Unit-2A

Environmental Pollution

Definition: Any undesirable change in any of the property

(physical, chemical, or biological characteristics) of any of the
components of environment which leads to instability, disorder,
harm or discomfort to the ecosystem is called pollution. The
contaminant which brings about such changes is called pollutant.

Although there are some natural pollutants such as volcanoes,

pollution generally occurs because of human activity.
Biodegradable pollutants, like sewage cause no permanent
damage if they are adequately dispersed, but non-biodegradable
pollutants, such as lead, may be concentrated as they move up the
food chain. Air pollution, associated with basic industries such as
oil refining, chemicals, and iron and steel, as well as with the
internal combustion engine, is probably the principal offender,
followed by water and land pollution. Present-day problems of
pollution include acid rain and the burning of fossil fuels to
produce excessive carbon dioxide.

Air Pollution
Point source of air pollution and their controlling measures
Point sources are large, stationary sources of air pollution, such
as factories, power plants, etc. The definitions of point sources
for criteria and hazardous air pollutants are similar but not
identical. There are four main types of air pollution sources:
mobile sources – such as cars, buses, planes, trucks, and trains.
stationary sources – such as power plants, oil refineries, industrial
facilities, and factories. area sources – such as agricultural areas,
cities, and wood fireplaces.
External Combustion Boilers: Electric utility power generation,
industrial power generation.
Internal Combustion Engines: Electrical generators, industrial
power generators, commercial and institutional power generation,
and engine testing operations.
Industrial Processes: Chemical manufacturing, food and
agricultural processes and primary metal production.
Petroleum and Solvent Evaporation: Petroleum refining
processes, surface coating operations, degreasing, industrial dry
cleaning and organic chemical storage.
Waste Disposal: Municipal solid waste disposal, commercial and
institutional solid waste disposal, industrial solid waste
incinerators including hazardous waste incinerators.

Control devices
The following items are commonly used as pollution control
devices in industry and transportation. They can either
destroy contaminants or remove them from an exhaust stream
before it is emitted into the atmosphere.
 Particulate control
 Mechanical collectors (dust cyclones, multicyclones)
 Electrostatic precipitators An electrostatic precipitator
(ESP), or electrostatic air cleaner is a particulate
collection device that removes particles from a flowing
gas (such as air), using the force of an induced
electrostatic charge. Electrostatic precipitators are highly
efficient filtration devices that minimally impede the flow
of gases through the device, and can easily remove fine
particulates such as dust and smoke from the air stream.
 Baghouses Designed to handle heavy dust loads, a dust
collector consists of a blower, dust filter, a filter-cleaning
system, and a dust receptacle or dust removal system
 (distinguished from air cleaners which utilize disposable
filters to remove the dust).
 Particulate scrubbers Wet scrubber is a form of
pollution control technology. The term describes a variety
of devices that use pollutants from a furnace flue gas or
from other gas streams. In a wet scrubber, the polluted gas
stream is brought into contact with the scrubbing liquid,
by spraying it with the liquid, by forcing it through a pool
of liquid, or by some other contact method, so as to
remove the pollutants.
 Scrubbers
 Baffle spray scrubber
 Cyclonic spray scrubber
 Ejector venturi scrubber
 Mechanically aided scrubber
 Spray tower
 Wet scrubber
 NOx control
 Low NOx burners
 Selective catalytic reduction (SCR)
 Selective non-catalytic reduction (SNCR)
 NOx scrubbers
 Exhaust gas recirculation
 Catalytic converter (also for VOC control)
 VOC abatement
o Adsorption systems, using activated carbon, such
as Fluidized Bed Concentrator
o Flares
o Thermal oxidizers
o Catalytic converters
o Biofilters
o Absorption (scrubbing)
 o Cryogenic condensers
o Vapor recovery systems
 Acid Gas/SO2 control
o Wet scrubbers
o Dry scrubbers
o Flue-gas desulphurization
 Mercury control
o Sorbent Injection Technology
o Electro-Catalytic Oxidation (ECO)
o K-Fuel
 Dioxin and furan control
 Miscellaneous associated equipment
o Source capturing systems
o Continuous emissions monitoring systems (CEMS)
Nonpoint source of Air pollution

Atmospheric inputs
Atmospheric deposition is a source of inorganic and organic
constituents because these constituents are transported from
sources of air pollution to receptors on the ground. Typically,
industrial facilities, like factories, emit air pollution via
a smokestack. Although this is a point source, due to the
distributional nature, long-range transport, and multiple sources
of the pollution, it can be considered as nonpoint source in the
depositional area. Atmospheric inputs that affect runoff quality
may come from dry deposition between storm events and wet
deposition during storm events. The effects of vehicular traffic on
the wet and dry deposition that occurs on or near highways,
roadways, and parking areas creates uncertainties in the
magnitudes of various atmospheric sources in runoff. Existing
networks that use protocols sufficient to quantify these
concentrations and loads do not measure many of the constituents
of interest and these networks are too sparse to provide good
deposition estimates at a local scale

Highway runoff
Highway runoff accounts for a small but widespread percentage
of all nonpoint source pollution. Harned (1988) estimated that
runoff loads were composed of atmospheric fallout (9%), vehicle
deposition (25%) and highway maintenance materials (67%) he
also estimated that about 9 percent of these loads were
reentrained in the atmosphere.
Forestry and mining operations:
Forestry and mining operations can have significant inputs to
non-point source pollution. Forestry operations reduce the
number of trees in a given area, thus reducing the oxygen levels
in that area as well. This action, coupled with the heavy
machinery (harvesters, etc.) rolling over the soil increases the risk
of erosion.

