536291.5
0.7 2133000000 61633583.81 587602535.6
0.8 2133000000 53929385.84 514152218.6
0.9 2133000000 47937231.85 457024194.3
1 2133000000 43143508.67 411321774.9
By using the algorithm of calculation, EP3 with the recycle structure for different conversion
is calculated with the aid of Microsoft Excel and summarized in Table 2-31. The graphs of EP3
versus conversion is portrayed in Figure 2-9.
Table 2-31: EP2 and EP3 in Respect to Conversion
Conversion EP2 (RM/yr) EP3 (RM/yr)
0.1 -2411652836 -2415941855
0.2 -139326417.9 -142262261.9
0.3 618115721.4 615543315.7
119
0.4 996836791.1 994422198.2
0.5 1224069433 1221715043
0.6 1375557861 1373210292
0.7 1483763881 1481401389
0.8 1564918396 1562503730
0.9 1628038574 1625526922
1 1678534716 1675715816
EP 3 respect to Conversion
2E+09
1.5E+09
1E+09
500000000
0
EP3 (RM/yr)
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1

-5E+08
-1E+09
-1.5E+09
-2E+09
-2.5E+09
-3E+09
Conversion
Figure 2-9: Graph of EP3 versus Conversion

Based on Figure 2-9, the value of EP3 increases directly proportional to conversion. Higher
overall conversion produces bigger EP3. The maximum conversion (100%) produces EP3 of
1675715816 RM/yr. however, industrial scale it is almost impossible to reach 100%
conversion. Besides, the calculation was done by assuming ideal condition, the result would
differ in rea condition. Thus, throughout this design the conversion is assumed at 90% instead
of 100%.
120
Chapter 3 Process PFD & MEB
Process Flow Diagram
Figure 3-1: Process flow diagram for 100 000MTA propylene carbonate production.
Fresh feed propylene oxide (PO) from S-102 storage tank enters centrifugal pump P-101
through stream 1, S1 increases the pressure of the feed from 1 bar to the reaction requirement
pressure of 50bar. The feed PO then enters the heater E-102 increasing it’s temperature from
25˚C to 135˚C. Isobaric centifugal pump P-102 installed to ease the PO liquid stream from
heater E-101 to packed-bed rector R-101.
Fresh feed carbon dioxide (CO2) liquid from the pressurised storage tank S-101 is vaporized
by Hydraulic pressure valve V-1 by reducing it’s pressure from 70bar to 50bar. The CO2 liquid
feed flowrate into V-1 will be controlled using valve. The feed CO2 later heated by heater E-
101 from 25˚C to the reaction requiremet temperature of 135˚C. The CO2 gas then injected into
the PO liquid stream right before the liquid stream enters the R-101. The reaction occurs in
liquid state at 50bar and 135˚C with help of magnesium oxide (MgO) catalyst. The reaction
with 0.9 conversion of PO in R-101 produces propylene carbonate. The R-101 outlet stream,
S9 consist of PC,PO and CO2.
121
Stream S9 enters the let down drum V-102, the V-102 was installed to reduce the high pressure
(50bar) in the pipeline by separating more portion of CO2 gas from the outlet sream. The liquid
CO2 in R-101 outlet stream condenses to gas as the pressure drops. The CO2 gas release reduces
the pressure from 50bar (S9) to 20bar (S10). The pressure drop instantanously reduces the
temperature of the temperature o th stream as well from 135˚C to 110˚C. The pressure regulator
valve V2 installed to further reduces the pressure to 2bar, no changes of temperature occurs
from S10 to S11.
The desired product, PC is separated from CO2 and PO by flash V-103 at temperature of 121˚C
and 1 bar. The separation results with 0.98 purity of PC. The PC was cooled down to room
temperature of 25˚C by cooler E-103 before storage. The PO,PC, CO2 mixture gas fromV-103
is cooled down from 121˚C to 35˚C by heat exchanger (shell and tube) E-104 forming mixture
of PO,PC liquid and CO2 gas. The liquid-gas mixture separated by flash V-105. The V-105
manage to separate the gas completely from the liquid mixture. Thus, results with 100% purity
of CO2 gas and 90% purity of PO with the presene of PC as impurity. The 90% purity PO is
stored for selling.
As for 100% purity CO2 gas from S17 along with CO2 gas released by V-102 are recycled. The
CO2 gas of 20bar and 110˚C from V-102 is increased its reduced its pressure to 1bar by tubine
C-102 and cooled down to 35˚C to meet the CO2 gas released by V-103. CO2 gas from S22
mix with CO2 gas S17 in stream S18 to enter compressor C-101 reaching pressure of 50bar.
The CO2 mixed with CO2 from V-101 then heated to 135˚C by heater E-101.
The heat exchenger E-104 uses coolig water to cool down S14. The cooling water of 25˚C and
1bar enter shell of E-104 and leaves the E-104 after cooling the S14 with 42˚C and 1bar.
Material and energy balance
Material Balance
Due to non-ideal separation, the separation and purification system of the Propylene carbonate
hardly could achieve 100% separation. The material balance calculations have to be performed
backwardly from the last separator that give 100 000 MT/yr of propylene carbonate, which is
the flash 1 (V-103) by using the similar calculation steps in level2. The material balance
calculation for the process flow diagram with 90% conversion of propylene oxide is computed
using the same algorithm of calculation with the aid of Microsoft Excel. Note that the amount
of all components for every stream were computed in the unit of MT/yr.
Hydraulic Pressure Valve (V-1)
Mass flow in = Mass flow out
122
T= 298 K T=308 K
P=70bar P=50 bar
Stream 5 = Stream 6= 43109 MT/yr

Mass Flow Rate (MT/yr)
Stream
S5 S6
PO 0 0
CO2 43109 43109
PC 0 0
H2O 0 0
Pump (P-101)
T= 298 K
T=298 K
P= 50 bar
P=1 bar

Stream
S1 S2
PO 63212 63212
CO2 0 0
PC 0 0
H2O 0 0
Heater 2 (E-102)
T= 298 K T= 408 K
P= 50 bar P= 50 bar
123
Stream
S2 S3
PO 63212 63212
CO2 0 0
PC 0 0
H2O 0 0
Pump (P-102)
T= 408 K
T= 408 K
P= 50 bar
P= 50 bar

Stream
S3 S4
PO 63212 63212
CO2 0 0
PC 0 0
H2O 0 0
Heater 1 (E-101)
T= 308 K T= 408 K
P= 50 bar P= 50 bar

Stream Mass Flow Rate (MT/yr)
124
S7 S8
PO 0 0
CO2 71848 71848
PC 0 0
H2O 0 0
Reactor (R-101)
T= 408 K
P= 50 bar
T= 408 K
P= 50 bar
T= 408 K
P= 50 bar

Stream 4 + Stream 8 = Stream 9 = 135061 MT/yr
Stream
S4 S8 S9
PO 63212 0 6321
CO2 0 71848 28739
PC 0 0 100000
H2O 0 0 0
125
Let Down Drum (V-102) T=374 K
P= 20 bar
T= 408 K T= 374 K
P= 50 bar P= 20 bar

Stream 9 = Stream 10 + Stream 20 = 135061 MT/yr
Stream
9 10 20
PO 6321 6321 0
CO2 28739 17244 11496
PC 100000 100000 0
H2O 0 0 0
Valve (V2)
T= 374 K T= 374 K
P= 20 bar P= 2 bar

Stream
S10 S11
PO 6321 6321
CO2 17244 17244
PC 100000 100000
H2O 0 0
Flash 1 (V-103)
126
T= 394 K
P= 1 bar
T= 374 K
P= 2 bar
T= 394 K
P= 1 bar

Stream
S11 S12 S14
PO
6321 1000 5321
CO2
17244 0 17244
PC
100000 99000 1000
H2O
0 0 0
Cooler 1 (E-103)
T= 394 K T= 298 K
P=1 bar P= 1 bar

Stream
S11 S12
PO 1000 1000
CO2 0 0
PC 99000 99000
H2O 0 0
127
Heat Exchanger (E-104)
T= 315 K
P= 1 bar
T= 394 K T= 308 K
P= 1 bar P= 1 bar
T= 298 K
P= 1 bar
Stream 14 + Stream 23 = Stream 15 + Stream 24 = 283053 MT/yr
Stream
S14 S15 S23 S24
PO 5321 5321 0 0
CO2 17244 17244 0 0
PC 1000 1000 0 0
H2O 0 0 259488 259488
Flash 2 (V-104)
T= 308 K
P= 1 bar
T= 308
K
P= 1
bar
T= 308 K
P= 1 bar

Stream
S15 S16 S17
PO 5321 5321 0
128
CO2 17244 0 17244
PC 1000 1000 0
H2O 0 0 0
Turbine 1 (C-102)
T= 374 K
P= 1 bar
T= 374 K
P= 20 bar
Stream 20 = Stream 21 = 11496 MT/yr
Stream
S20 S21
PO 0 0
CO2 11496 11496
PC 0 0
H2O 0 0
Cooler 2 (E-105)
T= 308 K T= 374 K
P= 1 bar P= 1 bar

Stream Mass Flow Rate (MT/yr)
129
S21 S22
PO 0 0
CO2 11496 11496
PC 0 0
H2O 0 0
Compressor 1 (C-101)
T= 308 K
P= 1 bar
T= 308 K
P= 50 bar

Stream
S18 S19
PO 0 0
CO2 28739 28739
PC 0 0
H2O 0 0
Energy Balance
In a chemical processing plant, it is crucial for the chemical engineers to perform energy
balances on the process carefully in order to account the energy that flows into and out of each
process unit and to determine the overall energy requirement for the process (Felder &
Rousseau, 2005). The management of energy is important because energy is expensive, in
which it is always related to the utility costs.
130
Heat Effect
Heat effect will be calculated for the process to determine whether the process is exothermic
or endothermic. Exothermic is chemical reaction which heat is been release while endothermic
is chemical reaction which heat is been absorb. In order to determine the heat effect, some
formula will be used to calculate the effect.
Table 3-1: heat capacity constant for each species
Species Heat capacity Heat capacity References
constant (L) constant (G)
(ÉÑ/(ÖÜá ∗ É)) (ÉÑ/(ÖÜá ∗ É))
Propylene oxide 122.19 70.7 Tan, Zhou, et al., 1982
Propylene 167.4 47.32 Vasil'ev, Korkhov, et al.,

carbonate 1976
H2O 75.2 - (Smith et al., 2005)
"â
ä
= A + BT + CT A + DT åA Equation 3-1
Table 3-2: heat capacity constant for carbon dioxide

Species Heat capacity constant (kJ/mol)
Carbon A B C D
dioxide 5.457 1.045 × 10åC - −1.157 × 10]
Table 3-3: Heat of formation for each species

Species ∆ç°é èêë (ÉÑ/ÖÜá)
Propylene oxide -117.10
Carbon dioxide -393.474
Propylene carbonate -613.00
T = 135℃ P = 50bar
ì = 135℃ î = 50ïñó
Overall process
Figure 3-2: Overall Process for Heat Effect
131
î£(§)
∆H
•£A (¶) î•(§)
T= 408.15 K T= 408.15 K
∆Hä ∆H)
î£(§)
î•(§)
•£A (¶) ∆Hô,A_b
T=298.15 K
T= 298.15 K
Figure 3-3: Hypothetical Pathway for Heat Effect

∆Hä = C) ∆T
= C),)# ∆T + C),"#$ ∆T
kJ
= ö(0.12219) ú (298.15 − 408.15)
mol. k
A_b.<]
+ ùû ((5.457) + ((1.045åC )T) + (−1.157 × 10] )T åA ) dT†
ü=b.<]
= (−13.4409) + (−536.2791)
= −549.7200 kJ/mol
∆H°ô,A_b = ∆H°ô (product) − ∆H°ô (reactant)
= (−613.00) − (−117.10 − 393.47)
= −102.43 kJ/mol
∆H) = C),°¢ (∆T)
kJ
= ö167.4 ú (408.15 − 298.15)
mol. k
= 18.414 kJ/mol
∆H = ∆Hä + ∆Hô,A_b + ∆H)
= (−137.7109) + (−102.43) + (18.214)
= −633.936 kJ/mol
Based on this calculation, it shows this process is exothermic reaction because the value is
negative. It can conclude that heat is been released
132
Latent Heat
Table 3-4: Latent heat (KJ/Kmol) (Smith et al., 2005).
ß®
Species ( )
ß©™´
PO (g) -117100
Density
Table 3-5: Density (Kg/m3)
Species Kg/m3
PO 830
CO2 1.98
PC 1200
H2O 1000
Energy Balance Calculation

To calculate the enthalpy H of each stream we use the following equation
H= VP + ṁ•≠ ì Equation 3-2
(where; H: Enthalpy, V: Volume, P: Pressure, ṁ: Mol flowrate, CP: Heat capacity, T:
Temperature)
Then to calculate the energy balance for each unit we use
Æ = ∆Ø = Ø∞±≤ − Ø≥¥ Equation 3-3
Let Down Drum (V-101)
T= 298 K T=308 K
P=70bar P=50 bar
Enthalpy (KJ/hr)
Stream
S5 S6
PO 0 0
CO2 20777288 15392169
PC 0 0
133
H2O 0 0
Q = ∆H = Hs∂∑ − H∏π
Q = ∆H = 15392169 − 20777288
Q = ∆H = −5385119 KJ/hr
Pump (P-101)
T= 298 K
T=298 K
P= 50 bar
P=1 bar
Enthalpy (KJ/hr)
Stream
S1 S2
PO 5072702 5119350
CO2 0 0
PC 0 0
H2O 0 0
Q = ∆H = Hs∂∑ − H∏π
Q = ∆H = 5119350 − 5072702
Q = ∆H = 46648 KJ/hr
Heater 2 (E-102)
T= 298 K T= 408 K
P= 50 bar P= 50 bar
Enthalpy (KJ/hr)
Stream
S2 S3
PO 5119350 6991473
CO2 0 0
134
PC 0 0
H2O 0 0
Q = ∆H = Hs∂∑ − H∏π
Q = ∆H = 6991473 − 5119350
Q = ∆H = 1872123 KJ/hr
Pump (P-102)
T= 408 K
T= 408 K
P= 50 bar
P= 50 bar
Q = ∆H = Hs∂∑ − H∏π
Q = ∆H = 0 KJ/hr
Heater 1 (E-101)
T= 308 K T= 408 K
P= 50 bar P= 50 bar
Enthalpy (KJ/hr)
Stream
S7 S8
PO 0 0
CO2 25653615 26619266
PC 0 0
H2O 0 0
Q = ∆H = Hs∂∑ − H∏π
Q = ∆H = 26619266 − 25653615
Q = ∆H = 965651 KJ/hr
135
Reactor (R-101)
T= 408 K
P= 50 bar
T= 408 K
P= 50 bar
T= 408 K
P= 50 bar
Enthalpy (KJ/hr)
Stream
S4 S8 S9
PO 6991473 0 699147
CO2 0 26619266 10647707
PC 0 0 9548704
H2O 0 0 0
Q = ∆H = Hs∂∑ − H∏π
Q = ∆H = (699147 + 10647707 + 9548704) − (26619266 + 6991473)
Q = ∆H = −12715181 KJ/hr
Let Down Drum (V-102)
T=374 K
P= 20 bar
T= 408 K T= 374 K
P= 50 bar P= 20 bar
Enthalpy (KJ/hr)
Stream
S9 S10 S20
PO 699147 638426 0
136
CO2 10647707 3043992 2029328
PC 9548704 8726069 0
H2O 0 0 0
Q = ∆H = Hs∂∑ − H∏π
Q = ∆H = (638426 + 3043992 + 8726069 + 20293288) − (699147 + 10647707
+ 9548704)
Q = ∆H = −11806219 KJ/hr
Valve (V2)
T= 374 K T= 374 K
P= 20 bar P= 2 bar
Enthalpy (KJ/hr)
Stream
S10 S11
PO 638426 359919
CO2 3043992 1084491
PC 8726069 8707319
H2O 0 0
Q = ∆H = Hs∂∑ − H∏π
Q = ∆H = (359919 + 1084491 + 8707319) − (638426 + 3043992 + 8726069)
Q = ∆H = −2256758 KJ/hr
Flash 1 (V-103)
T= 394 K
P= 1 bar
T= 374 K
P= 2 bar
T= 394 K
P= 1 bar
137
Enthalpy (KJ/hr)
Stream
S11 S12 S14
PO 359919 106096 319095
CO2 1084491 0 1021981
PC 8707319 9080080 91718
H2O 0 0 0
Q = ∆H = Hs∂∑ − H∏π
Q = ∆H = (106096 + 9080080 + 319095 + 1021981 + 91718) − (359919 + 1084491
+ 8707319)
Q = ∆H = 467240 KJ/hr
Cooler 1 (E-103)
T= 394 K T= 298 K
P=1 bar P= 1 bar
Enthalpy (KJ/hr)
Stream
S12 S13
PO 106096 80249
CO2 0 0
PC 9080080 6867926
H2O 0 0
Q = ∆H = Hs∂∑ − H∏π
Q = ∆H = (80249 + 6867926) − (106096 + 9080080)
Q = ∆H = −2238001 KJ/hr
138
Heat Exchanger (E-104)
T= 315 K
P= 1 bar
T= 394 K T= 308 K
P= 1 bar P= 1 bar
T= 298 K
P= 1 bar
Enthalpy (KJ/hr)
Stream
S14 S15 S23 S24
PO 319095 441348 0 0
CO2 1021981 822671 0 0
PC 91718 71701 0 0
H2O 0 0 40340524 42641644
Q = ∆H = Hs∂∑ − H∏π
Q = ∆H = (441348 + 822671 + 71701 + 42641644)
− (319095 + 1021981 + 91718 + 40340524)
Q = ∆H = 2204046 KJ/hr
Flash 2 (V-104)
T= 308 K
P= 1 bar
T= 308
K
P= 1
T= 308 K bar
P= 1 bar
Enthalpy (KJ/hr)
Stream
S15 S16 S17
PO 441348 441348 0
139
CO2 822671 0 822671
PC 71701 71701 0
H2O 0 0 0
Q = ∆H = Hs∂∑ − H∏π
Q = ∆H = (822671 + 441348 + 71701) − (441348 + 822671 + 71701)
Q = ∆H = 1 KJ/hr
Turbine 1 (C-102)
T= 374 K
P= 1 bar
T= 374 K
P= 20 bar
Enthalpy (KJ/hr)
Stream
S20 S21
PO 0 0
CO2 2029328 650420
PC 0 0
H2O 0 0
Q = ∆H = Hs∂∑ − H∏π
Q = ∆H = (650420) − (2029328)
Q = ∆H = −1378908 KJ/hr
140
Cooler 2 (E-105)
T= 308 K T= 374 K
P= 1 bar P= 1 bar
Enthalpy (KJ/hr)
Stream
S21 S22
PO 0 0
CO2 650420 548447
PC 0 0
H2O 0 0
Q = ∆H = Hs∂∑ − H∏π
Q = ∆H = (548447) − (650420)
Q = ∆H = −101973 KJ/hr
Compressor 1 (C-101)
T= 308 K
P= 1 bar
T= 308 K
P= 50 bar
Enthalpy (KJ/hr)
Stream
S18 S19
PO 0 0
CO2 1371118 10261446
PC 0 0
H2O 0 0
141
Q = ∆H = Hs∂∑ − H∏π
Q = ∆H = (10261446) − (1371118)
Q = ∆H = 8890328 KJ/hr
142
Process Simulation
Figure 3-4: Process simulation layout
143
Table 3-6: Simulation result for production of propylene carbonate
Stream Name Units S1 S2 S5 S6 S6A S3,S7 S8
Description
From P-100 M-101 C-100 M-100 R-100
To P-100 M-100 M-101 C-100 M-100 R-100 V2
Stream Class CONVEN CONVEN CONVEN CONVEN CONVEN CONVEN CONVEN
Maximum Relative Error
Cost Flow $/hr
MIXED Substream
Phase Liquid Liquid Vapor Vapor Vapor Mixed Liquid
Temperature C 25 31.0418 35 34.8897 503.037 132.985 135
Pressure bar 1 50 1 1 50 50 50
Molar Vapor Fraction 0 0 1 1 1 0.920624 0
Molar Liquid Fraction 1 1 0 0 0 0.079376 1
Molar Solid Fraction 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mass Vapor Fraction 0 0 1 1 1 0.912244 0
Mass Liquid Fraction 1 1 0 0 0 0.087756 1
Mass Solid Fraction 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Molar Enthalpy kJ/kmol -122363 -121399 -393173 -393173 -372054 -271790 -512584
Mass Enthalpy kJ/kg -2106.8 -2090.2 -8933.76 -8933.76 -8453.89 -5475.44 -6579.06
Molar Entropy kJ/kmol-K -317.131 -315.361 4.14518 4.13159 12.391 -105.987 -317.82
Mass Entropy kJ/kg-K -5.46023 -5.42977 0.094188 0.093879 0.281552 -2.1352 -4.07925
Molar Density kmol/cum11.3487 11.3566 0.039205 0.039219 0.763626 2.08935 10.6882
Mass Density kg/cum 659.132 659.593 1.7254 1.72603 33.607 103.711 832.736
Enthalpy Flow kJ/hr -1.66E+07 -1.65E+07 -4.88E+07 -8.02E+07 -7.59E+07 -9.24E+07 -1.11E+08
Average MW 58.08 58.08 44.0098 44.0098 44.0098 49.638 77.9115
Volume Flow cum/hr 11.9882 11.9798 3166.05 5203.26 267.235 162.786 20.2739
Mole Flows kmol/hr 136.05 136.05 124.125 204.068 204.068 340.118 216.692
CO2 kmol/hr 0 0 124.125 204.068 204.068 204.068 80.6418
PO kmol/hr 136.05 136.05 0 0 0 136.05 12.6238
PC kmol/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 123.426
H2O kmol/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mole Fractions
CO2 0 0 1 1 1 0.599992 0.37215
PO 1 1 0 0 0 0.400008 0.058257
PC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.569594
H2O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mass Flows kg/hr 7901.79 7901.79 5462.72 8980.99 8980.99 16882.8 16882.8
CO2 kg/hr 0 0 5462.72 8980.99 8980.99 8980.99 3549.03
PO kg/hr 7901.79 7901.79 0 0 0 7901.79 733.189
PC kg/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 12600.6
H2O kg/hr 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
Mass Fractions
CO2 0 0 1 1 1 0.531962 0.210216
PO 1 1 0 0 0 0.468038 0.043428
PC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.746356
H2O 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
144
Table 3-7: Simulation results (continue)
S10 S11 S12 S13 S14 S15 S18 S22 S23
V2 V-103 E-103 V-103 E-104 V-104 V-104 E-104

V-103 E-103 E-104 V-104 M-101 E-104
CONVEN CONVEN CONVEN CONVEN CONVEN CONVEN CONVEN CONVEN CONVEN
Mixed Liquid Liquid Vapor Mixed Liquid Vapor Liquid Liquid

101.482 121.95 25 121.95 35 35 35 25 72.9583
2 2 1 2 1 1 1 2 2
0.417261 0 0 1 0.991003 0 1 0 0
0.582739 1 1 0 0.008997 1 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
0.245287 0 0 1 0.980719 0 1 0 0
0.754713 1 1 0 0.019281 1 0 1 1
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
-512584 -623456 -641487 -354677 -359205 -155631 -393173 -288860 -284701
-6579.06 -6159.99 -6338.15 -7677.79 -7775.81 -2552.67 -8933.76 -16034.2 -15803.3
-306.21 -504.826 -556.991 -17.7 -24.8367 -327.544 4.14518 -170.924 -157.989
-3.93022 -4.98788 -5.50329 -0.38316 -0.53765 -5.37239 0.094188 -9.48774 -8.76974
0.15326 8.5042 8.9601 0.061217 0.039628 11.0957 0.039205 41.9496 40.4184
11.9407 860.714 906.856 2.82794 1.83061 676.484 1.7254 755.734 728.149
-1.11E+08 -7.79E+07 -8.01E+07 -3.25E+07 -3.30E+07 -1.84E+06 -3.14E+07 -2.89E+07 -2.84E+07
77.9115 101.211 101.211 46.1952 46.1952 60.968 44.0098 18.0153 18.0153
1413.89 14.6895 13.9421 1499.07 2315.77 1.06582 2039.1 2.38179 2.47202
216.692 124.923 124.923 91.769 91.769 11.826 79.9429 99.9152 99.9152
80.6418 0.698813 0.698813 79.9429 79.9429 0 79.9429 0 0
12.6238 1.57378 1.57378 11.05 11.05 11.05 0 0 0
123.426 122.65 122.65 0.776031 0.776031 0.776031 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 99.9152 99.9152
0.37215 0.005594 0.005594 0.871133 0.871133 0 1 0 0

0.058257 0.012598 0.012598 0.120411 0.120411 0.934379 0 0 0
0.569594 0.981808 0.981808 0.008456 0.008456 0.065621 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
16882.8 12643.5 12643.5 4239.28 4239.28 721.008 3518.27 1800 1800
3549.03 30.7546 30.7546 3518.27 3518.27 0 3518.27 0 0
733.189 91.4053 91.4053 641.783 641.783 641.783 0 0 0
12600.6 12521.3 12521.3 79.2249 79.2249 79.2249 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1800 1800
0.210216 0.002432 0.002432 0.829922 0.829922 0 1 0 0

