Solucao Oxford
Solucao Oxford
1. During a tension test the rate of straining was suddenly doubled. This caused the load
(force) to rise by 1.2%. Assuming that the strain-rate dependence can be described by = C`
m, what is the value of m?
solution: m = ln(2/1)/ ln(`2/`1) = ln(1.012)/ln2 = 0.0017
2. Two tension tests were made on the same alloy, but at different strain
rates. Both curves were fitted to a power-law strain hardening expression of
the form, = Kn. The results are summarized below. Assuming that the flow
stress at constant strain can be approximated by = C`m, determine the value
of m.
Test A Test B
strain rate (s-1) 2x10-3 10-1
strain-hardening exponent, n 0.22 0.22
constant, K (MPa) 402 412
solution: m = K2/K1)/ln(`2/`1) = ln(412/402)/ln(10-1/2x10-3) = .0063
4. The thickness of a cold-rolled sheet varies from 0.0322 to 0.0318 depending on where
the measurement is made, so strip tensile specimens cut from the sheet show similar variation
in cross section.
A. For a material with n = 0.20 and m = 0, what will be the thickness of the thicker regions
when the thinner region necks?
B. Find the strains in the thicker region if m = 0.50 and n = 0 when the strain in the thinner
region reaches
i. 0.5, ii. ∞
solution: A. f = 0.318/0.322 = 0.9876.
a.2exp(-a) = fnnexp(-n).2exp
results in a = .1361
B. exp(-a/m) = 1+ f1/m [exp(-b/m) –1] = 1+ 1/.5[exp(-b/.5) –1]
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i. for b = .5, exp(-a/.5) = 1+ [exp(-.5/.5) –1] = 385, a = -.5ln(.385) = 0.477.
ii. . for b = ∞, exp(-a/.5) = 1+ [exp(-∞/.5) –1] = 1- = 0.0278,
5. Estimate the total elongation of a superplastic material if
A. n = 0, m = 0.5 and f = 0.98, B. n = 0, f = 0.75 and m = 0.8.
solution: Assuming b = ∞, exp(-a/m) = 1+ f1/m[ –1] = 1- f1/m
A. For , m = 0.5 and f = 0.98, exp(-a/m) = 1- (.98)2 = .0396, a = - .5ln(.0396) = 1.61
ea = exp(1.61) – 1 = 4 or 400% elongation.
B. For f = 0.75 and m = 0.8, exp(-a/m) = 1- (.75)1.25 = 0.302, a = - .8ln(.302) = 0.958
ea = exp(0.958) – 1 = 1.606 or 60.6 % elongation
6. In superplastic forming, it is often necessary to control the strain rate. Consider the
forming of a hemispherical dome by clamping a sheet over a circular hole and bulging it with
gas pressure.
A. Compare the levels of gas pressure needed to form a 2.0 in. dome with that to form a 20
in. dome if both are formed from sheets of the same thickness and at the same strain rate.
B. Describe (qualitatively) how the gas pressure should be varied during the forming to
maintain a constant strain rate.
solution: A. Since the stress is proportional to the pressure, and the needed pressure is
proportional to 1/R, the pressure to form a 20 inch dome should be 1/10 the pressure to form a
2 inch dome.
B. Since decreases during forming, the pressure should increase to keep a constant stress
(and therefore strain rate).
7. During a constant-load creep experiment on a polymer, the temperature was suddenly
increased from 100 to 105oC. It was found that this increase of temperature caused the strain
rate to increase by a factor of 1.8. What is the apparent activation energy for creep of the
plastic?
solution: ln(`2/`1) =(-Q/R)(1/T2-1/T1), Q = -R ln(`2/`1)/(1/T2-1/T1) = -
8.314ln(1.8)/(1/373-1/378) = 138 kJ/mole.
8. Figure 7.26 gives some data for the effect of stress and temperature on the strain rate of a
nickel-base super-alloy single crystal.
The strain rate is independent of strain in the region of this
data. Determine as accurately as possible:
A. The activation energy, Q, in the temperature range 700 to 810°C.
B. The exponent, m, for 780°C.
Solution Manual 32
Figure 7.26. The effects of
stress and temperature on
the strain rate of a nickel-
base super-alloy single
crystal. From
Solution Manual 33
Figure 7.27. Stress-strain curves for silver (fcc). Note that at 25° the
solution: m = ln(2/1)/ ln(`2/`1) = ln(225/192)/ln(2800/0.001) = 0.011
difference, between the stress-strain curves at different rates is
proportional to t . From G. T. Gray in ASM Metals
Handbook, v. 8, 2000, p.472.
Solution Manual 34
Chapter 8
1. If a single crystal of aluminum were stressed in uniaxial tension, with the tension
applied along the [0»21] direction, which slip system (or systems) would be most highly
stressed?
solution: By inspection, [1»10](»1 »1 1) and [»1»10](1 »1 1). For both m = (5/6)/√6 =
0.340.