Mining: Active mining operations are considered point sources,

however runoff from abandoned mining operations contribute to
nonpoint source pollution. In strip mining operations, the top of
the mountain is removed to expose the desired ore. If this area is
not properly reclaimed once the mining has finished, soil
erosion can occur. Additionally, there can be chemical reactions
with the air and newly exposed rock to create acidic runoff.
Water that seeps out of abandoned subsurface mines can also be
highly acidic. This can seep into the nearest body of water and
change the pH in the aquatic environment.

How can nonpoint source pollution be controlled?

Reducing the effects of nonpoint source pollution requires
reducing the amount of polluted runoff and improving the quality
of water that runs off the land. Nonpoint source pollution can be
managed most effectively at the source, by implementing Best
Management Practices (BMPs) to eliminate or minimize polluted
runoff. Alternatively, NPS can be managed through controls built
into the path of runoff, such as sedimentation ponds or wetland
detention systems that slow, settle, or filter the runoff.

The most expensive way to manage the effects of NPS is to clean

up after the fact. The expense of “cleaning up” is not only
financial, it also takes time and has ecological consequences.
Using alum or other treatments to seal lake bottoms and trap
excessive nutrients, dredging ponds or ditches to remove
sediment, or intensively treating water to make it safe to drink are
examples of how systems are treated to cope with the impacts
from nonpoint source pollution.

What can I do to reduce nonpoint source pollution?

You can do many things on your property to reduce the amount of
nonpoint pollution that reaches your lake or river. You can
minimize erosion and sedimentation by keeping bare soil
covered, mulching gardens, establishing or maintaining a buffer
of native vegetation between your lawn and the lake or river, and
maintaining healthy, dense turf. A dense turf lawn can be
effective in reducing runoff, but will probably need fertilizer.
Have a soil test before applying fertilizer, choose zero-
phosphorus fertilizer, especially in shoreland areas, and apply
carefully to prevent excess fertilizer from reaching the water.
Maintain your lawn with proper mowing, sprinkling and aeration
to increase infiltration and reduce runoff. Reduce the amount of
impervious area on your property and divert downspouts from
your roof into a rain garden or seepage pit to slow runoff.
Eliminate bare, compacted paths by substituting a boardwalk,
gravel or mulch, or steps down to the water’s edge.
Encourage or restore the native vegetation along your shoreline
to further slow runoff and filter nutrients that might otherwise
reach your lake or stream. The benefits of a shoreline buffer strip
also include improving habitat, increasing privacy, enhancing
aesthetics, and deterring nuisance geese.

Different types of pollution based on the part of environment

which is polluted:
1. Air Pollution/atmospheric pollution
 2. Noise or sound pollution
3. Water pollution/Hydrospheric pollution
4. Soil pollution/Lithospheric pollution
5. Radioactive pollution
6. Visual pollution
7. Thermal pollution

Air pollution: The air or atmosphere is said to be polluted if the

concentration of any of the constituents increases or decreases
drastically to cause harmful effect on human health or his
environment.

Noise or sound pollution: Noise excessive enough to cause

psychological or physical damage is considered noise pollution.

Water pollution: Addition of undesirable substances to water

that make it harmful to man, animal and aquatic life causing
significant changes in the normal activity is referred to as water
pollution.

Soil pollution: Natural and synthetic materials that can adversely

affect the physical, chemical and biological properties of soil
thereby affecting the productivity is called as soil pollution.

Radioactive pollution: Pollution causedby the

radioactivesubstancesmainly in water is radioactive pollution.

Visual pollution: Thus litter, billboards and auto junkyards are

said to constitute visual pollution.
Thermal pollution: Waste heat that alters local climate or affects
fish populations in rivers is designated thermal pollution.
Sources of air pollution

I) Sources may be classified in a number of ways. Firstly,

1. Natural sources. Eg. Volcanic eruptions, Forest fires.
2. Anthropogenic/ Manmade sources: Eg. Industrial,
Automobile and Fireworks exhausts.

II) Another frequent classification is in terms of

1. Stationary sources (power plants, incinerators, industrial
operations, and space heating)
2. Moving sources (motor vehicles, ships, aircraft, and rockets).