0.043428 0.007229 0.007229 0.15139 0.15139 0.890119 0 0 0
0.746356 0.990338 0.990338 0.018688 0.018688 0.109881 0 0 0
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1
145
Comparison Between Simulation & Manual Calculation
Comparison Of Mass Balance
There are differences between manual calculation of mass balance and simulation result.
Therefore, there are error between manual and simulation. The error will be determine using
this formula:
simulation − manual
Error, % = ( × 100)
simulation
Table 3-8: Comparison of mass balance
Stream Manual Simulation Error, %
S1 136 136.05 0.03675
S2 136 136.05 0.03675
S5 122 124.125 1.71198
S6 204 204.068 0.03332
S3, S7 340 340.118 0.03469
S8 218 216.692 -0.60362
S10 218 216.692 -0.60362
S11 123 124.923 1.53933
S12 123 124.923 1.53933
S13 95 91.769 -3.52079
S14 95 91.769 -3.52079
S15 12 11.826 -1.47133
S18 82 79.9429 -2.57321
Comparison Of Energy Balance

There are differences between manual calculation of mass balance and simulation of
ASPEN plus on energy balance Therefore, there are error between manual and simulation. The
error will be determine using this formula:
simulation − manual
Error, % = ( × 100)
simulation
Table 3-9: Comparison of energy balance
Equipment Manual Simulation Error, %
146
Pump, P-100 46648 131000 64.39
Compressor, C-100 8890328 4310000 106.27
Carboxylation Reactor, R-100 -12715181 18,600,000 168.36
Flash Column, Overhead -8718936 78500000 111.11

V-103
Bottom -965553 33200000 102.91
Flash Column, Overhead 8295727 29600000 71.97
V-104 Bottom -822671 31100000 102.65
Heater, E-103 -2238001 2250000 199.47

Heat exchanger, E-104 -97074 416000 123.34
147
Chapter 4 Utilities & Heat Integration
Introduction
Whenever the driving forces for heat exchange are small, the equipment needed for transfer
becomes large and the design is said to have a pinch. In a chemical system with many heat
exchangers with it is called as a heat exchange network, there will be a pinch point in the
system where the driving force for heat exchange is a minimum. Turton and his co-workers
defined the pinch technology as a successful design of the heat exchange network which
involves defining the location of pinch and using the information at the pinch point to design
the whole network (R. Turton et al., 2013). The fundamental concept of heat integration is to
find matches between heat additions and heat removals within the process to minimize the total
utilities that are used to perform these energy transfers (R. Turton et al., 2013).
The main objective of heat exchanger network analysis is to reduce energy consumption and
hence increase economic potential. Heat exchanger network integrates streams that is needed
to be cooled and heated to reduce cooling effort and recover heat from the process. Pinch
analysis is a methodology for minimizing energy consumption of chemical processes and
optimizing heat recovery with consideration of thermodynamic limitation. Pinch analysis
enables process designers to determine best arrangement of heat exchange to achieve
maximum heat recovery.
The word “utilities” is now generally used for the ancillary services needed in the operation of
any production process. These services normally be supplied from a central site facility; and
will include electricity, steam (for process heating and cooling), water for general use,
demineralized water, compressed air, inert-gas supplied and effluent disposal facilities.
However, this section will discuss in detail about the utilities requirement that are related to
chemical engineering field. It consists of steam, cooling water, chilled water refrigerant and
power consumption in this proposed plant.
Heat Integration Network
Since the propylene carbonate production process employs a lot of heaters, coolers and heat
exchangers; hence we need to perform any heat integration calculation using pinch technology
to optimize the heat energy. Based on the process flow diagram in Figure 3-1, this plant
involves 2 heaters (E-101 and E-102), 2 coolers (E-103 and E-105) and a heat exchanger (E-
104) with the lowest temperature of 25˚C and highest temperature of 121˚C. Following steps
and consideration are practiced for the heat integration.
1. Common values for ΔTmin in petrochemical industries = 10˚C.
148
2. The minimum heating requirement, QHmin and minimum cooling requirement, QCmin
and the pinch temperature are determined from the cascade diagram.
3. When performing pinch design, there are two pinches known as above pinch, the
Cp,cold should always be greater than or equivalent to Cp,hot. Do the same vice-versa
for below pinch design. The stream pairing should always start with biggest Cp
value.
4. Comparison of utility consumption before and after minimum energy requirement
(MER) is done to determine the MER efficiency.
Construction of Stream Table

The stream table and heat exchanger involved in the Heat Integration Network are defined in
Table 4-1.
Table 4-1: Summary of Hot and Cold Streams.
Supply Target
Heat Duty
Stream Temperature Temperature Stream Type Cp (kW/˚C)
(kW)
(˚C) (˚C)
7 35 135 268.24 Cold 2.68
2 25 135 520.03 Cold 4.73
12 A 121 25 310.84 Hot 3.24
12 B 121 25 310.84 Hot 3.24
14 121 35 26.97 Hot 0.31
21 101 35 28.33 Hot 0.43
Where the stream identifications are:
i. Stream 7: Inlet S-7 (Gas carbon dioxide, CO2)

ii. Stream 2: Inlet S-2 (Liquid propylene oxide, CH3CHCH2O)
iii. Stream 12 A: Inlet S-12 (Liquid propylene carbonate, C4H6O3
iv. Stream 12 B: Inlet S-12 (Liquid propylene carbonate, C4H6O3)
v. Stream 21: Inlet S-21 (Gas carbon dioxide, CO2)
vi. Stream 14: Inlet S-14 (Gas carbon dioxide and gas propylene oxide, CO2 &
CH3CHCH2O)
Selection of Minimum Approach Temperature
Minimum Approach Temperature represents the smallest temperature difference between two
streams entering or exiting of a heat exchanger can have. Typical values ranges are 5˚C to
149
20˚C. the Minimum Approach Temperature of 10˚C is assumed for this plant as it is usually
employed by the industry.
The streams were constructed on a cascade diagram as shown in Figure 4-2 to determine the
minimum energy required for heating and cooling streams. The following are the summary of
the information obtained from the heat exchanger network.
Minimum temperature, ΔTmin = 10˚C
The pinch temperature, ΔTpinch = 40˚C
Hot pinch temperature, Tpinch – Thot = 45˚C
Cold pinch temperature, Tpinch – Tcold = 35˚C
Assume the Minimum Approach Temperature of 10 ˚C, Table 4-2 shows the shift temperature
of the supply temperature and target temperature for each stream.
Table 4-2: Supply and Target Shift Temperature for Streams.
Supply Target Heat Supply Target
Stream CP
Heater/Cooler Temperature Temperature Duty Shift Shift
Type (kW/˚C)
(˚C) (˚C) (kW) (˚C) (˚C)
E-101 (S-7) 35 135 268.24 Cold 40 140 2.68
E-102 (S-2) 25 135 520.03 Cold 30 140 4.73
E-103 A (S-12) 121 25 310.84 Hot 116 20 3.24
E-103 B (S-12) 121 25 310.84 Hot 116 20 3.24
E-104 (S-14) 121 35 26.97 Hot 116 30 0.31
E-105 (S-21) 101 35 28.33 Hot 96 30 0.43
The shifted hot and cold stream composite curve is shown in Figure 4-1
Shifted Hot and Cold Composite Curve

160
140
Temperature (˚C)
120
100
80
60 Cold
40 Hot
20
0
0.00 200.00 400.00 600.00 800.00 1000.00 1200.00
Heat Duty, Q(kW)
Figure 4-1: Shifted Hot and Cold Composite Curve.
150
Construction of Temperature Interval Diagram
All streams are represented by vertical lines where the hot streams represented in red and the
cold streams represented in blue. Heat duty for each temperature interval for the hot and cold
stream as well the net heat duty for each temperature interval is calculated. The value of net
heat duty for each temperature interval is represented as deficit for positive value deficit for
negative value. Table 4-3 shows the temperature interval diagram for this Heat Integration
Network.
Table 4-3: Temperature Interval Diagram.
Stream Population
Surplus
Temperature 7 2 12 12 14 21 Cold Hot ΔH
or
(˚C) (E- (E- (E- (E- (E- (E- (kW) (kW) (kW)
Deficit
101) 102) 103) 103) 104) 105)
140 2.68 4.73
177.84 0.00 177.84 Deficit
116 3.24 3.24 0.31
148.20 135.78 12.41 Deficit
96 0.43
414.96 404.23 10.73 Deficit
40
47.28 72.18 -24.91 Surplus
30
0.00 64.76 -64.76 Surplus
20
Construction of Cascade Diagram

The cascade diagram shows the net amount of energy in each temperature interval. If there is
excess energy in a given temperature interval, this energy can be cascaded to down to next
temperature level. The heat flow showed in this cascade diagram has to be positive throughout
the course, if negative value is present along the cascade diagram; normalization is required to
convert the negative flow to positive flow. From the cascade diagram Figure 4-2, it is shown
that the negative flow was at 20˚C and 30˚C and to normalize the cascade to reach zero heat
transfer, it needs to add the maximum heat utility between both negative value which 200.98
kW in order for the cascade is to reach zero heat transfer. The feasible design has a pinch
temperature at 40˚C. the grand composite curve for the pinch analysis is shown in Figure 4-3.
151
ΔH(kW) Residual (kW)
140 0 200.98
177.84
116 -177.84 23.14
12.41
96 -190.25 10.73
10.73
40 -200.98 0.00 (pinch)
-24.91
30 -176.07 24.91
-64.76
20 -111.31 89.67
Figure 4-2: Cascade Diagram
Grand Composite Curve

160
140
120
Temperature (˚C)
100
80
60
40
20
0
0 50 100 150 200 250
Heat Flow (kW)
Figure 4-3: Grand Composite Curve

Heat Exchanger Network Design Based on Pinch Temperature
In this step, the heat integration between the heat duties of each equipment takes place and a
new heat exchanger network can be achieved. This heat integration is done based on the pinch
temperature, 40˚C, which is found at the previous step. Following that a hot pinch temperature
and a cold pinch temperature is calculated. The formulae used is as below:
THot pinch = Pinch Temperature + ½ Tmin = 40 + 10/2 = 45˚C
TCold pinch = Pinch Temperature + ½ Tmin = 30 – 10/2 = 35˚C
In this step, the connection pairing of hot stream to cold stream is decided in order to achieve
maximum heat recovery based on the following criteria.
152
i. For below the pinch, heat capacity of hot stream (CPH) ≥ heat capacity of cold stream
(CPc)
ii. For above pinch, CPH ≤ CPC
iii. Integration between above pinch and below pinch temperature is not allowed.
iv. If CP value is too large for either of the stream, consider splitting the stream.
v. Find arrangement that meet maximum heat recovery as shown in cascade diagram.
vi. Remaining Heat Duty is to be recovered by using heaters and coolers.
Based on the rules stated above, Figure 4-4 shows the arrangement of heat exchanger before
pinch analysis which will determine the new process flow diagram.
35˚C
S-7 (E-101) 35 ˚C 135 ˚C

S-2 (E-102) 25 ˚C 135 ˚C
S-12 (E-103) A
25 ˚C 121 ˚C
S-12 (E-103) B 25 ˚C 121 ˚C
S-14 (E-104) 35 ˚C 121 ˚C
S-21 (E-105) 35 ˚C 101 ˚C
45˚C
Figure 4-4: Heat Exchanger Network Design Before Analysis.
35˚C CP (kW/˚C)
S-7 (E-101) H 2.68

35 ˚C 135 ˚C
H 135 ˚C 4.73
S-2 (E-102) 25 ˚C
S-12 (E-103) A C
3.24
25 ˚C 121 ˚C
S-12 (E-103) B 3.24
25 ˚C C C 121 ˚C
S-14 (E-104) 121 ˚C 0.31

35 ˚C C
S-21 (E-105) 35 ˚C 101 ˚C 0.43

C
45˚C
Figure 4-5: Proposed Heat Exchanger Network Design After Analysis.
153
Based on the heat integration in Figure 4-5, it can be seen that all integration is performed
above the pinch line. At above pinch, E-103 is split and both are integrated with E-102 with an
extra of 19.48 kW. Whilst, E-101 is integrated with both E-104 and E-105 and have an extra
of 216.49 kW. As at below pinch, no integration can be made because the heat capacity of hot
stream is lower than that of cold streams that has against the above criteria. From Table 4-4 to
Table 4-7, they show the temperatures and heat duty after heat integration.
Table 4-4: Integration of E-103 (A) and E-102 Above Pinch.
E-103 (A) E-102
Q (kW) 246.24 Q (kW) 473
Tin (˚C) 121 Tin (˚C) 35
Tout (˚C) 45 Tout (˚C) 135
Balance Heat from E-102
Q (kW) 226.76
Tin (˚C) 82.94
Tout (˚C) 135
Table 4-5: Integration of E-103 (B) and E-102 Above Pinch.

E-103 (B) E-102
Q (kW) 246.24 Q (kW) 226.76
Tin (˚C) 121 Tin (˚C) 82.94
Tout (˚C) 45 Tout (˚C) 135
Additional Cooler for E-103 (B)
Q (kW) 19.48
Tin (˚C) 121
Tout (˚C) 115
Table 4-6: Integration of E-104 and E-101 Above Pinch.

E-104 E-101
Q (kW) 23.56 Q (kW) 268
Tin (˚C) 121 Tin (˚C) 35
Tout (˚C) 45 Tout (˚C) 135
Balance Heat for E-101
Q (kW) 244.44
Tin (˚C) 43.79
Tout (˚C) 135
154
Table 4-7: Integration of E-105 and E-101 Above Pinch.
E-105 E-101
Q (kW) 24.08 Q (kW) 244.44
Tin (˚C) 101 Tin (˚C) 43.79
Tout (˚C) 45 Tout (˚C) 135
Additional Heater for E-101
Q (kW) 220.36
Tin (˚C) 52.78
Tout (˚C) 135
Maximum Energy Recovery (MER)

The pinch design analysis was performed at above pinch. Table 4-8 summarizes the result
obtained from the final pinch design analysis after performing stream pairing.
Table 4-8: Summary of Heat Equipment Duties Before and After MER.
Before MER After MER
Stream Cooling Duty Heating Duty Cooling Duty Heating Duty
(kW) (kW) (kW) (kW)
S-7 (E-101) - 268 - 220.36
S-2 (E-102) - 520.3 - 47.3
S-12 (E-103) 622.08 - 84.28 -
S-14 (E-104) 26.66 - 3.1 -
S-21 (E-105) 28.38 - 4.3 -
Total 677.12 788.3 91.68 267.66
Table 4-9 shows the summary of energy usage after and before MER.
Table 4-9: Summary of Energy Usage.
Specification Before MER After MER Saving (%)
Cold utility consumption (kW) 677.12 91.68 86.46
Hot utility consumption (kW) 788.3 267.66 66.05
Total consumption (kW) 1465.42 359.34 75.48
Table 4-9 shows that after performing MER, we are able to save as much as 75.48 % of utility
energy usage. In short, the utilities cost is saved by Heat Integration Network.
155
Utilities
There are many chemical processes which do not occur at ambient temperature or pressure.
Therefore, utilities have to be used to raise or lower temperatures and compress gases in order
to fulfil the requirement of non-ambient conditions. Utilities are actually the basic services that
necessary for proper operation of a chemical plant. According to Turton and his co-worker,
typical utilities comprise of air supply, steam, cooling water, general water, electricity, fuel,
refrigerant, thermal system, waste disposal, and wastewater treatment system (R. Turton et al.,
2013).
Electricity
Electricity is used to power many different kinds of equipment. It has many advantages: it is
efficient (> 90%), reliable, available in a wide range of power, shaft speeds, designs, lifetimes,
convenience, costs, and maintenance. In chemical process plants, the electricity demand is
generally determined by the work or energy required for agitation, pumping, lights, and many
other items. This electricity is directly purchased from local electricity providers, Tenaga
Nasional Berhad (TNB). This plant is charged based on standard electricity pricing in tariff D
which charge RM 0.38/kWh for the first 200 kWh and RM 0.44/kWh for the next kWh (TNB,
2014). Table 4-10 shows all the power consumption of equipment used in this plant design,
which are mainly from heater, flashes, pumps, compressor, cooler and turbine.
Table 4-10: Power Consumption of Equipment Used in Plant Design.
Equipment Equipment Name Power Consumption (kW)
Centrifugal Pumps P-101 & P-102 12.97
Compressor C-101 2471.51
Flashes V-103 & V-104 52.94
Total Usage 2537.42
Power Consumed per Month

Equation 4-1
8000hr
2537.42kW × = 1,691,613.33kWh/month
12month
Electricity Cost per Month
Table 4-11: Tariff for Industrial Activities (TNB, 2014).
TARIFF CATEGORY CURRENT RATE
TARIFF D: LOW VOLTAGE INDUSTRIAL TARIFF
38.00sen/kWh
For the first 200kWh (1-200kWh) per month
44.10sen/kWh
156
For the next kWh (201kWh onward) per month
Equation 4-2
1691613.33kwh/month − 200kwh/month = 1691413.33kwh/month
According to the Tariff,
Equation 4-3
200kWh/month × RM 0.38/kWh = RM76/month
Equation 4-4
1691413.33JKℎ/MNOPℎ × QR0.441/JKℎ = QR745913.28/MNOPℎ
One month of plant operation costs,
Equation 4-5
QR76/MNOPℎ + QR745913.28/MNOPℎ = QR745989.28/MNOPℎ
Electricity Cost per Year
Equation 4-6
RM745989.28/month × 12month/year = RM8,951,871.36/year
Water
Based on our preliminary plan to set up our plant at Gebeng Industrial Park, Pahang, the
standard water tariff will be based on Suruhanjaya Perkhidmatan Air Negara
(SURUHANJAYA PERKHIDMATAN AIR NEGARA & NATIONAL WATER SERVICES
COMMISSION, 2018). Referring to National Water Service Commission (2018), the standard
water charges are RM 0.92/m3 for first 227m3 and RM 0.84/m3 for the exceeding.
The total water consumption in propylene carbonate production plant is 243,000m3/yr.
Through the calculation, the cost for water supply is about RM204,337.92 for 8000 operation
hours per year.
Table 4-12: Consumption of Water Used for the Plant.

Equipment Equipment name Water consumption (m3)
Washing and emergency water Storage tank 243000
Total Usage 243000
157
Water Consumed per Month
Equation 4-7
243000mV 8000hr(one year)
÷ = 20250mV /month
year(8000hr) 12month
Water Cost per Month
Table 4-13: Tariff of Water Supply (SURUHANJAYA PERKHIDMATAN AIR NEGARA
& NATIONAL WATER SERVICES COMMISSION, 2018).
NON-DOMETIC SUPPLIES
INDUSTRIAL
Consumption:
Band 1 0 – 227m3@ RM0.92/m3
Band 2 >227m3 @ RM0.84/m3
(Use in the Approved Industrial Zones)
Equation 4-8
20250MV /MNOPℎ − 227MV /MNOPℎ = 20023MV /MNOPℎ
Equation 4-9
227mV /month × RM 0.92/mV = RM208.84/month
Equation 4-10
20023MV /MNOPℎ × QR0.84/JKℎ = QR16819.32/MNOPℎ
Equation 4-11
QR208.84/MNOPℎ + QR16819.32/MNOPℎ = QR17028.16/MNOPℎ
Water Cost per Year
Equation 4-12
QR17028.16 12MNOPℎ
× = QR204,337.92/XYZ[
MNOPℎ XYZ[
Cooling Water
Cooling water is used in the plant as a source of coolant to remove heat from equipment.
Efficient removal of heat is an economic requirement in the design and operation of a cooling
system. The driving force for the transfer of heat is the difference in temperature between the
two media. In most cooling systems, this is in the range of 10-20 °F. The heat flux is generally
158
low and in the range of 5,000 to 15,000 Btu/ft2/hr. For exceptional cases such as the indirect
cooling of molten metal, the heat flux can be as high as 3,000,000 Btu/ft2/hr (Sinnott & Towler,
2013). The source of water is from Pengurusan Air Pahang Berhad (PAIP) owned by Jabatan
Bekalan Air (JBA) and will be regenerated for continuous use in this plant. The consumption
of cooling water is summarized in Table 4-14 and the summary of the cost is shown in Table
4-15.
Table 4-14: Cooling Water Consumption by Equipment.
Equipment Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr) Power (kW)
E-103 668.61 19.38
E-104 1114.35 32.29
E-105 1114.35 32.29
E-106 172.11 10.78
E-107 148.38 4.3
R-101 121875.48 3531.99
Total 125093.25 3631.03
Table 4-15: Cooling Water Utility Cost.

Type Cooling Water
Total Cooling Water Flow (kg/hr) 125093.25
Cooling Tower Duty (kW) 3631.03
Total Cost (RM/yr) 13,650,866.16
Cooling Water Consumed per Month

Equation 4-13
125093.25kg mV 8000hr (one year)
× × = 83,395.50mV /month
hr 1000kg 12month
Cooling Water Cost per Month
Equation 4-14
83395.50/MNOPℎ − 227MV /MNOPℎ = 83168.50MV /MNOPℎ
Equation 4-15
Equation 4-16
83168.50MV /MNOPℎ × QR0.84/JKℎ = QR69,861.54/MNOPℎ
159
Equation 4-17
QR208.84/MNOPℎ + QR69861.64/MNOPℎ = QR70070.38/MNOPℎ
Cooling Water Cost per Year
Equation 4-18
QR70070.38 12MNOPℎ
× = QR840,844.56/XYZ[
MNOPℎ XYZ[
Power Consumed for Cooling Water per Month
Equation 4-19
8000ℎ[
3631.03JK × = 2420666.67JKℎ/MNOPℎ
12MNOPℎ
Electricity Cost for Cooling Water per Month
Equation 4-20
2420666.67JKℎ/MNOPℎ − 200JKℎ/MNOPℎ = 2420466.67JKℎ/MNOPℎ
Equation 4-21
200kWh 0.38 RM76
× RM =
month kWh month
Equation 4-22
2420466.67JKℎ/MNOPℎ × QR0.441/JKℎ = QR1067425.80/MNOPℎ
Equation 4-23
RM76/month + RM45,564.12/month = RM45,640.12/month
Electricity Cost for Cooling Water per Year
Equation 4-24
RM1067510.62/month × 12month/year = RM12,810,021.60/year
Steam
Steam is majorly used as a source of heating. In this propylene carbonate production plant, steam
is generated in boilers. Basically, the cost of steam consists of cost for water and cost accounted
for the heat energy required. Table 4-16 shows the main equipment which consumes steam.
Table 4-16: Steam Consumption by Equipment.
Equipment Mass Flow Rate (kg/hr) Power (kW)
E-101 72921.0872 47.17
E-102 339886.41 220.36
160
Total 412807.50 267.53
Table 4-17: Steam Utility Cost.

