Professional Documents
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Methanol Production
Methanol Production
By
GROUP 03
SHARAT SONI
(15112090)
ROORKEE - 247667
APRIL - 2019
Methanol Production From Biogas
CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the project titled “18,000 MTPA Methanol Production from Biogas”,
which is hereby presented by Mr. Sharat Soni in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the
award of the Degree of Bachelor of Technology in Chemical Engineering at Indian Institute of
Technology Roorkee, is a genuine account of his work carried out during the period from
August 2018 to April 2019 under my supervision and guidance.
Assistant Professor
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We wish to avail the opportunity to express with utmost sincerity, my heartfelt thanks to Dr.
N. Siva Mohan Reddy, Assistant Professor, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT
Roorkee, for his erudite guidance and suggestions, his timely help and motivation, without
whose patronage it would not have possible for me to carry out my project work and its
culmination into this feasibility report. Sincere thanks are also due to Dr. Shishir Sinha,
Professor and Head, Department of Chemical Engineering, IIT Roorkee for the various
facilities in this department.
Sharat Soni
B.Tech IV Year
1 CONTENTS
1 Contents ............................................................................................................................. 4
3.4.3 Drawings of Two Equipment as per BIS Specification of Equipment ............ 101
3.4.5 Major Engineering Problems of the Plant with their remedies ........................ 108
3.6 Process Instrumentation & Control and Safety Aspects ......................................... 121
5.3.1 Process and General Water Requirement and Standard .................................. 139
7.1 A brief analysis of demand and supply of the product ............................................ 148
2 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
The reforming takes place at 950oC and 20 bar. For methanol synthesis the methanol reactor
which is essentially a packed bed reactor operates at 250oC and 71 bar.
The plant location has been chosen as Kudal village in Satara District of Maharashtra
primarily due to ease of availability of raw material, transport facilities and favorable
government policies. Location is close to Green Elephants from which we will be obtaining
Biogas.
MD/Chairman
Personal &
Finance Research and
Administration Operations
Department Development
Department
Product Marketing
and Sales
2.4 UTILITIES
The Summary of utilities used in the plant is given in the table below-
3 PROJECT DETAILS
3.1 INTRODUCTION
This project aims at producing 18000 MTPA Methanol from Biogas. Conventionally natural
gas is used as feed to produce methanol, but in near future this source is going to deplete. As
keeping in mind as to how the methanol market is expanding we need to look out for
alternatives of natural gas. One such source is biogas, which can be produced easily from the
everyday waste.
In this report, we’ll first discuss various available processes for the production of Methanol,
followed by the selection of a suitable process. Then the raw material will be discussed in detail
along with the market prospects of the final products followed by the site selection and project
layout is done and the end economic evaluation of the complete project is done.
c. Gasoline additive: The European Fuel Quality Directive allows up to 3% methanol with an
equal amount of co-solvent to be blended with gasoline sold in Europe. Niti Aayog, the
planning commission of India on 3rd August 2018 announced that if feasible, passenger
vehicles will run on 15% Methanol mixed fuel.
d. Other Chemicals: Methanol is the precursor to most simple methylamines, methyl halides,
methyl ethers. Methyl esters are produced from methanol, including the transesterification of
fats and production of biodiesel via transesterification.
f. Fuel for vehicles: Methanol is occasionally used to fuel internal combustion engines. It burns
forming carbon dioxide and water. It is used in racing cars in many countries.
2CH3OH + 3O2 → 2CO2 + 4H2O
g. Methanol is a traditional denaturant for ethanol, the product being known as "denatured
alcohol" or "methylated spirit".
has the major advantage of avoiding the energy intensive step of syngas production, but are
technically difficult to accomplish. The main disadvantages refer to a low conversion of the
feedstock and the production of undesired byproducts, due to the higher reactivity of the
oxidation products compared to methane.3 Hence, industrial methanol is exclusively produced
by indirect conversion routes via syngas production. The following are the routes used in
industry:
This method was developed by Imperial Chemical Industries. This process reduced the
methanol synthesis pressure by using catalyst but the process was not ideal for large
capacity of production unit due to the necessity of large equipment under low pressure
condition which ultimately caused slower rate of reaction.
Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 is used as catalyst.
A process diagram is given below (fig.1). The original flow sheet includes two parts of the
process, namely, reforming and synthesis sections.
Quench reactor is used in this process at 50-100 bar and 220-280 oC.
This process is designed to produce methanol from natural or associated gas feed stocks,
utilizing a two-step reforming process to generate feed synthesis gas mixture for the
methanol synthesis. Associated gas is a natural gas produced with crude oil from the same
reservoir.
The reactor used is vertical tubular reactor at 220oC between 40 - 100 bar. The catalyst is
contained inside the tubes (typically 2000 to 4000 tubes, 7 m long) and on the outside of
the tubes; boiling water is used to remove the heat from the exothermic reaction-taking
place inside the tubes.
It is claimed that the total investment for this process is lower than the conventional flow
scheme which based on straight steam reforming of natural gas approximately 10%, even
after considering an oxygen plant.
The two-stage reforming usually conducted by primary reforming, in where, a preheated
mixture of natural gas and steam are reacted and in the secondary reforming stage, the exit
gas further converted with the aid of oxygen.
The process technology is suitable for smaller to larger methanol plants up to 10,000 TPD.
a) Production of synthesis gas - Reforming of Natural gas/Biogas to make syngas (CO + H2)
In this section we will see the various alternative for the syngas production and methanol of
methanol production.
As the feed stock used, biogas, in the current project contains primarily CH4 (50-75%) & CO2
(25-50%) needs to be converted to syngas for methanol production. There are three processes
to reform CO2 and CH4 into syngas, all of which require temperatures above ~800 oC to reach
thermodynamically complete conversions.
a) CH4 dry reforming - Dry reforming of methane is one of the simplest reactions and can
be performed at temperatures around 800– 1000 oC over a variety of catalysts, for
instance Ni/ MgO or Rh-substituted pyrochlores.
CH4 + CO2 → 2CO + 2H2 ΔH298 K= + 247 kJ/mol, ΔG298 K= + 170 kJ/mol
However, the low H2/CO ratio (1/1) from dry reforming requires the addition of H2 for
reactions of Fischer– Tropsch or methanol synthesis. The most widely used catalysts
for dry reforming are Ni-based catalysts, but they are often plagued with severe
deactivation due to carbon deposition. Noble metal catalysts have been found to be
more carbon deposition resistant, but their high cost limits their industrial use.
b) Oxy-CO2 reforming - The oxy-CO2 reforming of methane has been investigated and
found to have improved energy efficiency of the process as compared to dry reforming:
3CH4 + CO2 + O2 ↔ 4CO + 6H2 ΔH298 K = + 58 kJ/mol, ΔG298 K= -1 kJ/mol
The reaction is auto-thermal but the fact that the presence of oxygen limits carbon
deposition. However, concern of the potent safety of the process, and the less than
optimum H2/CO ratio of oxy-reforming (1.5/ 1) have greatly limited its industrial use
c) Bi-Reforming: The reforming of methane with a combination of CO2 and steam is
known as bi-reforming.
3CH4+ CO2+ 2H2O ↔ 4CO+ 8H2, ΔH298 K= + 220 kJ/mol, ΔG298 K= 151 kJ/mol
Like dry reforming, syngas from bi-reforming can convert CO2 into higher value
products. Also, like dry reforming, bi-reforming can be used to produce syngas from
natural gas containing significant amounts of CO2 and can also be used to react CO2
separated from flue gases from fossil fuel combustion. Unlike dry reforming, bi-
reforming results in a H2/CO ratio of 2/1, which can be directly coupled with the
downstream industrial processes. Several reports also claim that one advantage of bi-
reforming is that the H2/CO ratio can be adjusted by changing the H2O/ (H2O + CO2)
ratio to meet the downstream requirement.4
Reactor alternatives -
The methanol synthesis is exothermic and the maximum conversion is obtained at low
temperature and high pressure. A challenge in the design of a methanol synthesis is to
remove the heat of reaction efficiently and economically - i.e. at high temperature - and at the
same time to equilibrate the synthesis reaction at low temperature, ensuring high conversion
per pass.
a. Quench reactor
A quench reactor consists of a number of adiabatic catalyst beds installed in series in one
pressure shell. In practice, up to five catalyst beds have been used. The reactor feed is split into
several fractions and distributed to the synthesis reactor between the individual catalyst beds.
The quench reactor design is today considered obsolete and not suitable for large capacity
plants.
A synthesis loop with adiabatic reactors normally comprises a number (2-4) of fixed bed
reactors placed in series with cooling between the reactors. The cooling may be by preheat of
high pressure boiler feed water, generation of medium pressure steam, and/or by preheat of
feed to the first reactor. The adiabatic reactor system features good economy of scale.
Mechanical simplicity contributes to low investment cost. The design can be scaled up to
single-line capacities of 10,000 MTPD or more.
The BWR is in principle a shell and tube heat exchanger with catalyst on the tube side. Cooling
of the reactor is provided by circulating boiling water on the shell side. By controlling the
pressure of the circulating boiling water the reaction temperature is controlled and optimized.
The steam produced may be used as process steam.
The isothermal nature of the BWR gives a high conversion compared to the amount of catalyst
installed. However, to ensure a proper reaction rate the reactor will operate at intermediate
temperatures - say between 240ºC and 260ºC - and consequently the recycle ratio may still be
significant.
An adiabatic catalyst bed may be installed before the cooled part of the BWR either in a
separate vessel or preferably on top of the upper tube sheet. One effect of the adiabatic catalyst
bed is to rapidly increase the inlet temperature to the boiling water part. This ensures optimum
use of this relatively expensive unit, as the tubes are now used only for removal of reaction
heat, not for preheat of the feed gas.
The installation of the adiabatic top layer in the BWR reduces the total catalyst volume and the
cost of the synthesis reactor by about 15-25%. The maximum capacity of one reactor may
increase by about 20%.5
Steam reforming is a well-established technology and is used in many processes (Lurgi and
Krupp Uhde’s methanol synthesis) and continuous improvement in materials for reformer
tubes, better control of carbon limits, better catalysts regarding sulfur tolerance and carbon
deposition is still being investigated.
Dry reforming is widely studied & despite significant research, dry reforming is associated
with carbon deposition and, in some cases, thermal deactivation. This process is of particular
interest when H2/CO mixtures with ratios close to unity are preferred. Two commercial
technologies are based on this reaction: the CALCOR process from Caloric (for CO
production) and the SPARG process, from Harold-Topsøe (for syngas production).8
A practical limitation of oxy-CO2 reforming is the danger associated with mixtures of methane
and oxygen, which has greatly limited its widespread use and hence its industrial use is still
under research.
Bi-reforming, the combined steam and dry reforming of methane or natural gas with H2O and
CO2 to syngas for efficient methanol synthesis has been investigated.9 Using a CH4 to steam to
CO2 ratio of ~3:2:1 in the gas feed, the H2/CO ratio of 2:1 has been achieved, which is desired
for subsequent methanol synthesis.10 This type of reforming is used in Lurgi Ol-Gas-Chemie
GmbH methanol synthesis process.
The Bi reforming process gives the best result in terms of H2/CO (2:1) that is required for
methanol synthesis. Also it possible to adjust the H2/CO ratio by changing the H2O/(H2O +
CO2) ratio to meet in the reaction. Hence bi reforming is used in the current project and to
carry out this a top-fired reformer (Lurgi Process) is used as it exhibits the following
advantages:
Multiple-tube rows, resulting in a lower number of burners and lower heat loss
Almost uniform wall temperature over the entire heated tube length
Easier burner adjustment and reduced burner maintenance because of the reduced
number of burners Less NOx formation by more accurate fuel and combustion air
equipartition of the burners
Adiabatic-
Reactor Type Quench Tubular Isothermal (BWR)
Radial
Operating Temperature
220-280 220 200-300
(deg C)
Exit MeOH
<7.0 3.0 - 8.0 3.5-5.0
Concentration %
As we see in Table 1, the tubular isothermal reactor i.e. Boiling water Reactor gives the highest
thermal efficiency and the maximum exit concentration of methanol, and production capacity
is low- medium which is required for this project as we need to produce 20,000 MTPA of
methanol whereas high capacity plants produce 2500 MTPD.The isothermal reactor is best
suited for the project.
The feed biogas at 35oC and 600kPa enters the desulfurizer, where H2S is removed. The
purified biogas (CH4 (65%) + CO2 (35%)) is mixed with steam. Mixture of biogas and steam
is passed through a reformer, where bi-reforming at 950oC and 20 bar occurs to give syngas.
The product of reformer is passed through a liquid/gas separator to remove the liquid droplets
present. Synthesis gas enters the synthesis section of a methanol plant, and is first cooled before
water is removed in a gas/liquid separator. The gas from the separator top outlet is mixed with
the recycle from the reactor and then it is compressed in the syngas compressor. Before it enters
the reactor, the compressed syngas is preheated by hot gas from the reactor outlets. The reactors
are kept at constant temperature of 250oC and 71 bar by pressurized water on the shell side,
which boils from the exothermic reactions happening inside the catalyst-filled tubes. Out of the
reactors the reacted gas runs through the inlet heat exchanger and two coolers (Cooler 1 & 2).
These coolers condense water and methanol in the gas, which is separated from the gas in a
second gas/liquid separator. Gas out of the scrubber is split to purge and recycle. The purge gas
is used elsewhere in the process, and is removed to keep inert gases from building up in the
recycle loop. The recycle compressor, compresses the recycle gas before it is sent back to the
reactors.
c. Lee, Speight, and Loyalka, 2007. Sunggyu Lee, James G. Speight, and Sudarshan K.