Types of air pollutants:

1. Primary pollutants - products of natural events (like fires and
volcanic eruptions) and human activities added directly to the
air
2. Secondary pollutants - formed by interaction of primary
pollutants with each other or with normal components of the
air
Major Classes of Air Pollutants:
 Carbon oxides (CO & CO2)
o sources = incomplete/complete combustion of
fossil fuels
 transportation, industry, & home heating
o CO2 is an important greenhouse gas, CO2 causes
nausea and headache.
o CO (carbon monoxide)
 the most abundant pollutant know to affect
human health
 combines with hemoglobin to form
carboxyhaemoglobin & may create
problems for infants, the elderly, & those
with heart or respiratory diseases
 Sulfur oxides (Sulphur dioxide (SO2), Sulphur trioxide
(SO3) & Hydrogen sulphide, mainly SO2,)
o source = combustion of coal & oil (esp. coal),
metallurgical process and hydrogen sulphide gas from
natural sources.
o can react with gases in atmosphere to form sulfuric acid
('acid rain'). SO2 and SO3 react with water to form
sulphurous acid (H2SO3) and sulphuric acid (H2SO4)
respectively. These acids cause irritation of eyes, nose and
throat; they also adversely affect aquatic life. SO2 also
damages leather because of the formation of H2SO4 on
the leather surface which causes hydrolysis of leather
proteins.
o High concentrations of SO2 cause chlorosis, plasmolysis,
membrane damage, reduced growth, yield and death.
o Exposure to SO2 can cause impairment of respiratory
function, aggravation of existing respiratory disease
(especially bronchitis), and a decrease in the ability of the
lungs to clear foreign particles. It can also lead to
increased mortality, especially if elevated levels of
particulate matter (PM) are also present. Groups that
appear most sensitive to the effects of SO2 include
asthmatics and other individuals with hyperactive
airways, and individuals with chronic obstructive lung or
cardiovascular disease. Elderly people and children are
also likely to be more sensitive to SO2.
o They play an important role in the formation of
secondary pollutants called photochemical smog
(originally called as London smog). When they
combine with another air pollutant Hydrocarbons,
they react with one another in the presence of
sunlight and form a mixture of compounds
 including which appears as a blackish haze called
photochemical smog.
 (smoke+fog=smog)
 (smog formed under the influence of
sunlight is photochemical smog)
 To form, it requires SOx, Hydrocarbons,
water vapours, sunlight & atmospheric
inversion
 It is oxidative
 Nitrogen oxides - NO (nitric oxide) & NO2 (nitrogen
dioxide) are major pollutants.
o source = motor vehicles, industry (burning fossil
fuels) and volcanic eruption. Nitrogen dioxide is
also formed from the atmospheric nitrogen by
electrical energy of lighting and by natural
ionizing radiation. The oxides of Nitrogen (NO 2)
form about 10% of air pollutants.
o can react with other gases in atmosphere to from
nitric acid (HNO3) ('acid rain') These acids cause
irritation of eyes, nose and throat; they also
adversely affect aquatic life.
o Nitrogen monoxide like Carbon monoxide lowers
the oxygen carrying capacity of the blood.
o Being a strong reducing agent, NO2 react with
metals, textiles and other materials.
o Nitrogen oxides damage plants causing defoliation
and necrosis.
o Nitrogen oxides play an important role in the
formation of secondary pollutants called
photochemical smog (originally called as Los
Angeles smog). When Nitrogen oxides combine
with another air pollutant Hydrocarbons, they
 react with one another in the presence of sunlight
and forms a compound called PAN (Peroxy
Acetyl Nitrate) and ozone which appears as a
yellowish brown haze called photochemical
smog. PAN cause eye irritation, soar throat,
respiratory irritation and so on. After about 12
hours of exposure cardiopulmonary (heart)
activities are impaired.
 (smoke+fog=smog)
 (smog formed under the influence of
sunlight is photochemical smog)
 To form, it requires Nox, Hydrocarbons,
water vapours, sunlight & atmospheric
inversion
 It is reductive
 Volatile organic compounds (hydrocarbons) - methane,
benzene, propane, & chlorofluorocarbons (CFC's)
o source = motor vehicles (evaporation from gas
tanks), industry, &various household products
o Concentrations of many VOCs are consistently
higher in indoors than outdoors.
o Eye and respiratory tract irritation, headaches,
dizziness, visual disorders, and memory
impairment are among the immediate symptoms
that some people have experienced soon after
exposure to some organics. At present, not much
is known about what health effects occur from the
levels of organics usually found in homes. Many
organic compounds are known to cause cancer in
animals; some are suspected of causing, or are
known to cause, cancer in humans.
o They are also part of photochemical smog.
 o They cause blood disorder like
Methemoglobinemia
 Suspended particulate matter
o solid particles (e.g., dust, soot, & asbestos) &
liquid droplets (e.g., pesticides)
o sources = power plants, iron/steel mills, land
clearing, highway construction, mining, & other
activities that disturb or disrupt the earth's surface
o act as respiratory irritants; some are known
carcinogens (e.g., asbestos)
o can aggravate heart/respiratory diseases
 Toxic compounds
o trace amounts of at least 600 toxic substances
(such as lead and mercury) produced by human
activities
 sources of mercury = burning coal and
waste (such as medical wastes)
 Mercury is an element that occurs naturally in the earth’s
crust. Most people and wildlife can generally tolerate the
extremely low levels of this naturally occuring substance.
When mercury enters the body it becomes concentrated in
tissue, an effect known as bioaccumulation. Because this
element is toxic at very low concentrations, even slight
increases in the minute concentrations naturally present in
the environment can have serious effects on humans and
wildlife. Once mercury enters the water it can be
converted to its most toxic form, methyl mercury, by
bacteria or chemical reactions. Methyl mercury is
absorbed by tiny aquatic organisms, which are then eaten
by small fish. The chemical is stored in the fish tissue and
is passed on at increasing concentrations to larger
predator fish. People and wildlife at the top of the food
 chain are consequently exposed to elevated amounts of
methyl mercury through the contaminated fish they
consume.