Type Low Pressure Steam (5bar)
Total Steam Flow (kg/hr) 412807.50
Boiler Duty (kW) 267.53
Total Cost (RM/yr) 2854334.26
Steam Consumed per Month

Equation 4-25
412807.50kg mV 8000hr (one year)
× × = 275205mV /month
hr 1000kg 12month
Steam Cost per Month
Equation 4-26
275205MV /MNOPℎ − 227MV /MNOPℎ = 274978MV /MNOPℎ
Equation 4-27
Equation 4-28
274978MV /MNOPℎ × QR0.84/JKℎ = QR230981.52/MNOPℎ
Equation 4-29
QR208.84/MNOPℎ + QR230981.52/monPℎ = QR231190.36/MNOPℎ
Steam Cost per Year
Equation 4-30
QR231190.36 12MNOPℎ
× = QR2,774,284.32/XYZ[
MNOPℎ XYZ[
Power Consumed for Steam per Month
Equation 4-31
8000ℎ[
267.53JK × = 178353.33JKℎ/MNOPℎ
12MNOPℎ
Fuel Cost for Steam per Year
Natural gas will be used as the fuel to be burn in order to supply power to the boiler.
161
Cost of natural gas = RM10.97/MMBtu ("Natural Gas PRICE Today | Natural Gas Spot Price
Chart | Live Price of Natural Gas per Ounce | Markets Insider", 2019)
Equation 4-32
RM10.97 MMBtu 178353.33 12 month
× × × = RM80,049.94/year
MMBtu 293.2972kwh month yr
Total Utilities Cost
Table 4-18 shows the utilities cost summary of propylene carbonate production plant for a year.
Table 4-18: Utilities Cost Summary.
Utilities Cost (RM/yr)
Electricity 8,951,871.36
Water 204,337.92
Cooling Water 13,650,866.16
Steam 2,854,334.26
Total 25,661,409.70
162
Integrated Process Flow Design
The network shown in Figure 4-6 is designed to give the maximum heat recovery, and will therefore give the minimum consumption, and cost of
the hot and cold utilities.
Figure 4-6: Final Process Flow Diagram After Heat Exchanger Network Analysis
163
Chapter 5 Process Equipment Sizing
Sizing of Equipment
This chapter has included all equipment sizing and selection of material construction for the
plant design. There is a total of 24 equipment that involves packed bed reactor, flash drum, let
down drum, compressor, turbine, pump, storage tank, pressure relief valve, heat exchanger,
cooling tower and boiler. The material construction depends on the temperature and pressure
of the equipment and the corrosive level. Table 5-1 shows the total quantity of each equipment
in the plant.
Table 5-1: Total Quantity of Each Equipment.
Equipment Quantity
Packed Bed Reactor 1
Flash Drum 2
Let Down Drum 1
Compressor 1
Turbine 1
Storage Tank 4
Pressure Relief Valve 4
Heat Exchanger 11
Cooling Tower 1
Reboiler 1
Major Equipment Sizing

Packed Bed Reactor (R-101)
In propylene carbonate production plant, packed bed reactor (R-101) is the only upstream unit,
which involves heterogeneous reaction with liquid and gas state of the raw materials. The
process is an exothermic reaction which the heat is released during the reaction. Thus, a cooling
jacket is required to equip the reactor to control the operating temperature during the reaction.
The catalyst is contained in random packing. There are some assumptions made for R-101,
they are:
i. Operating Temperature, T = 135 ˚C
ii. Operating Pressure, P = 50 bar
iii. Liquid phase
iv. Isothermal operation
164
From Polymath, the most suitable conversion for the process is 90% where the desired catalyst
weight is at 21,487.62 kg which is obtained from the Levenspiel plot as shown in Figure 2-6.
The catalyst used is magnesium oxide (MgO). The density of the catalyst is 3585 kg/m3 and
the volume of the catalyst is 10.89 m3 that is calculated in Section 2.2.2.2. By following the
rules of thumb, the reactor volume is 3 times the catalyst volume. Therefore, the volume of
reactor is 32.69 m3.
The material construction for R-101 is stainless steel 316 as this type of material is a corrosion
resistant material that can withstand high temperature and does not change the mechanical
features including strength. Detail sizing calculation of R-101 is shown in Appendix. The
summary of the reactor design and sizing is shown in Table 5-2 as follows.
Table 5-2: Specification Data Sheet for R-101.
Packed Bed Reactor, R-101
Item : Packed Bed Reactor Date : 26th February 2019
Code : R-101 By : Nooraihan Binti Othman
No. of unit : 1
General
Function : To produce the desired product PC from PO and CO2
Type : Random packing with Jacketed Cooling System with Internal Coil.
Operation : Continuous Orientation : Vertical
Material of Construction : 316 Stainless Steel Utility : Electrical, Water
Operating Data
Inlet Outlet
Streams S4 S8 S9
Temperature (˚C) 135 135 135
Pressure (bar) 50 50 50
Quantity (kmol/hr) 136 204 122
Vapour Fraction 0 0 0
Composition (kmol/hr)
Propylene oxide 136 0 14
Carbon Dioxide 0 204 82
Propylene Carbonate 0 0 122
Operating Design of Packed Bed Reactor
Volume (m3) 32.69
Height of tank (HT) 7.34
Diameter of tank (m) 2.45
165
Thickness of vessel wall, ! #$%% (m) 0.051
Thermal conductivity of wall (W/m. K) 16
Design of Jacketed Cooling Vessel
Spacing between jacket and vessel wall (m) 0.3
Outer diameter of tank with jacket, Do (m) 3.05
Cross-sectional annular area (m2) 2.60
Design of External Cooling Coil
Inner diameter of the pipe (m) 0.08
Thickness of the pipe (m) 0.01
Outer diameter of the pipe (m) 0.10
Cross-sectional area of pipe (m2) 0.005
Total length of coil (m) 307.33
Diameter of one coil (m) 4.00
Circumferences of one coil (m) 12.57
No. of coils required, N 24
Coil pitch (m) 0.20
Minimum height to fit in the entire coils, &'() 7.11
Equipment estimated cost RM 9,355,910.13
Catalyst estimated cost RM 13,166.20
Let-Down Drum (V-102)

Let-down drum (V-102) is used to reduce the pressure of the product mixture from 50 bar to
20 bar after exiting R-101. The detail sizing calculation and material construction of V-102 is
shown in Appendix. The summary of V-102 design and sizing is shown in Table 5-3 as follows.
Let-Down Drum, V-102
Item : Let-Down Drum Date: 26th of Feb 2019
Code : V-102 By : Abdullah
No. of Unit: 1
General
Function: To reduce the pressure of the product mixture from 50 bar to 20 bar.
Type : Flash drum
Operation : Continuous Flow Orientation: Horizontal
Material of Construction: Stainless Steel Utility : Electricity
Cost : RM 433,193.04
166
Operating Data
Streams Vapor Liquid
S20 S10
Temperature (℃) 101 101
Pressure ( bar ) 20 20
Mass flow ( kg/hr ) 1452.33 15424.59
Density ( kg/m3 ) 1.98 1017.04
Operational Design
Volume (m3) 1.70
Diameter (m) 0.89
Vessel Length (m) 2.7
Vessel Area (m2) 0.62
Settling velocity (m/s) 0.29
ASPEN Simulation
Not Available
Manufacturer Data
Manufacturer: BEP Engineering Pct. Ltd.
Flash Drum (V-103, V-104)

There are two flash drums used with each of their respective function. V-103 is employed to
separate the desired product propylene carbonate in liquid state from both propylene oxide and
carbon dioxide in gas state. The operating temperature and pressure is at 121 ˚C and 1 bar.
Whilst, V-104 is employed to separate propylene oxide in liquid state from carbon dioxide in
gas state. The operating temperature and pressure is at 35 ˚C and 1 bar.
The material of construction for both V-103 and V-104 is carbon steel. Detailed sizing
calculation of V-103 and V- 104 are shown in Appendix. The summaries of V-103 and V-104
design and sizing are shown in Table 5-4 and Table 5-5 respectively.
Table 5-3: Specification Data Sheet for V-103.
Flash Drum, V-103
Item : Flash Drum Date : 26th of Feb 2019
No. of Unit :1
General
Function : To separate liquid PC from PO and CO2 gas in PC production
Type : Flash Drum
167
Operation : Continuous Flow Orientation : Vertical
Material of Construction : Stainless Steel Utility : Electricity
Cost : RM 217,958.98
Operating Data
S14 S12
Mass flow ( kg/hr ) 2897.46 12469.05
3
Density ( kg/m ) 227.4531 1201.625
Operational Design
Volume (m3) 2.31
Diameter (m) 0.99
Vessel Height (m) 2.98
2
Vessel Area (m ) 0.78
ASPEN Simulation
Available
Manufacturer Data

Flash Drum, V-104
Item : Flash Drum Date : 26th of Feb 2019
No. of Unit :1
General
Function : To separate liquid PO from CO2 gas in PC production
Type : Flash Drum
Operation : Continuous Flow Orientation : Vertical
Material of Construction : Stainless Steel Utility : Electricity
Cost : RM 1,166,443.20
Operating Data
S17 S16
168
Mass flow ( kg/hr ) 2156.49 740.97
Density ( kg/m3 ) 1.98 881.75
Operational Design
3
Volume (m ) 23.83
Diameter (m) 2.16
Vessel Height (m) 6.49
Vessel Area (m2) 3.67
ASPEN Simulation
Available
Manufacturer Data
Storage Tank (S-101 to S-104)

Storage tanks are containers that hold liquids, compressed gases (gas tank) or mediums used
for the short- or long-term storage of heat or cold. Storage tanks are available in many shapes:
vertical and horizontal cylindrical; open top and closed top; flat bottom, cone bottom, slope
bottom and dish bottom. Large tanks tend to vertical cylindrical, or to have rounded corners
transition from vertical side wall to bottom profile, to easier withstand hydraulic hydrostatically
induced pressure of contained liquid.
In this process, four storage tanks will be used to store our reactants and products. All the
detailed calculation and cost for the tank have been calculated and are shown in Appendix.
Table 5-5 below shows the summary of storage tank design and sizing.
Table 5-5: Specification Data Sheet For S-101 to S-104.
Storage Tank Specifications
By Isyraf Irfan
Date 26th of Feb 2019
Identification No. Function Parameter Specifications
S-101 To store liquid carbon Type of storage tank Fixed roof
dioxide Material Stainless Steel
Inventory 3 days
No of tank 1
Volume 421.29 /0
Diameter 8.42 m
169
Height 7.57 m
Height of roof 0.74 m
Equipment estimated RM 1,258,039.00
cost
S-102 To store propylene Type of storage tank Fixed roof
oxide Material Stainless Steel
Inventory 3 days
No of tank 1
Volume 822.27 /0
Diameter 10.52 m
Height 9.47 m
cost
carbonate Material Stainless Steel
Inventory 3 days
No of tank 1
Volume 889.40 /0
Diameter 10.79 m
Height 9.71 m
cost
oxide (side product) Material Stainless Steel
Inventory 3 days
No of tank 1
Volume 66.50 /0
Diameter 4.58 m
Height 4.09 m
Equipment estimated RM 793,478.00
cost
Minor Equipment Sizing
170
Heat Exchanger (E-101 to E-111)
The heat exchanger can be applied to all types of equipment in which is exchanged but is often
used specially to denote equipment in which heat exchanged between two process streams.
Heat exchanger is used to heat or cool gas or liquid stream. Exchangers in which a process
fluid is heated or cooled by a plant service stream are referred to as heaters and coolers. If the
process stream is vaporized, a reboiler and condenser are then associated with a distillation
column. The detailed heat exchanger sizing can be obtained in Appendix. The general equation
for heat transfer across a surface (Sinnott & Towler, 2013);
Equation 5-1
Q = UA∆T<
Where, Q = heat transfer per unit time, W
U = Overall heat transfer coefficient, W/m2. °C
A = Transfer area, m2
DTm = Mean temperature difference, °C

The principle type of heat exchanger used in chemical process and allied industries are:
i. Double pipe heat exchanger: the simplest type, used for cooling and heating.
ii. Shell and tube exchanger: used for all applications.
iii. Plat and frame exchanger (plate heat exchanger): used for heating and cooling.
iv. Air cooler: cooling and condenser.
v. Direct contact: cooling and quenching.
Since shell and tube exchanger is the most commonly used of heat transfer equipment used in
chemical and allied industries, it was chosen as the exchanger type in the design, the advantages
of this type are:
i. The configuration gives a large surface area in small volume.
ii. Good mechanical layout: a good shape for pressure operation.
iii. Uses well established fabrication techniques.
iv. Can be constructed from a wide range of materials.
v. Easily cleaned.
vi. Well established design procedures.
The designing procedures are based on Kern’s and Bell’s method (Sinnott & Towler, 2013).
The design procedures are as below:
1. Define the heat duty: heat transfer rate, fluids flow rate and temperature.
2. Collect the fluid physical required: density, viscosity and thermal conductivity.
171
3. Decide the type of heat exchanger to be used.
4. Select the trial value for exchanger to be used.
5. Calculate the mean temperature different.
6. Calculate the area required.
7. Decide the exchanger layout.
8. Calculate the number of tubes.
9. Calculate the diameter of shell.
Table 5-6 and 5-7 show the summaries for the sizing of heat exchangers in the plant.
172
Table 5-6: Summary of Heat Exchanger (E-101 to E-106).
Design Type Split ring floating head
Material Stainless steel
Date 10/4/2019
By Siti Nor Sabirah Binti Ani Kutty
Identification No. E-101 E-102 E-103 E-104 E-105 E-106
Heat Duty, Q (kW) 47.17 220.36 19.38 32.29 32.29 10.78
Shell Fluid Properties
• Inlet Temperature (˚C) 158.92 158.92 25 25 25 25
• Outlet Temperature (˚C) 157.92 157.92 50 50 50 50
• Flow rate (kg/hr) 72921.0872 339886.41 668.607 1114.35 1114.35 172.11
Tube Fluid Properties
• Inlet Temperature (˚C) 25 53 121 35 35 45
• Outlet Temperature (˚C) 35 135 115 25 25 35
• Flow rate (kg/hr) 7898.88 8978.04 6234.53 6234.53 6234.53 2897.46
2
Heat Transfer Area per tube (m ) 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18
Number of passes 2 2 2 2 2 2
Number of tubes per passes 2 80 2 60 60 3
Tube inside diameter, d1 (mm) 14.83 14.83 14.83 14.83 14.83 14.83
Tube outside diameter, d0 (mm) 19.05 19.05 19.05 19.05 19.05 19.04
Length of tube, L (m) 3.05 3.05 3.05 3.05 3.05 3.05
Bundle diameter, Db (m) 57.40 355.15 55.6155 311.8 311.8 77.18
Shell internal diameter, Ds (m) 115.40 413.15 113.62 369.8 369.8 135.18
Tube side heat transfer coefficient, hi (W/m ˚C)
2
93.72 1.48 116.85 15.61 15.61 64.71
Shell side heat transfer coefficient, hs (W/m ˚C)
2
541.02 161.90 0.921 0.1127 0.1127 0.4217
Equipment estimated cost (RM) 5,094,286.33 751,001.39 5,478,296.37 742,212.95 742,212.95 2,752,412.97
173
Table 5-7: Summary of Heat Exchanger (E-107 to E-111).
Design Type Split ring floating head
Material Stainless steel
Date 10/4/2019
By Teo Wei Chung
Identification No. E-107 E-108 E-109 E-110 E-111
Heat Duty, Q (kW) 4.3 258.34 277.72 80.09 24.29
Shell Fluid Properties
• Inlet Temperature (˚C) 25 115 121 121 101
• Outlet Temperature (˚C) 50 35.1 35 45 45
• Flow rate (kg/hr) 148.38 6234.53 6234.53 2897.46 1452.33
Tube Fluid Properties
• Inlet Temperature (˚C) 45 35 87 44 44
• Outlet Temperature (˚C) 35 87 138 53 53
• Flow rate (kg/hr) 7898.88 7898.88 7898.88 8978.04 8918.04
2
Heat Transfer Area per tube (m ) 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18 0.18
Number of passes 2 2 2 2 2
Number of tubes per passes, Nt 5 715 132 461 183
Tube inside diameter, d1 (mm) 14.83 14.83 14.83 14.83 14.83
Tube outside diameter, d0 (mm) 19.05 19.05 19.05 19.05 19.05
Length of tube, L (m) 3.05 3.05 3.05 3.05 3.05
Bundle diameter, Db (m) 99.03 961.699 446.39 788.13 518.32
Shell internal diameter, Ds (m) 157.03 1019.699 504.39 846.13 576.32
2
Tube side heat transfer coefficient, hi (W/m K) 14.07 1.65 5.77 0.16 1.04
2
Shell side heat transfer coefficient, hs (W/m K) 1.62 0.033 0.86 0.04 0.02
Equipment estimated cost (RM) 1,920.567.96 1,884,760.05 872,203.67 1,378,445.31 917,830.41
174
Compressor (C-101) & Turbine (C-102)
The work of polytrophic and single stage compressor can be calculated using Equation 5-2 as
below (Sinnott & Towler, 2013).
Equation 5-2
./$
n P, .
W = P$ v$ *+ - − 1)1
n − 1 P$
Where
P$ = Inlet pressure P, = Outlet pressure
v$ = Columetric flow rate n = Polytrophic exponent
W = Work capacity
All detailed calculation has been shown in Appendix. The summary for the design and sizing
of C-101 and C-102 is shown in Table 5-6 as below.
Table 5-8: Specification Data Sheet for C-101 and C-102.
Compressor Specifications Turbine Specifications
Identification No. C-101 C-102
Type of equipment Rotary Axial gas turbine
Material Stainless steel Stainless steel
Function To compress carbon dioxide before To compress carbon dioxide to
entering recycle stream recycle stream
Operating
Conditions
Inlet pressure 1 bar 20 bars
Inlet temperature 35 oC 101 oC
Outlet pressure 50 bars 1 bar
o
Outlet temperature 35 C 101 oC
Design sizing
Driver type Motor Motor
Volumetric flow rate 0.0013 mJ /s 5.23 × 10/O mJ /s
Efficiency 70% 65%
Actual power 2.46 kW 1.85 kW
consumption
Equipment estimated RM 250,439.00 RM 117,543.02
cost
Pump (P-101)
175
Pump is a device that moves fluids (liquids or gases), or sometimes slurries, by mechanical
action. Pump that has been used for the process is the positive displacement. Pumps can be
classified into three major groups according to the method they use to move fluid, direct lift,
displacement, and gravity pumps. P-101 functions to pump propylene oxide to the reactor.
Equation 5-3 shows the formula used to calculate the power for the pump:
Equation 5-4
PQR S
Power of pump (P-101) =
T
Where:
Q V. = Mass flow rate
P = Pressure difference
ρ = Density of fluid
Table 5-9 shows the design and sizing of P-101 as below.
Table 5-10: Specification Data Sheet for P-101.
Pump Specifications
Identification no. P-101
Material design Stainless steel centrifugal
Function To increase the pressure of
propylene oxide to 50 bar.
Operating condition
Inlet pressure 1 bar
Outlet pressure 50 bars
Design sizing
Mass flow rate 7898.88 kg/hr
Efficiency 80%
Power consumption 16.1125 kW
Equipment estimated cost RM 392,910.50
Pressure Reducing Valve (V-101)

Pressure reducing valve is a 2-way valve that allows system pressure fluid to flow through it
until a set pressure is reached downstream. It then shifts to throttle flow into the branch. A
standard reducing valve is normally open. When downstream pressure goes higher than its
setting, the valve closes, which blocks the flow. Pressure downstream may try to increase.
When there’s resistance from an opposing cylinder, for instance, a reducing valve also blocks
the reverse flow (Smith, 2015). There are one pressure reducing valve was used in this process
176
(VLV-101). The function of the valve is to reduce the pressure of liquid CO2 from 70 bars to
50 bars. Table 5-11 illustrates the type of pressure relief valve used in industry.
No Type of industrial valve Specification
1. High Pressure Valve for Medium Flow Rate DM 510, -Single
514 (Mankenberg, 2019) –seat straight-way valve for small
to medium flow rates.
-Usable for liquids, gases and
steam.
-Hard faced valve cone and seat
available for high pressure drop.
Max operating condition:
Up to 350 bar.
Operating Condition:
[\]^ 400 ˚C
Inlet pressure (70 bar)
_` Up to 315 bar
Outlet pressure (50 bar).
_a 2 – 160 bar
2. Weight Loaded Pressure Reducing Valve DM 3, 4 -balanced straight-way valve

(Mankenberg, 2019). for medium and very high flow
rates
-Usable for liquids, gases and
steam.
Max operating condition:
Up to 20 bar.
[\]^ 280 ˚C
_` Up to 40 bar
Inlet pressure (20 bar), Outlet
_a 0.5 – 10 bar
pressure (2 bar).
Table 5-12: Summary of Pressure Reducing Valve.

Pressure Reducing Valve Specification
Identification No. VLV-101 VLV-102
Type of valve High Pressure Valve for Weight Loaded Pressure Reducing
Medium Flow Rate DM 510, Valve DM 3, 4 )
514
177
Function To reduce pressure of To reduce pressure of liquid
liquified carbon dioxide propylene carbonate, propylene
oxide and carbon dioxide
Temperature Max 400 ˚C Max 280 ˚C
Inlet Pressure Up to 315 bar Up to 40bar
Outlet Pressure 2 – 160 bar 0.5 – 10 bar
Temperature 35 ˚C 101 ˚C
Inlet Pressure 70 bar 20 bar
Outlet Pressure 50 bar 2 bar
Volumetric flow rate 2711.73 bJ /hr 1100.49 bJ /hr
Equipment costing RM 8159.80 RM 4075.82
Source Hebei Huahui Valve Co., Jiangnan Valve Co.,Ltd
Ltd.
Steam Boiler (F-101)

The sizing for boiler is not required, but the summary and the costing for it are given below.
All calculation involved using simulation and calculations are performed. For the production
plant of propylene carbonate, a steam boiler will be used to supply steam as the heating agent
for the heaters (E-101, E-102) Details of calculation steps for the steam boiler are shown in
Appendix. The summary of its sizing is tabulated in Table 5-13.
Table 5-13: Steam Boiler F-101 Design Summary.
Steam Boiler Specification
Item no F-101
Identification Steam Boiler
Function To produce steam to be used in heating process
Operating Condition
Temperature (˚C) 158.92
Pressure (bar) 5
Mass flow rate of water (kg/hr) 412,807.50
Specification
Material of Construction Stainless Steel
Actual Work (90% efficiency) 267.53
EQUIPMENT ESTIMATED COST RM1,149,075.37
EQUIPMENT UTILITY COST RM3,854,334.26/yr
Cooling Tower (T-101)
178
The sizing for cooling tower is not required, but the summary and the costing for it are given
below. A circulating cooling water stream is produced using a mechanical draft cooling tower.
Flow of cooling water required in the plant is 125093.25 kg/hr used for cooling process in the
coolers (E-104, E-105, E-106, E-107) and the cooling jacket of reactor (R-101). Detail
calculation steps for the cooling tower are shown in Appendix. The summary of its sizing is
tabulated in Table 5-14.
Table 5-14: Cooling Tower T-101 Design Summary.
Cooling Tower Specification
Item no T-101
Identification Cooling Tower
Function To cool water for the process use
Operating Condition
Temperature (˚C) 25
Pressure (bar) 1
Mass flow rate of water (kg/hr) 125093.25
Amount of water evaporated (kg/hr) 7030.24
Specification
Material of Construction Stainless steel
Actual Work (75% Efficiency) 3631.03kW
EQUIPMENT ESTIMATED COST RM7,867,231.67
EQUIPMENT UTILITY COST RM12,913,724.60/yr
179
Chapter 6 Process Control & Safety
Introduction
In this chapter, safety analysis of the plant was done to educate people on the hazards associated
with their duties and therefore, prevent accidents from occurrence. Information such as toxicity
of materials, Material Safety Data Sheet, DOW Fire and Explosion Index were summarized
and discussed in detail. Apart from that, major equipment controls were determined and
outlined. Finally, a Process & Instrumentation Diagram was done for the whole plant. Based
on that, HAZOP analysis was done for all major equipment in the designed plant.
Safety in industries has become an unavoidable issue and it is very vital especially to the
employees in the plant that always exposed to life-threatening situations. Besides that, safety
analysis has to be done to protect the public and the environment. Furthermore, a safe and
comfortable working environment plays a very important part to assume the efficient
production of the plant. Thus, a process safety should always be considered during the early
stage of design of the plant with fully co-operation with the management, contractors,
employees and specialist in environment and industrial health.
Availability of advanced technology enables the chemical industries to embark into more
complex processes which involve higher pressure, more reactive chemicals and exotic
chemistry. As chemical process technology become more complex, chemical engineers need a
better fundamental understanding of safety in designing an industrial plant to minimize the
likelihood of accidents to happen and to assure the safety of the plant.
General Safety Procedure