2. A single crystal of copper is loaded under a stress state such that 2= -1, 3 =
23 = 31 = 12 = 0. Here 1 = [100], 2 = [010] and 3 = [001]
A. When the stress 1= 6 kPa, what is the shear stress, on the
i. (111)[10»1] slip system? ii. (111)[1»10] slip system? iii. (111)[01»1] slip system?
B. On which of these systems would you expect slip to first occur as the applied stresses
increased?
C. Assuming slip on that system, determine the ratios of the strains, 2/1 and 3/1.
solution: A. i. 1/√ 6 + 0(2) = 6/√6 + 0 = 2.45 kPa; ii. = 1/√ 6 - 2/√6 = 2 1/√ 6
=12//√ 6 = 4.9 kPa. .iii. = 0(1) + 2/√6 = - 6/√6 = -2.45 kPa
B. ii
C. 2/1 = -1, 3/1= 0.
3. A single crystal of aluminum was grown in the shape of a tensile bar with the [32»1]
direction aligned with the tensile axis.
A. Sketch a standard cubic projection with [100] at the center and [001] at the North Pole.
Locate the [32»1] direction on this projection.
B. Which of the {111}<110> slip system(s) would be most highly stressed when tension is
applied along [32»1]? Show the slip plane normal(s) and the slip direction(s) of the system(s)
on your plot.
C. What will be the ratio of the shear stress on the slip system to the tensile stress applied
along [32»1]?
solution: A.
B. (111)[[10»1]
C. / = [3(1) + 2(1) –1(1)][3(1) + 0 –1(-1)]/[(32+ 22 + 12)√6] = 4x4/(14√6) = 0.466.
Solution Manual 35
4. An aluminum single crystal is subjected to a tensile stress of x = 250 kPa parallel to x
= [100] and a compressive stress, y = - 50 kPa parallel to y = [010] with z = yx = zx =
xy = 0. What is the shear stress on the (111) plane in the [1»10] direction?
solution: = 250(1/√6) – 50(-1/√6) = 122 kPa
5. Consider an aluminum single crystal that has been stretched in tension applied parallel
to x = [100] (x = +250kPa) and compressed parallel to y = [010] (y = -50 kPa) with z = 0
where z = [001]. Assume that slip occurred on the (111) in the [1»10] direction and only on
that slip system. Also assume that the strains are small.
A. Calculate the ratios of resulting strain, y/x and z/x.
B. If the crystal were strained until x = 0.0100, what will the angle be between the tensile
axis and [100]?
6. NaCl crystals slip on {110}<1»10> slip systems. There are six systems of this type.
Consider a crystal subjected to uniaxial compression parallel to z = [110].
A. On which of the {110}<1»10> slip systems would the shear stress be the highest? i.e.,
on which of the systems would slip be expected?
B. Let the lateral directions be x = [1»10] and y = [001]. Determine the shape change that
occurs as the crystal deforms on one of these systems by finding the ratios, y/z and x/z.
Describe the shape change in words. [Hint: Analyze one of the slip systems in your answer to
(A). Be careful about signs.]
8. Determine the number of independent slip systems for crystals with each of the
combinations of slip systems listed below. [The simplest way to do this is to determine how
many of the strains 1, 2, 23, 31 and 12 can be independently imposed on the crystal.]
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A. Cubic crystal that deforms by {100}<011> slip.
B. Cubic crystal that deforms by slip on {100}<011> and {100}<001> systems.
C. Cubic crystal that deforms by {110}<»110> slip.
D. Hcp crystal that deforms by slip on (0001)<11»20> and {10»10}<11»20> systems.
solution: A. 1 = 2 = 3 = 0 because either or are 90° for all of the slip systems. Slip can
accommodate 23, 31 and 12. Therefore 3 independent slip systems.
B. Same conclusion as A (3 independent slip systems.)
C. 1and 2 can be independently imposed on the crystal, but 23, 31 = 12= 0 for all of the
slip systems, so there are only 2 independent slip systems.
3 = 0. All other strain components can be satisfied so there are 4 independent slip
systems.
9. A tetragonal crystal slips on {011}<111> systems. How many of the strains, x, y, z,
yz, zx, xy, can be accommodated? [Note that in a tetragonal crystal the {011} family does
not include (110) or (»110).]
solution: Shear on the (110) plane can be geometrically simulated by simultaneous slip on
(011) and (10»1) and shear on the (»110) plane can be geometrically simulated by
simultaneous slip on (»101) and (01»1) so there are 5 independent slip systems. All of the
strains can be accommodated.