Air pollution control measures:

There are 5 methods of controlling air pollution. They are
1. Proper planning of industrial area like zoning.
2. Dilution of source discharge by use of tall stalks.
3. Using source correction methods
4. Vegetation and
5. Use of controlling equipments

1. Proper planning of industrial area like zoning

Air pollution can be effectively controlled by adopting the zoning
system at the planning stage itself.
Cumulative zoning in the past has resulted in less availability of
land for industries.
Permissible system: Modified system of Cumulative zoning,
though this system has also resulted in crowding of industrial
zones with other uses besides industry.
Exclusive zoning system: which provides for compatible uses
for each zone, excluding other uses. In this system a separate
zone or area is set aside for industries (known as industrial area
or industrial zone), thereby reducing the ill effects of air pollution
on urban dwellers. By proper zoning, the planning of the city
should be done such that residential areas and heavy industries
are not located too close to each other. This is achieved by
providing a green belt between the industries and the township.
In India, zoning system varies from city to city. For example,
in the industrial estate of Bangalore, only three zones are
provided for light, medium and large industries. Bombay plan has
listed four zones, 1. Small repairing and light manufacturing
units, permissible in residential areas, 2. Service industrial zone,
3. Special industrial zone and 4. General industrial zone.

2. Dilution of source discharge by use of tall stacks

The atmosphere, like natural stream, possesses self-cleansing
properties, which continuously clean and remove the pollutants
from the atmosphere under natural conditions, provided the
pollutants are discharged in the atmosphere judiciously so that
effective dispersion takes place. If the pollutants are carried away
to some distance or taken to high altitudes, they are reduced in
concentration by diffusion and dilution. The pollutants are taken
to high altitudes by means of tall stacks. The height of the stack
should be such that the maximum ground level concentration,
which varies inversely with the square of the stack height, is
within the permissible limits. Tall stacks penetrate the inversion
layer and disperse the contaminants easily so that ground level
concentration is less harmful. Dilution of pollutants in air
depends on atmospheric temperature and speed and direction of
the wind.

Disadvantage: It is a short term contact measure, which in

reality brings about highly undesirable long range effects. This is
so because dilution only dilutes the contaminants to levels at
which their harmful effects are less noticeable near their original
source whereas at a considerable distance from the source, there
contaminants eventually come down in some from or another.

3. Using source correction methods: This method is known as

air pollution prevention at source. This can be achieved through:
a. Change in raw materials
b. Process changes and
c. Equipment or replacement.
 d. Maintenance of equipment

a.Change in raw material: If one type of the raw material,

currently in use results in air pollution problem while a substitute
material, which may be of purer grade, does not, the substitution
will be more desirable. The raw material in current use may
contain certain ingredient which is not essential for the process
by which contributes to pollution, the non-essential ingredient
should be removed through prior processing so that pollution can
be minimized. (Low sulphur fuel which has less pollution
potential can be used as an alternative to high sulphur
fuels.).Comparatively more refined liquid petroleum gas (LPG)
or liquefied natural gas (LNG) can be used instead of traditional
high contaminant fuels such as coal.