A company's primary objectives are to ensure the safety and health of employees and to protect
company property. Therefore, general safety procedures must be established to provide safe
and healthful working conditions for all company employees. Safety rules should be developed
with input from supervision and employees. While held to a minimum, the rules address
behaviours and work practices that can lead to accidents and injuries. Besides that, each
employee should become familiar with and follow the general and departmental safety rules.
Supervisors must also enforce safe work practices through strict adherence to general safety
rules.
Most accidents can be prevented if everyone uses assigned safety equipment and follows the
established safety rules. There are three major hazards in a process plant, which are hazardous
and corrosive chemicals, fire and explosion, and mechanical accidents that are common to all
180
industrial activities. Unfortunately, hazards are not always identified until an accident occurs.
Hence, safety training regarding to general safety procedures for the plant should be practiced
by the workers before the plant starts its operation. This is one of the steps to ensure the process
and operation are in a safe condition throughout the life of the plant.
Chemical Storage
Chemical storage refers to the storage of hazardous substances in chemical stores, chemical
cabinets, or similar locations. Chemical cabinets are particularly used for safe storage of
chemical substances internally. These cabinets are typically made from materials such as steel
or plastic and might have a bunded tray to capture spillage. Chemical stores are larger chemical
storage units for either internal or external use. Laboratory work often involves the use of non-
hazardous or hazardous chemicals. Chemicals must be stored properly, not only to allow easy
access by those in the laboratory but also for their safety. Improper use of chemical storage can
result in the generation of heat, fire, explosion, and leakage of toxic gas. Its plays a vital role
in a plant where various hazardous chemicals are stored. The location of the storage tank should
be at a suitable placing that avoid any form of unnecessary risk. Some of the important aspects
of storage layout are (Wiley, 2012):
• Proper embankment of storage tank should be done to control spillage. Piping, valves,
and flanges should be kept to a minimum when located within the embankment and
most likely to be installed outside the dikes area.
• The storage tank should be kept away from process areas. This is because fire and
explosion in a process unit may endanger the tank.
• Secondary containment systems such as drain valve and emergency exit door are
considered passive protective systems to the storage tank can be considered.
• The design of the storage tank should be considered properly in order to eliminate the
possibilities of fireball, vapor cloud explosion (VCE), and toxic cloud.
Transportation
Transportation of chemicals inside the plant is a part of the daily routine. Many accidentals
released of hazardous liquid in process plant occurred at road and rail tanker of loading and
unloading stations. Thus, a safe handling program must be practiced by every personnel. This
is because they will be one closely associated with these materials and indirectly the safety of
the other workers is depending on them. Besides that, sites for loading and unloading stations
should be carefully selected with proper roof covering and good ventilation to protect the
transfer of chemicals to the storage. For example, liquid propylene oxide and propylene
181
carbonate are addressed to the hazard of handling and storing of liquid chemicals. Furthermore,
specially designed piping system with necessary safety devices such as pressure relief valve
and backflow preventer (check valve) should be installed for transferring hazardous liquid to
tank car or trucks. On the other hand, the storage of solid material (if any) usually generates
dust in the plant. The generated dust that dispersed in air at certain concentration will cause
fire and explosion if exposing to a source of ignition. In order to minimize the dust escape, the
filling bin can provide with metal or fabric skirt and air return duct. The maintenance of every
chemical handling should be well maintained for the safety of the process plant (Fischer, 2011).
Besides that, handling of hazardous materials depends on:
• State of material: Liquid, solid or gas.
• Method of transport: Piping, ducts, conveyors, and tanks.
• Method of storage: Tanks, hoppers and pallets.
In our plant, the workers are mainly involved in gas handling of raw materials and liquid
chemical handling. On the site, the hazardous liquid handling must be transported and stored
according to the appropriate codes and standards.
Permit Procedures
Permit and licenses are required by law before a plant is permitted to operate. It is very
important for every employee in the plant to acquire a permit before any operation such as hot
work, electric work to begin and confined space entry. In a plant, hot-work permit involving
welding, cutting and open flame is usually required for operation because the operation
involves flame and produces sparks. The permit intended to prevent fire or injury to employee
doing the work. A plant may choose to have specialized permits to regulate certain types of
work such as after-hours work and vehicle operation. All of these permits introduced in the
plant is to ensure that certain work is informed and is performed safely in the plant. Here are
some guidelines need for documentation (Daniel & Joseph, 1990):
• Define the work to be done: Locations and area affected.
• Set duration for working period.
• Remove, or clearly mark all hazardous materials and conditions.
• Prepare the working sites.
• Notify all personnel in and around the area of the work.
• Restrict access to the work area.
• Provide all necessary safety, emergency and personal protective equipment.
General Worker Safety
182
The safety of personnel is very important when working in the industrial plant. Every worker
should be familiarized with the safety instructions and danger signs around the plant. Besides
that, employees in the plant should have undergo safety training for emergency response to
ensure they are aware of every emergency escape plan in the plant. In additional, the employers
are also required to prove effective information and train employees on the hazards of the
hazardous chemicals in the work area. At least, employee training must include methods and
observations that may be used to detect the present or release of a hazardous chemical in the
work area such as monitoring on any visual appearance or odor of hazardous chemicals when
being released. Some of the safety rules should be informed to the workers is (General Industry
Digest, 2012):
• No smoking except in specific areas designated for smoking.
• No eating, drinking of alcoholic liquor.
• Report all accidents to the supervisor.
• No flammable chemical substances and drugs allowed into the plant, except in need.
• Get immediate medical attention for serious injuries.
• Do not enter processing areas other than the place of work.
• Know the location of first aids, escape exits, fire alarms and fire extinguishers.
Besides that, personal protective equipment (PPE) is useful to protect the respiratory system,
skin, eyes, face, hands, feet, head, or hearing of employees from chemical, physical, and
biological hazards. To be effective, the selection and use of PPE must be appropriate and
accompanied by adequate training, so they know at least the following: when PPE is necessary,
what PPE is necessary, how to properly to take off or put on, adjust and wear PPE and the
proper care of PPE. Every employee is provided their own protective equipment and the
employer is responsible for assuring its adequacy, proper maintenance and sanitation. The
types of personal protective equipment are listed in Table 6.1 (General Industry Digest, 2012).
Table 6-1: Types of PPE.

Body Type of Clothing or
Type of Protection Codes and Standards
Part Accessories
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Protects the head from hard ANSI Z89.1-2009 “American
Head Safety helmet substances falling, electric National Standard for
shock, and burning. Industrial Head Protection”.
Protect against chemical
Face shield
splashes.
Protect against vaporized ANSI Z87.1-2003 “American
Goggles
Eyes chemicals and splashes. National Standard for
and face Provide immediate Occupational and Educational
Eyewash/Drench emergency use if employees Eye and Face Protection‟.
shower expose to any corrosive
materials.
Protect feet from contact in ASTM F-2412-2005 “Standard
Safety boots
contact with chemicals or Specification for Performance
Foot (Waterproof and slip
avoid injuries from falling, Requirements for Protective
resistant type)
moving, and sharp objects. Footwear”.
National Fire Protection
Protect against splashes,
Body Fully-encapsulating suit Association Standard 1991-
dust, gases and vapors.
EPA Level A&B.
Protect against high
Ears Ear plugs frequency of noise (Average OSHA Noise Standard.
noise level of 8.5 dBA).
Hands
Insulating rubber Protect hands and arms from
and N/A
gloves and sleeves chemical contacts.
arms
Safety is first important thing in industrial plat to ensure all process operating in good
condition. Hence, first aid is an essential primary care given to an injured person. Usually, the
location of the first aid kits box is easily visible and accessible by anyone during an emergency.
Furthermore, other first aid service such as CPR should be given to somebody who having
suffocation from chemical exposure and transfer promptly to a medical facility.
Emergency Response Plan
Working in processing plant is very dangerous because all the workers are exposed themselves
to life-threatening situations every day. With advance planning for potential emergencies will
help to avoid personal injury or any damage to property. A comprehensive emergency
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management plan will allow quick and effective response and so reduce the consequences of
any incident. Key actions for practicing emergency response are:
• Identify potential emergencies.
• Assess possible damage.
• Estimate available response time.
• Prepare plan such as emergency communications and response approach needed.
• Publish and disseminate plan.
• Practice the plan through training.
Safe areas should be set aside for emergency assembly points for employees. The workers will
be evacuated and directed to the assembly point while the plant is running shutting down
process. At least one pre-arranged emergency control center should be established with proper
communication with area around the works, as well as maps, site plans and relevant data and
equipment to assist in any emergencies. Besides that, outside authorities must be prepared to
deal with the effects of major accidents. They include police, ambulance, hospital and other
authority services.
Meanwhile, sounding alarm such as fire alarm should be installed in every corner in the plant
so that if any emergencies happen, it would alert the people in the plant. The alarm should be
actuated by an electrical signaling system with enough call points spread over the work for the
alert to be raised by anyone. For instances, automatic detection equipment such as thermal
sensor to detect the temperature rise around the work area to alert any present of fire going on
in the plant. The fire alarm should be well maintained to prevent any failure of detection and
to alert the workers.
Waste Disposal Operation
There is a waste treatment to treat all the waste from the process before it is getting exposed to
the environment. All information concerning the chemical, physical and toxicological
properties of each substance should be present on the site. This is to make sure the employees
performing their duties on the site alert the substance present in the waste. Besides that, training
is required for all employees who work at the waste clean-up sites of treatment storage and
disposal sites. The training must cover the necessary information to perform these jobs safely
including information on the proper personal protective equipment and procedure to safeguard
employees against hazards and effect of exposure to any toxic substances. Furthermore,
necessary decontamination procedure must be used to assure that hazardous substances are
removed from workers before they leave the worksite as well as from equipment that is to be
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taken off site (Daniel & Joseph, 1990). The employer should provide showers, including
change rooms, for all employees exposed to hazardous substance and health hazard involved
in hazardous waste clean-up operation. Shower should be located in areas where exposure is
below the permissible exposure limits and published exposure levels. It is better if the shower
areas are having a good ventilation system that supplies sufficient air to the employees. Last
but not least, emergency response plan is very important. The plan must be developed and
implemented to handle any emergency happens during waste clean-up operation (Daniel &
Joseph, 1990).
Identification of Hazard
Every organization has the responsibility to safeguard the health and welfare of its employees
and the public. The chemical industry has traditionally devoted considerable attention to safety,
beginning with the research and development new processes through plant design and
construction. In chemical plant, the main hazards are toxic and corrosive chemicals, explosions,
fires and accidents common to all industrial activities. The Occupational Safety and Health Act
1994 from Laws of Malaysia provided a new legal administrative framework to promote,
simulate and encourage even higher standards of health and safety at work.
Process safety study is an important factor in designing a chemical plant, since it can prevent
major accidents in the designed plant and also it ensures the safety of the workers and also
public. The chemical industry has traditionally devoted considerable attention to safety,
beginning with the research and development new processes through plant design and
construction. Safety study can be carried out at any stage in the life cycle of a process. But it
is most effective to carry out studies early in a project when there is the greatest potential for
reducing the hazardous characteristics of a planned process.
Before the HAZOP study is started, detailed information on the process must be available. This
included a process flow diagram (PFDs), process and instrumentation diagram (P&IDs) and
detailed about equipment specifications and mass and energy balance.
Flammability
Flammability is defined as how easily something will burn or ignite, causing fire or
combustion. The degree of difficulty to cause the burning of a chemical is measured through
flame testing. Generally, materials are evaluated as highly flammable, flammable and non-
flammable. Knowing the combustibility of a chemical or a material is imperative for its storage
and transport. Strict measures shall be taken to prevent fire for flammable materials because it
can cause major incident at the process plant. The ability of a substance to do this will depend
upon its condition, geometry, and environment. For example, flammability is normally
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considered with reference to burning in fresh air, but many substances which are not normally
flammable will burn easily in an environment of pure oxygen.
Gases are the easiest substances to define in terms of flammability. For a gas/air mixture, if it
is flammable at all, then there exists a lower limit of fuel concentration below which self-
sustained burning does not occur. This is called the lower flammability or lower explosion
limit (LFL or LEL) (Fry, 2011). For flammability of liquid, it is normally the vapor given off
from liquids which burns rather than the liquids themselves. For a fire to be initially ignited,
the concentration of the vapor needs to be above the LFL. This is strongly affected by the
temperature of the liquid (hence the rate at which it is evaporating), as well as the ambient
conditions and geometry. Solid also has their flammability. Solids burn by the heat from the
flames causing volatile gases to be given off from the surface of the material. Whether a fire
can be sustained is therefore very dependent upon the geometry and conditions.
Flammability Prevention
On the off chance that the flames can continue to the blast, it tends to be viewed as the real risk
in the plant. The presence, contribution of combustible fluid and gases in procedure might be
the real risk to the entire plant yet it can't be kept away from. In this way, the unwavering
quality on any flame quencher medium for example, water supplies, fire fighter, hydrants and
foam are obligatory. The routines and periodically check on any flammable substances and
operation that operate in or near flammability limit should be done to investigate any sign of
leakage (Kiersma, 2014).
Besides, every one of the workers are necessary to have the fundamental preparing about the
firefighting to be utilized to guarantee they realize the correct method to put out the flame when
there is an incident occurred. For instance, a flame by power implies can't be put out by water-
based flame douser. It ought to be put out by dry powder fire extinguishers or foam spray
extinguishers for a more secure method for firefighting than water-based quencher if
coincidentally splashed onto live electrical mechanical assembly.
Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS)
A Material Safety Data Sheet (MSDS) is a document that contains data on the potential risks
(health, fire, reactivity and natural) and how to work securely with the chemical product. It is
a basic beginning stage for the improvement of a total health and security program. It
additionally contains data on the utilization, stockpiling, taking care of and crisis methods all
identified with the hazards of the material. The MSDS contains considerably more data about
the material than the label. MSDS are set up by the provider or maker of the material. It is
planned to tell what the risks of the item are, the way to utilize the item securely, what's in store
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if the proposals are not pursued, what to do if mishaps happen, how to perceive manifestations
of overexposure, and what to do if such incident happen.
MSDS are a broadly utilized framework for inventorying data on chemicals, chemical
compounds, and chemical mixtures. The data may incorporate guidelines for the protected use
and potential hazard related with a specific material or item. These information sheets can be
found any place where chemical is being utilized. There is additionally an obligation to
appropriately mark substances based on physical-compound, health as well as natural hazard.
The MSDS that we generally used is from the European Union which the MSDS will contain
16 sections as follows (Daniels Training Services, 2018):
• Section 1: Product and Company Information
• Section 2: Composition/Information on Ingredients
• Section 3: Hazards Identification
• Section 4: First Aid Measures
• Section 5: Firefighting Measures
• Section 6: Accidental Release Measures
• Section 7: Handling and Storage
• Section 8: Exposure Controls/Personal Protection.
• Section 9: Physical and Chemical Properties
• Section 10: Stability and Reactivity
• Section 11: Toxicology Information
• Section 12: Ecological Information
• Section 13: Disposal Considerations
• Section 14: Transport Information
• Section 15: Regulatory Information
• Section 16: Other Information
The summary of material safety data sheets of components is shown in Table 6-2. The detailed
MSDS of each component are shown in Appendix.
Table 6-2: The Summary of MSDS of Each Components.
Carbon Propylene Propylene
Component Water
Dioxide Oxide Carbonate
Appearance/color Colorless Colorless Clear, Colorless Colorless
Odor Odorless Ether-like Odorless Odorless
Molecular weight 44.01 g/mol 58.080 g/mol 102.09 g/mol 18.01528 g/mol
Melting point -56.6 ‘C -112’C -48.8 ‘C 0 ‘C
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Boiling point -78.5 ’C 34’C 242 ‘C 100 ‘C
Specific gas density 1.98 g/L 2.0 g/L 1.206 g/L -
Specific liquid 771 g/L - - 1.00 g/cm3
density
Vapor pressure 5.73 MPa 444.1 mmHg at 0.00223 mmHg at -
(20’C) 20’C 25’C
Solubility in water 1.45 g/L at 405 g/L at 20 ‘C Moderate soluble Completely
25’C miscible
Dow’s Fire and Explosion Index (F&EI)

The Dow’s Fire and Explosion Index (F&EI) is a safety and loss prevention guide developed
by the Dow Chemical Company and published by the American Institute of Chemical
Engineers, Dow (1980) to gives a procedure to analyse the potential hazards of a process and
computing the safety and loss prevention measures needed (Aiche, 2017). To calculate a
numerical ‘Fire and explosion index’ (F&EI) is based on the nature of the process and the
properties of the process material. According to (Sinnott et al., 2005), the higher value of the
F&EI, the more hazardous the process. Table 6.3 summarised the assessment of hazard.
Table 6-3: Assessment of Hazard.
Fire and Explosion Index Range Degree of Hazard
1-60 Light
61-96 Moderate
97-127 Intermediate
128-158 Heavy
>159 Severe
To identify the potential hazard of a new plant, the index can be calculated after the Piping and
Instrumentation and equipment layout diagrams have been prepared. At the early stage in the
process design, the Dow Fire and Explosion Index is basically is calculated and used to guide
to the selection and design of the preventive and protection equipment required for safe plant
operation. The index only applies to the main process units and it does not The index only
applies to the main process units and it does not cover process auxiliaries such as warehouses,
tank farms, utilities and control rooms. Only the fire and explosion hazard are considered while
toxicity and corrosion hazards are not covered.
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Procedure for Calculation of the Dow’s Fire Index (F&EI)
Figure 6-1 shows the methodology for calculating the index and the potential loss. General
Process Hazards are factors that play a primary role in determining the magnitude of the loss
following an incident. Figure 6-1 illustrates the six factors calculation. In process design,
evaluating the F&EI index will indicate whether alternative, less hazardous, process routes
should be considered. The first step is to identify the units that would have the greatest impact
on the magnitude of any fire or explosion. The index is calculated for each of these units. The
basis of the F&EI is a Material Factor (MF). Then, The MF is multiplied by a Unit Hazard
Factor, F3, to identify the F&EI for the process unit. The Unit Hazard factor is the product of
two factors which take account of the hazards inherent in the operation of the particular process
unit: the general and special process hazards. The material factor is a measure of the intrinsic
rate of energy release from the burning, explosion, or other chemical reaction of the material.
Values for the MF for over 300 of the most commonly used substances are given in the guide.
In calculating the F&EI for a unit the value for the material with the highest MF, which is
present in significant quantities, is used (Sinnott et al., 2005).
190
Figure 6-1: Procedure for Calculating the Fire and Explosion Index and Other Risk Analysis
Information.
A. Exothermic chemical reactions: the penalty varies from 0.3 for a mild exothermic, such
as hydrogenation, to 1.25 for a particularly sensitive exothermic, such as nitration.
B. Endothermic processes: a penalty of 0.2 is applied to reactors, only. It is increased to
0.4 if the reactor is heated by the combustion of a fuel.
C. Materials handling and transfer: this penalty takes account of the hazard involved in the
handling, transfer and warehousing of the material.
D. Enclosed or indoor process units: accounts for the additional hazard where ventilation
is restricted.
E. Access of emergency equipment: areas not having adequate access are penalised.
Minimum requirement is access from two sides.
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F. Drainage and spill control: penalises design conditions that would cause large spills of
flammable material adjacent to process equipment; such as inadequate design of
drainage.
The special process hazards are factors that are known from experience to contribute to the
probability of an incident involving losses. In this chapter, we are going to do until the
determination of F&EI only.
Selection of Pertinent Process Unit
In F&EI calculation, an efficient and logic procedure is needed to determine which process
units should be studied. A process unit is defined as any major item of process equipment.
These following process units could be identified our plant.
Ø Packed Bed reactor
Ø Flash Column
A plant can have many process units. But, to calculate F&IE, only process unit that has an
impact from a loss prevention standpoint should be evaluated. These are known as Pertinent
Process Units criteria for choosing Pertinent Process Units that include:
Ø Chemical energy potential (Material Factor)
Ø Quantity of hazardous material in the process unit
Ø Process pressure and process temperature
Ø Units critical to plant operation, e.g. reactor.
Determination of Material Factor (MF)