10. A. Consider an fcc single crystal extended in uniaxial tension parallel to [321]. Will the
Schmid factor, m = coscos for the most highly stressed slip system increase, decrease or
remain constant as the crystal is extended?
B. Consider an hcp single crystal that slips easily only on (0001)<11»20> slip systems. If
an hcp crystal is extended in uniaxial tension in a direction oriented 45° from the c-axis and
45° from the most favored <11»20> slip direction, will the Schmid factor, m = coscos for
the most highly stressed slip system increase, decrease or remain constant?
solution: A. Reference to Figures 8.6 and 8.11 shows that it will decrease.
B.The Schmid factor, m = coscos = cossin, decreases as decreases.
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11. Consider a sheet of an fcc metal that has a {110}<001> texture. That is, a {110}
plane is parallel to the plane of the sheet and a <001> direction is parallel to the prior rolling
direction.
A. Predict the value of Ro (the strain ratio measured in a rolling direction tension test).
Hint: Let x, y, and z be the rolling, transverse and sheet normal directions. Assign specific
indices [hkı] to the rolling and sheet normal directions. Find the specific indices of the
transverse direction, y. Then sketch a standard cubic projection showing these directions. (It
is convenient to choose x, y and z so that they lie in the hemisphere of the projection.) For
uniaxial tension along x, determine which slip systems will be active, and assume an equal
shear strain, i, on each. For each system, calculate the resulting strains, x, y, and z in
terms of i and sum these over all slip systems. Assume equal amounts of slip on all the
equally favored slip systems. Now predict the strain ratio Ro.
B. Predict R90.
solution: A. Let [110] be the sheet normal and [1»10] be the width direction. For tension
along [001], the slip on the (1»1»1) and (11»1) planes causes no strain in the [110] direction
(thickness) and slip on the (111) and (1»1»1) planes causes no strain in the [1»10] direction
(width direction). With equal slip on all systems, R = 1.
B. For tension in the [1»10] direction, the favored slip systems are (1»1»1)[0»11],
(1»11)[01»1], (1»1»1)[101] and (1»11)[10»1]. None of these cause any strain in the [110]
thickness direction so the R-value is 0.
Solution Manual 38
Chapter 9
3. On which {110} planes of bcc iron can a dislocation with a Burgers vector
(a/2)[11»1] move?
solution: (101), (011) and (1»10). These three planes contain the [11»1] direction.
4. A single crystal of aluminum was stretched in tension. Early in the test the specimen
was removed from the testing machine and examined at high magnification (Figure 9.27).
The distance between slip lines was found to be 100 m and the average offset at each slip
line was approximately 500 nm. Assume for simplicity that both the slip direction and the
slip plane normal are oriented at 45o to the tensile axis.
A. On the average, how many dislocations must have emerged from the crystal at each
observable slip line?
B. Find the shear strain on the slip system, calculated over the whole crystal.
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C. Find the tensile strain (measured along the tensile axis) must have occurred? (i.e.,
What was the % elongation when the test was stopped?)
5. Consider the reactions between parallel dislocations given below. In each case write the
Burgers vector of the product dislocation and determine whether the reaction is energetically
favorable.
A. (a/2)[1»10] + (a/2)[110]
B. (a/2)[101] + (a/2)[01»1]
C. (a/2)[1»10] + (a/2)[101]
solution: A. (a/2)[1»10] + (a/2)[110] 2 2 2 energetically neutral
B. (a/2)[101] + (a/2)[01»1] (a/2)[110]; 2 2 2 energetically favorable
C. (a/2)[1»10] + (a/2)[101] (a/2)[2»11]: 2 2 2 energetically unfavorable
Solution Manual 40
B. (1Ÿ11) (This has dot products of zero with both [21Ÿ1] and[121])
10. Using the values of SF from Table I and equation 9.21, make an approximate
calculation of the equilibrium separation, r, of two partial dislocations resulting from
dissociation of screw dislocation in aluminum and in silver. Express the separation in terms
of atom diameters. The shear modulus of aluminum is 70 GPa and that of silver is 75 GPa.
The atom diameters of Al and Ag are 0.286 and 0.289 nm
solution: Taking r = Ga2/(24π
aluminum r = (70x109)(0.286 x10-9)2/(24π166x10-3) = 0.476 nm
for silver, r = (75x109)(0.289 x10-9)2/(24π 16x10-3) = 5.2nm
Solution Manual 41
11. Plot the variation with x of the force, fL, on an edge dislocation caused by another edge
dislocation at a fixed level of y according to equation 9.19. Let the units of fL be arbitrary.
solution: With y = 1 equation 9.19 becomes f = Ax[(x2 – 1]/[(x2 + 1]2 , where A is a
L
constant. Plotting:
Note that for x<y the dislocations attract, for x>y the dislocations repel.
Solution Manual 42