Loyalka. Handbook of Alternative Fuel Technologies. CRC Press, 2007. Pg 297 -320
d. George A. Olah, Alain Goeppert, Miklos Czaun, Thomas Mathew, Robert B. May,
and G. K. Surya Prakash. Single Step Bi-reforming and Oxidative Bi-reforming of
Methane (Natural Gas) with Steam and Carbon Dioxide to Metgas (CO-2H2) for
Methanol Synthesis
e. Anita Kovac Kralj Davorin Kralj. Methanol production from biogas 2010.
f. Thomas Helmer Pedersen, René Haller Schultz. Technical and Economic Assessment
of Methanol Production from Biogas,2012
Cu/ZnO/Al2O3 catalysts have been applied for nearly 50 years in methanol synthesis, a large-
scale industrial process of still growing importance with a current demand of more than 60
million metric tons per year. Especially in the context of a sustainable future energy system,
methanol produced from CO2 and H2 is believed to play a key role as an energy storage
molecule. Furthermore, Cu/ ZnO – based catalysts are also active in the low-temperature water
gas shift reaction and in the steam reforming of methanol. Because of the multitasking ability
of this class of catalysts, they are used in many applications and different scientific questions
are currently studied based on Cu/ ZnO- based materials. The industrial catalyst is prepared by
co-precipitation. The recipe with constant-pH co-precipitation, ageing, washing, drying and
calcination has been developed and improved by empirical methods over the last decades and
is in itself a subject of on-going research. Based on previous studies, the metal ratio of the best
catalysts prepared was Cu:Zn = 70:30 with additional 3% of Al, resulting in an overall molar
metal composition of 68:29:3 (Cu/ Zn/ Al). This composition aims at a high substitutional level
of Zn in the zincian malachite precursor, (Cu, Zn)2(OH)2 CO3 , to allow for an intimate mixing
of Cu and ZnO particles in the reduced catalyst. Promotion by 3% of Al 3+ was shown to
structurally and electronically promote the catalyst most likely by effective doping of the
ZnO:Al component.
Biogas in India has been around for a long time. In the 1970’s the country began a program
called the National Biogas and Manure Management Program (NBMMP) to deal with the same
problem — a gas shortage. The country did a great deal of research and implemented a wide
variety of ideas to help their people become more self-sufficient, regardless of the availability
of traditional gasoline and other fossil fuel based products.
Only Hind Agro Industries Ltd, in India imports biogas mainly from Japan. As we see India
itself has abundance of biogas, the raw material for our current project is indigenously
available.
Table 3
As per back calculation, Biogas required is 3365 kg/hr i.e 2926 m3/hr.
Inlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h) Outlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
Components Biogas Feed MDEA 1 MDEA out
Methane 1313.8351 0 1249.109 64.7261
H2S 4.4299 0 0.0834 4.3464
Nitrogen 18.3542 0 18.1365 0.2177
Hydrogen 2.6206 0 2.6041 0.0165
CO2 2025.3161 0 1228.7309 796.5853
MDEAmine 0 242.58 0 242.58
Total 3607.1359 3607.1359
Unit 2: Compressor
Inlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h) Outlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
Components 1 2
Methane 1249.109 1249.109
H2S 0.0834 0.0834
Nitrogen 18.1365 18.1365
Hydrogen 2.6041 2.6041
CO2 1228.7309 1228.7309
Total 2498.6666 2498.6666
Unit 3: Mixer
Inlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h) Outlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
Components Steam 2 3
Methane 0 1249.109 1249.109
H2S 0 0.0834 0.0834
Nitrogen 0 18.1365 18.1365
Hydrogen 0 2.6041 2.6041
CO2 0 1228.7309 1228.7309
H2O 2810.3557 0 2810.3557
Total 5309.0196 5309.0196
Unit 4: Heater
Inlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h) Outlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
Components 3 Reformer Feed
Methane 1249.109 1249.109
H2S 0.0834 0.0834
Nitrogen 18.1365 18.1365
Hydrogen 2.6041 2.6041
CO2 1228.7309 1228.7309
H2O 2810.3557 2810.3557
Total 5309.0196 5309.0196
Unit 5: Reformer
Inlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h) Outlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
Components Reformer Feed Syngas 4
Methane 1249.109 45.4166 0
H2S 0.0834 0.0834 0
Nitrogen 18.1365 18.1365 0
Hydrogen 2.6041 405.21 0
CO2 1228.7309 1093.9824 0
H2O 2810.3557 1915.9764 0
CO 0 1562.1587 0
C 0 0 268.0556
Total 5309.0196 5309.0196
Unit 6: Cooler
Inlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h) Outlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
Components Syngas 5
Methane 45.4166 45.4166
H2S 0.0834 0.0834
Nitrogen 18.1365 18.1365
Hydrogen 405.21 405.21
CO2 1093.9824 1093.9824
H2O 1915.9764 1915.9764
CO 1562.1587 1562.1587
Total 5040.964 5040.964
Unit 7: Cooler
Inlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h) Outlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
Components 5 6
Methane 45.4166 45.4166
H2S 0.0834 0.0834
Nitrogen 18.1365 18.1365
Hydrogen 405.21 405.21
CO2 1093.9824 1093.9824
H2O 1915.9764 1915.9764
CO 1562.1587 1562.1587
Total 5040.964 5040.964
Unit 8: Separator
Inlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h) Outlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
Components 6 7 8
Methane 45.4166 45.4166 0
H2S 0.0834 0.0831 0.0003
Nitrogen 18.1365 18.1355 0.0009
Hydrogen 405.21 405.1989 0.0111
CO2 1093.9824 1092.6704 1.312
H2O 1915.9764 146.7835 1769.1929
CO 1562.1587 1562.1167 0.042
Total 5040.964 5040.9639
Unit 9: Compressor
Inlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h) Outlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
Components 7 9
Methane 45.4166 45.4166
H2S 0.0831 0.0831
Nitrogen 18.1355 18.1355
Hydrogen 405.1989 405.1989
CO2 1092.6704 1092.6704
H2O 146.7835 146.7835
CO 1562.1167 1562.1167
Total 3270.4047 3270.4047
Inlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h) Outlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
Components 9 10
Methane 45.4166 45.4166
H2S 0.0831 0.0831
Nitrogen 18.1355 18.1355
Hydrogen 405.1989 405.1989
CO2 1092.6704 1092.6704
H2O 146.7835 146.7835
CO 1562.1167 1562.1167
Total 3270.4047 3270.4047
Inlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h) Outlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
Components 10 11 12
Methane 45.4166 45.4165 0
H2S 0.0831 0.0831 0
Nitrogen 18.1355 18.1355 0.0001
Hydrogen 405.1989 405.198 0.001
CO2 1092.6704 1092.5619 0.1084
H2O 146.7835 75.4634 71.3201
CO 1562.1167 1562.1131 0.0036
Total 3270.4047 3270.4047
Inlet Stream
Mass Flow (kg/h) Outlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
Components 11 Recycle 13
Methane 45.4165 672.7885 718.2051
H2S 0.0831 0.3926 0.4756
Nitrogen 18.1355 270.791 288.9256
Hydrogen 405.198 1094.3493 1499.5462
CO2 1092.5619 2661.1263 3753.4229
H2O 75.4634 1.2647 76.7281
CO 1562.1131 591.8659 2153.9771
Methanol 0 54.3258 54.3258
8545.8756 8545.6064
Inlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h) Outlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
Components 13 14
Methane 718.2051 718.2051
H2S 0.4756 0.4756
Nitrogen 288.9256 288.9256
Hydrogen 1499.5462 1499.5462
CO2 3753.4229 3753.4229
H2O 76.7281 76.7281
CO 2153.9771 2153.9771
Methanol 54.3258 54.3258
Total 8545.6064 8545.6064
Inlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h) Outlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
Components 14 15
Methane 718.2051 718.2051
H2S 0.4756 0.4756
Nitrogen 288.9256 288.9256
Hydrogen 1499.5462 1499.5462
CO2 3753.4229 3753.4229
H2O 76.7281 76.7281
CO 2153.9771 2153.9771
Methanol 54.3258 54.3258
Total 8545.6064 8545.6064
Inlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h) Outlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
Components 15 17 16 19
Methane 718.2051 718.2051 718.2051 718.2051
H2S 0.4756 0.4756 0.4756 0.4756
Nitrogen 288.9256 288.9265 288.9256 288.9265
Hydrogen 1499.5462 1172.3922 1499.5462 1172.3922
CO2 3753.4229 2969.0799 3753.4229 2969.0799
H2O 76.7281 397.9027 76.7281 397.9027
CO 2153.9771 630.2556 2153.9771 630.2556
Methanol 54.3258 2368.5711 54.3258 2368.5711
Total 8545.6064 8545.6064 8545.6064 8545.6064
Inlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h) Outlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
Components 16 Methanol Reactor Feed
Methane 718.2051 718.2051
H2S 0.4756 0.4756
Nitrogen 288.9256 288.9256
Hydrogen 1499.5462 1499.5462
CO2 3753.4229 3753.4229
H2O 76.7281 76.7281
CO 2153.9771 2153.9771
Methanol 54.3258 54.3258
Total 8545.6064 8545.6064
Inlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h) Outlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
Components Methanol Reactor Feed 17 18
Methane 718.2051 718.2051 0
H2S 0.4756 0.4756 0
Nitrogen 288.9256 288.9265 0
Hydrogen 1499.5462 1172.3922 0
CO2 3753.4229 2969.0799 0
H2O 76.7281 397.9027 0
CO 2153.9771 630.2556 0
Methanol 54.3258 2368.5711 0
Total 8545.6064 8545.8087
Inlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h) Outlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
Components 19 20
Methane 718.2051 718.2051
H2S 0.4756 0.4756
Nitrogen 288.9265 288.9265
Hydrogen 1172.3922 1172.3922
CO2 2969.0799 2969.0799
H2O 397.9027 397.9027
CO 630.2556 630.2556
Methanol 2368.5711 2368.5711
Total 8545.6064 8545.6064
Inlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h) Outlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
Components 20 21 22
Methane 718.2051 716.4771 1.728
H2S 0.4756 0.4232 0.0524
Nitrogen 288.9265 288.2195 0.707
Hydrogen 1172.3922 1171.7355 0.6568
CO2 2969.0799 2846.0217 123.0581
H2O 397.9027 1.3639 396.5388
CO 630.2556 629.7026 0.553
Methanol 2368.5711 57.957 2310.6141
Total 8545.6064 8545.6064
Inlet Stream
Mass Flow (kg/h) Outlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
Components 21 Purge 23
Methane 716.4771 45.5348 670.9423
H2S 0.4232 0.0269 0.3963
Nitrogen 288.2195 18.3174 269.902
Hydrogen 1171.7355 74.4682 1097.2672
CO2 2846.0217 180.8755 2665.1463
H2O 1.3639 0.0867 1.2772
CO 629.7026 40.02 589.6826
Methanol 57.957 3.6834 54.2736
Total 5711.9005 5711.9005
Inlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h) Outlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
Components 22 24
Methane 1.728 1.728
H2S 0.0524 0.0524
Nitrogen 0.707 0.707
Hydrogen 0.6568 0.6568
CO2 123.0581 123.0581
H2O 396.5388 396.5388
CO 0.553 0.553
Methanol 2310.6141 2310.6141
Total 2833.9082 2833.9082
V103 Inlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h) Outlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
Components 24 25 26
Methane 1.728 1.714 0.0139
H2S 0.0524 0.0362 0.0163
Nitrogen 0.707 0.7013 0.0058
Hydrogen 0.6568 0.6557 0.0011
CO2 123.0581 105.6378 17.4203
H2O 396.5388 0.249 396.2899
CO 0.553 0.5515 0.0016
Methanol 2310.6141 10.3352 2300.2789
Total 2833.9082 2833.9082
Inlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h) Outlet Stream Mass Flow (kg/h)
Components 26 Pure Methanol 28
Methane 0.0139 0.0139 0
H2S 0.0163 0.0163 0
Nitrogen 0.0058 0.0058 0
Hydrogen 0.0011 0.0011 0
CO2 17.4203 17.4203 0
H2O 396.2899 5.5435 390.7464
CO 0.0016 0.0016 0
Methanol 2300.2789 2277.265 23.0139
Total 2714.0278 2714.0278
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Feed gas rate, G1 = 130 ℎ
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Feed gas flow rate on solute free basis, Gs = G1 (1-y1) = 129.87 ℎ
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Molar flow of H2S gas entering = G1y1 = 0.13 ℎ
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
H2S absorbed = 0.9999 x H2S gas entering = 0.13 ℎ
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Molar flow of H2S leaving = 0.0 ℎ
𝑌2
𝑦2 = =0
(1 + 𝑌2 )
From reference,
X1 = Y1 / M = 0.0149 (Using eq 1)
X2 = 0 (Solvent is pure)
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Ls min = 8.7 ℎ
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Now actual liquid rate = Ls = 1.25 x Ls min = 10.87 ℎ
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
L1 = Ls + H2S absorbed = 11.005 ℎ
𝑘𝑔
Density of gas, ρg = 6.159 𝑚3 (Ref. Aspen Properties)
𝑘𝑔
Density of liquid inlet, ρl = 1074 𝑚3 (Ref. Aspen Properties)
𝐿1 𝜌𝑔
Flow parameter = 𝐹𝐿𝑉 = ∗ √ 𝜌 = 0.0064
𝑉1 𝑙
𝑁
Surface tension of inlet gas, σ = 0.0158 𝑚
K1 = 0.08
2 𝜌𝑙 −𝜌𝑣 𝑚
Flooding Velocity 𝑢𝑓 = 𝑘1 ∗ √ = 1.004
𝜌𝑣 𝑠
𝑚3
Volumetric flow rate of gas = 0.1517 (From Aspen Properties)
𝑠
Kya = 0.075(kmol/m3.s).Δx
𝐿
Where, A = 𝑚𝐺𝑠 = 1.249 (m = slope of operating line)
𝑠
N = 34
Tie line drawn between a point on operating line to equilibrium line of above slope to get
corresponding (xi , yi) values
y area term
0 1.00033
0.00134 1.00162
0.00267 1.00291
0.00399 1.00419
0.00530 1.00547
0.00661 1.00675
0.00791 1.00803
0.00921 1.00931
0.01049 1.01058
0.01178 1.01186
0.01305 1.01313
0.01432 1.01440
0.01558 1.01567
0.01683 1.01694
0.01808 1.01820
0.01932 1.01946
Now graph between F(y) vs y is plotted and area under the curve is calculated using trapezoidal
rule.