The Material Factor (MF) is the basic starting value in the computation of the F&EI and other
risk analysis values. Material factor is a number from 0 to 60 that indicates the magnitude of
the energy release in a fire or explosion. For non-combustible materials, the factor is zero while
for the combustible materials; the factor can be calculated from the following equation:
MF = −ΔHf × 10
Where −ΔHf = heat of combustion
The Dow Index guide, 1994 (Appendix A) has includes a list of the material factors for
commonly used chemicals. The MF can also be obtained from the flammability and instability
rankings according to NFPA 325M or NFPA 49 adjusted for temperature. Generally, the
flammability and instability rankings are for ambient temperatures. It is recognized that the fire
and reaction hazards of a material increase markedly with temperature. The fire hazard from a
combustible liquid at a temperature above its flash point is equivalent to that from a flammable
liquid at ambient temperature. Reaction rates also increase very markedly with temperature.
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If Appendix A, NFPA 49, nor NFPA 325M does not contains values for the substance, mixture
or compound in question or the heat of combustion is unknown, these values will have to be
determined from the flammability ranking or dust class. First, the parameters shown in the left
column of the table will have to be determined. The flammability ranking of liquids and gases
is obtained from flash point data, and the St of dusts or mists is determined by dust explosion
testing. The flammability ranking of combustible solids depends on the nature of the material
as categorized in the left column.
Table 6-4:Material Factor Determination Guide.
Material Factor Determination Guide
Liquid and Gases
Flammability
Flammability or 0 1 2 3 4
Ranking
Combustibilty1
Non-combustible2 0 1 14 24 29 40
F.P. > 200°F (> 93.3°C) 1 4 14 24 29 40
F.P. > 100°F (> 37.8°C)
2 10 14 24 29 40
≤ 200°F (≤93.3°C)
F.P. ≥ 73°F (≥ 22.8°C) <
100 °F (< 37.8°C) or
F.P. < 73°F (< 22.8°C) 3 16 16 24 29 40
& BP. ≥ 100°F (≥
37.8°C)
F.P. < 73°F (< 22.8°C)
& B.P. < 100°F (< 4 21 21 24 29 40
37.8°C)
Combustible Dust or Mist3
St-1 (KSt ≤ 200 bar m/sec) 16 16 24 29 40
St-2 (KSt = 201-300 bar m/sec) 21 21 24 29 40
St-3 (KSt> 300 bar m/sec) 24 24 24 29 40
Combustible Solids
Dense > 40 mm thick4 1 4 14 24 29 40
Open > 40 mm thick5 2 10 14 24 29 40
Foam, fibre, powder,
3 16 16 24 29 40
etc.6
Notes:
1
Includes volatile solids
2
WiIl not bum in air when exposed to a temperature of 1500 °F (816 °C) for a period of
five minutes.
3
KSl values are for a 16 litres or larger closed test vessel with strong ignition source. See
NFPA 68, Guide for Venting of Deflagrations.
Includes wood - 2 inches nominal thickness, magnesium ingots, tight stacks of solids and
tight rolls of paper or plastic film. Example: SARAN WRAP®.
5
Includes coarse granular materials such as plastic pellets, rack storage, wood pallets and
non- dusting ground material e.g. polystyrene.
193
6
Includes rubber goods such as tires and boots, STYROFOAM® brand plastic foam
and fine material such as METHOCEL® cellulose ethers in dust/leak-free packages.
Determination of Process Unit Hazard
After determined the Material Factor (MF), the next step is to calculate the Process Unit
Hazards Factor (F3), which is the term that is multiplied by the Material Factor to obtain the
F&EI as stated in the form used in the Dow Fire and Explosion Index as shown in Figure 6-2.
The numerical value of the Process Unit Hazards Factor is determined by first determining the
General Process Hazards Factor (F1) and Special Process Hazards Factor (F2) listed on the
F&EI form. Each item which contributes to the Process Hazards Factors contributes to the
development or escalation of an incident that could cause a fire or an explosion.
Figure 6-2: Dow Fire and Explosion Index Calculation Form.
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General Process Hazard
The general process hazards are factor that play a main role in calculating the magnitude of the
loss following an incident. General process hazards consists six items which are exothermic
chemical reactions, endothermic chemical reaction processes, material handling and transfer,
enclosed or indoor process units, access of emergency equipment and drainage and spill
control. The purposes of these factors are to allow the general process hazard associated with
the unit being considered.
Ø Exothermic chemical reactions: the penalty varies from 0.3 for a mild exothermic,
such as hydrogenation, to 1.25 for a particularly sensitive exothermic, such as nitration.
Ø Endothermic processes: a penalty of 0.2 is applied to reactors, only. It is increased to
0.4 if the reactor is heated by the combustion of a fuel.
Ø Materials handling and transfer: this penalty takes account of the hazard involved in
the handling, transfer and warehousing of the material.
Ø Enclosed or indoor process units: accounts for the additional hazard where ventilation
is restricted.
Ø Access of emergency equipment: areas not having adequate access are penalised.
Minimum requirement is access from two sides.
Ø Drainage and spill control: penalises design conditions that would cause large spills
of flammable material adjacent to process equipment; such as inadequate design of
drainage.
Special Process Hazard
The special process hazards are factors that can be defined from the situation that contribute to
the potential of an incident involving loss. There are twelve factor were listed on the calculation
form as shown in Figure 6-2.
Ø Toxic materials: the presence of toxic substances after an incident will make the task
of the emergency personnel more difficult. The factor applied ranges from 0 for non-
toxic materials, to 0.8 for substances that can cause death after short exposure.
Ø Sub-atmospheric pressure: allows for the hazard of air leakage into equipment. It is
only applied for pressure less than 500 mmHg (9.5 bara).
Ø Operation in or near flammable range: covers for the possibility of air mixing with
material in equipment or storage tanks, under conditions where the mixture will be
within the explosive range.
195
Ø Dust explosion: covers for the possibility of a dust explosion. The degree of risk is
largely determined by the particle size. The penalty factor varies from 0.25 for particles
above 175 µm, to 2.0 for particles below 75 µm.
Ø Relief pressure: this penalty accounts for the effect of pressure on the rate of leakage,
should a leak occur. Equipment design and operation becomes more critical as the
operating pressure is increased. The factor to apply depends on the relief device setting
and the physical nature of the process material. It is determined from Figure 2 in the
Dow Guide.
Ø Low temperature: this factor allows for the possibility of brittle fracture occurring in
carbon steel, or other metals, at low temperatures.
Ø Quantity of flammable material: the potential loss will be greater the greater the
quantity of hazardous material in the process or in storage. The factor to apply depends
on the physical state and hazardous nature of the process material, and the quantity of
material. It varies from 0.1 to 3.0, and is determined from Figures 3, 4 and 5 in the Dow
Guide.
Ø Corrosion and erosion: despite good design and materials selection, some corrosion
problems may arise, both internally and externally. The factor to be applied depends on
the anticipated corrosion rate. The severest factor is applied if stress corrosion cracking
is likely to occur.
Ø Leakage joints and packing: this factor accounts for the possibility of leakage from
gaskets, pump and other shaft seals, and packed glands. The factor varies from 0.1
where there is the possibility of minor leaks, to 1.5 for processes that have sight glasses,
bellows or other expansion joints.
Ø Use of fired heaters: the presence of boilers or furnaces, heated by the combustion of
fuels, increases the probability of ignition should a leak of flammable material occur
from a process unit. The risk involved will depend on the siting of the fired equipment
and the flash point of the process material. The factor to apply is determined with
reference to Figure 6 in the Dow Guide.
Ø Hot oil heat exchange system: most special heat exchange fluids are flammable and
are often used above their flash points; so their use in a unit increases the risk of fire or
explosion. The factor to apply depends on the quantity and whether the fluid is above
or below its flash point.
196
Ø Rotating equipment: this factor accounts for the hazard arising from the use of large
pieces of rotating equipment: compressors, centrifuges, and some mixers.
Calculation for DOW F&EI
Appendix C shows the calculation of Dow F&IE for every process unit in this plant. Table 6-
5 summarised the Dow F&IE for this plant.
Table 6-5: Summary of Dow Fire & Explosion Index.
Equipment Fire & Explosion Index Degree of Hazard
R-101 161.81 Severe
V-103 94.09 Moderate
V-104 192.72 Severe
Toxicity Index
The Toxicity Index (TI) is determined from toxicity number, (hℎ) and penalty factor, hj plus
the hazard factor of Fire & Explosion Index (F&EI). The TI can be calculated from the
following equation:
Th + Ts(1 + F1 + F2)
TI =
100
The toxicity number (hℎ) is derived from the NFPA health factor mℎ (NFPA 704. 325M or
49). mℎ is integer number ranging from 0 to 4 (The Dow Chemical Company, 1994). The five
degrees of hazards are related to the protective equipment normally available to fire fighters.
The toxicity number (hℎ) based on NFPA Health Factor is summarised in Table 6-6 below.
Table 6-6: The Toxicity Number (Th) based on NFPA Health Factor.
no po
0 0
1 50
2 125
3 250
4 325
The penalty factor (hj) is the second parameter used to identify the TI. The hj value is derived
from the Threshold Limit Values (TLV). The TLV-values are drawn up by the American
Conference of Governance Industries Hygienist. TLV represent a time weighted 372 average
(TWA) air concentrations to which workers can be exposed during a normal working week
197
without ill effects (Ilpi, 2016). TLV often indicated as a TWA-value, both are the same (Noaa,
2019). The penalty factors hj are tabulated in Table 6-7.
Table 6-7: Penalty Factor (hj) based on Threshold Limit Values (TLV).
Threshold limit value (TLVs) Penalty factor (pq)
<5 125
5-50 75
>50 50
The detail calculation of TI are summarised in Appendix C. The equipment with higher or
moderate level of toxicity as measured by the TI is fitted with alarms and extra sensors to
enhance personnel safety. Table 6-8 tabulates the toxicity index for each equipment in plant.
Table 6-8: Toxicity Index and Qualitative Hazard Level.
Toxicity Index Qualitative Hazard Level
1-5 Light
6-9 Moderate
10+ High
Table 6-9 summarised the Toxicity Index for every equipment.
Table 6-9: Summary of Toxicity Index.
Equipment Toxicity Index Degree of Hazard
R-101 5.15 Light
V-103 4.35 Light
V-104 5.51 Light
Toxicity is a substance or material which is poisoning and toxin that can cause injuries to
human and animals (Medicinenet, 2018). The potential hazard will depend on the inherent
toxicity of the material and the frequency and duration of any exposure. Toxicity is classified
into different type which is shown as in Table 6-10.
Table 6-10: Type of Toxicity (Toxtutor, 2016).
Type Description
Acute It happens in a short period of time after exposure. Basically, acute toxicity is a single
Toxicity dose or a series of doses within range 24 hour period and can causes death.
Sub chronic It happens from repeated exposure for several weeks or month. Usually, people who
Toxicity engage in pharmaceutical and environment agent will expose to sub chronic toxicity.
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Chronic It happens with repeated exposures or long-term continual exposure, This type of
Toxicity toxic cause damage to specific organ system and takes many month or year to
become a recognizable clinical disease.
Equipment Control
Introduction
In chemical plant, the development of process control is one of the most important parts.
Generally, there are five elements in process control which are temperature, pressure, flow rate,
level in the equipment and composition. Meanwhile, there are four basic components of a
control system which are sensor as primary element, transmitter as secondary element,
controller as brain of the control system and final control element such as control valve, other
elements are variable speed pumps, conveyors and electric motors. The process control can be
achieved by gauging the variables which are controlled variables, comparing this measurement
with the desired value to maintain the controlled variables according the set point, and
modifying some variables which are manipulated variables which has indirect or indirect effect
on the controlled variables (Skliar, 2008).
Classification of Control Strategies
Usually, there are two types of control strategies in process control, they are feedback control
and feedforward control. The distinguishing feature of feedback control is that the controlled
variable is measured, and the measurement is used to adjust the manipulated variable while the
disturbance variable is not measured. There are two categories of feedback control system
which are positive feedback and negative feedback. For positive feedback control the value of
set point and output are added meanwhile negative feedback the set point and output value are
subtracted. According to the principle, negative feedback systems is more stable and make the
system more immune to random variations in component values and input than positive
feedback system (“Topic # 5 Feedback Control Systems,” n.d.). The advantages of feedback
control are as the corrective action occurs regardless of the source of disturbance. Besides,
feedback control able to reduce the sensitivity of the controlled variable to unmeasured
disturbances and process changes. Unfortunately, feedback control is limited by its constraint,
which is no corrective action is taken until the controlled variable deviates from the set point
(Skliar, 2008).
Besides, feed forward control is measuring the disturbance but not for the control variable. The
advantages feed forward control is as the corrective action is taken before the controlled
variable deviates from the set point. There are three significant drawbacks for the feed forward
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control, which are the disturbance variable must be measured accurately, no corrective action
is taken for unmeasured disturbances, and a process model is required (Cooper, 2015).
Control Variable
In the production of propylene carbonate, we control reactor, flash column, heat exchanger,
storage tank, pump and pressure relief valve. There are five types of control variables that
includes flow control, pressure control, temperature level control and composition control.
Level Control
Level control is important to monitor the liquid level in the flash column and storage tanks to
prevent the liquid level overflow during the process and maintain the volume in the reactors
and tanks. This can be incorporated in the design of the equipment, as usually done for an
automatic control of the flow out from the equipment.
Temperature Control
Temperature control is significant as the temperature for all the equipment in the plant must be
monitored in certain specific value to achieve the desired products. Especially the temperature
in the reactors is often affecting the conversion required to produce the desired product. The
temperature controller in the reactor is usually incorporated with the automatic control of the
flow rate of cooling utilities inlet to the reactor to maintain the temperature in the reactor itself.
Pressure Control
Pressure control is necessary to be maintained at certain value for the operation in the reactor
by placing a pressure relief valve attached to the reactor. Besides that, the pressure cannot be
too high as it may lead to runaway reaction such as explosion.
Flow Control
Flow control is usually associated with the inventory control in all the equipment to maintain
the inlet and outlet flow rate during operation. The main control elements we used for this plant
are pumps and compressor. By installing pumps and compressor, they will deliver the flow rate
at almost constant volume output to the equipment or out from the equipment. In additional,
control valve can also be used as a final element to control the flow rate. The adjustment of the
control valve which alters the flow rate and maintain the flow rate at the set amount.
Composition Control
Composition control is important because it controls the final composition of the required
product. In our plant, composition control is employed at the flash column to gain the desired
composition of propylene carbonate from the separation. A composition indicator transmitter
is used to analyze the vapor and liquid composition of the column and signal is transmitted to
the composition controller.
200
Control System of Major Equipment
The control system to produce 100,000 MTA of propylene carbonate is designed integrating
with feedback control loops and cascade control loops in order to handle operation parameters
such as temperature, level, pressure, flow rate and composition. The process flow sheet exhibits
the arrangement of the major equipment and their interconnection involved. The Piping and
Instrumentation Diagram shows the engineering details of the equipment, instrument, piping,
and valves have been arranged accordingly.
To have a better understanding on P&ID of our plant, legends used in the plant are listed in
Table 6-11. The commonly used legends for the control loop are pressure, temperature, liquid,
composition and flow. The function of each control element is shown in Table 6-12 while Table
6-13 shows the basic symbols used to show the valves, instrument and control loops.
Table 6-11: Legends Used in P&ID.
Symbol Description
TT and TC Temperature Transmitter and Temperature Controller
PT and PC Pressure Transmitter and Pressure Controller
LT and LC Level Transmitter and Level Controller
FT and FC Flow Transmitter and Flow Controller
AT and AC Composition Transmitter and Composition Controller
TAH and TAL Temperature Alarm High and Temperature Alarm Low
PAH and PAL Pressure Alarm High and Pressure Alarm Low
LAH and LAL Level Alarm High and Level Alarm Low
FAH and FAL Flow Alarm High and Flow Alarm Low
Table 6-12: Table of General Function of Control Element in a Plant.

Control Element Function
Temperature Control Instrument
TT Detects temperature change in the equipment.
TC Calculation made with the set point. Signals are sent to the final control
element (valve) to do an action.
TAH Detects high temperature in the equipment. When temperature exceeds
temperature limit, it sends a signal to TC.
TAL Detects low temperature in the equipment. When temperature is lower
than temperature limit, it sends a signal to TC.
Pressure Control Instruments
201
PT Detects pressure change in the equipment.
PC Calculation made with the set point. Signals are sent to the final control
PAH Detects high pressure in the equipment. When pressure exceeds
pressure limit, it sends a signal to PC.
PAL Detects low pressure in the equipment. When pressure is lower than
pressure limit, it sends a signal to PC.
Level Control Instrument
LT Detects level change in the equipment.
LC Calculation made with the set point. Signals are sent to the final control
LAH Detects high level in the equipment. When level exceeds level limit, it
sends a signal to LC
LAL Detects low level in the equipment. When level is lower than level
limit, it sends a signal to LC.
Flow Control Instrument
FT Detects flow change in the equipment.
FC Calculation made with the set point. Signals are sent to the final control
FAH Detects high flow in the equipment. When flow exceeds flow limit, it
sends a signal to FC.
FAL Detects low flow in the equipment. When flow is lower than flow limit,
it sends a signal to FC.
Composition Control Instrument
AT Detects composition change in the equipment.
AC AC Calculation made with the set point. Signals are sent to the final
control element (valve) to do an action.
Table 6-13: Basic Symbols Used to Show the Valve, Instrument & Control Loops.
Hardware Element Symbol Description
TT Temperature Transmitter
PT Pressure Transmitter
LT Level Transmitter
FT Flow Transmitter
AT Composition Transmitter
202
TC Temperature Controller
PC Pressure Controller
LC Level Controller
FC Flow Controller
AC Composition Controller
TAH/TAL Temperature Alarm High/
Low
PAH/PAL Pressure Alarm High/
Low
LAH/LAL Level Alarm High/ Low
FAH/FAL Flow Alarm High/ Low
Transmission Line Pneumatic Transmission
Line
Electric Transmission
Line

The packed bed reactor is an exothermic reaction; the operating temperature of the reactor is
detected by placing thermocouple in the reactor. Then, the inlet flow rate of the chilled water
is designed which is able to be altered in order to control the temperature of the cooling jacketed
reactor.
Figure 6-3: Control System of Packed Bed Reactor

The control system of the cooling jacketed of packed bed reactor (PBR) is designed as:
203
1. To control and maintain temperature in the packed bed reactor at desired temperature
to ensure the reaction is always carried out continuously.
2. Control system of each element is summarized in Table 6-14.
Table 6-14: Control System of Packed Bed Reactor.
Control Measured Disturbance Manipulated Type of
Set Point
Variables Variables Variables Variable Controller
Regulate inlet
T = 408 K (If
flow rate of
Inconsistent temperature exist
the cooling
of inlet flow ± 10% of set
Temperature in Temperature water needed
rate of Feedback point,
R-101 in R-101 for the
temperature temperature alarm
cooling
in R-101 high/low will be
jacketed
activated)
reactor.
P = 50 bar (If
Controlled by
Oscillating pressure exist ±
the safety
Pressure in R- Pressure in inlet pressure 10% of set point,
relief valve Cascade
101 R-101 flow rate of pressure alarm
attached on
feed in S15 high/low will be
R-101
activated)
L = 7.34 m (If
Outlet flow height exist ±
Inlet flow
Level in R- rate of 10% of set point,
Level in R-101 rate of feed Cascade
101 products in level alarm
in S6
S16 high/low will be
activated)
Flash Drum (V-103)

The aim for the control system to be installed in V-103 is to to maintain its pressure at 2 bar
for it to separate PC from the product mixture at the flash point. Besides, the liquid level needs
to be monitored to prevent spillage or overflow. The inlet flow rate is controlled within a
specific range as too high of inlet flow rate may cause impurities in PC product as there is
insufficient time for the V-103 to undergo separation process.
204
1
Figure 6-4: Control System of V-103

Table 6-15: Control System of V-103
Loop Control Variables Measured Variables Disturbance Type of Controller
1 Outlet gas flow rate Pressure inside V-103 Inlet flow rate of Feedback
in S28 S18
2 Outlet liquid flow Liquid level inside V- Inlet flow rate of Feedback
in S19 103 S18
A feedback control loop (Loop 1) is installed to maintain the pressure inside V-103 at 2 bar by
monitoring its outlet flow rate. Excessive amount of vapor formed would create pressure inside
thus it needs to be purged through the vapor stream. Disturbance of this loop is the temperature
within V-103 as pressure is directly proportional to temperature regarding to the Principle of
Thermodynamic (Gas law). Another feedback control loop (Loop 2) is installed to maintain the
liquid level inside V-103 at a desired level by monitoring its outlet bottom flow rate. The
disturbance of this loop is its inlet flow rate. The changing in inlet flow rate would direct
fluctuate the liquid level within V-103.
Flash Drum (V-104)
The aim for the control system to be installed in V-104 is to to maintain its pressure at 1 bar
for it to separate PO from the product mixture at the flash point. Besides, the liquid level needs
to be monitored to prevent spillage or overflow. The inlet flow rate is controlled within a
specific range as too high of inlet flow rate may cause impurities in PO product as there is
insufficient time for the V-104 to undergo separation process.
205
1
Figure 6-5: Control System of V-104.

Table 6-16: Control System of V-104.
Loop Control Variables Measured Variables Disturbance Type of Controller
1 Outlet gas flow rate Pressure inside flash Inlet flow rate Feedback
drum
2 Outlet liquid flow Liquid level inside Inlet flow rate Feedback
flash drum
A feedback control loop (Loop 1) is installed to maintain the pressure inside V-104 at 1 bar by
monitoring its outlet flow rate. Excessive amount of vapor formed would create pressure inside
thus it needs to be purged through the vapor stream. Disturbance of this loop is the temperature
within V-104 as pressure is directly proportional to temperature regarding to the Principle of
Thermodynamic (Gas Law). Another feedback control loop (Loop 2) is installed to maintain
the liquid level inside V-104 at a desired level by monitoring its outlet bottom flow rate. The
disturbance of this loop is its inlet flow rate. The changing in inlet flow rate would direct
fluctuate the liquid level within V-104.
Storage Tank (S-101)
The function of the storage tank is to store the raw materials and products. This process design
involves four storage tanks and they have the same type of control system.
206
Figure 6-6: Control and Feedback System of Storage tank (S-102).
The control system of the storage tank is designed as:
1. To control and maintain the level of materials in the storage tank.
2. Responsibility of each control element is shown as follows.
Table 6-17: Control and Feedback System of Storage tank (S-102).
Control Measure Manipulated Type of Set Point
Disturbances
Variables Variables Variables Controller
Level in S- Level in S- Fluctuating Adjust inlet Feedback H=
102 102 outlet flow flow rate 3.6312m (If
rate in S1 level exist ±
10% of set
point, level
alarm
high/low
will be
activated)
Control System for Minor Equipment

Heat Exchanger
Heat exchangers are normally used to change the temperature of the stream by cooling or
heating the stream that entering it. Specific temperature is set so that it will reach suitable
temperature for the operating. For the control strategy implemented for heat exchangers in this
plant, the temperature of the outlet stream will be measured and the heating or cooling element
in the heat exchanger will be manipulated to reach the set temperature.
207
Figure 6-7: Control and Feedback System for Heat Exchangers.
Table 6-18: Control and Feedback System for Heat Exchangers.
Control Measure Manipulated Type of
Disturbance
Outlet temperature Outlet temperature Fluctuating inlet Adjust inlet flow rate
(Tube side) of E- (Tube side) of E- flow rate in S22 of of cooling water of E- Feedback
104 104 E-104 104
Compressor (C-101)
The purpose of having the compressor control system is to maintain the outlet pressure of
carbon dioxide. For this system to work, the outlet carbon dioxide pressure is compared to the
set point and controlled by using the feedback scheme. If the outlet carbon dioxide pressure is
not up to the set point, the pressure is manipulated by adjusting the centrifugal force of the
compressor until it reaches the set point.
Figure 6-8: Control and Feedback System of Compressor (C-101).
208
Table 6-19: Control and Feedback System of Compressor (C-101).
Control Measure Disturbances Manipulated Type of Set Point
Variables Variable Variables Controller
Outlet Outlet Change in outlet Adjust the power Feedback P=50 bar (If
pressure of pressure of flow rate of S15 of C-101 pressure
S15 S15 exists ± 10%
of set point,
level alarm
high/low
will be
activated)
Pump (P-101)
The purpose of having the pump control system is to maintain the outlet pressure of liquid
products. For this system to work, the outlet liquid pressure is compared to the set point and
controlled by using the feedback scheme. If the outlet liquid pressure is not up to the set point,
the pressure is manipulated by adjusting the centrifugal force of the pump until it reaches the
set point.
Figure 6-9: Control and Feedback System of Pump (P-102).

Table 6-20: Control and Feedback System of Pump (P-102).
Control Measure Disturbance Manipulated Type of Set Point
Outlet Outlet Change in Adjust the Feedback P=50 bar (If
pressure of S6 pressure of S6 outlet flow rate power of P- pressure
of S6 101 exist ± 10%
of set point,
209
level alarm
high/low will
be activated)
210
Piping & Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID)
T-101 S-101 VLV1/2/3 S-102 P-101 E-101 C-101 E-106 E-103 E-107 E-108 E-104 E-109 E-102 R-101
Cooling Tower Pressurized Storage Tank 1 Pressure Reducing valve 1 Storage Tank 2 Centrifugal Pump 1 Heater 1 Compressor 1 Cooler 4 Cooler 1 Cooler 5 Heat Exchanger 1 Cooler 2 Heat Exchanger 2 Heater 2 Packed Bed Reactor
C-102 V-104 V-102 E-105 S-103 V-103 S-104 E-110 E-111 VLV4 F-101 T-101
Turbine Flash 2 Let Down Drum Cooler 3 Pressurized Storage Tank 3 Flash 1 Storage Tank 4 Heat Exchanger 3 Heat Exchanger Pressure Reducing Valve 4 Steam Boiler Cooling Tower
Domain 5bar
Water
F-101
S30
T=35˚C
T-101 P=1.5bar PC
104
TC TC PAH
104 106 PAL
TAH TAH
T=35˚C TAL TAL
PT
104
P=1.5bar TT
104
TT
106
T=45˚C
P=1.5bar S27 S28 LT
PC 104
101 S35
T=35˚C S34 T=45˚C T=35˚C
PAH LAH
PAL P=1.5bar P=1.5bar P=1.5bar V-104 LAL
PT
101
PAH
PAL S31 E-107 E-106 LC
104
PT PC
101/2/3 101/2/3 TC
102 PC
LT 103
101 TAH
LAH TAL PAH
CO2 LAL PAL
T=53˚C TT PAH
LC 102 T=135˚C 101 PT
103
101 P=1.5bar P=1.5bar
S-101 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11
S12 PT
101
PC
101 S29
T=25˚C T=35˚C T=35˚C T=44˚C
P=70bar VLV 1/2/3 TT TT PO
P=1.5bar P=1.5bar 110 P=1.5bar 111 T=35˚C
E-110 E-111 TAH PAH E-102 ASV
TAH TAL PAL P=1.5bar
TAL TC
PC PT
S-103
111
TC 102 102
110
ASV
S33
T=101˚C T=135˚C
C-101 P=50bar
P=1.5bar C-102 S13 T=101˚C
PC
101 P=20bar
PAH S32
PAL S26
PT
T=121˚C
LT LC
101 101 101 PC P=1.5bar PC
102 LAH 103
TL PAH LAL
101 LAH PAL PAH PAH
TAH LAL PAL PAL
TAL PT LT LC
102 102 102 PC PT
TC 1 1 PT
101 103
R-101
S15
S14 S16
TC T=135˚C T=101˚C T=101˚C LT
103
103
P=50bar V-102 P=20bar VLV 4 P=2bar LAH
TAH LAL V-103
TAG
LC
TT 103
103
S17
T=121˚C
S18 S6
S19 P=1.5bar
T=121˚C S23 T=135˚C
T=115˚C P=1.5bar T=121˚C P=50bar
P=1.5bar E-103 P=1.5bar
PAH
PAL
TC TC
101 106 PC PT
TC 102 102
TC
107
TAH TAH
TAL TAL TAH
LT PAH TAL
102 FAL TT TT
PO LAH PC PT
101 106 TT
107
LAL 101 101
LC S5
102
S2 S3 S4
S-102 T=25˚C T=35˚C T=87˚C T=135˚C
S1 P=50bar
P=50bar E-108 P=50bar E-109 P=50bar
T=25˚C E-101 TC P-102
105
P=1bar TAH
P-101 TT
TAL
S24 105
T=35˚C S25
TC
P=1.5bar T=25˚C
S20 104
P=1.5bar
TAH E-105
T=35˚C TAL
P=1.5bar TT S22 PC
104 T=25˚C
P=1bar
S-104
S21
T=25˚C
P=1.5bar
E-104
Stream S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S7 S8 S9 S10 S11 S12 S13 S14 S15 S16 S17 S18 S19 S20 S21 S22 S23 S24 S25 S26 S27 S28 S29 S30 S31 S32 S33 S34 S35
Phase L L L L L L G G G G G G LG LG LG L L L L L L L L L G G GL L G G G G G G G
T(˚C) 25 25 35 87 135 135 25 35 35 44 53 135 135 101 101 121 121 115 35 25 25 121 35 25 121 45 35 35 35 35 35 101 101 45 35
P (bar) 1 50 50 50 50 50 70 50 50 50 50 50 50 20 2 1 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 20 1.5 1.5 1.5
Flowrate (kmol/hr)
Figure 6-10: P&ID of Propylene Carbonate Production Plant.

PO
CO2
136
0
136
0
136
0
136
0
136
0
136
0
0
122
0
122
0
204
0
204
0
204
0
204
14
82
14
49
14
49
2
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
2
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
11
49
11
49
11
49
11
0
0
49
0
82
0
82
0
33
0
33
0
33
0
33
PC 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 122 122 122 121 60.5 60.5 60.5 60.5 121 60.5 60.5 60.5 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
211
Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP)
HAZOP Process
The hazard and operability studies (HAZOP) is a standard methodology to determine hazard
in chemical process plant, in which this specialized methodology is effective in determination
of hazards and is well accepted by the chemical industry. The basic concept of HAZOP study is
to consider all possible ways that process and operational failures can occur. Before HAZOP study
can be conducted, detailed information on the process such as process flow diagram (PFD), piping
and instrumentation diagram (P&ID) and detailed equipment specifications must be available. A
complete HAZOP study requires a large investment of time and effort; however the value of the
result is well worth the effort (Sinnott et al., 2005).
In HAZOP study, each element consists of a process parameter and guide word. Process
parameters are typically measurable quantities, such as flow, temperature, pressure, level and
composition. Meanwhile, the intention of the guide words is to stimulate the imagination, and
the method relies very much on the expertise of the persons performing the analysis. All the
guide words used for the HAZOP study are as tabulated in Table 6-21 as follows (Grossel, 2002).
Table 6-21: HAZOP Guide Word.
Guide Meaning Meaning
Words
NO or NOT The complete negation No part of the intentions is achieved but nothing else
of these intentions happens.
MORE or Quantitative increase Applies to quantities such as flow rate and temperature and
Greater to activities such as heating and reaction
Less or Quantitative decrease Applies to quantities such as flow rate and temperature and
Lower to activities such as heating and reaction
As Well As Quantitative increase All design and operating intentions are achieved together
with some additional activity
Part Of Quantitative decrease Only some of the attention achieved; some are not
Reverse The logical opposite of This is more applicable to activities for example reverse
the intention flow or chemical reaction. It can also be applied to
substances such as ‘Poison’ instead of ‘Antidote’.
Other Than Complete substitution No part of the original intentions is achieved. Something
quite different happens
Sooner Too early or in the Applies to process steps or actions
Than wrong order
212
Later Than Too late or in the Applies to process steps or actions
wrong order
Where Else In additional location Applies to process location, or location in operating
procedures.
Objective of HAZOP
The objectives of carrying out the HAZOP study on the process plant are listed as follows:
Ø To identify causes and consequences of perceived mal operations of equipment and
associated operators’ interfaces and context of the complete system.
Ø To identify hazards or deficiency and potential operability problems which may lead
to hazards such as fire, explosion, toxic release or reduce productivity.
Ø To identify and prevent hazards in process plants that are growing in complexity with
standards are no longer adequate.
Ø To meet the legislative requirements for example, DOSH.
Ø To identify the need for emergency procedure to mitigate or prevent the event from
happening.
Ø To critically examine the inadequacies in systems by considering it as a fully
integrated dynamic unit rather than the ad hoc‟ design approach.
Procedure of HAZOP
The efficient actions and solutions are used to restrain the possibility of hazard happen and
causing in an accident that will cause injuries and losses to the plant. In HAZOP study must
consist of identified problem, recommendation, person responsible, reasons foe acting and
deadlines for action implementation. The system design engineers of the plant are responsible
to follow up the actions arising from the HAZOP. The HAZOP procedure uses the following
steps to complete the process as shown in Figure 6-10.
The advantages to this approach is that it provides a more complete identification of the
hazards, including information on how hazards can develop as a result of operating procedures
and operational upset in the process. With a good HAZOP study, it will help the plant to operate
better with less downtime and safer and also improve quality of product. However, HAZOP
requires considerable long time to study which will eventually bored the members in the
process. The success or failure of the HAZOP depends on several factors:
Ø The completeness and accuracy of drawings and other data used as a basis for the study.
Ø The technical skills and insights of the team.
213
Ø The ability of the team to use the approach as an aid to their imagination in visualizing
deviations, causes, and consequences.
Ø The ability of the team to concentrate on the more serious hazards which are identified.
Figure 6-11: Procedure to Determine HAZOP.