b. Process modification: Atmospheric pollutants emissions can

sometimes be reduced by adopting modified or new processes.
1. If coal is washed before pulverized, then fly ash
emissions are considerably reduced.
2. If air intake of boiler furnace is adjusted, then excess
fly ash emissions at power plants can be reduced.
3. Use of exhaust hoods and ducts over several types of
industrial ovens have not only reduced pollutants but
also have resulted in the recovery of valuable solvents
that could have become air pollutants.
4. Similarly volatile substances can be recovered by
condensation and the non condensable gases can be
recycled for additional reactions.
c. Equipment modification or replacement: Old equipment,
which contributes to greater degree of air pollution, can be
modified or completely replaced.
 1. Smoke, carbon monoxide and fumes can be reduced if
open hearth furnaces are replaced with controlled
basic oxygen furnaces or electric furnaces.
2. In petroleum refineries, loss of hydrocarbon vapours
from storage tanks due to evaporation, temperature
changes or displacement during filling, etc., can be
reduced by designing the storage tanks with floating
roof covers.
3. Pressuring the storage tanks in the above case can also
give similar results.
d. Maintenance of equipment
An appreciable amount of pollution is caused due to poor
maintenance of the equipment, which includes the leakage
around ducts, pipes, valves and pumps etc. emissions of
pollutants due to negligence can be minimized by a routine
check-up of the seals and gaskets.
4. Vegetation
Plants contribute towards controlling air pollution by
utilizing carbon dioxide and releasing oxygen in the process of
photosynthesis. This purifies the air removal of gaseous
pollutants (CO2) for the respiration of men and animals. Gaseous
pollutants like carbon monoxide are fixed by some plants, namely
Coleus blumeri, Ficus variegate and Phascolus vulgaris. Species
of Pinus, Quercus, Pyrus, Juniperus and Vitis depollute the air by
metabolizing nitrogen oxides. Plenty of trees should be planted,
especially around those areas which are declared as high risk
areas of pollution.

5. Control at source by equipment

The most effective means of dealing with the problem of air
pollution is to prevent emission at the source itself. In the case of
industrial pollutants, it is often achieved by investigating various
approaches at an early stage of the process. Design, development
and selecting of those methods should be emphasized which do
not contribute to air pollution. Pollution control equipments are
generally classified into two types.
 Pollution control equipments (PCE)

Control devices for Control devices for

particulate gaseous contaminants
1. contaminants
Gravitational settling
2. Cyclone separators
3. Fabric filters
4. Electrostatic precipitators
Wet Dry
5. Wet collectors
absorption absorption

Spray Venturi Cyclonic

tower scrubber scrubber

The particulate matter from gas stream can be removed at source

using various types of control equipment. Various methods are
available, but to select the required equipment certain basic data
must be available. The required data are:
1. Quality of gas to be treated and its variation with time.
2. Nature and concentration of matter to be removed.
3. Temperature and pressure of gas stream.
4. Nature of the gas phase.

Particulates Control:
Gravity settling chambers
A typical horizontal flow gravity settling chamber is
constructed in the form of a long horizontal box with inlet, outlet,
and dust collection hoppers. The dust-laden air stream enters the
unit at the inlet, then enters the expansion section, which causes
the air velocity to be reduced and particles to settle by gravity.
Gravitation force may be employed to remove particulates in
settling chambers when the settling velocity is greater than about
0.12 m/s. The chambers are provided with enlarged areas to
minimize horizontal velocities and allow time for the vertical
velocity to carry the particle to the floor. The chamber usually
operates with velocity between 0.5 and 2.8 m/s, although for best
operating results the gas flow should be uniformly maintained at
less than 0.3 m/s.

Settling chamber design based on laminar flow requires

either a very large size or large number of trays with an awkward
shape of chamber. The laminar chamber has the advantage of
giving theoretically perfect collection efficiency for particles of
the designated size but is of little practical value since the
efficiency drops off rapidly with smaller particles. The most
practical flow in the settling chamber will probably be turbulent
rather than laminar. Thus, turbulent chamber offers a more
practical design concept. The chamber should be reasonably
designed for the removal of 99% of the particles.Here an
improved type of settling chamber is the baffle chamber beeing
used; the baffles cause sudden changes of the direction of the air
stream thus enhancing particle separation and collection. The
motion thus induced is superimposed on the motion due to
gravity. Thus, particle collection is accomplished by a
combination of gravity and an inertial effect. Particles as small as
10 to 20 m can be collected. The settling chamber with baffles
is more compact and requires less space then the simple gravity
settling chamber.

The advantages of settling chambers include: low cost of

construction and maintenance; few maintenance problems;
relatively low pressure drops; temperature and pressure
limitations imposed only by the materials of construction used;
dry disposal of solid particulates. The disadvantages include large
space requirements and relatively low overall collection
efficiency.

Cyclone separators
The most widely used mechanical collector is the cyclone.
Instead of gravitational force, centrifugal force is utilized by
cyclone separators to separate the particulate matter from the
polluted gas. Centrifugal force several times greater than
gravitational force can be generated by spinning gas stream and
this quality makes cyclone separators more effective in removing
much smaller particulates than can possibly be removed by
gravitational settling chambers. A simple cyclone separator
consists of a cylinder with a conical base. A tangential inlet
discharging near the top and an outlet for discharging the
particulates is present at the base of the cone.