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙
Average molar flow rate of gas stream = (G1 + G2 )/2 = 550.614 ℎ
Hot Fluid
Cold Fluid
𝑘𝑔
Shell side mass flow rate = 8546 ℎ
LMTD =
= 33.06 oC
R= = 0.2
S = = 0.74
Outer diameter = 16 mm
Length = 6.096 m
𝑊
Assume overall heat transfer coefficient = U = 65 𝑚2 𝐾
Number of passes = 8
Pitch = Triangular
Bundle clearance = 0.06 m (Ref. Fig 12.10, Coulson & Richardson, pg-646)
Re = ρvd/μ = 16620.92
Pr = μCp/k = 14.425
𝑘𝑗𝐻𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟 0.33 𝑊
h = = 698.88 𝑚2 𝐾
𝑑𝑖
Re =
𝑚
𝑠ℎ𝑒𝑙𝑙 .𝑑𝑒
= 3600×𝐴 = 3.74 x 104
𝑠𝜇
de =
= 0.01136 m
𝜇𝐶𝑝
Pr = = 0.32
𝑘
𝑗𝐻𝑅𝑒𝑃𝑟 𝑜.33 𝑘
hoc = 𝑑𝑜
Pt` = 0.87Pt
= 0.215 m
= 0.64 m
𝐷𝑏
Hb = − 𝐷𝑠 × (0.5 − 𝐵𝑎𝑓𝑓𝑙𝑒 𝐶𝑢𝑡)
2
= 0.186 m
𝐻
Bundle cut = 𝐷𝑏 = 0.1823
𝑏
= θb*Ra`= 319
2∗𝑁𝑤
Rw = = 0.26
𝑁𝑡
Ab= (Ds-DB)*LB
= 0.01296 m2
𝐴𝑏
= 0.277
𝐴𝑠
𝐴 2𝑁 1
Fb = exp[−𝛼. 𝐴𝑏 . (1 − 2 × (𝑁 𝑠 )3 ]
𝑠 𝑐𝑣
(𝑁𝑡 −𝑁𝑤 )
Atb = 3.14. 𝐶𝑡 . 𝐷𝑜 . 2
= 0.0429 m2
6.28−𝜃𝑏 )
Asb = 𝐶𝑠 . 𝐷𝑠 . ( 2
= 0.00383 m2
Al = Atb + Asb
= 0.04677 m2
𝐴𝑙
= 1.001
𝐴𝑠
𝐴𝑡𝑏 +2𝐴𝑠𝑏
FL = 1 − 𝛽𝐿 [ ] = 0.4373
𝐴𝐿
hs = hoc*FL*FB*Fw*Fb
𝑊
= 593 𝑚2 𝐾
1 1 𝑑 𝑑 𝑑 𝑙
= ℎ + 2𝐾𝑜 ln ( 𝑑𝑜 ) + 𝑑 𝑜ℎ
𝑈 𝑖 𝑤 𝑖 𝑖 𝑖
𝑊
U = 74.90 𝑚2 𝐾
74.90−60
Error % = × 100
60
𝐿 𝜌𝑢𝑡2
∆𝑃𝑡 = [𝑁𝑝 [8. 𝑗𝐹 ( ) + 2.5]
𝑑𝑖 2
𝑢𝑠2
Ideal tube bank pressure drop, ΔPi = 8𝑗𝐹 𝑁𝑐𝑣 𝜌 2
𝐺𝑠 𝑚
us = 𝐴 = 3.414
𝑠 𝜌×3600 𝑠
ΔPi = 116.371 Pa
𝐴𝑏 2𝑁𝑠 1
Fb` = exp[−𝛼. . (1 − 2 × ( )3 ] = 0.329
𝐴𝑠 𝑁𝑐𝑣
𝐴𝑡𝑏 +2𝐴𝑠𝑏
FL` = 1 − 𝛽𝐿 ` [ ] = 0.242
𝐴𝐿
Pressure drop for cross flow zone = ΔPc = ΔPi. Fb`. FL`
𝐻𝑏
Nwv = No. of tube rows = = 10.69 ~ 11
𝑃𝑡`
𝜋 𝜋𝑑𝑜2
Aw = 4 𝐷𝑠2 × 𝑅𝑎 − 𝑁𝑤 × = 0.05505
4
𝐺𝑠 𝑚
uw = 𝐴 = 2.89 414
𝑤 𝜌×3600 𝑠
𝑚
uz = √𝑢𝑤 𝑢𝑠 =3.145 414 𝑠
𝜌𝑢𝑧2
ΔPw = [𝐹𝐿` [2 + 0.6. 𝑁𝑤𝑣 ] =150.332 Pa
2
𝑁𝑤𝑣 +𝑁𝑐𝑣
ΔPc = ∆𝑃𝑖 × [ ] × 𝐹𝑏` = 14735.47 Pa
𝑁𝑐𝑣
𝐿
Nb = no. of baffles = 𝑙 − 1 = 27.12
𝐵
3. Distillation Column
Step 1: Calculation of no. of stages
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
Feed rate = 94.19 ℎ𝑟
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
Distillate rate = 71.78 ℎ𝑟
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
W = 22.41
ℎ𝑟
𝑥 𝑑
yintercept = 𝑅𝑚𝑖𝑛+1 =0.59
Rmin = 0.664
Ractual = 1.39* Rmin = 0.9229
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
Vapour rate, 𝑉 = 𝐷(1 + 𝑅) = 130.03 ℎ
𝐿′
Slope of the bottom operating line 𝑉𝑚′ = 1.140
𝑚
𝑉𝑚 ʹ = 𝐿𝑚 ʹ − 𝐵, from which:
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
Vapour flow below feed, Vmʹ = 134.191 ℎ
𝑘𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒
Liquid flow below feed, Lmʹ = 152.60 ℎ
Estimate base pressure, assume column efficiency of 60 per cent, and take reboiler as
equivalent to one stage.
12−1
Number of real stages = = 19
0.6
Estimated bottom pressure = Top pressure + Column Pressure drop= 119.939 kPa
𝑘𝑔
ρv = 0.6817 𝑚3
𝑘𝑔
ρL = 958.36 𝑚3
𝑘𝑔
ρv = 0.31 𝑚3
ρL = 782 kg/m3
0.6817
FLV bottom = 1.167 √958.36 = 0.0311
0.31
FLV top = 0.481 √ 782 = 0.0095
From Figure 11.27 of Coulson & Richardson, base𝐾1 = 0.095 ; top 𝐾1 = 0.087
0.0218 0.2
Base 𝐾1 = 0.095 ∗ ( ) = 0.0966
0.02
0.0218 0.2
Top 𝐾1 = 0.087 ∗ ( ) = 0.0885
0.02
958.36−0.6817
Base 𝑈𝑓 = 0.0966√ = 3.622 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
0.6817
782−0.31
Top 𝑈𝑓 = 0.0885 √ = 4.44 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
0.31
Column diameter
0.3725∗4
Base = √ = 0.688 m
𝜋
1.19∗4
Top = √ = 1.232 m
𝜋
Use same diameter above and below feed, reducing the perforated area for plates above the
feed.
Hence Column Diameter = 1.232 m
From Figure 11.28 Coulson & Richardson, liquid flow patter = Reverse Flow
Provisional plate design
Column diameter Dc = 1.232 m
1.2322
Column area Ac = 𝜋 ∗ = 1.192 m2
4
Check weeping
18.46∗156.601
Maximum liquid rate = 3600
= 0.803 𝑘𝑔/𝑠𝑒𝑐
Minimum liquid rate, at 70 per cent turn-down 0.7 ∗ 0.803 = 0.5621 𝑘𝑔/𝑠𝑒𝑐
2
0.803 3
Maximum ℎ𝑜𝑤 = 750 ( 0.9489∗958.36) = 6.902 𝑚𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
2
0.5621 3
Minimum ℎ𝑜𝑤 = 750 (0.9489∗958.36 ) = 5.44 𝑚𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑑
𝑘2 − 0.9(25.4 − 𝑑ℎ )
𝑢ℎ (𝑚𝑖𝑛) = [ 1 ] = 14.461 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
2
𝜌𝑣
𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑖𝑚𝑢𝑚 𝑣𝑎𝑝𝑜𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒
Actual minimum vapor velocity = 𝐴ℎ
0.7∗3.964
= = 30.62 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐 (> 𝑢ℎ 𝑚𝑖𝑛, no weeping)
0.09061
𝐶𝑜 = 0.84
43.74 2 0.6817
ℎ𝑑 = 51 ( ) = 98.38 𝑚𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑞
0.84 958.36
Residual head
103
ℎ𝑟 = 12.5 ∗ = 13.04 𝑚𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑞
958.36
Total plate pressure drop
ℎ𝑟 = 13.04 + 98.38 + 55.44 + 6.90 = 173 𝑚𝑚 𝑙𝑖𝑞
Note: 100 mm was assumed to calculate the base pressure. The calculation could be repeated
with a revised estimate but the small change in physical properties will have little effect on the
plate design. 173 mm per plate is considered acceptable.
3.964
𝑢𝑣 = = 3.77 𝑚/𝑠𝑒𝑐
1.04
3.77
% 𝑓𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 4.44 = 0.848 < 0.85 Assumed flooding ,
As the per cent flooding is well below the design figure of 85, the column diameter could be
reduced, but this would increase the pressure drop.
Perforated area
𝑙 1.169
From Figure 11.32, at 𝐷𝑤 = 1.518 = 0.77 𝛩𝑐 = 100𝑜
𝑐
(1.232−50∗0.001)𝜋 ∗ 80
Mean length, unperforated edge strips =
180
=1.650 𝑚
𝐴ℎ 0.0906
= = 0.125 𝑚2
𝐴𝑝 0.723
𝑙𝑝
From Figure 11.33 Coulson & Richardson , 𝑑 = 2.6 ; satisfactory,
ℎ
4 ∗ 0.090
𝑁ℎ = = 4616 ℎ𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠
𝜋 ∗ 0.0052
Process fluid will flow through shell side with flow rate = 413.8 kg/h
𝑊
Assumed overall heat transfer coefficient, 𝑈 = 1200 𝑚2 .0 𝐶 (Ref: Table 12.1, Page 639, BCB)
𝑄
𝑟
Required heat transfer area, 𝐴 = 𝑈𝐴Δ𝑇 = 5.516 𝑚2
Length of Tube, 𝐿 = 6 𝑚
𝐴
Number of Tube, 𝑁𝑡 = 0.5 ∗ 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 ≈ 6
Number of Passes = 6
𝑃 0.17 𝑃 1.2 𝑃 10
ℎ𝑛𝑏 = 0.104𝑃𝑐0.69 𝑞 0.7 [1.8 ( ) + 4 ( ) + 10 ( ) ]
𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐 𝑃𝑐
1000 𝑊
Where 𝑞 = 𝑄𝑅 ∗ = 4766.98 𝑚2
𝐴
𝑊
Therefore , ℎ𝑛𝑏 = 1165.30 𝑚2 .0 𝐶
𝑅𝑄 𝑘𝑔
Mass flow rate = 4.187Δ𝑇 = 1.627 sec
𝜋 8
Tube cross-sectional area = 4 ∗ (0.021)2 ∗ 6 = 0.00069 𝑚2
1.178 𝑚
Tube side velocity, 𝑢𝑡 = 993∗0.00858 = 2.36 𝑠𝑒𝑐 (Should be between 1.5-2.5 m/sec)
25.4
1 1 1 0.025 ln ( 21 ) 25.4 1 25.4 1
= + + + ∗ + ∗
𝑈 1205.9 6000 2 ∗ 50 21 6000 21 8356.55
𝑾
𝑼 = 𝟏𝟐𝟎𝟐. 𝟐𝟒
𝒎𝟐 . 𝟎 𝑪
𝑈𝑐𝑎𝑙𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 −𝑈𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑
Error = × 100 = 0.13% , which is < 30%
𝑈𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒𝑑
𝑃𝑡 𝜆
𝑞𝑐𝑏 = 𝐾𝑏 × × [𝜎𝑔(𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑣 )𝜌𝑣2 ]0.25
𝑑𝑜 √𝑁𝑡
𝑊
𝑞𝑐𝑏 = 14267.20
𝑚2
𝑊 𝑊
Flux calculated = 4766 𝑚2 < 9987 𝑚2 , Acceptable
𝐷𝑏′ = 𝐷𝑏 + 4"
𝜎 0.5 𝑘𝑔
𝑉𝐿 = 2290 × 𝜌𝑉 ( ) = 12.085 3
𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑉 𝑚 .𝑠
ℎ
= 0.05
𝐷𝑠
𝐷𝑏′ ℎ
=1− = 0.95
𝐷𝑠 𝐷𝑠
𝑚𝑣
𝑆𝐴 = = 1.59 × 10−3 𝑚3
𝐿 × 𝑉𝐿
𝐷𝑏′
𝐷𝑠 = = 314.15 𝑚𝑚
0.6
`
𝑆𝐴 −𝑆𝐴
Error = × 100 = -8.98 % (<10% acceptable)
𝑆𝐴
= 1155 kJ/kg
Tube Specification:
OD = 25 mm
ID = 21.8 mm
𝑊
Assumed overall coefficient, U = 1500 𝑚2 𝐾
𝑇1 − 𝑇2
𝑅= = 0.1
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝑡2 − 𝑡1
𝑆= = 0.724
𝑇1 − 𝑡1
𝐹𝑇 = 0.98
Surface area of one tube = 𝜋 ∗ 0.025 ∗ 4.88 = 0.2415 𝑚2 (ignore tube sheet thickness)
𝑇𝑟𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
Number of tubes, 𝑁𝑡 = 𝑆𝑦𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑡𝑢𝑏𝑒 = 275.86
Tube bundle diameter (Ref Eq. 12.3b and Table 12.4, Coulson & Richardson)
For 4 passes
1 1
𝑁𝑡 𝑁1 275 2.263
𝐷𝑏 = 𝑑0 ( ) = 0.025 ( ) = 0.433 𝑚
𝐾1 0.158
𝐷𝑏
Number of tubes in center row 𝑁𝑟 = ≈ 22
𝑝𝑡
𝑚𝑁𝑠 𝑘𝑔 𝑊
𝜇𝐿 = 0.486 ; 𝜌𝐿 = 782 𝑚3 ; 𝑘𝐿 = 0.1764 𝑚0 𝐶 (Ref: From Aspen Properties)
𝑚2
𝑘𝑔
Vapor density at mean temperature, 𝜌𝑉 = 0.31 𝑚3
𝑊𝑐 4073 1 𝑘𝑔
ΓH = = ∗ = 0.00047
𝐿𝑁𝑡 3600 4.88 ∗ 46 𝑠𝑒𝑐. 𝑚
2
𝑁𝑟′ = 3 ∗ 𝑁𝑟 =15
1
𝜌𝐿 (𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑉 )𝑔 3 −16 𝑊
ℎ𝑐 = 0.926 ∗ 𝑘𝐿 [ ] 𝑁𝑟 = 3161.42 2 0
𝜇𝐿 Γ𝐻 𝑚 . 𝐶
𝜋 56
Tube cross-sectional area = 4 ∗ (0.0218)2 ∗ = 0.0088 𝑚2
2
17.3
Tube side velocity, 𝑢𝑡 = = 1.99 m/s (Should be between 1.5-2.5 m/sec)
993∗0.00858
𝑊
Fouling factors: as neither fluid is heavily fouling, use 6000 𝑚2 .0 𝐶 for each side.