Major Equipment HAZOP
The HAZOP study on the major equipment are performed in the HAZOP analysis forms and
the guide words are applied to the study node of the unit with the designated operating
parameter to improve the safety process. The major equipment for the study is as follows:
i. Reactor
ii. Flash column
iii. Storage tank
214
Table 6-22 summarizes the equipment HAZOP for packed bed reactor (R-101).
Table 6-22: HAZOP Study for Packed Bed Reactor.
Deviation
No Cause Consequences Safeguard Recommendation
Parameter Guideword
-Clogged inlet of chilled -Install temperature
water into the cooling The temperature of R-101 controller at the inlet.
More jacket (air-to-open) of increases and alters the Temperature alarm will -Install advanced cooling
1 Temperature steam transport pipeline reaction conversion. activate once the temperature jacketed system.
fail. is exceed/lower the operating -Check air-to-open valve in
-More amount of chilled temperature of R-101. steam and air-to-close control
Less The reaction conversion
water entering the valve to control the inlet in
will be lowered.
cooling jacket the pipeline.
Reaction conversion is
-Place the pressure relief
More -Thermal overpressure altered due to undesired valve to release the excess
operating condition. Pressure alarm will activate pressure in R-101.
2. Pressure once the pressure has
The reaction slows down exceeded/lowered the -Install gas detector to trace
-Low reaction rate and efficiency of R-101 operating pressure of R-101. leakage based on the
Less will be affected due to the chemical type.
-Pipeline leakage
loss of reactant feed into R- -Install downstream
101. pressure regulating valve.
-Air-to-open control The feed ratio will be -Install high flow cut off the
More altered and led to undesired gas supply to compressor
valve malfunction. -Level alarm installation to
conversion. detect the level changes in R- -Install solenoid valve
-Minor leakage at the 101 with high and low level
3. Flow -Frequent maintenance and
feed line. cut off system.
Less -Partial clog in the Desired conversion cannot cleaning of the pipeline.
-Install flow sensor and
pipeline. be achieved. -Install low flow cut off the
indicator.
-Inlet valve loose. gas supply to compressor.
215
-Air-to-open control
valve malfunction.
-Leakage/ clog in the -No reaction occur -Install flow sensor and -Install digital sensor to
No pipeline -Loss of desired reaction indicator detect and trace leakage.
-Low inlet pressure into rate -Clear all blockage -Install solenoid valve
the reactor
Reverse pressure -Compressor failure. -Install non-return valve.
Reverse -Install reverse flow cut off
-No reaction.
differential -Install high-pressure alarm. system to compressor.
-Back mixing.
Flash Column (V-103)

Table 6-23 summarizes the equipment HAZOP for flash column (V-103).
Table 6-23: HAZOP Study for V-103
Deviation
Parameter Guideword
1. Pressure More Inconsistent of May lead to overpressure Pressure alarm installation Install the pressure relief valve in
temperature for inlet flow of V-103 and faulty to detect the pressure V-103.
rate in S18 separation. changes in V-103.
Less Inconsistent of inlet S18 Products are impure and -Install downstream pressure
and outlet S19 & S28 reduced
regulating valve to control the
flow rate of V-103
outlet S28 flow rate of V-103.
-Install solenoid valve.
2. Level More Inconsistent inlet S18 Products will overflow Level alarm installation to -Always ensure pipeline cleaning
detect the level in V-103
and outlet S19 & S28 where there are too much and maintenance
with high and low level cut
flow rate or line blockage products stored V-103. off system. -Install low flow cut off liquid
supply to pump
break.
216
Less Inconsistent of inlet S18 The separation efficiency -Install air-to-open control valve
of V-103 will decrease.
flow rate or line fracture. to control outlet S19 flow rate of
V-103.
-Install bypass pipeline for the
broken line.
Flash Column (V-104)

Table 6-24 summarizes the equipment HAZOP for flash column (V-103).
Table 6-24: HAZOP Study for V-104
Deviation
Parameter Guideword
1. Pressure More Inconsistent of May lead to overpressure of Pressure alarm installation Install the pressure relief valve in
temperature for inlet V-104 and faulty to detect the pressure the flash.
flow rate separation. changes in flash.
Less Inconsistent of inlet Products are impure and -Install downstream pressure
and outlet flow rate of reduced.
regulating valve to control the
flash
outlet vapour flow rate of the flash.
2. Level More Inconsistent inlet and Products will overflow Level alarm installation to -Always ensure pipeline cleaning
detect the level in separator
outlet flow rate or line where there are too much and maintenance
with high and low level cut
blockage break. products stored in the flash. off system. -Install low flow cut off liquid
supply to pump
217
Less Inconsistent of inlet The separation efficiency of -Install air-to-open control valve to
liquid propylene oxide will
flow rate or line control outlet liquid flow rate of the
decrease.
fracture. separator.
-Install bypass pipeline for the
broken line.
Storage Tank
Table 6-25 summarizes the equipment HAZOP for storage tank.
Table 6-25: HAZOP Study for Storage Tank.
Deviation
Parameter Guideword
1. Level More -Level Chemical in S- Level alarm to be -Install an advanced level controller and check air-
controller is 102 will installed to detect the to-open control valve to increase the outlet flow rate
not working. experience level of chemical in S- or decrease the inlet flow rate of S-102.
-Inlet flow overflow. 102.
rate is not
stable.
Less Inlet of Desired reaction -Bypass installation or install air-to open control
product cannot
storage valve to control inlet or outlet flow rate to make sure
be achieved.
blockage. the level of S-102 in optimum level.
218
Minor Equipment HAZOP
The HAZOP study on the minor equipment are performed in the HAZOP analysis and the guide words are applied to the study node of the unit
with the designated operating parameter to improve the safety process. The minor equipment for the study is as follows:
i. Heat exchanger
ii. Compressor
iii. Pump
Heat Exchanger
Table 6-26 summarizes the equipment HAZOP for heat exchanger.
Table 6-26: HAZOP Study for Heat Exchanger.
Deviation
No Cause Consequence Safeguard Recommendation
Parameter Guideword
-Temperature controller
-Review the design and install an air-to-open
malfunction.
More control valve to control the low-pressure
-Insufficient of cooling
-Temperature steam and air-to-close control valve to control
water for E-104
1 Temperature -Heat exchanger network alarm the cooling water supply before entering E-
-Blockage at the inlet
and operating condition installation. 104
pipe S22.
Less of the stream lines will be -Bypass installation.
-Oversupply of cooling
affected. -Solenoid valve installation.
water supply for E-104
-Bypass installation.
-Pressure alarm
2 Pressure More -Thermal overheating. -Pressure relief valve installation to avoid
installation.
over pressure.
219
-Pump installation and maintenance.
Less -Leakage of E-104 -Downstream pressure regulating valve
installation.
Compressor
Table 6-27 summarizes the equipment HAZOP for compressor.
Table 6-27: HAZOP Study for Compressor.
Deviation
No. Cause Consequence Safeguard Recommendation
Parameter Guideword
1 Flow More Control valve -Possible runaway. Install a flow detector alarm at Install a controller system which will
malfunction -Possible damage to C- the inlet S14 of C-101 to alert trigger the emergency shutdown of plant
101 the operator. if flow exceeds critical point.
2 Pressure More -Motor speed is -Outlet pressure S15 -Replace pressure controller Install interlock system to trigger
higher than obtained is higher than -Install pressure alarm to alert emergency shutdown of plant if pressure
required required -Install pressure indicator too high.
-Faulty pressure -Possible damage to C-
controller 101
Less -Faulty pressure Outlet pressure Carry out maintenance procedure on
controller obtained is lower than compressor and its motor from time to
-Speed of motor is required time
lower than required
-Inlet line S14
blockage
220
Pump
Table 6-28 summarizes the equipment HAZOP for pump.
Table 6-28: HAZOP Study for Pump.
No Deviation Cause Consequence Safeguard Recommendation
Parameter Guideword
1 Flow More P-102 over speed, -Possible runway reaction. -Install a flow detector Install the throttle valve to release the
pressure is too high -Possible damage to P-102 alarm system at the pressure if the pressure exceeds the
outlet stream to alert critical point.
Less Leakage in S5 Target pressure is not achieved the operator Carry maintenance procedure P-102
No Leakage or Accumulation of materials in P- -Install an interlock
blockage in S5 102 feed stream, builds up system to trigger the
pressure which might end up in alarm system and shut
runway reaction down the plant
Reverse P-102 malfunction Install a one-way valve
and the pressure is
too low
2 Pressure More -Controller failure Possible runaway reaction. Install a pressure -Install the throttle valve to release the
and open valve detector alarm system pressure exceed the critical point.
-Throttle valve at the outlet stream to -Install an interlock system to trigger
malfunction alert the operator the alarm system and shut down the
plant if the pressure the exceeds the
critical point.
221
Less -Controller failure Materials not pumped to desired Carry out maintenance procedure on
and partially closes pressure. P-102 and its motor from time to time
valve
-Leakage in P-102
or its inlet stream
222
Chapter 7 Waste Management & Pollution Control
Introduction
Waste consists of material and objects that have no economic value either at present or in the
future because there is no demand for them in the market place. Besides, storage of this waste
typically incurs financial or other disadvantages to the owner. Therefore, proper waste
management is required before it is released to the environment. The waste management
includes the formation, treatment and disposal of waste materials and their resulting products.
By analysing the entire material flow of process, it can help to discover the waste and try to
manage it properly. Waste products are introduced as pollution into the ecological system that
is into the earth, water or air. These residues must be rendered harmless to the environment
before it is deposited or sent to safety landfill. The task of waste management is to isolate,
convert and possibly reutilize potentially harmful substances so that their impact on the earth,
water, and air of an ecosystem is minimal (Ekanem, Ekanem, Eyenaka, & Isaiah, 2015)
Local, state, and federal legislation and regulation require the leaders to know what is in the
waste stream, the costs of collection and disposing of those wastes, and any health and safety
issues that might be raised. However, waste management tend to end up toward the bottom of
the environmental policy agenda and are less visible than other environmental issues such as
water or air pollution. Waste management became important to many policy makers only when
health or environmental issues reach the crisis stages (Issahaku, Nyame, & Brimah, 2014).
Most of chemical plant will discharge their waste from industrial plant. This waste may contain
lot of chemical or waste that can give bad impact to the environment either earth, water or air.
With the fast development of industry areas, the discharge of industrial waste, either the
gaseous pollutant or wastewater accumulates rapidly. Many of the waste contain chemicals
that are hazardous materials such as acids, alkaline, flammable hydrocarbons, toxic chemicals
and reactive monomers that can bring negative impacts to the environment. Therefore, before
discharging it to the environment, it must be treated well and comply the parameters with
Environmental Quality Act 1974, to follow the standard of waste discharge from Department
of Environment (DOE) (Guerrero, Maas, & Hogland, 2013).
According to DOE, most of the consumers, manufacturers, utilities generate a wide range of
waste which is different in chemical or physical properties. To practice waste management
strategies, the waste must first be classified then indeed managed separately under separate sets
of federal and state regulation. Some major classes of waste include; Municipal, Hazardous,
Industrial, Medical, Universal, Construction and demolition, Radioactive, Mining and
Agricultural. Although all the wastes are regulated by separate and distinct bodies of laws and
223
regulations but the fact is, all the three categories are closely interrelated, both as they impact
the environment and as they are generated and managed by individual industries facilities;
often waste treatment processes can transfer substances from one of the three waste categories
to one or both of the others. The entire wastes must be treated to fulfil the requirement of
Environmental Quality Act (1974) standards before can be discharge to the environment. Thus,
it becomes the main goal in every treatment process design to minimize the volume and toxicity
of both process waste and the final treatment residue, since final disposal can incur significant
cost and liability (Giusti, 2009).
In Malaysia, Department of Environment (DOE) is responsible in making sure that all chemical
plants design a waste treatment unit to treat their waste to an acceptable form or level before
discharging them into the environment. Waste treatment refers to the activities required to
ensure the waste has at least practicable impact on the environment. There are three main waste
in chemical industries, which are liquid waste, solid waste and gas waste. In many countries
various forms of waste treatment are required by law. Direct discharge of unwanted materials
into the natural ecosystem may pollute and destroy the balance of the ecosystem. Before the
wastes are being discharged to the environment, some consideration must be done. Firstly, in
the economic aspect, whether the waste can be recovered and sold as a by-product or not. There
are two approaches to deal with waste produced from an industry:
a) Waste minimization
b) End-of-pipe Treatment
Waste minimization is to eliminate or reduce the waste generated at the source or by not
producing it in the first place. Therefore, it will eliminate any problems in treating it and at the
same time more capital cost can be saved. On the other hand, end-of-pipe treatment means to
transform the generated waste into another kind of materials or components that is harmless so
that it can be released to the environment by using any physical, chemical, and biological or
the combination of three methods (Ekanem et al., 2015). Waste treatments are done to ensure
it is comply with the Malaysia Environmental Quality Act 1974.
Besides, regulations such as Resources Conservation and Clean Water Act, Toxic Substances
Control Act, Clean Water Act and Clean Air Act are required to control the industrial activities
and operations to minimize potential environmental impacts. Improper treatment such as
directly disposal and incineration of waste will lead to severe environmental problems such as
greenhouse effect, global warming, air pollution, as well as the risks of fires and explosion.
Therefore, Persatuan Pengurusan Sisa Malaysia, also known as The Waste Management
Association of Malaysia (WMAM), is formed by people from different disciplines including
224
engineering, law, science as well as management, to help the industries in waste management
professionally.
Waste minimization and treatment must fulfil the objectives below:
1. Protect the public health and worker’s health.
2. Reduce the potential environment liabilities.
3. Save money by reducing waste treatment and disposal cost and the other operating
costs including utility costs.
4. Meet state and national waste minimization policy goals.
Therefore, for this chapter, the waste treatment strategy for PC production plant using CO2
synthesis route has been planned carefully to meet the requirement or standard as stated in the
regulation of Environmental Quality Act 1974. Before the wastes are being discharged to the
environment, some consideration must be done:
1. Consider the economic aspect, whether the waste can be recovered and sold as a
product.
2. Consider the waste properties, whether it can be discharged directly to the environment
or need to be treated before being discharged.
3. Consider from the safety aspect, whether it is dangerous to the environment.
Source of Waste
In propylene carbonate (PC) production plant, the industrial wastes generated could divide into
two major types, they are solid and liquid. This plant produces waste carbon dioxide but it been
recycled back into the process to reduce the greenhouse effect. For this process plant, packed
bed reactor contains the catalyst that has been used. The first source of waste is solid catalyst
waste. This type of waste is come from used catalyst in the packed bed reactor. The reaction
of propylene oxide and carbon dioxide to produce propylene carbonate uses the catalyst of
magnesium oxide. This type of solid catalyst will become waste after it has been used for the
reaction.
The second waste of the production plant is the unreacted propylene oxide. This unreacted
propylene oxide is the liquid waste for the plant. This waste is come from the separation of
propylene oxide and carbon dioxide. The remaining carbon dioxide will be recycled while the
remaining unreacted propylene oxide is considered as waste since it cannot be recycled back
due to its low purity. The unreacted propylene oxide will undergo treatment so that the product
of the treatment can be sold to selected customer.
225
Other than propylene oxide, propylene glycol can be one of the liquid wastes if there is a
presence of water in the production plant. Despite not having water as a reactant for the
carboxylation reaction, considering the possibility of water in the raw materials, the reaction
will produce propylene glycol as a side product. The side product propylene glycol is
considered as the liquid waste for the plant. The waste will be treated after separating it from
the main product, propylene carbonate.
Summary of Waste Pollution
Solid Waste
As mentioned in 7.2, the only solid waste that presents in the PC production is the solid catalyst
waste. This catalyst is come from the packed bed reactor. Table 7-1 shows the capacity of solid
waste from the production plant.
Table 7-1: Summary of Solid Waste.
Total mass per annum
Solid Waste Component
(kg/3yr)
Catalyst Magnesium Oxide 21587.62
Liquid Waste
The liquid waste from the production plant is the unreacted propylene oxide. The unreacted
propylene oxide is come from the separation in the flash column and it cannot be recycled due
its low of purity. Next, the second liquid waste is the side product, propylene glycol that is
produced if there is a presence of water in raw materials. Propylene glycol is separated from
the desired product, propylene carbonate using decanter. Both propylene glycol and propylene
carbonate are in liquid state when leaving the reactor. Decanter separates the two liquids
according to their densities. Propylene carbonate and propylene oxide mixture in stream S24
will enter the decanter. The treated propylene carbonate will be commercialized while the
remaining propylene glycol will be disposed as fuel in the boiler. Table 7-2 shows the amount
of propylene oxide and propylene glycol that are considered as liquid wastes.
Table 7-2: Summary of Liquid Waste.
Total mass per annum
Stream Component
(kg/yr)
S29 Propylene Oxide 5111040
S24 Propylene Glycol 640
226
Related Environmental Acts
In the early steps of project planning, the environmental factor has been taken into deliberation
by following the legal and institutional arrangement that has entrenched by the government of
Malaysia. This is done to encourage an environmentally sound and sustainable development.
Businesses are required to comply with certain forms of licensing before being allowed to
legally start operating.
Environmental Quality Act, 1974
Early of 1920s, Malaysia had legislation related with environmental. But the legislation is
limited in scope and inadequate for handling complex emerging environmental problems. So
through Environmental Quality Act, 1974 (EQA, 1974), a more comprehensive form of
legislation and an agency to control pollution was entrenched.
The Environmental Quality Act, 1974 (EQA, 1974), is the legislation that corresponding to the
prevention, moderation, control of pollution and improvement of the environment or other
purposes (OSHA, 2006). Pollution, as declared in EQA, 1974 includes the direct or indirect
alteration of any quality of the environment or any part of it by means of a positive act or act
of emission. Pollution is ‘controlled’ through the mechanism of licenses issued by Department
of Environment (DOE). In this Act, 16 sets of regulations and orders have been introduced and
enforced. Table 7.3 summarizes all the regulations and orders that covered by Environmental
Quality Act, 1974. The Director General of Environmental Quality has been appointed by the
Minister to administer this Act and any regulations and orders made thereunder.
Table 7-3: List of Regulations and Orders under EQA, 1974 (Department of Environment,
2010).
No Category Regulations/Orders Date
Environmental Quality
(Prescribed Premises) (Crude 1 July 1977
Palm Oil) Regulations 1977
1 October 1977
(Licensing) Regulations 1977
Control of agro-based
1. (Prescribed Premises) (Raw
water pollution 1 December 1978
Natural Rubber) Regulation,
1978
(Prescribed Premises) (Raw 1 April 1979
Natural Rubber) Order 1978
227
Environmental Quality (Sewage
and Industrial Effluents) 1 January 1981
Regulations 1979
(Prohibition on the Use of
Controlled Substances in Soap, 15 April 1995
Control of municipal and Synthetic Detergent and other
2. industrial waste water Cleaning Agents) Order 1995
pollution (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 15 August 2005
2005
Environmental Quality (Sewage)
10 December 2009
Regulations 2009
(Industrial Effluent) Regulations 10 December 2009
2009
Environmental Quality (Clean Air) 1 October 1978
Regulations 1978
(Compounding of Offences) Rules 1 October 1978
1978
(Prescribed Activities)
1 April 1988
(Environmental Impact
Assessment) Order 1987
Control of industrial (Compounding of Offences) (Open 21 August 2000
3.
emissions Burning) Rules 2000
Environmental Quality (Delegation
of Powers) (Investigation of Open 21 August 2000
Burning) Order 2000
of Powers) (Investigation of Open 21 August 2000
Burning) Order 2000
Environmental Quality (Declared
Activities) (Open Burning) Order 1 January 2004
2003
Environmental Quality (Control of
Pollution from Solid Waste
10 December 2009
Transfer Station and Landfill)
Regulations 2009
Lead Concentration in Motor 1 August 1986
Gasoline) Regulations 1985
Control of motor vehicle
4. Environmental Quality (Motor 1 July 1987
emissions Vehicles Noise) Regulations 1987
Emission from Diesel Engines) 1 September 1996
Regulations 1996
228
Emission from Petrol Engines) 1 November 1996
Regulations 1996
Emissions From Motorcycles) 1 January 2004
Regulations 2003
Petrol and Diesel Properties) 1 April 2007
Regulations 2007
Environmental Quality (Scheduled 1 May 1989
Wastes) Regulations 1989
Environmental Quality (Prescribed
Premises) (Scheduled Wastes 1 May 1989
Treatment and Disposal Facilities)
Order 1989
(Prescribed Premises)
Control of toxic and
(Scheduled Wastes Treatment 1 May 1989
5. hazardous waste
and Disposal Facilities)
management
Regulations 1989
Environmental Quality (Prohibition
on the use of Chlorofluoro-carbons 25 October 1993
and other Gases as Propellants and
Blowing Agents) Order 1993
Environmental Quality (Prescribed
Conveyance) (Scheduled Wastes) 15 August 2005
Order 2005
Environmental Quality (Delegation 24 September
of Powers on Marine Pollution
Control) Order 1993 1993
of Powers on Marine Pollution 18 December 1994
Control) Order 1994
Environmental Quality (Refrigerant 1 January 2000
Management) Regulations 1999
Environmental Quality (Halon
1 January 2000
Control of power of Management) Regulations 1999
6. Environmental Quality (Delegation
15 November 1999
marine of Powers) Order 1999
of Power) (Halon Management) 29 December 2000
Order 2000
of Powers) (Perbadanan Putrajaya) 2 June 2002
Order 2002
Environmental Quality (Appeal
21 April 2003
Board) Regulations 2003
Environmental Quality (Dioxin and
1 May 2004
Furan) Regulations 2004
229
2 September 2005
of Powers) Order 2005
Gaseous Emissions and Effluent Standard

In Malaysia, industries must to comply with both air emission and effluent discharge standards
for control air pollution and effluent pollution, as specify in the Environmental Quality (Clean
Air) Regulations, 1978 and the Environmental Quality (Sewage and Industrial Effluents)
Regulations, 1979. Therefore, air emissions and effluent discharge standards are summarized
in Table 7-4 and Table 7-5 respectively and both must fulfil the quality standard before
releasing to the environment or before sending it to safe landfill.
Table 7-4: Stack Gas Emission from Environmental Quality (Clean Air) Regulations, 1978
(Department of Environment, 2010)
Pollution Emission Sources Standards
Ringlemann chart
i. Solid fuel equipment to facilities No.2
1. Dark Smoke
ii. Equipment using other types of fuel Ringlemann chart
No.1
i. Facilities used for the heating of metal other
than cold blast foundry cupola
0.2gm/Nm3
ii. Facilities discharging dust containing
0.12 gm/Nm3
asbestos and free silica
0.2gm/Nm3
iii. Portland Cement Manufacturing:
2. Dust 0.1gm/Nm3
- Kiln
- Clinker, cooler, grinder, others 0.3gm/Nm3
iv. Asphalt concrete/bituminous mixing plant:
0.4gm/Nm3
- Stationary Plant
0.4gm/Nm3
- Mobile Plant
v. Other sources
3. Metal and 0.01 gm/Nm3