Mechanism of action: The mechanism depends on centrifugal

force instead of gravity to separate particles from gas stream.
The generated centrifugal force can be several times greater than
the gravitational force. Therefore, particles that can be removed
in centrifugal collection are much smaller than those that can be
removed in gravity settling chambers. Reverse flow cyclone
consists of a cylindrical shell, a conical base dust hopper and an
inlet where the dust laden gas enters tangentially. The dust laden
gas enters tangentially, receives a rotating motion and generates a
centrifugal force due to which the particulates are thrown to the
cyclone walls as the gas spirals upwards inside the cone (i.e.,
flow reverses to form an inner vortex which leaves flow through
the outlet). Particles slide down the walls of the cone and into the
hopper. The operating or separating efficiency of cyclone
depends on the magnitude of the centrifugal force exerted on the
particles. The greater the centrifugal force, the greater the
separating efficiency.
Like settling chambers, cyclones are frequently used as pre-
treatment units to precede other, higher-efficiency air cleaning
devices.

The advantages of settling chambers apply also to cyclones, and

in addition cyclones can be used over a broad range of pressures
and temperatures, from below ambient to above 1000oC. Their
performance is insensitive to inlet dust concentration at the inlet;
efficiency can increase with increasing particle concentration;
and they can be used effectively for the removal of liquid
droplets from gases, as in the discharge from absorption columns.
The disadvantage is the low efficiency for airborne particles finer
than 5 m.

Fabric filters
Filtration is one of the oldest and most widely used methods for
separation of particulates from a carrier gas. A filter is a porous
structure composed of a granular or fibrous material, which
retains the particulates and allows the gas to pass through the
voids of the filter. Small particles are initially retained on the
fabric by direct interception, inertial impaction, diffusion and
gravitational settling. The filter is constructed of any material
compatible with the carrier gas and particulates and may be
arranged in fabric, cloth filters or deep-bed filters.
Fibrous and deep-bed filters have large void spaces amounting
from 97 to 99 % of the total volume. Fabric filters are made in
the form of tubular bags or cloth envelopes and are suitable for a
dust loading of the order of 1 g/m3. They are capable of
removing dust particles as small as 0.5 microns and will remove
substantial quantities of particles of which are closed and lower
ends are attached to an inlet manifold. The hopper at the bottom
serves as a collector for the dust. The gas entering through the
inlet pipe strikes a baffle plate, which causes the larger particles
to fall into the hopper due to gravity. The carrier gas then flows
upward into the tubes and then outward through the fabric,
leaving the particulate matter as a cake on the inside of the bags.
The filter efficiency during pre-coat formation is low but
increases as the pre-coat formed, until a final efficiency of over
99% is achieved. The pre-coat acts as a part of the filter medium,
which further helps in the removal of particulates. Many such
bags are hung in a baghouse. For efficient filtration and a longer
life, the filter bags must be cleaned occasionally by a mechanical
shaker to prevent too many particulate layers from building up on
the inside surfaces of the bag.
The advantages of fabric filters include high efficiency for fine
particles, ease of operation and maintenance, dry disposal of solid
particles. The disadvantages include relatively high installation
and operating costs, limitations for use in high temperatures and
in handling sticky materials.

Electrostatic precipitators (ESPs)

Electrostatic precipitators are the most popular methods for
efficient removal of fine solids and liquids from gas streams: they
can have collecting efficiencies of over 99%. A high potential
electric field is established between discharge and collecting
electrodes of opposite polarity. The discharge electrode is of
small cross sectional area, such as a wire or piece of flat stock,
and the collection electrode is large in surface area, such as a
plate. The dust-laden gas to be cleaned passes through the field.
At a critical voltage, the gas molecules are ionized at or near the
surface of the discharge electrode. Ions of the same polarity as
the discharge electrode attach themselves to neutral dust
particles, which are then attracted to the collecting plate. On
contact with the collecting surface, dust particles lose their charge
and can then be easily removed by vibration, washing or by
gravity.
The advantages of ESPs include: high collection efficiency for
small particles; low operating pressure drops; temperature and
pressure limitations imposed only by the construction materials
used; dry disposal of solid particles. The disadvantages include
large space requirements, high cost, and need for skilled
operation and maintenance. The success of a precipitator depends
not only on the quality of the system but also on adequate
operation and maintenance; therefore, well-trained operators are
required.

Scrubbers
Scrubber is a device used to entrap a targeted object using a
scrubbing medium. The scrubbing medium can be selected based
on the properties of the pollutant and the carrier gas in the
exhaust.
In a scrubber, the polluted gas stream is brought into contact with
the suitable scrubbing medium, by spraying, by forcing through,
by sucking out or by some other contact method. The scrubbing
media entraps the targeted pollutant by physical phenomenon like
simple capture, adsorption, etc. or by chemical phenomenon like
absorption, dissolution, ion exchange, etc.
Based on the type of scrubbing media used, the scrubbers are of
two types, dry scrubbers and wet scrubbers. In dry scrubbers
solid scrubbing media like activated granular charcoal, activated
alumina, zeolt, etc.been used

Scrubbers can be designed to collect particulate matter and/or

gaseous pollutants. Wet scrubbers remove dust particles by
capturing them in liquid droplets. Wet scrubbers remove
pollutant gases by dissolving or absorbing them into the liquid.
Wet scrubbers are widely used in cleaning contaminated gas
streams because of their ability to remove effectively both
particulate and gaseous pollutants. They are designed to
incorporate small dust particles into larger water droplets, which
can then be removed by simple mechanisms such as gravity,
impaction on baffles, or by centrifugal collectors. The droplets
are produced, for example, by spray nozzles, by the shearing a
liquid film with the gas stream, or by the motion of a
 mechanically driven rotor, and principles used to incorporate the
dust into droplets include inertial impaction, direct interception,
diffusion,

Advantages and disadvantages

For particulate control, wet scrubbers (also referred to as wet

collectors) are evaluated against fabric filters and electrostatic
precipitators (ESPs). Some advantages of wet scrubbers over
these devices are as follows:

Wet scrubbers have the ability to handle high temperatures and

moisture.