𝑊
Thermal conductivity of tube material, 𝑘𝑤 = 50 𝑚.0 𝐶
25
1 1 1 0.025 ln (21.8) 25 1 25 1
= + + + ∗ + ∗
𝑈 3161 6000 2 ∗ 50 21.8 6000 21.8 8993
𝑾
𝑼 = 𝟏𝟓𝟐𝟎. 𝟒𝟗𝟗
𝒎𝟐 . 𝟎 𝑪
𝑈𝑜𝑏𝑡 − 𝑈𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢
𝑒𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = ∗ 100 ≈ 1.36%
𝑈𝑎𝑠𝑠𝑢
Cross-flow area, As
(𝑝𝑡 − 𝑑0 )𝐷𝑖 𝑙𝐵
𝐴𝑆 = = 0.0547 𝑚2
𝑝𝑡
4073 1 𝑘𝑔
𝐺𝑠 = ∗ = 11.66
3600 0.0296 𝑠. 𝑚2
1.27
Equivalent diameter, 𝑑𝑒 = (𝑝𝑡2 − 0.785𝑑02 ) = 0.0157 𝑚
𝑑0
𝑚𝑁𝑠
Shell side Vapour viscosity, 𝜇𝑣 = 0.008 𝑚2
𝜌𝑣𝑑 𝑑
Renolds Number, 𝑅𝑒 = = 𝐺𝑠 ∗ 𝜇 𝑖 = 0.23 ∗ 105
𝜇 𝐿
From Figure 12.30, 𝑗𝐹 = 0.05 (From fig 12.30 Coulson & Richardson)
𝐺 𝑚
Shell side velocity, 𝑢𝑠 = 𝜌𝑠 = 37.63 𝑠𝑒𝑐
𝑣
Taking pressure drop as 50 per cent of that calculated using the inlet flow; neglecting viscosity
correction.
1 𝐷𝑖 𝐿 𝑢𝑠2
Δ𝑃𝑆 = (8𝑗𝑓 ( ) ( ) 𝜌 ( )) = 13563.01 𝑃𝑎
2 𝑑𝑒 𝑙𝑏 2
𝜌𝑣𝑑
Renolds Number, 𝑅𝑒 = = 42437
𝜇
𝐿 𝜌𝑢𝑡2
Δ𝑃𝑡 = 𝑁𝑝 [ 8𝑗𝑓 ( ) + 2.5] = 104690.18 𝑃𝑎
𝑑𝑖 2
Pd
Compression Ratio, R = Ps
Cp
Γ = Cv = 1.307
Pd (𝑟−1)/𝑟
Discharge Temperature, TD = Ts( Ps ) = 431.11 k
Pd Pd 1/𝑟
Volumetric efficiency (%) = 93− Ps −8× [( Ps ) − 1] =73.22
8.314
Universal gas constant, R= kJ/kg.K
23.2
𝑟 Pd (𝑟−1)/𝑟
Work required (w) = R×Ts×𝑟−1 × [( Ps ) − 1] kJ/kg = 186.188 kJ/kg
= 129.24 kJ
= 173.18 BHP
Catalyst specifications
Name: NiO/MgO
ReformerTemperature = 950oC
ΔP in reformer = 30000 Pa
𝛥𝑝 1.75 𝜌𝑣 2 (1−𝜀)
=
𝐿 𝑑𝑝 𝜀 3
𝛥𝑝
= (𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌)𝑔(1 − 𝜀)
𝐿
U min2 = 2.874 m /s
𝛥𝑝 1.75 𝜌𝑣 2 (1−𝜀)
=
𝐿 𝑑𝑝 𝜀 3
𝐿 = 1.752 m
𝑊
Overall HTC = 350 𝑚2 𝐾
= 12.227 m3
= 22.65 m3/min
12.227
τ= = 0.5398 min
22.65
τ = 32.391 sec
Catalyst specifications
Name: Cuo/ZnO/Al2O3
ReformerTemperature = 250oC
ΔP in reformer = 80000 Pa
𝛥𝑝 1.75 𝜌𝑣 2 (1−𝜀)
=
𝐿 𝑑𝑝 𝜀 3
𝛥𝑝
= (𝜌𝑝 − 𝜌)𝑔(1 − 𝜀)
𝐿
Umin2 = 0.244 m /s
𝛥𝑝 1.75 𝜌𝑣 2 (1−𝜀)
=
𝐿 𝑑𝑝 𝜀 3
𝐿 = 4.628 m
𝑊
Overall HTC = 350 𝑚2 𝐾
= 4.59 m3
= 10.166 m3/min
12.227
τ= = 0.4515 min
22.65
τ = 27.09 sec
Pout
Turbine pressure ratio = = 0.014
Pi
𝐶𝑝
Specific heat ratio, r = = 1.224
𝐶𝑣
PD (𝑟−1)/𝑟
Discharge Temp. = Ti× ( Ps ) = 294 K
Pout (𝑟−1)/𝑟
Work extracted = Cp×Ti×[1 − ( ) ] kJ/kg
Pi
= 250.71 kJ
F=L+V
𝑊𝐿 𝜌𝐿 1771 965.1
𝐹𝐿𝑉 = √ = √ = 6.33
𝑊𝑉 𝜌𝑉 3270 07.061
𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑉
𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑘 √
𝜌𝑉
2 +𝐷(𝑙𝑛𝐹 )3 +𝐸(𝑙𝑛𝐹 )4
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒, 𝑘 = 𝜃 𝐴+𝐵𝑙𝑛𝐹𝑙𝑣 +𝐶(𝑙𝑛𝐹𝑙𝑣 ) 𝑙𝑣 𝑙𝑣
A = -1.877478
B = -0.814580
C = -0.187074
D = -0.014523
E = -0.001015
k = 0.0162
𝜌𝐿 − 𝜌𝑣 𝑚
𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚 = 𝑘 √ = 0.189
𝜌𝑣 𝑠
4𝑉
𝐷𝑖𝑎𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑒𝑟, 𝐷 = √ = 0.9311 𝑚
𝜋𝑉𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑚 𝜌𝑣
L = h v + hf + h L
𝑘𝑔
𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 = 𝜌𝑓𝑒𝑒𝑑 = 10.84
𝑚3
100 𝑓𝑡 𝑚
(𝑈𝑚𝑎𝑥 )𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 = = 30.37 = 9.25
√𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑠 𝑠
60 𝑓𝑡 𝑚
(𝑈𝑚𝑖𝑛 )𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 = = 18.22 = 5.55
√𝜌𝑚𝑖𝑛 𝑠 𝑠
𝜋 2
𝐷 = 0.02325
4 𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒
Hence
ℎ𝑓 + ℎ𝑣
ℎ= = 27.39 𝑖𝑛𝑐ℎ
2
Volume = 1.4205 m3
𝐺
Volumetric flow rate, F = 𝜌
= 2.949 m3/hr
= 707.69 m3
Height = 9 m
Diameter = 12 m
Thickness = 2 mm
Volume = 1017 m3
Joint efficiency (J) = 0.85 for Class 2 Double welded butt joint with full penetration
(Table 1.1, IS 2002-1962)
𝑃∗𝐷𝑖
Thickness (t) = 200∗𝑓∗𝐽−𝑃 = 0.0206 𝑚
𝑡 0.0236
Check < 0.25 ( = 0.024 < 0.25), Acceptable
𝐷𝑖 0.97
Since the operating pressure is above 1.5 MN/m2, we use elliptical dished head.
Axis Ratio (Major/Minor) = 2
Taking Ri = Ro = Do and ro = 0.06 Do as initial guess
Ri = Ro = Do = 1.02 m
𝐷𝑜 𝐷𝑜
ℎ0 = 𝑅0 − √(𝑅0 − ) × (𝑅𝑜 + − 2𝑟0 ) = 0.1727 𝑚
2 2
𝐷02
= 0.255 𝑚
4𝑅𝑜
𝐷𝑜𝑟𝑜
√ = 0.1766 𝑚
2
𝑃 ∗ 𝐷𝑖 ∗ 0.01
𝐾′ = = 0.902
(1.82 ∗ 𝑓 ∗ (𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑡ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 − 𝑐𝑜𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑤𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒)
𝐻1 = √(𝑑 + 2 ∗ 𝐶. 𝐴) ∗ (𝑡𝑛𝑜𝑧𝑧𝑙𝑒 − 𝐶. 𝐴)
𝑃 ∗ 𝐷𝑜
𝑡𝑟 ′ =
(200 ∗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝐽 + 𝑃)
𝑡𝑟 ′ = 0.0032𝑚
An = Ai + Ao = 0.000421 m2
A’ = As + An = 0.000607 m2
A = (d + 2* C.A)* tr = 0.002805 m2
Ar = A – A’ = 0.0022 m2
tp = 0.0224 m
Minimum Design Seating Stress, y = 62.05 MN/m2 (from Table 7.1, B.C.B)
Allowable stress of bolting material, So = 137.78 MN/m2 (from Table 7.1, B.C.B)
= 0.15 m
𝑑𝑖
= 1.01 (where di = internal diameter of Gasket)
𝑑𝑜
di = 0.1515 m
(𝑦−𝑝𝑚)
Gasket outer diameter, do = di*((𝑦−𝑝(𝑚+1)))0.5
= 0.1542 m
(𝑑𝑜−𝑑𝑖)
Minimum Gasket width, N = 2
= 0.00137 m
Actual do = di + 2*N
= 0.1715 m
𝑁
Basic Gasket Seating width, bo = 2
= 0.005 m
= 0.0399 MN
= 0.0371 MN
= 0.07704 MN
𝑊𝑜
Bolt Area required under operating conditions, Ao = 𝑆𝑜
= 0.000558 m2
= 0.1584 MN
Allowable stress at atmospheric T & P, Sg = 138 MN/m2 (from Table 7.5, B.C.B)
𝑊𝑔
Bolt Area under bolting up condition, ABC = = 0.001148 m2
𝑆𝑔
= 0.00006358 m2
𝐴𝑚𝑖𝑛
Minimum No. of bolts = 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
= 18.06
= 0.3821 m
C2 = Do + 2*(1.415*0.018 + R)
= 0.2409 m
= 0.27294 m
= 0.00101 m2
𝑆𝑔∗𝐴𝑏
= 27.685 MN/m2
π∗N∗G
2y = 125 MN/m2
𝑆𝑔∗𝐴𝑏
Thus, π∗N∗G < 2y
Operating condition:
= 0.03446 MN
W2 = H – W1 = 0.00548 MN
W3 = Hp = 0.0371 MN
Wo = W1 + W2 + W3 = 0.077 MN
𝐶2−𝐵
a1 = = 0.04547 m (from Table 7.4, B.C.B)
2
𝐶2−𝐺
a3 = = 0.03972 m (from Table 7.4, B.C.B)
2
𝑎1+𝑎3
a2 = = 0.042595 m (from Table 7.4, B.C.B)
2
Bolting up condtion:
Mg = W*a3 = 0.0059 MJ
W1 = W0/2
𝑘𝑁
= 228.872 𝑚2
R = 0.55
A = 0.5
Sf = 0.02
There are two maximum bending moments over the supports and at the centre of the span. The
Bending moments are given by:
A) At mid-span
2(𝑅2 −𝐻2 )
𝑊1 𝐿 1+ 𝐿2 4𝐴
M1 = [ 4𝐻 − ]
4 1+ 𝐿
3𝐿
= 167298 N-m
B) At supports
𝐴 𝑅2 −𝐻2
1− +
𝐿 2𝐴𝐿
M2 = −𝑊1 𝐴 [ 1 − 4𝐻 ]
1+
3𝐿
= -5886.603 N-m
The resultant longitudinal stresses at the mid-span due to pressure and bending are given:
A) At the highest point of cross-section,
𝑝𝑅 𝑀 𝑁
𝑓1 = − 𝜋𝑅12 𝑡 = 15250290 𝑚2
2
A) At the highest point of cross-section in the shells which remain round in the plane of
the support,
𝑝𝑅 𝑀2
𝑓2 = −
2 𝐾1 𝜋𝑅 2 𝑡
𝑁
= 25154349 𝑚2 (Ref: Table 10.3, BCB)
𝑁
= 21337565 𝑚2 (Ref: Table 10.3, BCB)
𝐾3 𝑊1 𝐿 − 2𝐴 − 𝐻
𝑞= ( )
𝑅𝑡 𝐿+𝐻
𝑁
=1519038 𝑚2
Circumferential stress:
K5 = 0.76; K6 = 0.047; B = 0.5; (Ref: Table 10.5, page 181, BCB)
A/R = 0.909; L/R = 11.08 (Ref: Table 10.5, page 181, BCB)
𝐹 = 𝐾9 𝑊1
= 46690 N
Db = = 2.161 m
Clearance = 0.018 mm
Shell inside diameter = 2.161 + 0.018 = 2.179 m
P = 1.05 x 71 = 74.55 bar
J = 1, for Class I Double welded butt joint with full penetration
f = 1.25 x 108 MN/m2 (Material – IS: 2041-1962)
As the design pressure is above 1.5 MN/m2, we use ellipsoidal dished head
Major axis / Minor axis = 2
As first iteration take
Ri = Do = 2.4 m
Ro = Do = 2.4 m
ro = 0.06 * Do = 0.144 m
𝐷𝑜 𝐷𝑜
ℎ0 = 𝑅0 − √(𝑅0 − ) × (𝑅𝑜 + − 2𝑟0 ) = 0.3831 𝑚
2 2
Now find,
𝐷02
= 0.6 𝑚
4𝑅𝑜
𝐷𝑜𝑟𝑜
√ = 0.4156
2
= 0.02982 C
From Table 13.4 BCB, assume t/Do and find corresponding C and the recalculate t/Do
E= 2x102 MN/m2
The minimum weight of the vessel with two beads and shell will be:
W min= π (Di + ta) ta (H - 4) ϒs + 2 (Head Weight)
where Di= 2.179 m
ta= 0.071 m
𝐷 2
Blank Diameter of head = 𝐷𝑜 + 42𝑜 + 3 ∗ 0.06 ∗ 𝐷𝑜 + 0.04 ∗ 2 + 𝑡𝑠 = 2.729 𝑚
W max =Ws + Wi + Wl + Wa
Ws = weight of shell during test
= 41.91 kN
π 𝐷𝑖 2
= (H-4)(9.81), kN
4
= 171.079 kN
Wa= weight of attachments
= 5.677 kN
Therefore,
Wmax= 693.691 kN
Pw = K1 K2 pw H D
For minimum weight condition, Do = 2.279 m
For maximum weight condition, Do = 2.5 m (insulated)
Hence, Pw (min) = 18117 N
and, Pw (max) = 19872 N
Minimum and maximum wind moments are computed by Eq. 9.3.11 BCB.