0.015 gm/Nm3
Metallic Industry
Industry 0.025 gm/Nm3
Compound Industry
0.025 gm/Nm3
3.1 Mercury Industry
3.2 Cadmium Industry 0.025 gm/Nm3
3.3 Lead Industry
0.1 gm/Nm3
3.4Antimony Industry
3.5 Arsenic 0.1 gm/Nm3
230
3.6 Zinc
3.7 Copper
4. Gases 3.5 gm of SO3/Nm3
(a) Acid Gases and no persistent mist
(b) Sulphuric 0.2 gm of SO3/Nm3
Acid Mist or and no persistent mist
SO3 Sulphuric Acid Manufacturing 0.2 gm of HCl/ Nm3
(c) Chlorine Any sources other than (a) 0.2 gm of HCl/ Nm3
gas Any source 0.2 gm of
(d) HCl Any source Hydrofluoric acid /
(e) Fluorine, Aluminium manufacturing from alumina Nm3
Hydrofluoric Any source other than (e) 0.10 gm of
acid, inorganic Any source Hydrofluoric acid /
compound Acid Nitric manufacturing Nm3
(f) - do - Any source other than (h) 5 ppm (Vol%)
(g) Hydrogen 1.7 gm of SO3/Nm3
Sulphide and Substantially
(h) NOx Colourless
(i) SOx 2.0 gm SO3/ Nm3
• Both standards are allowed to exceed not longer than 5 minutes in any period of one
hour and 15 minutes in any period of 24 hours.
Table 7-5: Recommended Malaysian Air Quality Guidelines (Ambient Standard at 25 ˚C and
101.13 kPa) (Department of Environment, 2010)
Pollutant and Averaging Time Malaysia Guideline
Method (ppm) (µg/!" )
Ozone 1 Hour 0.10 200
AS 2524 8 Hour 0.06 120
Carbon Monoxide 1 Hour 30 35

AS2695 8 Hour 9 10
Nitrogen Dioxide 1 Hour 0.17 320

AS 2447
Sulphur Dioxide 10 minute 0.19 500

AS 2523 1 Hour 0.13 350
24 Hour 0.04 105
Particles TSP 24 Hour 260
231
AS 2724.3 1 Year 90
#$%& 24 Hour 150

AS 2724.6 1 Year 50
Lead 3 Month 15
AS 2800
Recommended Malaysian Secondary Guidelines

Malaysia Guidelines
Pollutant and Method Averaging Time
(mg/m2/day)
Dustfall
1 Year 133
AS2724.1
#!'/!)
Water Quality Standard and Parameter Limits of Effluent
The Malaysia Guidelines that must be followed for industrial wastewater are as stated in the
Environmental Quality Act, 1974 which specifies two standards for effluent discharge.
Standard A for discharge upstream of any raw water intake and Standard B for discharge
downstream of any raw water intake. The plant that release an effluent must follow this
Malaysian standard to avoid being fined by Department of Environment. Table 7-6 shows the
parameter limits of effluent for standard A and B.
Table 7-6: Parameter limits of effluent of Standard A and B (HUI, 1979)
Parameter Unit Standard A Standard B
Temperature 40 40
pH value 6.0 – 9.0 5.5 – 9.0
BOD at 20℃ mg/L 20 50
COD mg/L 50 100
Suspended solids mg/L 50 100
Mercury mg/L 0.005 0.05
Cadmium mg/L 0.01 0.02
Chromium, Hexavalent mg/L 0.05 0.05
Arsenic mg/L 0.05 0.1
232
Cyanide mg/L 0.05 0.1
Lead mg/L 0.1 0.5
Chromium Trivalent mg/L 0.2 1
Copper mg/L 0.2 1
Manganese mg/L 0.2 1
Nickel mg/L 0.2 1
Tin mg/L 0.2 1
Zinc mg/L 2 2
Boron mg/L 1 4
Iron (Fe) mg/L 1 5
Phenol mg/L 0.001 1
Free chlorine mg/L 1 2
Sulphide mg/L 0.5 0.5
Oil and grease mg/L Non-detectable 10
Conceptual Design of Waste Treatment and Plant Layout

Waste Treatment Process
Basically, in industrial economies, the traditional approach to waste has been to dispose of it
as cheaply as possible, without much concern as to what happens once the waste leaves the
industrial premises. The overlooked by manufacturers is that waste is not only a potential
source of environmental damage, but also represents a waste of their resources – raw material,
energy and water. By recycling waste, manufacturers can reduce the costs considerably, create
a cleaner and safer working environment and perhaps improve the quality and safety of the
product. The good waste management protects the environment and improves profitability. In
order to minimize the waste generation, engineers have to design an integrated process such as
the waste from one process becoming the raw material for another process and waste from one
process can be sell to another manufacture. Hence, the unused reactants can be recycled and
off-product can be reprocessed.
Waste Management Hierarchy
The waste management hierarchy is a step/arrangement for waste management decision-
making practices with the main objectives of waste management are zero landfill space, cut the
amount of disposal waste and conserve valuable (US EPA, 2018). The objective can be
fulfilling by reuse and recycle back the unused material. The waste management hierarchy is
233
one of the guiding principles, as a key element for guiding waste management practices and
recognizing the need for flexibility based on local and regional economic, social and
environmental conditions. The hierarchy of waste management which sets out the preferred
order of waste management practices, from most to least preferred is shown in the figure below.
Most favoured option
PREVENTION
REDUSE
REUSE
RECYCLE
ENERGY
RECOVER
DISPOSAL
Least favoured option
Figure 7-1: Hierarchy of Waste Management.

The further activity moves up the waste management hierarchy, the more greenhouse gains
there are to be made. Prevention is the main factor that needs to be focused on by not producing
any type of waste. By following the principle, the manufacturing industries should utilize the
least hazardous raw material in their production to develop a safer, cleaner, environment
friendly workplace. Reduce is the second factor which manufacturing industries should replace
the type of material which produce the least toxicity of the by-product in the end of the
production. Reuse is a process where the waste is prohibited to dispose into the disposal system
while for recycle system the materials are collected and processed again to produce a new
product. In energy recovery system, the wastes that cannot be recycled are being converted
into valuable energy such as electricity and heat. Lastly, landfill is the last option to dispose
the waste materials (Hierarchy Structure, 2018).
Pollution Prevention and Waste Minimization
234
Pollution prevention and waste minimization provides everyone an opportunity to be
environmentally responsible. Pollution prevention is the remove waste at it source as
alternative at the end of the production (NPPR, 2018). The pollution prevention happens when
the feedstock, water and energy is used wisely, less toxic materials is replaced the hazardous
materials and the harmful material is remove from the production. This act is related with the
Pollution Prevention Act of 1990. Besides, waste minimization is a principle which to reduce
the amount of waste to ultimately be disposed of includes recycling and other method (Waste
Management Resources, 2019). The attention and resources industry must give to hazardous
waste treatment necessarily limit the amount of energy, time and money that can be devoted to
hazardous waste reduction. Before industry as a whole move toward all-out efforts at waste
reduction, it must be seen as an attractive alternative. Industry must see that waste reduction
can pay for itself relatively quickly, especially when compared with the investment in the time
and resources needed to comply with existing programs regulating waste disposal.
There are several approaches to pollution prevention and waste reduction (National Institutes
of Health, 2015).
• Minimize the amount, utilization, disposing and obtaining of toxic and hazardous
substances
• Reduce waste generation by removing, low quantity of sources and recycling.
• Improving process technology and equipment that alter the primary sources of waste
generation.
• Improving plant operations, such as housekeeping, material handling and equipment
maintenance and monitoring and waste tracking; automating process equipment; and
integrating mass balance calculations into process design.
• Substituting raw materials that introduce fewer hazardous substances or smaller
quantities of such substances into production process.
• Redesigning or reformulating the end products.
Minimization of waste can reduce pollution to the environment. U.S. Environmental

Protection Act (EPA), 1990 has constructed a hierarchy of waste minimization in the
Pollution Prevention Act and established it so that an employment of waste management
and industry as well can use to reduce the quantity of waste generated.
235
Figure 7-2: Pollution of Prevention Hierarchy (Umich, 1997)
Based on the pollution prevention hierarchy, source reduction is first rank which defined as
minimized the quantity of toxic materials and contaminant that being to thrown away to the
environment. In other words, source reduction is the best method to reduce amount of waste
generated as well as decrease the pollution. The second step of reducing waste is reuse and
recycling. Reuse is a process where the waste is prohibited to dispose into the disposal system
while for recycle system the materials are collected and processed again to produce a new
product. Followed recycling is treatment process where in this part; there are three methods to
be applied; biological, chemical and physical. Sometimes, the methods are applied individually
but there is time that needed these three methods for the treatment of waste. In the treatment
process, waste is treated until it achieves the safety level of disposal. Lastly, landfill is the last
option to dispose the waste materials.
Solid Waste Management
The solid wastes that will be discussed here is the waste catalyst which classified as scheduled
waste listed in Schedule of the Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations, 2005.
Therefore, the code for this waste is SW 202.
Table 7-7: Solid Waste.

Type of waste Source Quantity (kg/ 3 years)
Magnesium oxide catalyst Peaked-bed reactor (R-101) 21587.62
236
The catalyst cannot be used permanently, and once the catalyst is well spent; it must be replaced
to ensure the efficiency of the process. Therefore, once every few years, the respective
equipment or the whole plant will be stopped or shut down to remove all the catalysts, perform
maintenance and process modifications and then replacing the spent catalyst with new ones.
The solid waste that generated from the packed-bed reactor (R-101) is magnesium oxide
(MgO) catalyst which is needed to be disposed because the efficiency of this catalyst will be
decreased with time. Do not allow material to be released to the environment without proper
governmental permits. Exposure to MgO can cause “metal fume fever”. This is the flu-like
illness with symptoms may be delayed for several hours after exposure and usually last for a
day or two. Beside the catalyst is exposed to propylene oxide and propylene carbonate for a
very long time, for sure the chemicals have diffused into the catalyst. Thus, the catalyst is
harmful as the chemicals.
Do not allow material to be released to the environment without proper governmental permits.
MgO can be treated by burning it in the incinerator or thermal treatment to reduce the volume
and once the toxicity of these ashes is confirmed to meet the regulations, it can be dumped into the
landfill. However, the cost to install an incinerator system that will not be always used, the high
thermal stability of these metal catalysts and safety concerns deemed this method not very feasible.
Therefore, it is recommended to entrust Cenviro Sdn Bhd which formerly known as Kualiti Alam,
to handle the waste catalyst according to scheduled waste regulations. Cenviro, an investee
company of Khazanah Nasional Berhad, is a pioneer and major player in the national
environmental services industry. ("Join Us", 2019) Kualiti Alam owns and operates the only
integrated hazardous waste management centre in Malaysia, Kualiti Alam Waste Management
Centre (WMC) in Negeri Sembilan. The WMC hold the license to handle 76 categories of 77
scheduled wastes listed under Environmental Quality (Scheduled Wastes) Regulations 2005.
("Kualiti Alam", 2019) the disposal of MgO catalyst waste falls under Regulation 4: Disposal of
scheduled waste and Regulation 5: Treatment of scheduled waste. At Cenviro, disposal cost varies
based on treatment on disposal method and the cost of waste transportation differs according to the
state. The costs are listed as below.
Table 7-8: Price for Variety Treatment in Cenviro.

Method of treatment and disposal Cost
Incineration RM 2,790/MT-RM 3,600MT
Landfill RM 450/MT-RM 510/MT
237
Table 7-9: Waste Transportation Fee in Cenviro.
State Per MT (RM)
Negeri Sembilan 66.10
Kuala Lumpur (Wilayah Persekutuan) 74.66
Melaka 75.89
Selangor 82.01
Perak 99.14
Johor 102.82
Pahang 105.26
Penang 141.98
Terengganu 225.22
Kedah 226.44
Kedah (Kulim) 117.80
Kelantan 228.89
Perlis 230.11
Cost of waste incineration
RM3150 MT 21587.62kg
= × ×
MT 1000kg 3year
RM22,667
=
year
Cost of landfill waste disposal
RM480 MT 21587.62kg
= × ×
MT 1000kg 3year
RM3,454.02
=
year
Since the plant is in Gebeng, Pahang, the transportation cost will be
RM105.26 MT 21587.62kg
= × ×
MT 1000kg 3year
RM757.44
=
year
Solid Waste Management Cost
238
= Cost of waste incineration + Cost of landfill waste disposal + Waste transportation cost
RM22,667 RM3,454.02 RM757.44

= + +
year year year
RM26,878.45
=
year
Chemical Liquid Waste Management

Propylene Oxide
In PC production plant, the liquid propylene oxide is as our liquid waste which contains purity
of 11% at stream 15 is treated to produce a 90% purity of propylene oxide at stream 16. In this
chemical liquid treatment, propylene oxide is separated from carbon dioxide. The propylene
oxide is sold to the other company like Daicel Corporation that uses PO in their production
which seems more economical and beneficial (Koppenhoefer et al, 2001). Technical
considerations include waste characteristics, technical suitability of the available treatments
and the treatment objectives. Waste treatment may be divided into three categories, which are:
1) Physical Process
May be used alone or with the other types of treatment and their function is to
concentrate waste, reduce waste volume and separate different waste components for
continued treatment or disposal. There are a few method can be used in physical method
such as sedimentation, filtration and gas transfer (Weiner & Matthews, 2003).
2) Chemical Process
Natural watercourses contain many dissolved minerals and gases that interact
chemically with one another in complex and varied ways. This treatment is used to
convert hazardous waste into other less hazardous forms and generally used on one
substance or similar substance because the reactions involved are specific. For an
example chlorine is utilized as disinfectant or oxidizing agent in both water and
wastewater treatment (Weiner & Matthews, 2003).
3) Biological Process
Many of the chemical reactions involved in the self-purification process must be
biologically mediated. These chemical reactions are not spontaneous but require an
external source of energy for initiation. These treatments are more specific than the
other types and biological process used in order to convert biodegradable organics and
other nutrients into a manageable form. In the case of biodegradable organics and other
nutrients, this activation energy can be supplied by microorganisms that utilize this
239
material for food and energy. The sum total of the processes by which living organisms
assimilate and use food for subsistence, growth and reproduction is called metabolism.
The metabolic processes and the organisms involved are a vital part of the self-
purification process of natural water systems (Weiner & Matthews, 2003).
Based on the three categories of waste treatment, physical method is suitable in this process
because the main purpose is to separate different waste components for continued treatment or
disposal by using a separation method compared with chemical process which use chemical to
treat the waste and biological process which to convert biodegradable organics and other
nutrients into a manageable form.
Technology Selections
In this section, it will focus on the technology selection in which the most feasible technology
will be chosen according to the certain aspects. The table below shows the screening of several
technology selections for process separation of propylene oxide and propylene carbonate.
Table 7-10: Technology Selection and Comparison.
Technology Distillation Column Flash Column Filtration
Function Commonly for liquid- Simplest separation Process of solids
liquid separation into two process (Iggland & removal operation
vapour or liquid with Mazzotti, 2015.). in water and waste
different composition water (Weiner &
(Distillation, 2003). Matthews, 2003).
Principle Separation of mixtures Separation of The separation of
into its component by mixtures which result particles from a
heating the mixture to a the vapour is more fluid (liquid or
desired temperature volatile component gas) by passage of
which one component while a liquid phase, that fluid through a
will evaporate and enriched in the less permeable
another one will volatile components medium. When the
condensed (Iggland & Mazzotti, particles represent
(Encyclopedia, 2014). 2015). a significant
proportion of the
fluid, the process
may be described
as bulk solids
240
collection
(Anonymous,
2000).
Advantages -Low heat energy. -Can operate at -Simple and
-Good for thermally widely different uncomplicated
sensitive liquids. temperature. method.
-Low pressure working is -Suitable operate for -Low cost for
acceptable continuous process. maintain and
-Lower pressure drop -Commonly utilize in water filtration is
(Encyclopedia, 2014) petrochemical cost effective
industry -Reduce the odor
(Jayaraj, 2014) and taste of the
water
-Eliminate
chlorine in the
hard water.
(Biotechwater,
2019)
Disadvantages -High cost for high liquid -Not effectual -Not all pollutants
flow rates. separating and bacterial are
-Low competence when components of eliminate from the
the liquid flow rate is low. comparable volatility filtered water.
(Encyclopedia, 2014) (Jayaraj, 2014) (Biotechwater,
2019)
Cost RM 2, 063, 750.00 RM 759,460.00 RM 123,825.00
Based on the table above, to handle the liquid waste propylene oxide, we decide to use flash
column which is the simplest separation process of gas-liquid separation. Separation of
mixtures which result the vapour is more volatile component while a liquid phase, enriched in
the less volatile components (Iggland & Mazzotti, 2015). The principle of the process is similar
to the distillation column which commonly for liquid-liquid separation into two vapour or
liquids with different compositions (Distillation, 2003). Meanwhile, the filtration is not suitable
to use as it involves the process of solid removal operation in water and waste water (Weiner
241
& Matthews, 2003) yet our purpose is to separate gas–liquid component. The advantages of
using flash column are can operate at widely different temperature, suitable operate for
continuous process and commonly utilize in petrochemical industry. The disadvantages of
using flash column are not effectual separating components of comparable volatility (Jayaraj,
2014). Besides, the cost of flash column is cheaper that is RM 759,460.00 than the distillation
column that is RM 2,063,750.00. Therefore, the flash column is compatible to be used.
Propose Design
The table below summarizes the operating conditions and design of flash column, whereby its
detail design steps are shown in Appendix.
Table 7-11: Operating Conditions and Design of Flash Column.
Parameter Description
Operation Continuous Flow
Construction Stainless steel
Orientation Vertical
Temperature, ˚C 35
Pressure, bar 1.5
Volume, !) 23.83
Diameter, m 2.16
Height, m 6.48
Vessel Area, !A 3.67
Settling velocity, m/s 0.082
Estimated cost RM 1,494,599.13
After undergoing the process in the flash column, the liquid propylene oxide will be stored in
a storage tank. The table below summarizes the operating conditions and design of storage
tank, whereby its detail design steps are shown in Appendix.
Table 7-12: Operating Conditions and Design of Storage Tank.
Function To store propylene oxide (side product)
Type of storage tank Fixed roof
No of tank 1
Pressure, bar 1.5
242
Volume, !) 66.50
Diameter, m 4.578
Height, m 4.093
Height of roof, m 0.401
Estimated cost RM 793,478
Supply and Demand of Propylene Oxide

As mentioned in Section 1.3.4, propylene oxide (PO) is one of the raw materials that has been
chosen to produce propylene carbonate (PC). PO has many applications in the industries, for
example, the production of propylene glycol and propylene carbonate. PO is widely used
because it can help in the manufacture of polyether polyol, polyurethane, propylene glycol, and
propylene carbonate. Based on the IHS Markit, 2017, PO is the second-largest derivative of
propylene that takes part 8% of global propylene market (IHS Markit, 2017). The figure below
shows the world consumption of PO in 2017.
Figure 7-3: World Consumption of PO in 2017 (IHS Markit, 2017)

Based on the figure above, Northeast Asia becomes the largest consumer of PO with 35% of
the world percentage. Western Europe also one of the largest consumers with 23% of the total
consumption and followed by North America with 25%. Other regions like Southeast Asia and
the Middle East also consume PO but in low percentage. According to the ICIS Chemical
243
Business, the overall growth of PO in 2006 is expected within 3-3.5% and it gives a similar
value of growth in 2005. Global demand for PO is expected to grow at 6% per year that India
and China are assumed to have the highest growth. While, in European countries they will also
raise around 3.5% per year. The capacity of production will keep increasing because
Dow/BASF will start up a new plant in Belgium and South Korea (ICIS Chemical Business,
2011).
Therefore, PO has a potential to be sell to the Daicel Corporation. Daicel Corporation is
participating in the production and dealing of chemical product. There are five segments in the
operation such as cellulosic derivatives, organic chemicals, plastics, pyrotechnic devices and
others. The first segment is cellulosic derivatives which take part in operation of cellulose
acetate, water-soluble polymers and others. The second segment is organic chemicals which
deal with the operation of acetic acid and chiral columns used for separation of optical isomers.
Next the plastic segment which take part in operation of engineering plastics, polystyrene
sheets and formed trays. While the pyrotechnic devices segment deal with the production of
motor vehicle safety devices, airbag inflators and aerospace. Lastly, the others segment involve
with membrane and warehousing business (Daicel, 2019). The main headquartered Daicel
Corporation is at Osaka, Japan and was established on 8 September 1919. Daicel Corporation
also has 30 lists of related companies such as Daicel Chemical (Asia) Pte Ltd, Daicel Polymer
(Hong Kong) Ltd, Daicel Safety Systems (Thailand) Co. Ltd and others (Daicel Corp, 2019).
Our main purpose is to sell PO to the Daicel Corporation under segment production of organic
chemical which more specifically in the production of acetic acid. Since we produce PO waste
with 90% of purity which related to the production of 12 500 tons per annum of acetic acid by
using 90% of PO in Daicel Corporation. Usually 1kg of PO can manufactured 1.3 kg of acetic
acid (Koppenhoefer et al., 2001). The acetic acid production was operating at Daicel Chemical
(Asia) Pte Ltd which is a foreign company incorporated on 24 September 2006 in Singapore
(Zauba Corp, 2013). The selling price of PO is USD1500/metric ton.
Propylene Glycol
Taking into account the possibility presence of water in the raw materials, the reaction between
propylene oxide and water produces a side product, propylene glycol. Since we use pure raw
materials in this production, all the calculation and design are made by assuming 6kmol/hr of
the unreacted propylene oxide converts into propylene glycol. Both propylene glycol and
propylene carbonate are in liquid state in stream 24.
244
Technology Selections
Table 7-13 shows the screening of several technology selections for process separation of
propylene glycol and propylene carbonate.
Table 7-13: Technology Selection and Comparison.
Technology Distillation Column Decanter Filtration
Function Commonly for liquid- Simplest separation Process of solids removal
liquid separation into process operation in water and
two vapour or liquid waste water (Weiner &
with different Matthews, 2003).
composition.
(Distillation, 2003)
Principle Separation of mixtures Separation of The separation of particles
into its component by mixtures according from a fluid (liquid or gas)
heating the mixture to a to the liquid density by passage of that fluid
desired temperature through a permeable
which one component medium. When the
will evaporate and particles represent a
another one will significant proportion of
condensed the fluid, the process may
(Encyclopedia, 2014) be described as bulk solids
collection.(Anonymous,
2000)
Advantages -Low heat energy. -Can operate at -Simple and
-Good for thermally widely different uncomplicated method.
sensitive liquids. temperature. -Low cost for maintain and
-Low pressure working -Suitable operate water filtration is cost
is acceptable for continuous effective
-Lower pressure drop process. -Reduce the odour and
(Encyclopedia, 2014) -Commonly utilize taste of the water
in petrochemical -Eliminate chlorine in the
industry hard water.
(Jayaraj, 2014) (Biotechwater, 2019)
245
Disadvantages -High cost for high -Not effectual -Not all pollutants and
liquid flow rates. separating bacterial are eliminate
-Low competence components of from the filtered water.
when the liquid flow comparable (Biotechwater, 2019)
rate is low. volatility
(Encyclopedia, 2014) (Jayaraj, 2014)
Cost RM 2, 063, 750.00 RM 58,919.80 RM 123,825.00
Based on Table 7-13, to handle the liquid waste propylene glycol, we decide to use the decanter
which is the simplest separation process for liquid-liquid separation. The principle of the
process is that two liquids are separated according to their densities. Meanwhile, the filtration
is not suitable to be used as it involves the process of solid removal operation in water and
waste water (Weiner & Matthews, 2003) but our purpose is to separate liquid–liquid
components. The advantages of using decanter are it can operate at widely different
temperature, it is suitable to operate for continuous processes and it is commonly utilized in
petrochemical industries. The disadvantage of using the decanter is not effectual separating
components of comparable volatility (Jayaraj, 2014). Besides, the cost of decanter is cheaper
that is RM 58,919.80 compared to distillation column that is RM 2,063,750.00. Therefore, the
decanter is compatible to be used. The propylene carbonate-propylene glycol mixture in stream
24 enters the decanter at 25˚C, 1.5 bar. The treated propylene carbonate flows into S-104 while
the remaining propylene glycol is disposed as fuel in the boiler. Propylene glycol is a
flammable hydrocarbon. The liquid propylene glycol is vaporized using atomizer and directed
into the boiler furnace. The heat supply from the propylene glycol is 1265.26 kJ/kmol for each
hour.
Proposed Design
Table 7-14 summarizes the operating conditions and design of decanter, whereby its detail
design steps are shown in Appendix.
Table 7-14: Operating Conditions and Design of Decanter.
Operation Continuous Flow
Orientation Vertical
Temperature, ˚C 25
246
Pressure, bar 1
Volume, m) 0.92
Diameter, m 1.30
Height, m 1.17
Vessel Area, mA 1.33
Settling velocity, m/s 0.0001
Estimated cost RM 58,919.80
247
Chapter 8 Economic Analysis
Before a chemical plant is set up, it is important to estimate the capital and operating costs. The
estimations are presented along with the basic relationships for scaling costs with the
equipment size. According to the estimations, an economic evaluation is done to determine the
economic and financial feasibility for the specific plant. In this economic analysis, capital cost,
manufacturing cost, engineering economy analysis and profitability are basically included.
Besides, fixed and total capital investment cost and cash flow analysis are also performed. In
the process, the basic components of the manufacturing costs of a process cover fixed capital
investment, cost of operating labour, cost of raw materials, cost of utilities and cost of waste
treatment. For engineering economic analysis, the things that will be covered are interest,
annuities and discount factors. Lastly, to evaluate the profitability of chemical processes is by
extending the part of profitability analysis. Profitability criteria using non-discounted is
presented.
Equipment Cost
The term grass root refers to a completely new facility in which the construction is started on
essentially undeveloped land, a grass field. The grass root capital equation is shown as
equation:
Equation 8-1
DEFG DHI × 0.5DJI
The estimation of grass root capital cost of a new chemical plant is calculated by using the
module cost technique. Equation 8-2 is the bare module cost (CBM) whereas Equation 8-3 is
the total module cost (CTM). CBM0 is the base bare module cost at the base condition, which is
the equipment made of the most common material, usually carbon steel and operate at near
ambient pressure, so FP = 1.0 and FM = 1.0. The bare module cost is calculated based on the
equipment size. It is also is the sum of the direct and indirect cost for each unit equipment.
Total module cost refers to the cost of making small-to-moderate expansions or alterations to
an existing facility.
Equation 8-2
DJIG DK × LJI
Equation 8-3
DHI = 1.18 M DJI
The bare module cost for all equipment for PC production are showed in Table. Whilst, the
total bare module, base bare module and grass root capital costs are shown in Table.
248
Table 8-1: Bare Module Cost of Equipment.
Equipment Tag Number CBM (RM)
Reactor R-101 9,355,910.13
V-102 433,193.04
Flash V-103 217,958.98
V-104 1,166,443.20
S-101 1,258,039.00
S-102 1,634,148.70
Storage Tank
S-103 793,478.01
S-104 1,693,023.30
E-101 5,094,286.33
E-102 751,001.39
E-103 5,478,296.37
E-104 742,212.95
E-105 742,212.95
Heat Exchanger E-106 2,752,412.97
E-107 1,920,567.96
E-108 1,884,760.05
E-109 872,203.67
E-110 1,378,445.31
E-111 917,830.41
Pump P-101 392,910.50
VLV1 8,159.80
VLV2 4,075.82
Valve
VLV3 4,075.82
VLV4 4,075.82
C-101 250,439.00
Turbine & Compressor
C-102 117,543.02
Boiler F-101 1,149,075.37
Cooling Tower T-101 7,867,231.67
Total 48,884,012
249
Table 8-2: Grass Roots Capital Cost.
Description Cost (RM)
CBM, Total Bare Module Cost 48,884,011.54
CTM, Total Module Cost 57,683,133.62
CGR, Grass Roots Capital Cost 82,125,139.39
Fixed and Total Capital Investment