In wet scrubbers, the inlet gases are cooled, resulting in smaller

overall size of equipment.

Wet scrubbers can remove both gases and particulate matter.

Wet scrubbers can neutralize corrosive gases.

Some disadvantages of wet scrubbers include corrosion, the need

for entrainment separation or mist removal to obtain high
efficiencies and the need for treatment or reuse of spent
liquid.Table 1 summarizes these advantages and disadvantages.
Wet scrubbers have been used in a variety of industries such as
acid plants, fertilizer plants, steel mills, asphalt plants, and large
power plants.

Table 1. Relative advantages and disadvantages of wet scrubbers

compared to other control devices

Advantages Disadvantages

Small space requirements Corrosion problems

Scrubbers reduce the temperature and Water and dissolved
volume of the unsaturated exhaust pollutants can form highly
stream. Therefore, vessel sizes, corrosive acid solutions.
including fans and ducts Proper construction materials
downstream, are smaller than those are very important. Also,
of other control devices. Smaller wet-dry interface areas can
sizes result in lower capital costs and result in corrosion.
more flexibility in site location of the High power requirements
scrubber. High collection efficiencies
No secondary dust sources for particulate matter are
Once particulate matter is collected, attainable only at high
it cannot escape from hoppers or pressure drops, resulting in
during transport. high operating costs.
Handles high-temperature, high- Water-disposal problems
humidity gas streams Settling ponds or sludge
No temperature limits or clarifiers may be needed to
condensation problems can occur as meet waste-water
in baghouses or ESPs. regulations.
Minimal fire and explosion hazards Difficult product recovery
Various dry dusts are flammable. Dewatering and drying of
Using water eliminates the possibility scrubber sludge make
of explosions. recovery of any dust for
Ability to collect both gases and reuse very expensive and
particulate matter difficult.
Meteorological problems
The saturated exhaust gases
can produce a wet, visible
steam plume. Fog and
precipitation from the plume
may cause local
meteorological problems.
Gaseous pollutants Control:
Commonly applied technologies for treating gases and vapor
include the following: absorption, adsorption, condensation,
thermal oxidation (catalytic and non-catalytic) and biofiltration.
Each of these treatment techniques are typically economic over a
certain range of concentrations, and are better suited to treat some
pollutants than others.
Adsorption
Adsorption is an interfacial phenomenon, molecules adhere at the
surface of the solid adsorbent. A large surface area is required to
collect the pollutant molecules resulting in a larger physical size
and container. Adsorption from dilute gas streams is complicated
by the occurrence of high humidity and the presence of other
compounds whose removal is not desired, but which also occupy
adsorption sites. Competition for adsorption sites reduces the
capacity of the adsorbent for the target molecules. At high
relative humidity, a phenomenon known as "capillary
condensation" results in further loss of adsorption capacity
further increasing the need for adsorbent and the size of the unit.
Although hydrophobic adsorbents are now available, used in
industrial applications, and perform better under high humidity
conditions than granular activated carbon GAC, they are too
expensive for use with non-regenerable systems. Adsorption
systems used for SVE (soil vapor extraction processes )operation
have traditionally been non-regenerable systems because of the
low concentrations. Since pollutants are only trapped, and not
destroyed by adsorption, disposal of the spent adsorbent must be
taken into consideration, since it may need to be treated as a
hazardous waste.
Absorption
The removal of one or more selected components from a gas
mixture by absorption is probably the most important operation
in the control of gaseous pollutant emissions. Absorption is a
process in which a gaseous pollutant is dissolved in a liquid.
Water is the most commonly used absorbent liquid. As the gas
stream passes through the liquid, the liquid absorbs the gas, in
much the same way that sugar is absorbed in a glass of water
when stirred. Absorption is commonly used to recover products
or to purify gas streams that have high concentrations of organic
compounds. Absorption equipment is designed to get as much
mixing between the gas and liquid as possible.
Absorbers are often referred to as scrubbers, and there are various
types of absorption
equipment. The principal
types of gas absorption
equipment include spray
towers, packed columns,
spray chambers, and venture
scrubbers. The packed
column is by far the most
commonly used for the
absorption of gaseous
pollutants. The packed Typical packed column diagram
column absorber has a
column filled with an inert (non-reactive) substance, such as
plastic or ceramic, which increases the liquid surface area for the
liquid/gas interface. The inert material helps to maximize the
absorption capability of the column. In addition, the introduction
of the gas and liquid at opposite ends of the column causes
mixing to be more efficient because of the counter-current flow
through the column. In general, absorbers can achieve removal
efficiencies grater than 95 percent. One potential problem with
absorption is the generation of waste-water, which converts an air
pollution problem to a water pollution problem.