Mw (min) =Pw (min) x H/2
= 51434 J
Mw (max) = Pw (max) X H/2
= 56416 J
As the thickness of the skirt is expected to be small, assume
Di≈ Do = 2.279 m
By Eq. 9.3.13 BCB
4Mw (min)
σswm (min) = π 𝐷2 t
0.0126
= MN/m2
𝑡
4 𝑀𝑤𝑚𝑎𝑥
σzwm (max) = 𝜋 𝐷2 𝑡
0.01145
= MN/m2
𝑡
𝑊𝑚𝑖𝑛
σsw (min) = 𝜋𝑑𝑡
0.0663
= MN/m2
𝑡
𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥
σsw (max) = 𝜋𝑑𝑡
0.0884
= MN/m2
𝑡
By Eq. 10.2.1 BCB ,maximum tensile stress without any eccentric load is computed as follows.
= 0.05376/t
Substituting, σz (tensile) = f J
= 96 MN/m2
Equating,
96 = 0.05376/t
t = 0.56 mm
= 0.01145/t + 0.08834/t
= 0.0998/t
= 1.25 X 104 t
Equating,
0.0998
Or, t2 = 1.25 𝑋 104
= 3.16 mm
As per IS : 2825 – 1969 minimum corroded skirt thickness is 7 mm. Providing 1mm corrosion
allowance, a standard 8 mm thick plate can be used for skirt.
Design of skirt-bearing-plate:
𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑀𝑤
σc = +
𝐴 𝑍
Mw = 56.416 kJ
Z = π Rm2 l = 0.4521
σc = 1.04527 MN/m2
tbp = l√3 𝜎𝑐 /f
Substituting,
1.045
tbp = 100 √( 3 𝑋 )
96
= 18.07 mm
tbp = 20 mm
As the plate thickness required is equal to 20 mm, gussets will not be used to reinforce the
plate. (Gussets required for thickness > 20 mm)
3. Absorber
J = 0.85, for Class II Double welded Butt joint with full penetration
Thickness = 39.4 mm
= 1.753 + 2*0.039473
= 1.831 m
Ro = Do = 1.84 m
Ri = Do = 1.84 m
ro = 0.06 * Do = 0.1104 m
𝐷𝑜 𝐷𝑜
ℎ0 = 𝑅0 − √(𝑅0 − ) × (𝑅𝑜 + − 2𝑟0 ) = 0.311 𝑚
2 2
Now find,
𝐷02
= 0.46 𝑚
4𝑅𝑜
𝐷𝑜𝑟𝑜
√ = 0.3186
2
he/Do = 0.169, J = 1
𝑡 𝐶
= 𝑃 ∗ (200
𝐷𝑜 ∗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝐽)
= 0.02983 C
From Table 13.4 BCB, assume t/Do and find corresponding C and the recalculate t/Do
Tray loading excluding liquid (alloy steel trays) = 1.0 kN/m2 of tray
Weld joint efficiency factor = 0.85, for Class II Double welded Butt joints
𝑝𝐷𝑜
t = 2𝑓 +c
𝑗 +𝑝
Substituting for
P = 5.25 MN/m2
Do = 1.84 m
f = 98.1 MN/m2
c = 0.003
t = 0.039473 m
As the shell thickness is very small compared to the diameter, for rest of the calculation
pD 0.8 x 2
σz = = = 65.27 MN/m2
4t 4 x 0.011
= (πDtXγs ), N
𝑊𝑠
σzs =
πtD
= 0.077 X MN/m2
𝑊𝑠 𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑠 γ𝑖𝑛𝑠 𝑋
σzi = =
πtD 𝑡
X−1 4X−1
No of trays, n= ( + 1)=
0.75 3
Liquid weights on trays are calculated on the basis of water and 0.075 m depth. Hence
π 4𝑋−1
Wt = (D2) (0.075) (9 810) x 10-6 MN
4 3
𝑊𝑡
σzi = πDt
4𝑋−1
(75) (9.81 x 10−6 )
3
= 2(0.011)
4𝑋−1
=0.0114( ) MN/m2
3
𝜋𝐷 2 4𝑋−1
Weight of trays = (l) X10-3 MN
4 3
4𝑋−1
= (16.65 x 10-3) + (3.65 x 10-4 X) + (3.14 x10-3) , MN
3
𝑊𝑎
σza =
πtD
4𝑋−1
=0.11+5.3x10-3 (X) + 0.046 , MN/m2
3
= 0.166X -0.384
=0.05 (140)2
= 980 N/m2
From Table 9.1 BCB, 8 maximum wind pressure upto 20 m height is 1 000 N/m2. For
calculating wind load pw = 1.0kN/m will be used,
Pw=K1K2pwXDo
K1= 0.7
Where, H= 20 m
D=1.99m
t= 0.011 m
W = Ws + Wt + Wi + Wa
𝜋 𝜋
= 𝜋Dt(H- 4)γs +πDtins(H-4)γins +4 (D2)(.075) γ1 (16)+ [7.5 x 2 + 0 365 (H-4)+ 4 D2 (1.0) (16)]
= (3.14) (2) (16) (0.011) 77 + (3.14) (2) (0.785)(16)(5.64) +(0.785) (4) (0.075) (9.81) (16)+
(15.0) +5.85+50.15
= 250.034 kN
Therefore,
Hence,
K2 = 1
Substituting,
Mw = Pw X2 = 682.57 X2,
4𝑀𝑤
σzwm = (10-6), MN/ m2
𝜋𝐷 2 𝑡
(4)(682.57)𝑋 2 10−6
= , MN/ m2
(3.14)(3.38)(0.037)
=0.006941 X2 MN/m2
Upwind side:
Expecting, circumferential weld-seam may fall at a distance X meters from top or a little earlier
σ z(max)= fJ
= 98.1 x 0.85
=83.385 MN/m2
Solving for X ,
0.227±√0.2272 −4(0.0217)(46.47)
X= 2(0.017)
Downwind side:
𝑡
σz (compressive, maximum) = 0.125 E 𝐷
𝑜
0.011
= 0.125 (2 x 105)( )
2
= 502.717 MN/m2
If credit for reinforcement of the shell by tray-support n rings are also taken into account X will
be further increased.
Tensile stress in the skirt will be maximum when the dead weight is minimum, i.e., the shell
of the vessel is just erected and the shell empty without any internal attachments. The
compressive stress, on the other hand, is to be determined when the vessel is filled up with
water for hydraulic test. Maximum wind load may be expected at any time and this factor
always to be considered.
The minimum weight of the vessel with two beads and shell will be :
W min= π (Di + ta) ta(H - 4) ϒs + 2 (7 500)
where Di= 1.753 m
ta= 0.039 m
H=4m
ϒs = specific weight (or weight density) of shell material
= 7 850 x 9.81 N/m3
=77 000 N/m3 or 77 kN/m3
Substituting the values and expressing the weight in kN,
W min = (3.14) (1.986) (0.014) (16) (77) + 2(7.5)
=108 + 15
= 123 kN
W max =Ws + Wi + Wl + Wa
Ws = weight of shell during test
= 64.369 kN
π 𝐷𝑖 2
= (H-4)(9.81), kN
4
Therefore,
= 380.908 kN
=2
Period of vibration at maximum dead weight is given by,
Tmax= 6.35X 10-5 (H/D)3/2(Wmax/t)1/2
= 3.414 > 0.5
Hence, K2 = 2
From Eq. 9.39 the wind load is determined as follows :
Pw = K1 K2 pw H D
For minimum weight condition, Do = 1.753 m
For maximum weight condition, Do = 1.84 m (insulated)
Hence, Pw(min)= (0.7) (2) (1 000) (4) (1.75)
=32692.39 N
and, Pw (max) =(0.7) (2) (1 000) (20) (1.84)
=34314.896 N
= 0.0819/t, MN/m2
= 0.085/t MN/m2
= 0.05/t MN/m2
= 0.065/t MN/m2
=0.0819/t – 0.05/t
= 0.031/t
Substituting, σz (tensile) = f J
= 96 X 0.7
= 67.2 MN/m2
Equating,
67.2 = 0.031/t
t = 2.161mm
= 0.1519/t
= 1.25 X 104 t
Equating,
0.1519
Or, t2 = 1.25 𝑋 104
= 3.7 mm
As per IS : 2825 – 1969 minimum corroded skirt thickness is 7 mm. Providing corrosion
allowance, a standard 8 mm thick plate can be used for skirt.
Design of skirt-bearing-plate:
𝑊𝑚𝑎𝑥 𝑀𝑤
σc = +
𝐴 𝑍
A = π (Do –l) l
=2m
Mw = 301 kJ
Z = π Rm2 l
tbp = l√3 𝜎𝑐 /f
Where, l = 100 mm
= 1.85 MN/m2
Substituting,
1.85
tbp = 100 √( 3 𝑋 )
96
= 18.73 mm
Bearing plate thickness of 25 mm is required. As the plate thickness required is smaller than
20 mm, gussets may not be used to reinforce the plate
Distillation Column
Reboiler
Condenser
Reformer
Methanol Reactor
Absorber Column
Temperature (oC) 35
Pressure (kPa) 5000
Mode of Operation Counter Current
Column Diameter (m) 1.753
Column Height (m) 9.316
Number of Trays 43
MOC Carbon Steel
Compressor: K-100
Compressor: K-101
Compressor: K-102
Turbine
Problem: Dumped catalyst tubes and downtime to reinstall the catalyst and clean downstream
equipment.
Cause: Inadequate design and careless installation of bed supports, particularly the wire mesh
screen support.
Remedies: Following features should be incorporated into the catalytic reactor design.
External insulation for heat conservation and to prevent corrosion of the vessel shell.
Inlet flow distributors to prevent impingement of process gas directly onto catalyst tubes
which can cause flow channeling and bed movement.
Explosion
Cause:
Excess Pressure
Inappropriate material of construction
Remedies:
Pressure vessels are air-tight containers used mostly in process industry, refinery and
petrochemical plant to carry or hold liquid, gases or process fluids. They are typically subjected
to pressure loading and internal or external operating pressure different from ambient pressure.
Due to differential operating pressure of the pressure vessel, it is potentially dangerous and
hazardous.
Fatigue Stress
Improper selection of materials or defects Improper repair of leakage
Improper installation Fabrication error over pressurization
Failure to inspect frequently enough erosion
Creep Embrittlement
Unsafe modifications or alteration Unknown or under investigation.
Remedies:
Designing, fabricating and constructing pressure vessels to comply with applicable codes and
standards, and where no pressure vessel law exists, to internationally recognized pressure
vessel safety codes.
Operating the vessel at pressure below the maximum allowable working pressure with proper
pressure setting of relief devices, to handle design pressures and temperatures.