Fixed capital investment (FCI) is the total capital cost of the installed process equipment with
auxiliaries. It includes direct and indirect cost without land. Direct cost represents the
manufacturing fixed capital investment whereas indirect cost represents the non-manufacturing
fixed capital investment (Richard Turton, Bailie, Whiting, Shaeiwitz, & Bhattacharyya, 2013).
Direct cost is the capital necessary for the installed process equipment such as piping,
instruments, foundations and auxiliary facilities. For indirect cost, it is the cost of land and
construction overhead. Total capital investment (TCI) is the total project expenses, indirect
expenses, contingency and fee, and auxiliary facilities (Richard Turton et al., 2013).
Manufacturing Cost
The costs associated with the day-to-day operation of a chemical plant must be estimated before
the economic feasibility of a proposed process can be assessed. There are many elements that
influence the cost of manufacturing chemicals which are Direct manufacturing cost which costs
represent operating expenses that vary with production rate. When product demand drops,
production rate is reduced to less than the design capacity. At this lower rate, a reduction in the
factors making up the direct manufacturing costs would be expected. These reductions may be
directly proportional to the production rate, as for raw materials or might be reduced slightly,
for example, maintenance costs or operating labour (Richard Turton et al., 2013).
Fixed manufacturing cost is costing that independent of changes in production rate. They
include property taxes, insurance and depreciation, which are charged at constant rates even
when the plant is not in operation. General expenses are costs represent an overhead burden
that is necessary to carry out business functions. They include management, sales, financing,
and research functions. General expenses seldom vary with production level. However, items
such as research and development and distribution and costs may decrease if extended period
of low production level occurs (Richard Turton et al., 2013).
Direct Manufacturing Cost
Raw Material Cost
The cost of raw material is shown in the table below.
250
Table 8-3: Raw Material Cost.
Raw Material Cost per Unit (RM/kg) Amount required (kg/hr) Cost per Annum (RM/yr)
Propylene Oxide 7.23 7898.88 456,871,219.20
CO2 0.67 5369.22 28,779,019.20
Total 485,650,238.40
Utilities Cost
The cost of utilities is shown in the table below.
Table 8-4: Utilities Cost.
Utilities Cost (RM/yr)
Steam 2,854,334.26
Cooling Water 13,650,866.16
Water 204,337.92
Electricity 8,951,871.36
Total 25,661,409.70
Waste Treatment Cost

The waste treatment cost is shown in the table below.
Table 8-5: Waste Treatment Cost.
Waste Treatment Cost (RM/yr)
Solid Waste Disposal 26,878.45
Operating Labour Cost

The cost of operating labour is estimated based on equipment and auxiliary facilities as shown
in the table below.
Table 8-6: Cost of Operating Labour.
Equipment Quantity Operator/Equipment Shift Operators
Reactor 1 0.5 0.5
Flash 3 0.35 1.05
Storage Tank 4 0 0
Heat Exchanger 11 0.1 1.1
Pump 1 0 0
Turbine & Compressor 2 0 0
Cooling Tower & Boiler 2 1 2
Total 4.65
Direct manufacturing cost is shown in the table below.
251
Table 8-7: Direct Manufacturing Cost.
Component Multiplying Factor Cost (RM/yr)
Raw material, CRM 485,650,238.40
Waste Treatment, CWT 26,878.45
Utilities, CUT 25,661,409.70
Operating labor, COL 6,607,189.73
Direct supervision & clerical labor 0.18COL 1,189,294.15
Maintenance & repairs 0.06FCI 4,927,508.36
Operating supplies 0.009FCI 739,126.25
Total 524,801,645.05
Fixed Manufacturing Cost

Table 8-8: Fixed Manufacturing Cost.
Depreciation 0.1FCI 8,212,513.94
Local Taxes and Insurances 0.032FCI 2,628,004.46
Plant Overhead Costs 0.708COL+0.036FCI 7,634,395.35
Total 18,474,913.75
General Manufacturing Expenses

Table 8-9: General Manufacturing Cost.
Administration Costs 0.177COL+0.009FCI 1,908,598.84
Distribution and selling costs 0.11COM 6,719,500.58
Research and Development 0.05COM 33,597,502.90
Total 42,225,602.32
Table 8-10: Total Manufacturing Cost.

Component Cost (RM/yr)
Direct Manufacturing Cost (DMC) 524,801,645.05
Fixed Manufacturing Cost (FMC) 18,474,913.75
General Expenses (GE) 42,225,602.32
Total Manufacturing Costs (COM) 585,502,161.12
Table 8-11: Total Revenue from PC Production.

Amount Unit Price Total Revenue
Product
(MT/yr) (RM/kg) (RM/yr)
Propylene Glycol Methyl
100000 21.33 2,133,000,000
Ether
252
Cash Flow Analysis
Cash flow analysis is a useful way to track transactions by utilizing a cash flow diagram, which
summarizes the costs and benefits of the projects (Richard Turton et al., 2013).A cash flow
diagram illustrates the size, sign, and timing of individual cash flow. The period of the cash
flow analysis could be months, quarters, or years. There is a time value of money, which means
that money today is more worth than money in the future because it can be invested to earn
more money (Richard Turton et al., 2013).
Table 8-12: Evaluation of Cash Flow and Profits.
Item Description Formula
Expenses Manufacturing Costs + Depreciation COMd + d
Income Tax (Revenue-Expenses) (Tax Rate) (R - COMd - d) (t)
After-Tax Net Profit Revenue-Expenses-Income Tax (R - COMd - d) (1 - t)
After-Tax Cash Flow Net Profit + Depreciation (R - COMd - d) (1 - t) + d
Where t=tax rate; R=revenue from sales; d=depreciation
Cumulative Non-Discounted Cash Flow Analysis

The cumulative non-discounted cash flow for 20 years of project life is shown in the table and
figure below, the non-discounted payback period is estimated to be 3% after commissioning of
plant.
Graph of Cumulative Non-Discounted Cash Flow Against Years

20000
Cumulative Cash Flow (RM millions)
15000
10000
5000
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-5000
Year
Figure 8-1: Cumulative Non-Discounted Cash Flow.
253
Table 8-13: Cumulative Non-Discounted Cash Flow.
Fixed Capital Net Income Cumulative Cash
Year Capital Investment Depreciation (d) Revenue (R) COMd Cash Flow
Investment - d (R-COMd)(1-t) Flow
0 -450,000,000.00 0 82,125,139.39 0 0 0 -450,000,000.00 -450,000,000.00
1 -82,125,139.39 0 82125139.39 0 0 0 -82125139.39 -532125139.4
2 -25,661,409.70 0 82125139.39 0 0 0 -25661409.7 -557786549.1
3 0 8212513.939 73912625.45 1066500000 661766540.7 323786767.4 323786767.4 -233999781.7
4 0 8212513.939 65700111.51 2,133,000,000 661766540.7 1176986767 1176986767 942986985.8
5 0 8212513.939 57487597.57 2,133,000,000 661766540.7 1176986767 1176986767 2119973753
6 0 8212513.939 49275083.63 2,133,000,000 661766540.7 1176986767 1176986767 3296960521
7 0 8212513.939 41062569.69 2,133,000,000 661766540.7 1176986767 1176986767 4473947288
8 0 8212513.939 32850055.75 2,133,000,000 661766540.7 1029863422 1029863422 5503810710
9 0 8212513.939 24637541.82 2,133,000,000 661766540.7 1029863422 1029863422 6533674131
10 0 8212513.939 16425027.88 2,133,000,000 661766540.7 1029863422 1029863422 7563537553
11 0 8212513.939 8212513.939 2,133,000,000 661766540.7 1029863422 1029863422 8593400974
12 0 8212513.939 0 2,133,000,000 661766540.7 1029863422 1029863422 9623264396
13 0 8212513.939 0 2,133,000,000 661766540.7 1029863422 1029863422 10653127817
14 0 0 0 2,133,000,000 661766540.7 1029863422 1029863422 11682991239
15 0 0 0 2,133,000,000 661766540.7 1029863422 1029863422 12712854660
16 0 0 0 2,133,000,000 661766540.7 1029863422 1029863422 13742718082
17 0 0 0 2,133,000,000 661766540.7 1029863422 1029863422 14772581503
18 0 0 0 2,133,000,000 661766540.7 1029863422 1029863422 15802444925
19 0 0 0 2,133,000,000 661766540.7 1029863422 1029863422 16832308346
20 0 0 0 2,133,000,000 661766540.7 1029863422 1029863422 17862171768
254
Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow Analysis
Discounted cash flow is the cash flow analysis which the yearly cash flow is discounted back
to time zero. This is done by multiplying each cash flow by the discount factor (P/F, i, n) where
n is the number of years after the start of the project and i is the discount rate (Richard Turton
et al., 2013). The resulting discounted cumulative cash flow is then used to evaluate
profitability. The cumulative cash flow discounted (CDCF) at discount rate of 60%, 63%, 70%
and 0% are tabulated in the table below.
Graph of Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow Against Years
200000000
Graph of Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow (RM)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20
-2E+08
-4E+08
-6E+08
-8E+08
-1E+09
-1.2E+09
Years
60% 63% 70%
Figure 8-2: Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow.
255
Table 8-14: Cumulative Discounted Cash Flow.
Interest = 95% Interest = 99% Interest = 100% Interest = 0%
Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative Cumulative
Non-Discounted
Years Discounted Cash Discounted Discounted Discounted Discounted Discounted Discounted Discounted
Cash Flow (RM) Discount Factor Discount Factor Discount Factor Discount Factor
Flow (RM) Cash Flow Cash Flow (RM) Cash Flow Cash Flow (RM) Cash Flow Cash Flow (RM) Cash Flow
(RM) (RM) (RM) (RM)
0 -450000000 1 -450000000 -450000000 1 -450000000 -450000000 1 -450000000 -450000000 1 -450000000 -450000000
1 -532125139 1 -332578212 -782578212 1 -328052049 -778052049 1 -313014788 -763014788 1 -532125139 -982125139
2 -557786549 0 -217885371 -1000463583 0 -211995183 -990047231 0 -193005726 -956020514 1 -557786549 -1539911688
3 -233999782 0 -57128853 -1057592436 0 -54827998 -1044875229 0 -47628696 -1003649210 1 -233999782 -1773911470
4 942986986 0 143888395 -913704041 0 136213957 -908661272 0 112904178 -890745032 1 942986986 -830924484
5 2119973753 0 202176452 -711527589 0 188788429 -719872843 0 149308962 -741436069 1 2119973753 1289049269
6 3296960521 0 196514161 -515013428 0 181003766 -538869077 0 136590413 -604845656 1 3296960521 4586009789
7 4473947288 0 166667524 -348345904 0 151423648 -387445429 0 109030603 -495815054 1 4473947288 9059957078
8 5503810710 0 128145579 -220200325 0 114840562 -272604867 0 78899112 -416915941 1 5503810710 14563767787
9 6533674131 0 95077472 -125122853 0 84046236 -188558631 0 55095633 -361820308 1 6533674131 21097441918
10 7563537553 0 68789973 -56332879 0 59981144 -128577487 0 37517661 -324302647 1 7563537553 28660979471
11 8593400974 0 48847829 -7485050 0 42013013 -86564474 0 25074192 -299228455 1 8593400974 37254380445
12 9623264396 0 34188703 26703653 0 29004818 -57559656 0 16517159 -282711296 1 9623264396 46877644840
13 10653127817 0 23654696 50358348 0 19794924 -37764732 0 10755761 -271955535 1 10653127817 57530772657
14 11682991239 0 16213407 66571756 0 13383193 -24381539 0 6938557 -265016978 1 11682991239 69213763896
15 12712854660 0 11026644 77598399 0 8977962 -15403577 0 4441291 -260575686 1 12712854660 81926618556
16 13742718082 0 7449942 85048342 0 5983238 -9420339 0 2824164 -257751522 1 13742718082 95669336638
17 14772581503 0 5005145 90053487 0 3965053 -5455286 0 1785767 -255965756 1 14772581503 110441918141
18 15802444925 0 3346298 93399785 0 2614845 -2840441 0 1123683 -254842073 1 15802444925 126244363065
19 16832308346 0 2227737 95627522 0 1717095 -1123347 0 704067 -254138006 1 16832308346 143076671411
20 17862171768 0 1477524 97105047 0 1123347 0 0 439497 -253698509 1 17862171768 160938843179
256
Graph of Net Present Value vs Interest Rate
179000
159000
Net Present Value (RM millions)
139000
119000
99000
79000
59000
39000
19000
-1000
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80
Interest Rate (%)
Figure 8-3: Net Present Value at Different Discount Rate.

The summary of the economic analysis is listed in the table below.
Table 8-15: Economic Analysis.
Economic Parameter Value
Grass Root Cost RM 82,125,139.39
Plant Life Time 20 years
Start-up Operations 2 years
Total Capital Investment RM 94,443,910.30
Total Manufacturing Cost RM 585,502,161.12
Annual Sales Income After Taxes RM 1,493,100,000
Payback Period 4 years
Rate of Return 63.00%
The payback period, which is the time required to recover the fixed capital investment for the
project is determined to be 4 years. The discounted cash flow rate of return which is the interest
or discount rate for which the net present value of the project is equal to zero is estimated to be
63%. It represents the highest after-tax interest at which the project can just break even and can
be expected that this project will have a relatively good payback period with high rate of return
after considering approximately 3% interest rate of bank and 3% of annual inflation in the
future. It is expected an annual sales income after taxes will be RM 1.5 billion.
Financial Ratio
257
In a profitability analysis, there are two bases used for the evaluation of profitability, viz. time
and cash (Richard Turton et al., 2013). For each of these bases, discounted or non-discounted
techniques may be considered, whereby the discounted techniques take into account the time
value of money.
Operating Margin Ratio
Operating Margin is the proportion of revenue remaining after paying the costs of operating
the business. It is also known as operating income margin, operating profit margin, return on
sales.
Revenue − DMC
Operating Margin Ratio = = 75.40%
Revenue
Gross Profit Margin
The gross profit margin is a measure of the gross profit earned on sales. The gross profit margin
considers the firm’s cost of goods sold, but does not include other costs.
Revenue − DMC − FMC
Gross Profit Margin = × 100 = 74.53%
Revenue
Net Profit Margin
Net profit margin measures how much of each dollar earned by the company is translated into
profits. Low profit margin indicates a low margin of safety. The higher the margin is, the more
effectively the company is converting revenue into actual profit.
Revenue − net profix after tax
Net profit margin = × 100 = 44.82%
Revenue
Rate on Investment
A commonly used profitability standard is the minimum acceptable rate of return (also known
as the minimum attractive rate of return or MARR). The minimum acceptable rate of return is
a rate of earning that must achieved by an investment in order for it to be acceptable by investor.
There are many methods of calculating rate of return. The most common method is return on
investment (ROI). This profitability measure is defined as the ratio of profit to investment cost.
This can be expressed as:
Net profix after tax
ROI = × 100 = 38.16%
TCI + COM + CGR
258
Chapter 9 Conclusion
Conclusion
The production of 100,000 MT of propylene carbonate (PC) per annum via CO2 synthesis
route. The demand of PC is increasing tremendously despite its current supplies overgrow its
demands. The plant has been designed for the production of PC by using propylene oxide (PO)
and CO2 as raw materials and magnesium oxide as a catalyst . The main product formed is PC
with 99.99% purity and no side products but the unreacted PO with 90% purity after treatment
will be sold to the targeted companies.
Based on the study, China is one of the biggest supplier of PC in the world. Approximately,
70% of the total world supply of PC is covered by China region. It is estimated that PC demand
will exceed 500,000 metric tons in 2022. The major suppliers in Southeast Asia region are
Malaysia, Pakistan, and India. Therefore, there is a remaining of 200,000 metric tons of PC
required to be supplied to meet the global PC demand in which the design and construction of
the plant is targeted on this demand. Malaysia does not produce PC and most of the PC used
in the industries in Malaysia is imported from India. According to Zauba Technologies & Data
Services (2016), Malaysia imports a significant amount of PC from India that achieves 50,000
metric ton in 2018. After considering the worldwide demand and supply, as well as the raw
material supply, the plant capacity is decided to supply 50% of the 200,000 metric tons of PC
demand, that is 100,000 MT/year of PC production capacity. Regarding the site selection of
the plant, there are 4 site locations proposed for the plant to be constructed. After considering
all the important criteria in selecting the plant site, Gebeng Industrial Park emerged as the ideal
site. The plant layout which includes manufacturing plant, waste water treatment plant,
loading/unloading area, administrative office, quality control department, general warehouse
and other pertinent building, and the location in the plant had been established.
In process synthesis and flow sheeting, the calculation of material and energy balance have
been performed manually and compared with simulation using Aspen Plus V9, where the
percentage comparison for manual calculation and simulation results for material and energy
balance is lesser than 5% and 30% respectively. Detailed equipment sizing and design of all
major and minor equipment and utilities have been performed using fundamental chemical
engineering principles.
In the safety aspect, MSDS, Dow Fire & Explosion Index, Toxicity Index as well as HAZOP
study are performed to identify the problems and hazards in each of the major equipment
respectively and identify necessary solutions. A general safety study includes personal safety,
emergency management and plant start-up and shut down procedures. A highly integrated
259
process control system is also included to the proposed plant. Controller and transmitter which
are the essential elements in control system have been determined for each unit operation to
ensure the safety in the plant.
In waste management for PC production plant, there are two types of waste, solid waste and
liquid waste. For solid waste, the used magnesium oxide catalyst, the treatment and disposal
are a batch process as each batch of catalyst last for at least 3 years before there a significant
affect to the production. Having an incineration system that seldomly used is not economical.
Thus, we choose to entrust Cenviro Sdn Bhd for the treatment and disposal. As for the liquid
waste, the unreacted propylene oxide is treated using flash drum. The treatment improves the
purity of propylene oxide. Although the purity of propylene oxide did not reach the desired
purity for recycling of raw material, it is still reaching the commercial standard.
Last but not least, moving to economic analysis, the value of return of investment, payback
period, and net value present are calculated to determine the feasibility of the construction of
plant. The fixed and total capital investment costs were RM 11,827,681.38 and RM
79,393,052.30 respectively. The total revenue is expected to be around RM 2,133,000,000. The
total production cost has been calculated to attain RM 568,039,893.30. Thus, it is clearly can
be seen that the production of 100000 MTA of PC is feasible to be established. Based on the
financial analysis, 99% rate of return (ROR), with the payback period of 3 years are obtained.
As conclusion, the construction of PC plant in industrial scale is promising with high
profitability and it is economically feasible.
Recommendations
Several recommendations are suggested to this designed plant, they are:
i. Despite the process described in this proposal, if there is any latest development
of alternative processes which are more economic and easier to operate, it
should be taking into consideration for upgrading.
ii. The costing involved in this project is only based on estimation. Therefore,
detailed equipment costing from vendors’ quotations would provide a more
accurate price for the costing works. In terms of execution of the project, it is
recommended that the construction to be started immediately to meet the target
commencement date.
iii. If this design project is only intended to be a feasibility study, it is recommended
that detailed studies have to be done for more environmental friendly process
such as further reducing the hazardous waste generated. If such applications can
be endorsed, it could result in lesser environmental pollution.
260
iv. The designed plant required large amount of utilities such as steam, cooling
water, and electricity. It is suggested that more effort can be put in to further
reduce the utilities consumption through process integration and energy saving
approaches. Research and study can be carried out to investigate feasibility of
other alternative utilities that is more economical but able to achieve the similar
duty.
v. More detailed safety study and process safety management are required to
minimize accident risks and increase productivity. Safety methods and
procedures are important for a plant to be operated. Standard operating
procedure (SOP), process safety information and process hazard analysis should
be drawn out to promote safety and prevent hazardous accidents.
261
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PROCESS & PLANT DESIGN BKC4934

PRODUCTION OF 100,000 METRIC TON OF PROPYLENE CARBONATE

DR. ROHAYU BINTI JUSOH

DR. SYARIFAH BINTI ABD RAHIM

DR. NORHAYATI BINTI ABDULLAH

TEO WEI CHUNG KA15056

NOORAIHAN BINTI OTHMAN KA15083

ABDULLAH OMAR AL-SHATERI KA14172

MOHD ISYRAF IRFAN I MAT ZIN KA15108

SITI NOR SABIRAH BINTI ANI KUTTY KA15170

Chapter 1 Project Background....................................................................................... 17

Application of Propylene Carbonate (PC) .......................................................... 22

Market Survey ....................................................................................................... 28

Process Technology ............................................................................................... 41

Site Selection & Plant Layout ............................................................................... 47

Chapter 2 Process Synthesis and Flow Sheeting ........................................................... 83

Level 1 Decision ..................................................................................................... 83

Level 2 Decision ..................................................................................................... 95

Level 3 Decision ................................................................................................... 104

Chapter 3 Process PFD & MEB ................................................................................... 121

Process Flow Diagram ......................................................................................... 121

Material and energy balance .............................................................................. 122

Process Simulation............................................................................................... 143

Comparison Between Simulation & Manual Calculation ............................... 146

Introduction ......................................................................................................... 148

Heat Integration Network ................................................................................... 148

Utilities .................................................................................................................. 156

Integrated Process Flow Design ......................................................................... 163

Chapter 5 Process Equipment Sizing ........................................................................... 164

Sizing of Equipment ............................................................................................ 164

Major Equipment Sizing ..................................................................................... 164

Minor Equipment Sizing ..................................................................................... 170

Chapter 6 Process Control & Safety ............................................................................ 180

Identification of Hazard ...................................................................................... 186

Equipment Control .............................................................................................. 199

Piping & Instrumentation Diagram (P&ID) ..................................................... 211

Hazard and Operability Studies (HAZOP) ....................................................... 212

Chapter 7 Waste Management & Pollution Control .................................................. 223

Introduction ......................................................................................................... 223

Source of Waste ................................................................................................... 225

Summary of Waste Pollution .............................................................................. 226

Conceptual Design of Waste Treatment and Plant Layout ............................. 233

Chapter 8 Economic Analysis ....................................................................................... 248

Equipment Cost ................................................................................................... 248

Fixed and Total Capital Investment .................................................................. 250

Manufacturing Cost ............................................................................................ 250

Cash Flow Analysis.............................................................................................. 253

Financial Ratio ..................................................................................................... 257

Chapter 9 Conclusion .................................................................................................... 259

Conclusion ............................................................................................................ 259

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................... 262

Figure 1-1: Molecular Structure of PC

IUPAC Name 4-Methyl-1,3-dioxolan-2-1

Chemical formula C4H6O3

Physical state Liquid

Color Colorless, transparent

Odor Odorless/weak fruitiness

Solubility in water Completely soluble

Solubility in organic solvents Poorly soluble

Molar mass 102.09 g·mol−1

Appearance Colorless liquid

Density 1.205 g/cm3 at 20 °C

Melting point −48.8 °C (−55.8 °F; 224.3 K)