Incineration
Incineration, also known as combustion, is most used to control
the emissions of organic compounds from process industries.
This control technique refers to the rapid oxidation of a substance
through the combination of oxygen with a combustible material
in the presence of heat. When combustion is complete, the
gaseous stream is converted to carbon dioxide and water vapor.
Incomplete combustion will result in some pollutants being
released into the atmosphere. Smoke is one indication of
incomplete combustion. Equipment used to control waste gases
by combustion can be divided in three categories: direct
combustion or flaring, thermal incineration and catalytic
incineration. Choosing the proper device depends on many
factors, including type of hazardous contaminants in the waste
stream, concentration of combustibles in the stream, process flow
rate, control requirements, and an economic evaluation.

A direct combustor or flare is a device in which air and all the

combustible waste gases react at the burner. Complete
combustion must occur instantaneously since there is no
residence chamber. Flares are commonly used for disposal of
waste gases during process upsets, such as those that take place
when a process is started or shut down. A flare can be used to
control almost any emission stream containing volatile organic
compounds. Studies conducted by EPA have shown that the
destruction efficiency of a flare is about 98 percent.
 Thermal incinerator: General case

In thermal incinerators the combustible waste gases pass over

or around a burner flame into a residence chamber where
oxidation of the waste gases is completed. For thermal
incineration, it is important that the vapor stream directed to the
thermal incinerator have a constant combustible gas
concentration and flow rate. These devices are not well-suited to
vapor streams that fluctuate, because the efficiency of the
combustion process depends on the proper mixing of vapors and
a specific residence time in the combustion chamber. Residence
time is the amount of time the fuel mixture remains in the
combustion chamber. Often, supplementary fuel is added to a
thermal incinerator to supplement the quantity of pollutant gases
being burned by the incinerator. Energy and heat produced by the
incineration process can be recovered and put to beneficial uses
at a facility. Thermal incinerators can destroy gaseous pollutants
at efficiencies of greater than 99 percent when operated correctly.

Catalytic incinerators are very similar to thermal incinerators.

The main difference is that after passing through the flame area,
the gases pass over a catalyst bed. A catalyst is a substance that
enhances a chemical reaction without being changed or
consumed by the reaction. A catalyst promotes oxidation at lower
temperatures, thereby reducing fuel costs. Destruction
efficiencies greater than 95 percent are possible using a catalytic
incinerator. Higher efficiencies are possible if larger catalyst
volumes or higher temperatures are used. Catalytic incinerators
are best suited for emission streams with low VOC content.

Condensation
Condensation is the process of converting a gas or vapor to
liquid. Any gas can be reduced to a liquid by lowering its
temperature and/or increasing
its pressure. The most common
approach is to reduce the
temperature of the gas stream,
since increasing the pressure
of a gas can be expensive. A
simple example of the
condensation process is
droplets of water forming on
the outside of a glass of cold Contact condenser
water. The cold temperature of
the glass causes water vapor
from the surrounding air to
pass into the liquid state on the
surface of the glass.
Condensers are widely used to
recover valuable products in a
waste stream. Condensers are
simple, relatively inexpensive
Surface condenser
devices that normally use
water or air to cool and condense a vapor stream. Condensers are
typically used as pretreatment devices. They can be used ahead of
adsorbers, absorbers, and incinerators to reduce the total gas
volume to be treated by more expensive control equipment.
Condensers used for pollution control are contact condensers and
surface condensers. In a contact condenser, the gas comes into
contact with cold liquid. In a surface condenser, the gas contacts
a cooled surface in which cooled liquid or gas is circulated, such
as the outside of the tube. Removal efficiencies of condensers
typically range from 50 percent to more than 95 percent,
depending on design and applicationsAir Quality Standards
The National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS) are
standards established by the United StatesEnvironmental
Protection Agency that apply for outdoor air throughout the
country. Primary standards are designed to protect human health,
including sensitive populations such as children, the elderly, and
individuals suffering from respiratory disease. Secondary
standards are designed to protect public welfare (e.g.
buildingfacades, visibility, crops, and domestic animals).
NAAQS requires the EPA to set standards on eight criteria
pollutants:
1. Ozone (O3)
2. Particulate Matter
o PM10, course particles: 2.5 micrometers (μm) to 10
μm in size (although current implementation
includes all particles 10 μg or less in the standard)
o PM2.5, fine particles: 2.5 μm in size or less
3. Carbon monoxide (CO)
4. Sulfur dioxide (SO2)
5. Nitrogen oxides (NOx)
6. Lead (Pb)