Periodically testing and inspecting the vessel as well as the relief devices in order to detect
corrosion or erosion of the vessel that can cause holes, leaks, cracks, general thinning of the
vessel walls or any other defects. Safety relief valves must be taken off during safety inspection
to verify whether their settings are correct.
Ensuring that alterations or repairs of vessels are only done by competent and authorised
persons and the repair must meet the accepted industry quality standards for pressure vessel
repair.
The most common heat exchanger problem for many chemical engineers is fouling which can
occur within the inside of a tube wall and decrease performance and even damage the heat
exchanger in the long run.
Most common causes of fouling are: Settlement of sludge, rust or dust particles Corrosion
1. Choosing a material of construction which does not easily corrode or produce voluminous
deposits of corrosion products. If chemical removal of fouling is planned, the material
selected must also be resistant to attack by cleaning solutions.
2. If fouling cannot be prevented from forming, it is necessary to make some provisions for
its periodic removal. Some deposits can be removed by purely chemical means.
Leaking storage tanks, whether above or below ground, can pollute the environment, threaten
public health, and lead to billions of dollars in direct and indirect costs. Main reason for storage
tank failure is corrosion.
Decreasing concentration of corrosive impurities in makeup and feed water, lower air in
leakage and condenser leakage etc.
Turbine washing after chemical upsets to remove deposited impurities.
3.5.1 Biogas
Physical Data
If the local utility company has added an odorant, then an unpleasant smell resembling that of
rotten eggs or garlic.
Store and use cylinders and tanks in well-ventilated areas, away from heat and sources of
ignition. No smoking near storage or use. Follow standard procedures for handling cylinders,
tanks, and loading/unloading. Fixed storage containers must be grounded and bonded during
transfer of product.
This gas is extremely flammable and forms flammable mixture with air. It burns in the open or
be explosive in confined spaces. Its vapors are lighter than air and disperse, a hazard of re
ignition or explosion exists if flame is extinguished without stopping the gas flow.
Extinguishing Media
Stop the flow of gas. Dry chemical CO2 or halogen. Water can be used to cool the fire but may
not extinguish the fire.
Special firefighting instructions: Evacuate area upwind of source. Stop gas flow and extinguish
fire. If gas source cannot be shut off immediately, equipment and surfaces exposed to the fire
should be cooled with water to prevent overheating and explosions. Control fire until gas
supply can be shut off.
Skin Absorption: This material is not expected to be absorbed through the skin. Solid and
liquefied forms of this material and pressurized gas can cause freeze burns.
Inhalation: Exposure may produce rapid breathing, headache, dizziness, visual disturbances,
muscular weakness, tremors, narcosis, unconsciousness, and death, depending on the
concentration and duration of exposure.
Skin Contact: Non-irritating, but solid and liquid forms of this material and pressurized gas can
cause frostbite, blisters and redness.
Eye Contact: This gas is non-irritating; but direct contact with liquefied/pressurized gas or frost
panicles may produce severe and possible permanent eye damage from freeze burns.
Swallowing: this product is a gas at normal temperature / pressure and not to present a
swallowing hazard.
Skin: frozen tissues should be flooded or soaked with warm water. Do not use hot water.
Cryogenic burns that results in blistering or deeper tissues freezing should be promptly seen by
a doctor.
Inhalation: immediate move personnel to area of fresh air. For respiratory distress, give air,
oxygen or administrator CPR (cardiopulmonary resuscitation) if necessary. Obtain medical
attention if breathing difficulties continues.
Eyes: methane gas is not expected to present an eye irritation hazard. If contacted by liquid
solid, immediately flush the eyes gently with warm water for at least 15 minutes. Seek medical
attention.
Stability: stable
Conditions to avoid: High heat, open flames and other sources of ignition. Explosive reactions
can occur between natural gas and oxidizing agents. Spontaneous ignition with chlorine
dioxide. Incompatibility (materials to avoid): barium peroxide, chlorine dioxide and strong
oxidizing agents.
Spill, Leaks or Release: Eliminate all potential sources of Ignition. Handling equipment and
tools must be grounded to prevent sparking. Evacuate all nonessential personnel to an area
upwind. Equip responders with proper protection equipment and advice of hazards- Stop Of
release with non-sparking tools before attempting to put out any fire. Ventilate enclosed areas
to prevent formation of flammable or oxygen-deficient atmospheres. Water may be used to
cool equipment or reduce gas accumulation.
Ventilation: Local exhaust and general room ventilation may both be essential in work areas to
prevent accumulation of explosive mixtures. If mechanical ventilation is used, electrical
equipment must meet National Electric Code requirements.
Eye Protection: Use chemical-type goggles and face shields when handling liquefied gases.
Safety glasses and/or face shields are recommended when handling high-pressure cylinders
and piping systems or whenever gases arc discharged.
Skin Protection: If there is a potential for contact with high concentrations of Compressed gas,
use insulated, impervious plastic or neoprene coated canvas gloves and protective gear (Apron,
face shield, etc.) to protect hands and other skin areas.
Respiratory Protection: For excessive gas concentrations, use only NIOSHJMSHA approved,
self-contained breathing apparatus.
Work/Hygiene Practices: Emergency eye wash fountains and safety showers for first aid
treatment of potential freeze burns should be available in the vicinity of any significant
exposure from compressed gas release. Personnel should not enter areas where the atmosphere
is below 19.5 vol. % oxygen without special procedures/equipment. Respirator use should
comply with OSHA 29 CFR 1910.134 or equivalent.
Materials of Storage:
The preferred material for storage of MDEA is 304L or 316L stainless steel. Carbon steel tanks
are also satisfactory, although discoloration and iron in the amine may occur . Nitrogen padding
of the tanks is recommended to prevent oxidation and discoloration of the amine can also be
stored in high-density polyethylene (HDPE) or polypropylene (HDPP).
Aluminum
Copper
Brass
Copper alloy
Storage Temperature:
The recommended minimum temperature for storing and pumping 100% MDA is 200F
(-70C).
Steam tracing and insulation may be required in cold weather.
MDEA can cause serious injury to the eyes and may result in permanent eye injury. If
accidental contact with the eyes occurs, flush them thoroughly with water and seek
medical attention.
Single dose oral toxicity of MDEA is low.
Swallowing a large amount of MDEA may cause severe burns to the mouth, throat and
digestive tract. If accidental ingestion occurs sick medical attention.
Accidental ingestion of small amount of empty is not expected to cause injury.
May cause irritation to the skin. Occasional contact with the skin should be washed off
immediately and should have adverse effects.
If MDEA is heated or mist, produced concentrations may be sufficient to cause
irritation to the upper respiratory tract.
The following precautions should be observed when the possibility of exposure exists:
Accidental release
Skin: may cause skin irritation. May be harmful if absorbed through the skin
Eyes: flush eyes with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes .Occasionally lifting the upper and
lower eyelids. Get medical aid.
Skin: get medical aid. Flush skin with plenty of water for at least 15 minutes while removing
contaminated clothing and shoes.
Skin: may cause skin irritation. Maybe harmful if absorbed through the skin.
Firefighting Measures:
General information: as in any fire, wear a self- contained breathing apparatus in pressure-
demand .MSHA/NIOSH (approved or equivalent), and fully protective gear. Extinguishing
Media: in case of fire, use water, dry chemical, chemical foam, or alcohol-resistant foam.
3.5.3 Steam
Physical properties
Storage of steam
A steam accumulator is an insulated steel pressure tank containing hot water and steam under
pressure. It is a type of energy storage device. It can be used to smooth out peaks and troughs
in demand for steam. Steam accumulators may take on a significance for energy storage in
solar thermal energy projects. The tank is about half-filled with cold water and steam is blown
in from a boiler via a perforated pipe near the bottom of the drum. Some of the steam condenses
and heats the water. The remainder fills the space above the water level. When the accumulator
is fully charged the condensed steam will have raised the water level in the drum to about three
quarters full and the temperature and pressure will also have risen.
Sodium-ion monitoring can prevent steam-turbine corrosion Studies have shown that sodium
is one of the most significant contributors to corrosion within turbines, and that such corrosion
leads to cracking, embrittlement and ultimately, turbine failure. The Orion Ion plus 2111LL
low-level sodium monitor is used to track sodium ion concentrations of steam and other pure-
water circuits within the power industry.
Safety
Steam may seem less harmful than hot water, but this is not the case. Steam can cause serious
injuries, and taking the correct safety precautions when using any equipment that produces
steam is essential.
1. Hazards: The main danger associated with steam is burns or scalding to the skin. Water
will scald at 120 degrees Fahrenheit. Another hazard of steam is poor visibility. Steam will
"cloud" the air, making it difficult to see what you are actually doing, which could lead to
other accidents. Steam is still water and steam getting near electrical appliances or plug
sockets could lead to an electric shock. If you are working with steam on or near a floor,
the risk of slipping or falling also exists.
2. Protective Clothing: To ensure that you do not get burned or scalded, do not use steam
above 120 degrees Fahrenheit for cleaning or other tasks. If you need to use steam at a
higher temperature, wear protective clothing, such as gloves, face shield, eye protection,
long apron and boots.
3. Other Precautions: To ensure that you do not get an electric shock, make sure that you
work away from plugs, sockets and electrical equipment, or cover electrical equipment and
ensure that it is completely dry before using. Place non-slip mats on the floor if there is a
danger of it getting wet. If a steam cloud appears, stop working and wait for the cloud to
dissipate before resuming your task.
There are immediate steps to after a steam burn is sustained to the skin.
The most important treatment step for any burn injury is to eliminate cause for any further
injury (whether you are the one who has sustained a steam burn or you are helping someone
who has). The first step is to turn off the source of the heat.
The second step is to stop the burning process by running cool tap water over burned areas
until the area is cool to the touch (even if the patient feels relief before this). The cool water
reduces the temperature of burn injuries. It might take flushing the area with cool water for up
to twenty minutes to completely stop the burning process and make sure the patient is not going
to get worse.
Next, cover the burn injuries with a dry, sterile dressing. Finally, in cases where the total burn
injury is larger than 9 percent of the entire body (see the Rule of Nines), the patient needs to
be transported by ambulance to a burn center. Call ambulance if the steam burn or scald
includes the patient's face, entire hand, entire foot, or genitalia.
If the patient does not need an ambulance, take the following short-term treatment steps after
a steam burn is sustained:
1. Keep the injury covered in a dry, sterile dressing. Change these daily and maintain the
dressings for at least 10 days until the injured area appears to be healing and the patient
can tolerate exposure to air.
2. Take over-the-counter (OTC) pain medication for pain control.
3. If the injured area develops signs of infection, contact a physician immediately.
4. In cases where the patient did not seek medical treatment but becomes short of breath
at any time after a steam injury, call 911 immediately. Steam in the throat can lead to
swelling in the airway hours later.
If the patient requires immediate treatment for her injuries, the hospital may send her to a burn
center. Treatment at a burn center could include debridement (scrubbing away dead tissue) to
reduce scarring as well as intravenous pain medication. Patients may be hospitalized for two to
three weeks in a burn center.
Instrumentation is provided to monitor the key process variables during plant operation. They
may be incorporated in automatic control loops or used the manual monitoring of the process
operation. Instruments monitoring critical process variables will be fitted with automatic
alarms to alert the operators to critical and hazardous situations. For control of the distillation
columns, the continuous, on line analysis of the overhead products desirable but difficult and
expensive to achieve reliably so temperature is often monitor, indicator of composition. The
temperature instrument may form part of a control loop control say reflux flow, with the
composition of the overhead checked frequently by sampling and lab analysis.
Control
It controls all those parameters, which control the process and do not allow them to cross safe
limit thereby enabling smooth and safe operation.
Safety
An efficient controlled plant possesses high safety by carefully monitoring potential hazards.
like fire, explosion, toxicity etc.
Product Quality
By the monitoring of the process parameters like temperature, pressure and composition
streams of reaction vessel, it guarantees the quality of the product.
A plant should produce desired amount and quality of the final Product. To produce and
maintain the final product composition desired, chemical process control is essential.
The safe operation of a chemical process is a primary requirement for the wellbeing of the
people in the Plant and for its continued contribution to the economic development.
Various central and state laws may specify the allowable limits of temperature, concenteratin
of flow rates of effluents from the plant. Environmental pollution must be minimized by
pollution control strategies.
The various types of equipment used in plants have constraint inherent to their operation. Such
constraint should be satisfied throughout the operation of the plant. For e.g. pumps must
maintain a certain NPSII, tanks should not overflow or go dry, distillation columns should not
be flooded, the temperature in catalytic reactors should not exceed the range of the catalyst.
5. Measurement Aspects
Every type of equipment has its special measurement requirements. The guiding principle is to
determine the actual value that is to be controlled and to install instrumentation that will
measure that precise value.
6. Cost Competitiveness
The operation of a plant must confirm to the market condition, the availability of materials and
demand of the final products. Further it should be as economical as possible in the utilization
of raw materials, energy, capital and labour.
There are three key elements leading to fire and explosions known as fire triangle.
Safety can be achieved by removing at least one of the elements in the environment around
instrumentation.
1. Fuel: A controlled environment can be purged with air inert to remove fuel.
2. Oxygen: The environment around an Instrument can be immersed in liquid , solid that will
prevent oxygen from being affected by the source of ignition
3. Ignition: The power source can be maintained below the critical value that could initiate fire
or explosion.
Contaminant: An instrument can be surrounded with an enclosure that can contain explosion
within the small region, where it will extinguish quickly because of lack of fuel and oxygen.
This approach is also termed explosion proofing or flame proofing.
The objective of a heat exchanger control is to maintain a specified product outlet enthalpy. A
computerized control system can be designed to achieve this goal
T0 = Reference temperature
The equation can be mechanized and the calculated enthalpy used as measurement signal to a
standard controller.
Two types of advanced control strategies can be employed in designing the Control System of
a heat exchanger -
Safety Aspects:
1. Control system for Maximum Pressure Drop can be in place as is in the case of Heat
Exchanger.
2. The maximum pressure drop on the shell side is controlled by simple feedback and a
proportional controller.
The inventory controls on the distillation column are the level controllers which replaces to
depletion and accumulation of material within the column.
1. Pressure drop across the column is a crucial factor in the distillation. To maintain and
control it we employed PI controllers. The flow of feed stream and the flow of steam in
reboiler are controlled by this.
2. The flow of cooling water into the condenser is maintained and control via pressure
controller at the top.
3. Flow of the top product (output from condenser) is maintained and controlled by using
controller and reflux is maintained by using temperature controller (PIO) which measures
the column temperature.
4. Ratio controller is employed to maintain and control the flow of bottom stream between
feed stream and bottom stream.
3. Advanced control strategies must be applied for required distillation like controller b/w feed
and bottom stream.
P - Proportional controller
The distillation column is based on maintaining the column pressure at constant value. Any
variation in column pressure will upset the control system by changing the equilibrium
conditions of materials in the drum. The set of pressure is a compromise between two extremes.
The column pressure quickly responds to be overhead flow rate. Hence pressure control line is
used to modulate the flow. The HIC installed on the flare line is cascaded with the pH res MR
1 is used to operate in case of very high pressure.
The level of condensed overhead vapors in the reflux drum is maintained constant. The reflux
drum acts as surge. The distillate flow rate is modulated for a quick response in liquid level.
The contra, on distillate line is cascaded with reflux drum level control for manipulation.
The boot water flow control is cascaded with another level controller on reflux drum which
keeps the boot water level to minimum.
Liquid level at the bottom of the column is maintained to avoid any dry up or upset due to in
pressure or temperature. Column bottom level is highly sensitive with the bottoms flow rate.
Hence the level is modulated by manipulating the bottoms flow rate. The flow controller on
the bottoms line is cascaded with the level controller mounted at the column bottom.
Safety Measures:
2. Flow of cooling water into the condenser is maintained and controlled by using temperature
controller which is measuring the temperature of recycle stream into the column.
The pressure in the flash tank is controlled by controlling the opening of the valve across which
the pressure drop takes place.
I. The temperature in the reactor is controlled by using a temperature measurement device and
controlling the flow of steam to the reboiler.
3. The flow of the outlet stream of the condenser is measured by using a flow measurement
device and controlling the opening of the valve.
4. The liquid level in the reboiler is measured by using a level measurement device and is
controlled by controlling the outlet flow rate.
1. A temperature measurement device is used to measure the temperature of the recycled stream
of the condenser and the temperature is controlled by controlling the flow of water to the
condenser.
2. A level measurement device is used to control the water level in the condenser which controls
the flow rate of the outlet stream.
The outlet temperature of the cooler is controlled measuring its temperature and using a feed
forward controller for manipulating the flow rate of entering water to control the outlet
temperature.
CONSERVATION
Plan: Establish the objectives and processes necessary to deliver results in accordance
with the organization’s environmental policy.
Point Sources:
Combustion sources
Intermittent vents
Storage emission
Condensed stream and treatment system
Equipment leaks
Cooling water, waste-water collection and treatment system
Air Pollution
Carbon Dioxide: The CO2 from the furnace and from final separator is being sent to carbon
sequestration unit. Industrial Standard: 250-350 ppm Ambient Air
Carbon dioxide is naturally captured from the atmosphere through biological, chemical or
physical processes. Some artificial sequestration techniques exploit these natural processes,
while some use entirely artificial processes.
Carbon dioxide may be captured as a pure by-product in processes related to petroleum refining
or from flue gases from power generation. CO2 sequestration includes the storage part of carbon
capture and storage, which refers to large-scale, artificial capture and sequestration of
industrially produced CO2 using subsurface saline aquifers, reservoirs, ocean water, aging oil
fields, or other carbon sinks.
Carbon Monoxide:
Install an effective ventilation system that will remove CO from work areas.
Catalysts for CO-selective methanation
Catalysts for CO-selective oxidation
b. Liquid Effluent:
Release of various used chemicals, waste water to river, canal etc. cause water pollution.
Amount of some of contaminant present may be higher, thus causes various diseases, mutation
(high concentration). The flow, type and concentration of pollutant depend on process and
water used.
Release of various used chemicals, waste water to river, canals, etc. cause water pollution.
Amount of some of contaminant present may be higher, thus causes various diseases, mutation
(high concentration). The flow, type and concentration of pollutant depend on process and
water used.
b. i. Possible Sources:
The water act 1974 to provide prevention of control of water pollution and maintaining
wholesomeness of water. (Applicable in all states)
Dissolved organic matter which escapes the settling tank are removed by microbes consuming
the organic matter as food, and converting it to carbon dioxide, water and energy for their own
growth and reproduction. Also reduces biological oxygen demand of water.
c. Solid effluents
A major problem with solid incinerator is fly ash control. Various methods employed for this
purpose are two-stage combustion, filter baffle and provision of large secondary chambers
where velocities are low and settling takes place. If the fly ash problem is chronic, special
separation devices like electrostatic precipitators can be employed. The flash produced can be
used as a landfill.
d. Noise Pollution
Noise has recently been recognized as a pollutant. It is a great means in thickly populated area.
There is simple evidence that affects speech, hearing and general health of people exposed to
it over an extended period.
In our process noise is produced from various types of columns and various mechanical
equipment like compressors, reactors etc. This type of noise possesses a potential damage to
the various plant personal who work very close to this equipment.
Various equipment that would be used in the production of dimethyl ether, their noise levels
and control measures are listed in the table below:
lagging
Piping 90-105 Inline silencers, vibration isolators and lagging
Heaters and Furnaces 90-110 Acoustic plenums, intake mufflers, lined/
damped ducts
Generalized recommendations to reduce noise with rose of trees and shrubs include:
Plant the noise buffer close to the noise source (rather than close to the area to be
protected).
Plant trees/shrubs as close together as the species will allow and not be overly inhibited.
When possible use plant with dense foliage. A diversity tree species, with a range of
foliage shapes and sizes within the noise buffer may also improve noise reduction.
Foliage of the plants should persist from the ground up. A combination of shrubs and
trees may be necessary to achieve this effect.
Evergreen varieties that retain their leaves will give better year-round protection.
When possible use tall plants. Where the use of tall trees is restricted, use combinations
of shorter shrubs and tall grass or similar soft ground cover as opposed to harder paved
surfaces.
With the rising population of the world and rapidly increasing per capita consumption in the
developing countries, energy conservation as become the focus of attention all around the
world, particularly in energy intensive petrochemical industry.
The fast depleting petroleum resources, which are estimated to be just around 89×109 barrels
as reserves (sufficient for just another 30 years) have let to the exploration of new energy
resources. In this context, both conventional and non-conventional sources of energy are to be
studied.
The increasing cost of primary fuel has broadened the range of the heat recovery applications
that can be economically justified. In a typical chemical concern with a profit margin of Rs. 4
per 100 sales, a saving of Rs. 1 in energy cost is approximately equivalent to an increase of Rs.
25 in sales. The entire gamut of energy conservation operations can be classified into two broad
categories:
a) Energy Concept
The term energy has its origin in last of thermodynamics. It can be redefined in terms
of enthalpy or entropy change or temperature difference. In each process, the sum of all
the inputs are always greater than the sum of all the outputs, the difference being the
energy losses. The endeavor of all energy conservation step is to minimize this energy
loss.
b) Pinch Concept
Every chemical industry used cold and hot streams. The hot streams are cooled while
the cold streams get heated up. These are called the hot and cold end “Approach”. ∆T,
that is, the temperature difference between hot and cold end need not remain same
through the temperature range. In a grand composite curve, all the hot and cold streams
are combined to form the hot composite and cold composite respectively. There is a
situation when ∆T becomes minimum. This point of closest approach is called pinch of
the integrated heat exchanger (HEN) and signifies zero heat transfer in the grand
composite curve. To achieve energy conservation, the following three rules must be
followed:
- No heat transfer across the pinch.
- No cooling above the pinch.
- No heating below the pinch.
Apart from the above, some more measures taken for the energy conservation are:
2. Computer control:
Computer control of critical parameter in the plant provides another opportunity for
saving energy and increasing the capacity utilization. With the help of the optimal
control, energy consumption can be minimized
5 PLANT UTILITIES
In chemical process plants, plant utilities play a critical role in supporting the operation of the
facility. Typical plant utilities include steam, electricity, refrigerants, inlet water sources,
compressed air, industrial gases, heat transfer fluids, cooling towers, and more. Proper design,
operation and maintenance of the engineering systems needed to provide these items is key.
Heating utilities are necessary for proper usage of distillers, reactors, condensers, and several
other integral types of equipment. More specifically, steam, fired heat, and hot oil/specialized
heat transfer fluids.
Here are a few advantages of using steam as opposed to other methods of process heating:
1. By controlling the pressure of the steam, one can control the temperature at which the heat
is released.
2. Steam is an efficient heat source because the heat of condensation of steam is very high.
3. Heat exchangers that use steam are relatively cheap because condensing steam has a high
heat transfer coefficient.
In the diagram above, boiler feed water at a high pressure is preheated and fed to other boilers.
These other boilers superheat the steam to create a high pressure and high temperature steam
stream. The steam is superheated past the dew point to account for heat loss in the pipelines. A
portion of the high pressure steam is used for process heating in areas of the plant that require
high temperatures. The rest of the high pressure steam is turned into medium pressure steam
by valves and steam turbines. The medium pressure steam is then used to heat medium
temperature processes and to form low pressure steam. The low pressure steam can be used to
heat low pressure processes and it can be expanded in condensing turbines to create shaft work
and energy. In summary, steam can be used for an innumerable amount of action items in a
plant. High pressure, medium pressure, and low pressure steam can all be used as a heat source.
Low pressure steam has utilities in creating electricity and it also has several other uses.
5.3 WATER
Process Water: Water is typically used for various purposes where the water is closely
contacted with the hydrocarbons. Softened water is usually used for these purposes.
Cooling Water: Water-cooled condensers, product coolers (heat exchangers) and other heat
exchangers can use a large amount of water in a refinery. Some refineries use air coolers, where
the process stream is exchanged with air prior the being sent to a cooling water heat exchanger.
This will minimize the use of cooling water in the refinery.
Fire Water: The requirements for fire water in refineries are intermittent, but can constitute a
very large flow. Often, refineries collect storm water from non-process areas and store it in a
reservoir dedicated to the fire water system in the plant. Provisions are typically made for a
connection (for use in emergency situations) of the fire water system into the largest available
reservoir of water. Usually this is the raw water supply since fire water requires no treatment.
Sea water or brackish water is often used as fire water by plants located along coastal areas.
Potable Water: Potable water is required for use in kitchens, wash areas and bathrooms in
refineries as well as in safety showers/eyewash stations. City water or treated groundwater can
be used for this purpose. In remote locations or in small towns a portion of the treated water
from the plant softening unit may be diverted for potable water use. The treated water must be
chlorinated to destroy bacteria, and then pumped in an independent system to prevent potential
cross-contamination. Potable quality water may also be required in some specialist chemical
operations (e.g. as a diluent).
Utility Water: Utility water is used for miscellaneous washing operations, such as cleaning an
operating area. It should be free from sediment but does not require any other treatment.
Lime softening: When lime softening is used for raw water treatment, the sludge generated in
this process should be thickened, and optionally dewatered. The thickener overflow water can
be discharged directly without any further treatment, when local regulations allow. The sludge
that is generated should be disposed off-site. Not discharging it to the sewer in the refinery will
prevent the introduction of inert solids into the sewer in the refinery which in turn will avoid
creation of more oil sludge that requires disposal.
Sour Water: The typical treatment for sour water is to send it to a stripper for removal of H 2
S and CO2. Steam is used to inject heat into the strippers. High performance strippers are able
to achieve < 1 ppm H2S and < 30 ppm CO2 in the stripped sour water. In sour water stripper,
all the sour water produced in the refinery is flashed in a drum and any separated oil is sent to
refinery slops. The vapours from this drum are sent to the flare. The sour water from the drum
is then sent to a storage tank which provides the required surge in the system. The sour water
is then passed through a feed/bottoms exchanger where it is heated up and then sent to the
stripper. The separated vapors containing H2S and co2 are sent to the Sulphur plant. The
stripped water is routed via the feed/bottoms exchanger and a trim cooler for reuse in the
refinery. Any excess water that cannot be reused would be sent to a wastewater treatment plant.
MANAGEMENT
Need for an organization; A proper organization would assist in the most effective use the
physical assets-plants and machinery, tools, material and supplies. The human resource of the
industry should be skilled so that the unit may be perpetuated and the objectives, including that
of profit, may be achieved. The need for organization grows with the increase in the size of the
unit. The concept of the organization has five basic elements namely:
1. The assembly of men, machines, materials and money to produce a product in the unit
in accordance with the plan.
2. The identification and grouping of the work, i.e., work division and work allotment.
The success of organization depends upon the behavior of human beings. An organization
structure is a framework which holds the various functions together according to the pattern,
order topical and legal arrangements in- built relationships.
It aids in the expansion and growth of an enterprise. A sound organizational plan avoids
all the pitfalls of rapid growth.
It provides for the optimum use of technological improvement and manpower for higher
growth.
Organization structure should manage conflict so that it helps the company rather than tears it
apart. It is helpful to understand the basic determination of power in organizations and how
conflicts are related.
Organizational efficiency.
Board of directors:
1. Establish objectives.
2. Overall accountability.
4. Align the interests of stockholders (owners) and the management of the firm.
Operating management:
It is very important and most essential to specify the kind of structural organization and the
total labor to requirement of the plant complex. Before beginning the construction and
commissioning of the plant. Sufficient capita, good equipment and efficient technology will
not be able to achieve the aim of efficient production alone, without good organization set up.
The operating management and the labor are two of the most important factors, which
contribute to the efficient functioning of the production unit.
Types of structure:
Keeping in view the above three types of organization structure which exists, normally:
(a) Functional: Where each major function of the report to the company’s president. Here
similar activities function together and may be grouped as safety, production, marketing,
finance and so on. This is more suitable to chemical engineering where the market demand and
technology do not change as rapidly as is the realm of computers.
(b) Product: Here the vice president of major groups report the to the president. At the next
level Departments are organized on a functional basis. Hence there would be a vice president
in charge of products of special chemicals for new materials and so on .Each vice president is
responsible for a particular
(c) Regional: This third method groups organizations according to reigns and is more suited
to banks and railways. Here we have northern zone, southern zone and so on.
The organization structure shown in the chart is more economically and in chemical and
process industries.
DIVISIONS OF ORGANIZATION:
Keeping the above factors in the mind the organization can be divided into following
categories:
(a) Safety Division: A Vice President heads the safety division of the plant. Aim of this
department is:
To conduct safety audits and ensure proper functioning of fail safe equipment
(b) Production Division: The department is headed by Vice President assisted by various
managers. He is a technical man and is responsible for the overall production and the smooth
functioning of the plant which would include managing the throughput of the plant. This
division has an experience maintenance engineer who looks after the proper functioning of the
equipment.
(c) Marketing Division: The marketing manager heads it. He is the responsible for the
development of the new marketing strategies and publicity, advertising and sales of product.
Moreover, this department also contains various executives who are expected to make product
sales (on ground salesman).
(d) Finance Division: They take care of the plant expenses and budgeting. He is associated in
his work by the chief accountant and his staff.
(e) Human Resource Division: It is managed by various managers who have an expertise in
business management. They are skilled in human psychology and deal with various day to day
plant disputes, compensation scale of employees and various employee oriented
bonding/coordination activities.
(f) R&D Department: This department includes scientists who work in the area of chemistry
and chemical engineering enhancing the plant performance in terms of using better
technologies to enhance product yields. Moreover, they also have quality officers whose job is
to check the quality of produced product and its quality as compared to market and company
standards, and suggest any amendments if any.
(g) Staff and labor: Staff and labor can be divided into:
Every chemical industry requires a proper mixture of both to ensure smooth operation of the
plant. The Vessels rule and the rule of thumb are two methods that have been suggested to
determine the man power requirement.
A0 6,00,000
A1 4,50,000
A2 3,00,000
A3 2,10,000
A4 1,50,000
A5 54,000
A6 25,500
B0 1,50,000
B1 60,000
B2 18,000
Administration
Personal(HR)
Staff Graduate 4 A5
Finance
Accountants M.com 4 A4
Production
Managers BTech(chemical) 4 A4
Operators BTech(chemical) 16 B1
Labor BTech(chemical) 30 B2
Technical
Engineers BTech 10 B0
Staff Graduate 12 B1
Maintenance
Operator Diploma 6 B1
7 MARKET PROSPECTS
The two figures above depict the sectoral consumption of methanol globally and in China in
2015. India is at a nascent stage in methanol production and usage, but it has a large potential
given its wide applications. There are 5 main producers of methanol in India –
The following figures would give an overview of the methanol industry in India.
Capacity Domestic Consumption Capacity
Year (MT) Production (MT) (MT) Utilization (%)
2010-11 0.496 0.375 1.14 76%
2011-12 0.496 0.360 1.44 73%
2012-13 0.474 0.255 1.47 54%
2013-14 0.474 0.307 1.54 65%
2014-15 0.474 0.210 1.80 44%
2015-16 0.474 0.163 1.83 34%
Table 4
(Source – Ministry of Chemicals and Petrochemicals12)
Table 3 suggests that the domestic production of methanol has fallen by 57% from 2010-11 to
2015-16, whereas the consumption has risen by 61% over the same period. Since, the installed
production capacity of methanol has largely been static, falling domestic production has led to
constant decline in the capacity utilization factors of Methanol Industry. In 2015, the per liter
cost of methanol production in India was INR 25-27 or even more depending on the volatility
in the price of imported natural gas. India Methanol demand is to grow at 7% till 2025 by “India
Methanol Market study, 2011-2025”.
It can be inferred from Table 4 that in spite of having un-utilized capacity in India, it imports
methanol in order to meet its requirements. Rather, 90% of methanol requirement is met
through imports. This is primarily because, it is cheaper for India to import methanol in
comparison with domestic production. India imports 99% of its methanol from Iran (1.31 MT)
and Saudi Arabia (0.38 MT), where methanol is produced from natural gas which is abundantly
available in latter countries at extremely low prices. On the other hand, India relies on imported
natural gas for methanol production due to which it loses its competitiveness in comparison
with imports. Moreover, there is a considerable forex outgo on the imports of methanol which
is indicated in the figure below.
The government also proposing road map to achieve its target of increasing penetration of
methanol as alternative fuel to petrol and diesel. NITI Aayog ramping up facilities to convert
Coal, Standard Gas and Biomass to methanol. NITI Aayog is also working on converting
certain diesel-powered rail engines, boats and ships used in inland waterways to work on
methanol.
The feasibility of the plant and site selection is mainly based upon the following:
The proposed location for this plant is near Kudal village in Satara District of Maharashtra.
The site is not prime agricultural land. This is flat land whereby cutting-filling will be balances
and there will be no/low borrowing from nature. There is no tropical forest, biosphere reserve,
national park, wild life sanctuary and coral formation reserve within 10.0 km influence zone.
This site has a connecting road from Satara District and is 3-4km far from NH-4 and has good
approachability. There is no sensitive establishment in the vicinity such as hospital,
archaeological monuments, sanctuaries, etc. The normal wind direction is found to be favorable
at this site. All villages nearby have a good connection of road network.
The raw material which is biogas is available in abundant quantity through a Biogas producer
“Green Elephant” established in Satara District nearly 10 – 12 km from the plant site. It
produces more than 25000 m3/day of biogas which is sufficient to sustain the input of the plant.
After selecting a site for the plant, plant layout is a crucial factor in the economics and safety
of process plant. Some of the ways, in which plant layout contributes to safety and loss
prevention (SLP), & which are included in the layout design are:
4. Containment of accidents.
5. Limitation of exposure.
13. Security.
Our plant layout mainly includes the following buildings and construction as per the process
requirements and support activities:
1. Plant Area (including boiler house, pump house, cooling tower, water treatment plant
etc.).
2. Power Plant.
3. Storage.
4. Repair & Maintenance Workshop.
5. Plant Utilities.
6. Loading Area (train, tankers, trucks etc.).
7. Stores.
8. R & D Centre.
9. Laboratories.
10. Quality Control Wing
21. Canteen.
A site layout for the plant is provided on the next page. Considerations have been given for the
future expansions. Some area has been marked for Green Belt. Hazardous materials are kept at
a safe distance from the offices and other staff facilities.
Description:
Location of building
o Buildings which are the work base for a number of people should be located so as to limit
their exposure to hazards. Analytical laboratories should be in a safe area, but otherwise as
close as possible to the plants served. So should workshops and general stores. The main
office block should always be near the main entrance and other administration buildings
should be near this entrance if possible.
o Other buildings, such as medical centers, canteens, etc., should also be in a safe area and
the latter should have ready access for food supplies.
o All buildings should be upwind of plants which may give rise to objectionable features.
Water drift from cooling towers can restrict visibility and cause corrosion or ice formation
on plants or transport routes, and towers should be sited to minimize this.
o Another problem is recycling of air from the discharge of one tower to the suction of
another, which is countered by placing towers crosswise to the prevailing wind. The
entrainment of effluents from stacks and of corrosive vapors from plants into the cooling
towers should be avoided, as should the siting of buildings near the tower intakes.
o The positioning of natural draught cooling towers should also take into account resonance
caused by wind between the towers. The problem of air re circulation should also be borne
in mind in siting air-cooled heat exchangers.
Economic considerations
o The cost of construction can be minimized by adopting a layout that gives the shortest run
of connecting pipe between equipment, and the least amount of structural steel work.
However, this will not necessarily be best arrangement for operation and maintenance.
o Some features which have a particularly strong influence on costs are foundations,
structures, piping and electrical cabling. This creates the incentive to locate items on the
ground, to group items so that they can share a foundation or a structure, and to keep pipe
and cable runs to a minimum.
Safety considerations
o Plants which may leak flammables should generally be built in the open or, if necessary, in
a structure with a roof but no walls. If a closed building cannot be avoided, it should have
explosion relief panels in the walls or roof with relief venting to a safe area. Open air
construction ventilates plants and disperses flammables but, as already indicated, scenarios
of leakage and dispersion should be investigated for the plant concerned.
o Fire spread in buildings should be limited by design, as should fire spread on open
structures. Sprinklers and other protective systems should be provided as appropriate.
Plants which may leak toxics should also generally be built in the open air. The hazardous
concentrations for toxics are much lower than those for flammables, however, and it cannot
be assumed that an open structure is always sufficiently ventilated.
o Ventilation is necessary for buildings housing plants processing flammables or toxics. Air
inlets should be sited so that they do not draw in contaminated air. The relative position of
air inlets and outlets should be such that short circuiting does not occur. Exhaust air may
need to be treated before discharge by scrubbing or filtering.
o Blast walls may be needed to isolate potentially hazardous equipment, and confine the
effect of the explosion. At least two escape routes for operators must be provided from each
level in the process building.
Operations
o Access and operability are important to plant operation. The routine activities performed
by the operator should be studied with a view to providing the shortest and most direct
routes from the control room to items requiring most frequent attention.
o Equipment that needs to have frequent operator attention should be located convenient to
the control room. Valves, sample points and instruments should be located at convenient
positions and heights. Sufficient working space and headroom must be provided to allow
easy access to equipment.
o Good lighting on the plant is important, particularly on access routes, near hazards and for
instrument reading. Operations involving manipulation of equipment while observing an
indicator should be considered so that the layout permits this.
Maintenance
o Maintenance costs are very large in the chemical industry. In some cases the cost of
maintenance exceeds the company’s profit. The engineer must design to reduce these costs.
o Heat exchangers must be sited such that tube bundle can be easily withdrawn for cleaning
and tube replacement.
o Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalyst or packing should be located on the
outside of the building.
o Equipment that requires dismantling for maintenance, such as compressors and large
pumps, should be placed under cover.
Modular construction
o For convenience of efficient management, the whole plant is assembled section wise at the
plant manufacturer’s site in the form of modules. These modules will include the
equipment, structural steel, piping and instrumentation. Modules are then transported to the
plant site, by road or sea.
Future Expansion
o We know that technology is improving day by day. That’s why keeping future expansion
in mind, equipment should be located so that it can be conveniently tied in with any future
expansion of the process.
Plant Economics-
An acceptable plant design must present a process that is capable of operating under conditions
which yield a profit. Since Net Profit equals total income minus all expenses. It is essential that
the Chemical Engineer be aware of the many different types of costs involved in manufacturing
processes.
A capital investment is required for any industrial process and determination of the necessary
investment is an important part of a plant design project. The total investment for any process
consists of fixed capital investment for physical equipment and facilities in the plant plus
working capital which must be available to pay salaries, keep raw materials and products on-
hand and handle other special items requiring a direct cash outlay. Thus in an analysis including
income taxes must be taken into consideration.
All the equipment costs are taken from "Matches process Equipment Cost Estimates" and from
"Coulson and Richardson's, Volume 6. Edition". The base year taken is 2018. All the
equipments are scaled to the present worth using the 'Chemical Engineering Plant Cost Index'
published regularly in the Chemical Engineering Magazine using the formula-
Calculation for total project cost including Fixed Capital, working Capital requirements,
preliminary and pre-operative expenses.
S.No Equipment Name Nos Price (Rs.)
1 E-100 1 14560000
2 E-101 1 4354000
3 E-102 1 6090000
4 E-103 1 4543000
5 E-104 1 5425000
6 E-105 1 10500000
7 E-106 1 24010000
8 E-107 1 5047000
9 K-100 1 28770000
10 K-101 1 28770000
11 K-102 1 32830000
12 K-103 1 9590000
13 REFORMER 1 76300000
14 Methanol Reactor 1 52660300
15 V-100 1 20972000
16 V-101 1 20466600
17 V-102 1 20589100
18 V-103 1 20986000
19 Reboiler 1 20874000
20 Distillation Column 1 3913000
21 Absorption Column 1 8750000
plant)
4 Cooling Water 1555.2 30 46656
5 Electricity(for other 1177382.304 3.5 4120838.064
purposes)
6 Plant Air 37157201.17 0.7 26010040.82
7 Fuel Oil 2636.88 1200 3164256
Total Annual Cost of Power and Utilities 487072011.1
Thus, we find that from 3rd year CCF-FCI becomes positive which implies that the cost invested
is recovered.
Profitability Analysis
Profitability Analysis
To calculate Profitability analysis the following method has been employed.
Based on selling price of the finished product API calculated at 100%, capacity.
Formulas:
𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑠 = 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∗ 𝑀𝑎𝑟𝑘𝑒𝑡
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 = 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑅𝑒𝑣𝑒𝑛𝑢𝑒 𝑡ℎ𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑔ℎ 𝑆𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑠 − 𝐴𝑛𝑛𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 = 𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑠 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡 ∗ (1 − 𝑡𝑎𝑥%)
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑖𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡
𝑃𝑎𝑦𝑏𝑎𝑐𝑘 𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑜𝑑 = 𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡+𝐷𝑒𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑐𝑖𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛
Where total investment =Fixed capital Investment
𝑁𝑒𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑜𝑓𝑖𝑡
𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑛 = 𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐼𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∗ 100
Chart Title
1E+10
8E+09
6E+09
4E+09
2E+09
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
-2E+09
-4E+09
From graph it is clearly visible that 3.23 years is the break-even point for the plant that has
been designed.
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based-case- study-analyses/
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